서론
Revelation 9 Introduction
英語原文
Analysis Of The Chapter
The three remaining trumpets Revelation 9-11 are usually called the woe-trumpets, in reference to the proclamation of woes, Revelation 8:13 (Prof. Stuart). The three extend, as I suppose, to the end of time, or, as it is supposed by the writer himself Revelation 11:15, to the period when "the kingdoms of this world shall have become the kingdoms of Christ," embracing a succinct view of the most material events that were to occur, particularly in a secular point of view. See the Analysis prefixed to the book. In Revelation 11:19, as I understand it, a new view is commenced, referring to the church internally; the rise of Antichrist, and the effect of the rise of that formidable power on the internal history of the church, to the time of its overthrow, and the triumphant establishment of the kingdom of God. This, of course, synchronizes in its beginning and its close with the portion already passed over, but with a different view. See the Analysis prefixed to Revelation 11:19 ff.
This chapter Revelation 9 contains properly three parts. First, a description of the first of those trumpets, or the fifth in the order of the whole, Revelation 9:1-12. This woe is represented under the figure of calamities brought upon the earth by an immense army of locusts. A star is seen to fall from heaven representing some mighty chieftain, and to him is given the key of the bottomless pit. He opens the pit, and then comes forth an innumerable swarm of locusts that darken the heavens, and they go forth upon the earth. They have a command given them to do a certain work. They are not to hurt the earth, or any green thing, but they are sent against those people which have not the seal of God on their foreheads. Their main business, however, was not to kill them, but to torment them for a limited time - for five months. A description of the appearance of the locusts then follows. Though they are called locusts, because in their general appearance, and in the ravages they commit, they resemble them, yet, in the main, they are imaginary beings, and combine in themselves qualities which are never found united in reality.
They had a strong resemblance to horses prepared for battle; they wore on their heads crowns of gold; they had the faces of men but the hair of women and the teeth of lions. They had breastplates of iron, and tails like scorpions, with stings in their tails. They had a mighty king at their head, with a name significant of the destruction which he would bring upon the world. These mysterious beings had their origin in the bottomless pit, and they are summoned forth to spread desolation upon the earth. Second, a description of the second of these trumpets, the sixth in order, Revelation 9:13-19. When this is sounded, a voice is heard from the four horns of the altar which is before God. The angel is commanded to loose the four angels which are bound in the great river Euphrates. These angels are loosed - angels which had been prepared for a definite period - a day, and a month, and a year, to slay the third part of people.
The number of the army that would appear - composed of cavalry - is stated to amount to two hundred thousand, and the uniqueness qualities of these horsemen are then stated. They are remarkable for having breastplates of fire, and jacinth, and brimstone; the heads of the horses resemble lions; and they breathe forth fire and brimstone. A third part of people fall before them, by the fire, and the smoke, and the brimstone. Their power is in their mouth and in their tails, for their tails are like serpents. Third, a statement of the effect of the judgments brought upon the world under these trumpets, Revelation 9:20-21. The effect, so far as the reasonable result could have been anticipated, is lost. The nations are not turned from idolatry. Wickedness still abounds, and there is no disposition to repent of the abominations which had been so long practiced on the earth.
1
Revelation 9:1
第五の御使いがラッパを吹いた - ヨハネの黙示録 8:6-7 の注釈を見よ。
一つの星が天から地に落ちるのを見た - これは、ヨハネの黙示録 8:10 の注釈で示したとおり、一人の指導者、軍事的な長、戦士を指し示す。この成就においても、前の場合と同様に、底なしの淵を開き、その軍団を呼び出す力が、いわば与えられているかのように見える、ある強大な君主にして戦士の出現を期待するのである。この星がそのような働き手を指すことは、「彼に(その星に)底なしの淵の鍵が与えられた」とすぐに付け加えられている事実からも、いっそう明らかである。文字どおりの星に鍵が与えられるという意味ではありえない。それゆえわれわれは当然、高い位階を持つ知的存在であり、かつ有害な影響力を持つ何ものかがここで指されていると考える。善の御使いも悪の御使いも、しばしば星と呼ばれる。しかし、ここでの言及は、ヨハネの黙示録 8:10 の場合と同様、私の見るところでは、御使いたちではなく、自分の軍勢を集め、破壊のみわざを行いながら世界を遍歴するであろう、ある強大な軍の指導者を指すものと思われる。
彼に底なしの淵の鍵が与えられた - 地下の世界の、特に悪しき者たちの住まいとみなされているものの鍵である。これはしばしば、壁で囲まれ、門や戸によってのみ近づくことのできる、暗い監獄として描かれる。これらの門や戸は固く閉ざされていて、その中の収容者はだれも出ることができず、鍵は管理人ないし守護者の手にある。ヨハネの黙示録 1:18 では、その世界の鍵が救い主のみ手にあると言われ(その箇所の注釈と比較せよ)、ここでは、しばらくの間、また一時的な目的のために、それが別の者に委ねられると言われている。「淵」という語 φρέαρ phrear は、本来、井戸、すなわち地面に掘られた水のための穴を意味し、次に、あらゆる穴・洞窟・深淵を意味するようになった。ここでの言及は、疑いなく、地下の世界、すなわち悪しき死者の住まい、罪ある者たちの監獄とみなされているものを指す。「底なし」を意味する語 ἀβύσσος abussos - 英語の abyss の語源である - は、本来「何ら底のないこと」を意味する(Α a、すなわち否定のアルファ(「〜でない」)と、βύθος buthos, depth, bottom とに由来する)。この語は本来、大洋、あるいは深く暗い谷、あるいはその深さの知れない暗い場所に適切に当てはめられる。ここでは、死者の領域、悪しき霊たちの住まいであるハデスを、深く暗く、その底の知れない場所として指している。その鍵を持つとは、そこにいる者たちを閉じ込める力、あるいは彼らを自由に出入りさせる力を持つことである。ここでの意味は、この支配的な霊が、これらの暗い領域から死者を呼び出す力を持つであろう、ということである。そして、落ちた星あるいは不気味に光る流星にたとえられうる何らかの強大な天才が、地の上に荒廃を広めるために呼び出された地下世界の住人のような従者たちを召集するなら、これは成就されるであろう。
英語原文
And the fifth angel sounded - See the notes on Revelation 8:6-7.
And I saw a star fall from heaven unto the earth - This denotes, as was shown in the notes on Revelation 8:10, a leader, a military chieftain, a warrior. In the fulfillment of this, as in the former case, we look for the appearance of some mighty prince and warrior, to whom is given power, as it were, to open the bottomless pit, and to summon forth its legions. That some such agent is denoted by the star is further apparent from the fact that it is immediately added, that "to him (the star) was given the key of the bottomless pit." It could not be meant that a key would be given to a literal star, and we naturally suppose, therefore, that some intelligent being of exalted rank, and of baleful influence, is here referred to Angels, good and bad, are often called stars; but the reference here, as in Revelation 8:10, seems to me not to be to angels, but to some mighty leader of armies, who was to collect his hosts, and to go through the world in the work of destruction.
And to him was given the key of the bottomless pit - Of the under-world, considered particularly of the abode of the wicked. This is represented often as a dark prison-house, enclosed with walls, and accessible by gates or doors. These gates or doors are fastened, so that none of the inmates can come out, and the key is in the hand of the keeper or guardian. In Revelation 1:18 it is said that the keys of that world are in the hand of the Saviour (compare the notes on that passage); here it is said that for a time, and for a temporary purpose, they are committed to another. The word "pit" - φρέαρ phrear - denotes properly a well, or a pit for water dug in the earth; and then any pit, cave, abyss. The reference here is doubtless to the nether world, considered as the abode of the wicked dead, the prison-house of the guilty. The word "bottomless," ἀβύσσος abussos - whence our word "abyss" means properly "without any bottom" (from Α a, the alpha privative (not), and βύθος buthos, depth, bottom). It would be applied properly to the ocean, or to any deep and dark dell, or to any obscure place whose depth was unknown. Here it refers to Hades - the region of the dead the abode of wicked spirits - as a deep, dark place, whose bottom was unknown. Having the key to this, is to have the power to confine those who are there, or to permit them to go at large. The meaning here is, that this master-spirit would have power to evoke the dead from these dark regions; and it would be fulfilled if some mighty genius, that could be compared with a fallen star, or a lurid meteor, should summon forth followers which would appear like the dwellers in the nether world called forth to spread desolation over the earth.
2
Revelation 9:2
彼は底なしの淵を開いた - そこは前には、煙や蒸気さえも逃れることができないほど完全に閉ざされているとして描かれていた。
淵から煙が立ち上った - ヨハネの黙示録 14:11 と比較せよ。ここでの意味は、この淵が、刑罰の場所、あるいは悪しき者たちの住まいとして、燃える硫黄に満ちており、それゆえ開かれるや否や煙と蒸気を発した、ということである。聖書における刑罰の場所の通例の心象は、「火と硫黄とで燃える池」である。ヨハネの黙示録 14:10;19:20;20:10;21:8 と比較せよ。また詩篇 11:6;イザヤ 30:33;エゼキエル 38:22 も見よ。この心象が、ソドムとゴモラの滅び(創世記 19:24)から取られた可能性は少なくない。そのような燃える硫黄は当然、濃い煙あるいは蒸気を生じさせる。ここでの考えは、淵が閉ざされていて、扉が開かれるや否や、天を暗くする濃い柱が噴き出した、ということである。これの目的は、おそらく、いままさに世界の上に来ようとしている災害の起源を示すことであろう。その災害は、あたかも地獄から噴き出したかのような、あたかもその暗い世界の住人たちが地の上に解き放たれたかのような性質を持つものとして現れるであろう。ヨハネの黙示録 6:8 の注釈と比較せよ。
大きな炉の煙のように - 創世記 19:28 にも同様にあり、おそらくこの心象はそこから取られたものである。「彼はソドムとゴモラの方、そして低地全体の方に目を向け、見ると、見よ、その地の煙がかまどの煙のように立ち上っていた」。
太陽と空はその煙のために暗くなった - 炉から煙が立ち上るときにそうなるように。ここでの意味は、濃く暗い蒸気が地下の世界から立ち上るかのような効果が生じる、ということである。もちろん、これを文字どおりに理解してはならない。
英語原文
And he opened the bottomless pit - It is represented before as wholly confined, so that not even the smoke or vapor could escape.
And there arose a smoke out of the pit - Compare Revelation 14:11. The meaning here is that the pit, as a place of punishment, or as the abode of the wicked, was filled with burning sulphur, and consequently that it emitted smoke and vapor as soon as opened. The common image of the place of punishment, in the Scriptures, is that of a "lake that burns with fire and brimstone." Compare Revelation 14:10; Revelation 19:20; Revelation 20:10; Revelation 21:8. See also Psalm 11:6; Isaiah 30:33; Ezekiel 38:22. It is not improbable that this image was taken from the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, Genesis 19:24. Such burning sulphur would produce, of course, a dense smoke or vapor; and the idea here is, that the pit had been closed, and that as soon as the door was opened a dense column escaped that darkened the heavens. The purpose of this is, probably, to indicate the origin of the plague that was about to come upon the world. It would be of such a character that it would appear as if it had been emitted from hell; as if the inmates of that dark world had broke loose upon the earth. Compare notes on Revelation 6:8.
As the smoke of a great furnace - So in Genesis 19:28, whence probably this image is taken: "And he looked toward Sodom and Gomorrah, and all the land of the plain, and beheld and lo, the smoke of the country went up as the smoke of a furnace."
And the sun and the air were darkened, ... - As will be the case when a smoke ascends from a furnace. The meaning here is, that an effect would be produced as if a dense and dark vapor should ascend from the under-world. We are not, of course, to understand this literally.
3
Revelation 9:3
また、煙の中から、地にいなごが出て来た - すなわち、それらは煙とともに淵から逃れ出たのである。最初、それらは煙に混じっていてはっきりとは見えなかったが、煙が晴れると膨大な数で現れた。その考えは、底なしの淵が蒸気とこれらの生き物とに満ちており、門が開かれるや否や、その内容物の全体が膨張して地の上に噴出した、ということのようである。太陽は直ちに暗くされ、空気はそれで満ちたが、煙はまもなく晴れ、いなごがはっきりと見えるようになった。これらのいなごの姿は、この章の他の部分(ヨハネの黙示録 9:7 以下)で描写されている。いなごはバッタ類に属する貪食な昆虫であり、東洋諸国における大いなる災厄である。いなごの完全な説明は、ロビンソンのカルメットおよびキットー『Encyclo.』vol. ii. pp. 258ff に見ることができる。いなごを表すヘブライ語は十語あり、聖書にはこの昆虫の破壊的な習性への言及が数多くある。実際、その数と破壊的な習性のゆえに、東方でこれほど恐れられた他の災いはほとんどなかった。象徴すなわち表徴として見るとき、説明として次の所見を述べることができよう。
(1) この象徴は東洋的であり、最も自然には、東洋で起こるべき何かを指す。いなごは主として東方に現れ、また大きな程度まで東洋の災厄であるから、この象徴への言及は最も自然に考えを地上のその部分へ向けるであろう。最初の四つのラッパの象徴には特別の地域性がなく、世界の特定の部分を想起させなかったが、これへの言及においては、心は自然に東方へ向けられ、われわれはこの災いの場面が、いなごの被害が最も多かった地方に位置づけられることを見いだすことを期待するであろう。この点について、エリオット『Horae Apoc.』i. 394-406 と比較せよ。彼は、預言者たちが出来事を表すために象徴的言語を用いたとき、少なくとも通例、局所的あるいは地理的な参照を持つものを用いた、ということをありそうにした。すなわち、植物界から取られた象徴においては、ユダを象徴すべきときにはオリーブ、ぶどうの木、いちじくの木が選ばれ、エジプトが言及されるときには葦が選ばれ、バビロンについては柳が選ばれる。同様に、動物界においては、獅子はユダの象徴、野生のろばはアラブ人の象徴、わにはエジプトの象徴である等々。この理論が完全に貫徹できるかどうかはともかく、いなごの象徴が最も自然に東洋世界を想起させること、またこの箇所の自然な解釈がわれわれにその成就をそこに期待させることを、だれも疑うことはできない。
(2) いなごはその数で著しい - しばしば雲のように見え、空を暗くするほどである。この点において、それらは自然に、多数の軍勢あるいは人間の群集の象徴となる。多数の軍勢のこの自然な象徴は、預言者たちによってしばしば用いられる。こうしてエレミヤ 46:23 では、
「その林を(すなわちその民を、あるいはその町々を)伐り倒せ、とエホバは言われる、 尋ね求めてもそれは見いだされないように。 彼らはいなごに勝って多く、 数えることもできないのだから。」
同様にナホム 3:15 では、
「そこに火があなたを焼き尽くし、 剣があなたを断ち切る。それはいなごのようにあなたを食い尽くす。 おおいにふえよ、数多いいなごのように。」
同様にナホム 3:17 でも、
「あなたの君主たちは数多いいなごのようであり、 あなたの隊長たちはバッタのようだ。 寒い日には垣根に宿営するが、 日が昇ると飛び去り、 そのいた所はだれにも知られない。」
申命記 28:38, 28:42;詩篇 78:46;アモス 7:1 も見よ。士師記 6:3-6;士師記 7:12、またヨエル 1:2 と比較せよ。
(3) いなごは荒廃あるいは破壊の象徴である。荒廃の象徴としてこれほど適切で印象的なものはありえない。いなごの最も著しい性質の一つは、あらゆる青い物を食い尽くし、国を完全に荒廃させ去ることだからである。彼らは、滅ぼすものが自分たちの生存に必要でない場合でさえ、そうする。「いなごは、貪食な食欲からというよりむしろ破壊への激怒から貪り食うように見える。それゆえ、食物ではなく破壊こそが彼らの蹂躙の主要な衝動であり、ここに彼らの有用性がある。彼らは実際、何でも食べる。最も有毒な植物も彼らには無差別であり、獣の皮さえ焼く刺激性のあるキンポウゲさえも彼らは食い荒らす。彼らは、好みの別なく、あらゆるもの - 植物、麻布、毛織物、絹、皮革など - を消費する。プリニウスが fores quoque tectorum - 「家々の扉さえも」 - と言うとき、彼は誇張していない。というのも、家具のニスまでも消費したことが知られているからである。彼らはあらゆるものを無差別に粉々にし、それは肥料となる」(キットー『Encyclopedia』ii. 263)。それゆえいなごは、すべてを食い尽くす軍勢の最も印象的な象徴となり、聖書においてもしばしばそのように言及される。ヨセフス『ユダヤ戦記』第5巻第7章でも同様である。「いなごの後に木々が葉を奪われて裸になるのを見るように、シモンの軍勢の後には荒廃しか残らなかった」。それゆえ、この象徴の自然な適用は、多数の破壊的な軍勢、あるいは略奪を働き、進軍の途中ですべてを一掃する大群衆に対してである。
そして、彼らに力が与えられた - これは、彼らの通常の性質を超えて彼らに授けられたものであった。いなご自体は強くなく、力の象徴ではない。極端に破壊的ではあるが、個々においても、結合した場合にも、力によって際立ってはいない。それゆえ、彼らにそのような力が授けられたことは注目すべき事情として言及されているのである。
地のさそりと同样的な力を持つように - 「地の」という句がここに導入されたのは、これらの生き物が「底なしの淵」から上って来たと言われていたためで、地の上に見いだされるよく知られた対象と比較するのが自然であったからであるように思われる。さそりは八本の足と八つの目と、先がとがった武器すなわち毒針で終わる長い節のある尾を持つ動物である。それは昆虫類の中で最大かつ最も有害なものである。全体的な姿は龙虾にいくぶん似ているが、はるかに醜悪である。ルカ 10:19 の注釈を見よ。ヨーロッパで見いだされるものは長さ四インチを超えることはまれだが、さそりの多い熱帯地方では、しばしば十二インチの長さのものが見いだされる。さそりほど恐るべき動物は少なく、これほど怒りやすい動物は他にいない。ゴールドスミスは、モーペルテュイが約百匹を同じガラス容器に入れたところ、接触するや否や互いを滅ぼすことにすべての怒りを向け始め、数日のうちに残ったのは十四匹だけで、それが残りのすべてを殺して貪り食ったと述べている。
さそりの毒針は、ショー博士によれば、常に致命的とは限らない。その毒の有害さは、大きさと体色に比例する。人が刺されたときのさそりの苦痛は、テイラー氏が引用するディオスコリデス(lib. 7:cap. 7)によって次のように描写されている。「さそりが刺すと、その場所は炎症を起こし硬くなる。緊張によって赤らみ、間欠的な痛みがあり、今は冷たく、今は焼けるようである。痛みはまもなく高じ、激しく燃え立つ。時に強く時に弱く。発汗が続き、悪寒と震えが伴う。体の末端は冷たくなり、鼠径部は腫れ、毛は逆立ち、四肢は青ざめ、皮膚は全体として、針で刺されるような絶え間ない刺す感覚を覚える」(カルメット辞典への断片、vol. iv. p. 376, 377)。「さそりの尾は長く、数珠つなぎの形にできており、最後のものが他より大きく長い。その端には、時には二本の毒針があり、それは中空で、冷たい毒で満たされており、刺した部分にその毒を注入する」(カルメット辞典)。それゆえ、さそりの毒針は、鋭く危険な苦しみを引き起こすものの象徴となる。このさそりとの比較については、ヨハネの黙示録 9:7 の注釈で引用されるニーブールの言及を見よ。
英語原文
And there came out of the smoke locusts upon the earth - That is, they escaped from the pit with the smoke. At first they were mingled with the smoke, so that they were not distinctly seen, but when the smoke cleared away they appeared in great numbers. The idea seems to be, that the bottomless pit was filled with vapor and with those creatures, and that as soon as the gate was opened the whole contents expanded and burst forth upon the earth. The sun was immediately darkened, and the air was full, but the smoke soon cleared away, so that the locusts became distinctly visible. The appearance of these locusts is described in another part of the chapter, Revelation 9:7 ff. The locust is a voracious insect belonging to the grasshopper or grylli genus, and is a great scourge in Oriental countries. A full description of the locust may be seen in Robinson's Calmet, and in Kitto's Encyclo. vol. ii. pp. 258ff. There are ten Hebrew words to denote the locust, and there are numerous references to the destructive habits of the insect in the Scriptures. In fact, from their numbers and their destructive habits, there was scarcely any other plague that was so much dreaded in the East. Considered as a symbol, or emblem, the following remarks may be made in explanation:
(1) The symbol is Oriental, and would most naturally refer to something that was to occur in the East. As locusts have appeared chiefly in the East, and as they are in a great measure an Oriental plague, the mention of this symbol would most naturally turn the thoughts to that portion of the earth. The symbols of the first four trumpets had no special locality, and would suggest no particular part of the world; but on the mention of this, the mind would be naturally turned to the East, and we should expect to find that the scene of this woe would be located in the regions where the ravages of locusts most abounded. Compare, on this point, Elliott, Horae Apoc. i. 394-406. He has made it probable that the prophets, when they used symbolical language to denote any events, commonly, at least, employed those which had a local or geographical reference; thus, in the symbols derived from the vegetable kingdom, when Judah is to be symbolized, the olive, the vine, and the fig-tree are selected; when Egypt is referred to, the reed is chosen; when Babylon, the willow. And so, in the animal kingdom, the lion is the symbol of Judah; the wild ass, of the Arabs; the crocodile, of Egypt, etc. Whether this theory could be wholly carried out or not, no one can doubt that the symbol of locusts would most naturally suggest the Oriental world, and that the natural interpretation of the passage would lead us to expect its fulfillment there.
(2) locusts were remarkable for their numbers - so great often as to appear like clouds, and to darken the sky. In this respect they would naturally be symbolical of numerous armies or hosts of men. This natural symbol of numerous armies is often employed by the prophets. Thus, in Jeremiah 46:23;
"Cut down her forests (i. e. her people, or cities), saith Jehovah,
That it may not be found on searching;
Although they surpass the locusts in multitude,
And they are without number."
So in Nahum 3:15;
"There shall the fire devour thee;
The sword shall cut thee off; it shall devour thee as the locust,
Increase thyself as the numerous locusts."
So also in Nahum 3:17;
"Thy crowned princes are as the numerous locusts,
And thy captains as the grasshoppers;
Which encamp in the fences in the cold day,
But when the sun ariseth they depart,
And their place is not known where they were."
See also Deuteronomy 28:38, Deuteronomy 28:42; Psalm 78:46; Amos 7:1. Compare Judges 6:3-6; Judges 7:12; and Joel 1:2.
(3) locusts are an emblem of desolation or destruction. No symbol of desolation could be more appropriate or striking than this, for one of the most remarkable properties of locusts is, that they devour every green thing and leave a land perfectly waste. They do this even when what they destroy is not necessary for their own sustenance. "Locusts seem to devour not so much from a ravenous appetite as from a rage for destroying. Destruction, therefore, and not food, is the chief impulse of their devastations, and in this consists their utility; they are, in fact, omnivorous. The most poisonous plants are indifferent to them; they will prey even upon the crowfoot, whose causticity burns even the hides of beasts. They simply consume everything, without predilection - vegetable matter, linens, woolens, silk, leather, etc.; and Pliny does not exaggerate when he says, fores quoque tectorum - 'even the doors of houses' - for they have been known to consume the very varnish of furniture. They reduce everything indiscriminately to shreds, which become manure" (Kitto's Encyclopedia ii. 263). Locusts become, therefore, a most striking symbol of an all-devouring army, and as such are often referred to in Scripture. So also in Josephus, de Bello Jude book v. ch. vii.: "As after locusts we see the woods stripped of their leaves, so, in the rear of Simon's army, nothing but devastation remained." The natural application of this symbol, then, is to a numerous and destructive army, or to a great multitude of people committing ravages, and sweeping off everything in their march.
And unto them was given power - This was something that was imparted to them beyond their ordinary nature. The locust in itself is not strong, and is not a symbol of strength. Though destructive in the extreme, yet neither as individuals, nor as combined, are they distinguished for strength. Hence, it is mentioned as a remarkable circumstance that they had such power conferred on them.
As the scorpions of the earth have power - The phrase "the earth" seems to have been introduced here because these creatures are said to have come up from "the bottomless pit," and it was natural to compare them with some well-known objects found on the earth. The scorpion is an animal with eight feet, eight eyes, and a long, jointed tail, ending in a pointed weapon or sting. It is the largest and the most malignant of all the insect tribes. It somewhat resembles the lobster in its general appearance, but is much more hideous. See the notes on Luke 10:19. Those found in Europe seldom exceed four inches in length, but in tropical climates, where they abound, they are often found twelve inches long. There are few animals more formidable, and none more irascible, than the scorpion. Goldsmith states that Maupertuis put about a hundred of them together in the same glass, and that as soon as they came into contact they began to exert all their rage in mutual destruction, so that in a few days there remained but fourteen, which had killed and devoured all the rest.
The sting of the scorpion, Dr. Shaw states, is not always fatal; the malignity of their venom being in proportion to their size and complexion. The torment of a scorpion, when he strikes a man, is thus described by Dioscorides, lib. 7:cap. 7, as cited by Mr. Taylor: "When the scorpion has stung, the place becomes inflamed and hardened; it reddens by tension, and is painful by intervals, being now chilly, now burning. The pain soon rises high, and rages, sometimes more, sometimes less. A sweating succeeds, attended by a shivering and trembling; the extremities of the body become cold, the groin swells, the hair stands on end, the members become pale, and the skin feels throughout the sensation of a perpetual pricking, as if by needles" (Fragments to Calmet's Dic. vol. iv. p. 376, 377). "The tail of the scorpion is long, and formed after the manner of a string of beads, the last larger than the others, and longer; at the end of which are, sometimes, two stings which are hollow, and filled with a cold poison, which it ejects into the part which it stings" (Calmet's Dic.). The sting of the scorpion, therefore, becomes the emblem of what causes acute and dangerous suffering. On this comparison with scorpions see the remark of Niebuhr, quoted in the notes on Revelation 9:7.
4
Revelation 9:4
「そして、彼らに命じられた」――著者はこの命令がだれによって与えられたのかを述べていないが、明らかに彼らを指揮する何者かによって与えられたものである。彼らが、あの暗い住処の鍵を持つ者によって「底なしの淵」から呼び出され、またヨハネの黙示録 9:11 では、そこでアバドンすなわちアポリュオン――破壊者――と呼ばれている者の指揮の下にある者として表されているので、ここで言及されている命令は彼によって与えられたものである可能性が最も高いように思われる。すなわち、これは彼がその荒廃において行動する際の原理の一つを表すのである。いずれにせよ、これはこれらの破壊者たちの特徴の一つとなることを示す。彼らの目的は人々を悩まし苦しめることであって、ぶどう園、オリーブ園、穀物の畑に荒廃を広げることではないであろう。
「地の草をも……損なってはならない」――ヨハネの黙示録 8:7 の注を見よ。ここでの意味は明白である。これらの侵略者たちには、侵略者には通常見られない仕方で特徴づけられるある面があるであろう。すなわち、彼らは自分たちの破壊を植物の世界にまで及ぼさないように特に注意を払うであろう。彼らの戦争は人々に対するものであって、果樹園や青々とした野原に対するものではない。
「ただ、額に神の印を持たない人たちだけを損なえ」――ヨハネの黙示録 7:2-3 の注を見よ。彼らは人類の中のその部分に対してのみ戦争を始めた。ここでのことばは本来、神の友でない者たちを表す。しかしここでは、実際にそうでなかった者たちを指すこともできれば、この命令を与えた者がそうでないとみなしていた者たちを指すこともできる。前者の場合、その委任は神の目に真の不信仰者たち、すなわち真の宗教を拒んだ者たちに関わるものであろう。後者の場合、それはこの軍勢の指導者の考えを表し、彼の理解において不信仰者、あるいは神の敵であった者たちに関わるものであろう。真の解釈は、「命じられた」という句をどのような意味で理解するかに依存しなければならない。すなわち、それを神に関連づけるのか、それとも軍勢の指導者自身に関連づけるのかである。それゆえ、このことばは両義的であり、その意味はこの箇所のほかの部分によって決定されなければならない。いずれの方法でこの箇所を理解しても、その公正な解釈と一致するものであろう。
英語原文
And it was commanded them - The writer does not say by whom this command was given, but it is clearly by someone who had the direction of them. As they were evoked from the "bottomless pit" by one who had the key to that dark abode, and as they are represented in Revelation 9:11 as under the command of one who is there called Abaddon, or Apollyon - the Destroyer - it would seem most probable that the command referred to is one that is given by him; that is, that this expresses one of the principles on which he would act in his devastations. At all events, this denotes what would be one of the characteristics of these destroyers. Their purpose would be to vex and trouble people; not to spread desolation over vineyards, olive-yards, and fields of grain.
That they should not hurt the grass of the earth, ... - See the notes on Revelation 8:7. The meaning here is plain. There would be some sense in which these invaders would be characterized in a manner that was not common among invaders, to wit, that they would show particular care not to carry their devastations into the vegetable world. Their warfare would be with people, and not with orchards and green fields.
But only those men which have not the seal of God in their foreheads - See the notes on Revelation 7:2-3. They commenced war against that part of the human race only. The language here properly denotes those who were not the friends of God. It may here refer, however, either to those who in reality were not such, or to those who were regarded by him who gave this command as not being such. In the former case, the commission would have respect to real infidels in the sight of God - that is, to those who rejected the true religion; in the latter it would express the sentiment of the leader of this host, as referring to those who in his apprehension were infidels or enemies of God. The true interpretation must depend on the sense in which we understand the phrase "it was commanded"; whether as referring to God, or to the leader of the host himself. The language, therefore, is ambiguous, and the meaning must be determined by the other parts of the passage. Either method of understanding the passage would be in accordance with its fair interpretation.
5
Revelation 9:5
そして、彼らにそれが与えられた - ここには前の節と同じ不明確さがある。ここでもまた非人称動詞が用いられているからである。著者は、この権威がだれによって彼らに与えられたのか、神によってか、それとも軍勢の指導者によってかを述べていない。とはいえ、最も自然な解釈は、それが神によって彼らに与えられ、これがこの場合における神の目的の執行であったと想定することであると認めることができる。それでもなお、このことが直接に断言されておらず、言葉が他の適用をも許すほどに一般的であることは注目に値する。彼らが人々を殺さずに苦しめたという事実 - もしそのような事実が実在すると判明するなら - は、あらゆる意味でここに述べられていることの成就となるであろう。
彼らが人々を殺さないためである - これは象徴の性質と一致している。いなごはそれ自体としては何らの生き物をも滅ぼさないし、さそりの刺し傷は、極めて苦痛ではあるが、通常は致命的ではない。このことの適切な成就は、一般的には致命的ではないが、悲惨と苦悶を広く拡散するであろうような事柄の中に見いだされるであろう。(ヨハネの黙示録 9:6 と比較せよ。)おそらく、これによって必然的に意味されているのは、個々人がまったく殺されないということではなく、彼らが命を取るためではなく疫病と苦痛を加えるために遣わされるであろうこと、そして彼らの出現の特徴的な結果は死よりもむしろ苦悩と苦難であるであろうということである。言葉の公正な解釈には、「全般的な苦悶」と「悲しみ」、圧制、残虐、暴力の行為、人々が死を見いだしうるならばそれを救いとみなすであろうような公的な苦難の状態が含まれうる。
ただ、彼らが苦しめられるためである - すなわち、人々が、さそりの刺し傷と適切に比較されうる災いと患難に服させられるということである。
五か月 - ここの言葉そのものに関して言えば、これは文字どおりに取って五か月、すなわち百五十日を示すものとも受け取れ、一日が一年を表す預言的な計算としても受け取れる。ダニエル 9:24 以下の注釈と比較せよ。ここでは後者が疑いなく正しい解釈である。この書の性格がまさにそのように時を数えるからである。ヨハネの黙示録 9:15 の注釈を見よ。もしこれがここでの真の計算の方法であるなら、この苦悶と悲しみが続くであろう約百五十年の期間を包摂するいくつかの出来事を見いだすことが必要になる。解釈の正当な法則は、これら二つの期間のいずれかが見いだされることを要求する - 文字どおりの五か月か、百五十年かのいずれかである。スチュアート教授がその箇所で示唆するように、「いなごの通常の時期は五月から九月まで、すなわち五か月である」ことは事実でありうる。また、この象徴が部分的にはその事実のゆえに選ばれ、その事実のゆえに「五か月」として語られうる期間を象徴するのに適していたことも事実でありうる。しかし、それでもなお、その意味は彼が想定するように単に「短い期間」であったという以上のものでなければならない。数か月という句はそのような期間を指定しえたであろうが、もしそれが著者の意図であったなら、彼は確定した数である五を選ばなかったであろう。
彼らの苦痛は、さそりが...苦しめる苦痛のようであった - ヨハネの黙示録 9:3 の注釈を見よ。すなわち、それは苦痛であり、激しく、危険なものとなるであろう。
英語原文
And to them it was given - There is here the same indefiniteness as in the former verse, the impersonal verb being here also used. The writer does not say by whom this power was given, whether by God, or by the leader of the host. It may be admitted, however, that the most natural interpretation is to suppose that it was given them by God, and that this was the execution of his purpose in this case. Still it is remarkable that this is not directly affirmed, and that the language is so general as to admit of the other application. The fact that they did not kill them, but tormented them - if such a fact should be found to exist - would be in every sense a fulfillment of what is here said.
That they should not kill them - This is in accordance with the nature of the symbol. The locusts do not themselves destroy any living creature; and the sting of the scorpion, though exceedingly painful, is not usually fatal. The proper fulfillment of this would be found in what would not be generally fatal, but which would diffuse misery and wretchedness. (Compare Revelation 9:6.) Perhaps all that would be necessarily meant by this would be, not that individual people would not be killed, but that they would be sent to inflict plagues and torments rather than to take life, and that the characteristic effects of their appearing would be distress and suffering rather than death. There may be included in the fair interpretation of the words, "general distress" and "sorrow"; acts of oppression, cruelty, and violence; such a condition of public suffering that people would regard death as a relief if they could find it.
But that they should be tormented - That is, that they should be subjected to ills and troubles which might be properly compared with the sting of a scorpion.
Five months - So far as the words here are concerned this might be taken literally, denoting five months or one hundred and fifty days; or as a prophetic reckoning, where a day stands for a year. Compare the notes on Daniel 9:24 ff. The latter is undoubtedly the correct interpretation here, for it is the character of the book thus to reckon time. See the notes on Revelation 9:15. If this be the true method of reckoning here, then it will be necessary to find some events which will embrace about the period of one hundred and fifty years, during which this distress and sorrow would continue. The proper laws of interpretation demand that one or the other of these periods should be found - either that of five months literally, or that of 150 years. It may be true, as Prof. Stuart suggests (in loco), that "the usual time of locusts is from May to September inclusive - five months." It may be true, also, that this symbol was chosen partly because that was the fact, and they would, from that fact, be well adapted to symbolize a period that could be spoken of as "five months"; but still the meaning must be more than simply it was "a short period," as he supposes. The phrase a few months might designate such a period; but if that had been the writer's intention, he would not have selected the definite number five.
And their torment was as the torment of a scorpion, ... - See the notes on Revelation 9:3. That is, it would be painful, severe, dangerous.
6
Revelation 9:6
「その日々には、人々は死を求めるであろう」――ヨハネの黙示録 9:5 の注を見よ。ここに記されているような事態を思い描くことはきわめて容易であり、実際、これはこの世において決して珍しいことではなかった。それは、苦悩があまりにも大きいために人々が死を一つの解放とみなし、死によって自分たちの苦しみから解き放たれるその時を切に待ち望むような状態である。ここにある事柄においては、彼らが自らに暴力的な手を下すこと、あるいは自分たちの苦しみを終わらせるために何らかの積極的な手段を講じることが示唆されてはいない。そしてこれはおそらく、ここで言及されている人々が神のしもべたちであったことを示す、ある程度重要な事情であるかもしれない。「人々は死を求めるであろう」と言われるとき、それはただ、彼らが自分たちの悲しみの終わりとして死を待ち望むこと、あるいはそれを切望することを意味するにすぎない。これは、後に見るように、世界の特定の時期を描いたものであるが、この表現はあらゆる時代、あらゆる土地で起こることに対しても見事に当てはまるものである。
死を一つの解放として待ち望んでいる苦しむ人々は、常に大勢いる。牢獄や地下牢において、苦痛と衰弱の床において、貧困と欠乏の場面において、打ち砕かれた希望と失望した愛情の中において、死ねることを喜ぶであろう人々、そして墓のほかには苦しみの終わりへのいかなる望みも持っていない人々が、なんと多いことか。少数の者たちは、拳銃によって、絞首の縄によって、毒によって、あるいは水に溺れることによって、そのように自分たちの悲嘆を終わらせようとする。大部分の人々は死を解放として期待するが、実態が知られるならば、死はそのような解放をもたらしはしない。墓の向こうには、こちら側にあるものよりもさらに深く、さらに長く続く悲嘆があるからである。ヨブ記 3:20-22 の注と比較せよ。しかし、一部の者たちにとっては死は解放となるであろう。それは苦しみの終わりとなるであろう。彼らは墓の中に平安を見いだし、もはや決して苦しむことがないという確信を持っている。そのような人々は忍耐をもって自分たちの試練に耐える。彼らにとってはすべての悲しみの終わりが近くにあり、死が来て彼らの霊を苦しむ土のからだから解き放ち、決して痛みが感じられることなく、決して涙の流されることのない世界へと、勝利のうちに彼らを運んでくれるからである。
英語原文
And in those days shall men seek death ... - See the notes on Revelation 9:5. It is very easy to conceive of such a state of things as is here described, and, indeed, this has not been very uncommon in the world. It is a state where the distress is so great that people would consider death a relief, and where they anxiously look to the time when they may be released from their sufferings by death. In the case before us it is not intimated that they would lay violent hands on themselves, or that they would take any positive measures to end their sufferings; and this, perhaps, may be a circumstance of some importance to show that the persons referred to were servants of God. When it is said that "they would seek death," it can only be meant that they would look out for it - or desire it - as the end of their sorrows. This is descriptive, as we shall see, of a particular period of the world; but the language is beautifully applicable to what occurs in all ages and in all lands.
There is always a great number of sufferers who are looking forward to death as a relief. In cells and dungeons; on beds of pain and languishing; in scenes of poverty and want; in blighted hopes and disappointed affections, how many are there who would be glad to die, and who have no hope of an end of suffering but in the grave! A few, by the pistol, by the halter, by poison, or by drowning, seek thus to end their woes. A large part look forward to death as a release, when, if the reality were known, death would furnish no such relief, for there are deeper and longer woes beyond the grave than there are this side of it. Compare the notes on Job 3:20-22. But to a portion death will be a relief. It will be an end of sufferings. They will find peace in the grave, and are assured they shall suffer no more. Such bear their trials with patience, for the end of all sorrow to them is near, and death will come to release their spirits from the suffering clay, and to bear them in triumph to a world where a pang shall never be felt, and a tear never shed.
7
Revelation 9:7
「また、いなごの形は、戦いのために備えられた馬のようであった」――いなごと馬とは、ほとんどの点で似ていないにもかかわらず、両者の類似はしばしば指摘されてきた。ロビンソン博士(『聖地研究』第1巻59頁)はこう言う。「私たちは今日、低木の上で、黒いいなごの一種か、それに非常に似た昆虫を見つけたが、私たちのベドウィンはそれをファッラス・エル・ジュンディー(Farras el Jundy)、すなわち『兵士の馬』と呼んだ。彼らは、この昆虫がシナイ山に普通にいて、緑色で、枯れ木の上に見つかるが、害は与えないと言った」。『図解聖書』(Pictorial Bible)の編者は次のように述べている。「私たちが初めて、翼を閉じて草を食むいなごを見たとき、それらを馬にたとえるという考えが自然に心に浮かんだ。私たちはそれまでそのような比較に出会ったことがなく、そのとき、ここにある本文(ヨエル 2:4)にも思い至らなかったからである。最初に私たちの注意を引いたのは、頭における類似であった。そして、この考えがいったん生じると、草を食むときの全体的な外見と動作において、他の類似点が見出され、あるいは思い描かれた。その後、この観察がきわめて一般的であることを知った。実際、イタリア人はこの類似のゆえに、いなごをカヴァレッタ(cavaletta)、すなわち小さな馬と呼んだ。W・オーズリー卿はこう伝えている。『ザカリア・カズヴィーニーは、いなごを二つの階級、すなわち騎馬の者と徒歩の者、乗る者と歩く者とに分けている』。ニーブールは、ブソラの近くで、あるベドウィンから、いなごを他の動物たちと具体的に比較する話を聞いたと言う。しかし彼は、そのときこの聖句が思い浮かばなかったので、バグダッドでその話が繰り返されるのを聞くまでは、それをアラブ人の単なる空想と考えていた。彼は、いなごの頭を馬の頭に、脚をらくだの脚に、腹を蛇の腹に、尾をさそりの尾に、そして触角を(ニーブールの記憶が正しければ)おとめの髪に比較した」(『図解聖書』ヨエル 2:4 に関する注)。馬との類似は、この象徴が指しているものが騎兵であるという考えを自然に思い起こさせるであろう。
「また、その頭には金に似た冠のようなものがあった」――著者は、これらが文字どおりの冠であったとか、実際に金でできていたとかは言っていない。それらは「あたかも」(ὡς hōs)「冠」のようであり、「金」(ὅμοιοι homoioi)に「似て」いた。すなわち、彼の見たところ、それらは冠あるいは王冠に似たところがあり、またその色と輝きにおいて金に似ていた。「冠」という語、στέφανος stephanos は、本来、頭を囲む輪、花輪を意味する。(a) 王たちによって着用される、王の尊厳の象徴として。(b) 公共の競技の勝者に与えられるもの――花輪、月桂冠。(c) 飾り、誉れ、あるいは栄光として(ピリピ 4:1)。στέφανος stephanos という語は特定の形を指定してはいない。そしておそらく「冠」という語はその意味を十分には表していないであろう。「王冠」という語のほうがより近い。この語における真の観念は、頭の周りに付けられ、それを囲む何ものかであり、そのようなものとして、遠くから見られるターバンの外観をよく描写しうる。ここで言及されている象徴的存在たちが頭にターバンを着けていたこと、また、ヨハネの時代にはあまり着用されていなかったゆえに名前のなかった何かが言及されていると想定するなら、それを描写するのに στέφανος stephanos、すなわち王冠という語が用いられた可能性が高い。これはまた、「あたかも…のよう」という句(ὡς hōs)の用い方とも調和する。著者は、自分が見慣れたそのような頭の飾りを見た。それらは厳密には冠や王冠ではなかったが、それらに似ていたので、彼は「その頭には冠のようなものがあった」ということばを用いるのである。これらがターバンであり、ヨハネの時代には一般に用いられておらず、それゆえ名前がなかったと想定してみよ。彼がそれらを描写するにあたって、まさにこのようなことばを用いなかったであろうか。他の表現についても同じことが言える。
「金のような」――それらは純金ではなかったが、金に似ていた。黄色いターバンは、この描写で述べられているすべてに合致しないだろうか。
「その顔は人の顔のようであり」――彼らには人間の顔つきがあった。これは、彼らが底なしの淵から上って来たとはいえ、結局この象徴が描いているのは人間的存在であったことを示すものであろう。見慣れない服装をし、見慣れない頭飾りを着けた騎兵たちこそ、これによって適切に示されるすべてとなるであろう。
英語原文
And the shapes of the locusts were like unto horses prepared for battle - The resemblance between the locust and the horse, dissimilar as they are in most respects, has been often remarked. Dr. Robinson (Bib. Research. i. 59) says: "We found today upon the shrubs an insect, either a species of black locust, or much resembling them, which our Bedouin called Farras el Jundy, 'soldiers' horses.' They said these insects were common on Mount Sinai, of a green color, and were found on dead trees, but did them no injury." The editor of the Pictorial Bible makes the following remarks: - "The first time we saw locusts browsing with their wings closed, the idea of comparing them to horses arose spontaneously to our minds - as we had not previously met with such a comparison, and did not at that time advert to the present text Joel 2:4. The resemblance in the head first struck our attention; and this notion having once arisen, other analogies were found or imagined in its general appearance and action in feeding. We have since found the observation very common. The Italians, indeed, from this resemblance, called the locust cavaletta, or little horse. Sir W. Ouseley reports: 'Zakaria Cazvine divides the locusts into two classes, like horsemen and footmen - mounted and pedestrian.' Niebuhr says that he heard from a Bedouin, near Bussorah, a particular comparison of the locust to other animals; but as this passage of Scripture did not occur to him at the time he thought it a mere fancy of the Arab's, until he heard it repeated at Baghdad. He compared the head of the locust to that of the horse; the feet to those of the camel; the belly with that of a serpent; the tail with that of a scorpion; and the feelers (if Niebuhr remembered rightly) to the hair of a virgin" (Pict. Bib. on Joel 2:4). The resemblance to horses would naturally suggest the idea of cavalry, as being referred to by the symbol.
And on their heads were as it were crowns like gold - The writer does not say either that these were literally crowns, or that they were actually made of gold. They were "as it were" (ὡς hōs) "crowns," and they were like (ὅμοιοι homoioi) "gold." That is, as seen by him, they had a resemblance to crowns or diadems, and they also resembled gold in their color and brilliancy. The word "crown" - στέφανος stephanos - means properly a circlet, chaplet, encircling the head:
(a) as an emblem of royal dignity, and as worn by kings;
(b) as conferred on victors in the public games - a chaplet, a wreath;
(c) as an ornament, honor, or glory, Philippians 4:1.
No particular shape is designated by the word στέφανος stephanos and perhaps the word "crown" does not quite express the meaning. The word "diadem" would come nearer to it. The true notion in the word is that of something that is passed around the head, and that encircles it, and as such it would well describe the appearance of a turban as seen at a distance. On the supposition that the symbolic beings here referred to had turbans on their heads, and on the supposition that something was referred to which was not much worn in the time of John, and, therefore, that had no name, the word στέφανος stephanos, or diadem, would be likely to be used in describing it. This, too, would accord with the use of the phrase "as it were" - ὡς hōs. The writer saw such head-ornaments as he was accustomed to see. They Were not exactly crowns or diadems, but they had a resemblance to them, and he therefore uses this language: "and on their heads were as it were crowns." Suppose that these were turbans, and that they were not in common use in the time of John, and that they had, therefore, no name, would not this be the exact language which he would use in describing them? The same remarks may be made respecting the other expression.
Like gold - They were not pure gold, but they had a resemblance to it. Would not a yellow turban correspond with all that is said in this description?
And their faces were as the faces of men - They had a human countenance. This would indicate that, after all, they were human beings that the symbol described, though they had come up from the bottomless pit. Horsemen, in strange apparel, with a strange head-dress, would be all that would be properly denoted by this.
8
Revelation 9:8
「彼らの髪は女の髪のようであり」――長い髪のことである。男が普通にしているような髪ではなく、女がしているような髪である。コリント第一 11:14 の注を見よ。これはヨハネには特異な点として映った。彼らが戦士でありながら、髪を長く伸ばすことによって示される女性的な外観を帯びていたからである。ここから、ヨハネが彼らの外観を非凡で注目すべきものとみなしたことが明らかである。彼らは明らかに軍隊を表わすように意図されていたが、戦いに出て行く者たちの通常の外観ではなかった。実際、古代のギリシャ人の間では長い髪はまれではなかったが(前述のコリント第一 11:14 の注を見よ)、これは決して古代人一般の慣習ではなかった。そして、これらの戦士たちが女のように長い髪を持っていたという事実は、彼らを他の者たちから特に区別する事情であった。いなごの外観と女の髪とのこの比較については、ヨハネの黙示録 9:7 の注にあるニーブールの言及を見よ。
「その歯は獅子の歯のようであった」――強く、貪り食うのに適している、ということである。いなごの歯は強くはあるが、決して目立つものではない。いなごは進路にあるあらゆる草木を容易に切り倒して食い尽くすからである。しかしヨハネが言おうとしているのは、これらのいなごの歯には非凡で注目すべき点が多くあった、ということである。彼らは貪欲で荒々しく、荒野の獅子のように恐怖と荒廃を広めるであろう。
英語原文
And they had hair as the hair of women - Long hair; not such as men commonly wear, but such as women wear. See the notes on 1 Corinthians 11:14. This struck John as a peculiarity, that, though warriors, they should have the appearance of effeminacy indicated by allowing their hair to grow long. It is clear from this, that John regarded their appearance as unusual and remarkable. Though manifestly designed to represent an army, yet it was not the usual appearance of men who went forth to battle. Among the Greeks of ancient times, indeed, long hair was not uncommon (see the notes above referred to on 1 Corinthians 11:14), but this was by no means the usual custom among the ancients; and the fact that these warriors had long hair like women was a circumstance that would distinguish them particularly from others. On this comparison of the appearance of the locusts with the hair of women see the remarks of Niebuhr, in the notes on Revelation 9:7.
And their teeth were as the teeth of lions - Strong; suited to devour. The teeth of the locust are by no means prominent, though they are strong, for they readily cut down and eat up all vegetable substances that come in their way. But it is evident that John means to say that there was much that was unusual and remarkable in the teeth of these locusts. They would be ravenous and fierce, and would spread terror and desolation like the lions of the desert.
9
Revelation 9:9
「また、鉄の胸当てのような胸当てがあった」――堅く、角質で、貫くことのできない、あたかも鉄でできているかのようなものである。いなごは胸の前部に堅く硬い角皮を持っており、これはとげのある茂みの中を動き回るときに盾、すなわち防御物として役立つ。ヨハネが見たそれらのものでは、これが特に堅く角質であったので、古代の戦士たちが普通に身につけた鉄の胸当ての象徴としてよく適合したであろう。その意味は、ここで言及されている戦士たちが、防御の武具によってよく身を固めていただろう、ということである。
「また、彼らの翼の音は、多くの馬が戦いに向かって走る戦車の音のようであった」――いなごの立てる音は旅行者たちによってしばしば語られている。そしてその音を戦いに突進する戦車の音と比べることは、適切であるだけでなく、何が象徴されていたのかをも明確に示している。象徴されたのは一つの軍隊であり、彼らに関するすべてのことが、よく武装した人々の軍勢が戦いに突進する様子を表わすのに役立ったのである。ここで言及されている同じ事柄は、ヨエル 2:4-5、2:7 でも記されている。
「その姿は馬の姿のようであり、 騎手のように彼らは走る。 山々の頂での戦車の音のように彼らは飛び跳ね、 穀物を食い尽くす火の炎の音のようであり、 戦いの備えをした強い民のようである。 彼らは勇士のように走り、 戦士のように城壁を登り、 それぞれ自分の道を進み、 その隊列を乱さない」など。
聖書の真実を解き明かす意図を持たなかったヴォルニーが、あたかもここで言われている事柄の真実性を確認しようとするかのように、いなごについての描写を残していることは注目に値する。彼はこう言う。「シリアは、エジプト、ペルシャ、およびほとんどすべての南アジアと同様に、もう一つの災害――地震に劣らず恐ろしい災害――にさらされている。すなわち、旅行者たちがしばしば言及するあのいなごの群れの雲のことである。これらの虫の数は、その驚くべき数を自ら目撃したことのないすべての人にとって信じがたい。地の全面が数リーグにわたってそれらで覆われる。木々や草をかじるときに彼らが立てる音は遠くまで聞こえ、密かに糧を求める軍隊の音に似ている」(『エジプト・シリア旅行記』i. 283, 284)。
英語原文
And they had breastplates, as it were breastplates of iron - Hard, horny, impenetrable, as if they were made of iron. The locust has a firm and hard cuticle on the forepart of the breast, which serves for a shield or defense while it moves in the thorny and furzy vegetation. On those which John saw this was especially hard and horny, and would thus be well adapted to be an emblem of the breastplates of iron commonly worn by ancient warriors. The meaning is, that the warriors referred to would be well clad with defensive armor.
And the sound of their wings was as the sound of chariots of many horses running to battle - The noise made by locusts is often spoken of by travelers, and the comparison of that noise with that of chariots rushing to battle, is not only appropriate, but also indicates clearly what was symbolized. It was an army that was symbolized, and everything about them served to represent hosts of men well armed, rushing to conflict. The same thing here referred to is noticed by Joel Joe 2:4-5, Joel 2:7;
"The appearance of them is as the appearance of horses;
And as horsemen so shall they run.
Like the noise of chariots on the tops of mountains, shall they leap;
Like the noise of a flame of fire that devoureth the stubble;
As a strong people set in battle array.
They shall run like mighty men;
They shall climb the wall like men of war;
And they shall march every one his ways,
And shall not break their ranks," etc.
It is remarkable that Volney, who had no intention of illustrating the truth of Scripture, has given a description of locusts, as if he meant to confirm the truth of what is here said. "Syria," says he, "as well as Egypt, Persia, and almost all the south of Asia, is subject to another calamity no less dreadful (than earthquakes); I mean those clouds of locusts so often mentioned by travelers. The quantity of these insects is incredible to all who have not themselves witnessed their astounding numbers; the whole earth is covered with them for the space of several leagues. The noise they make in browsing on the trees and herbage may be heard to a great distance, and resembles that of an army foraging in secret" (Travels in Egypt and Syria, vol. i. pp. 283, 284).
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Revelation 9:10
また、彼らには蠍のような尾があった——今日のアラビア人の空想はしばしば、いなごの尾と蠍との間に類似を見出す。Revelation 9:7の注釈で引用しているニーブールの論評を参照せよ。
また、その尾には刺があった——蠍の刺のようなものである。Revelation 9:3の注釈を参照せよ。これは、ヨハネに現れたいなごをいっそう注目すべきものとした。というのも、空想はいなごの尾と蠍との間に類似を想像しうるかもしれないが、いなごには本来刺がないからである。いなごが持つ刺に似た唯一のものは、針のような硬い骨質の物質であり、雌が卵を産み付けるために木の皮と木質を刺すのに用いるものである。しかし、それは刺のように傷口に毒を送り込むための適応を持っていない。ところが、これらのいなごは、本来の意味での刺で武装しているように見えたのである。
また、人々を害する力があった——第一義的には人々を殺すことではなく、彼らに様々な種類の苦痛を加えることである。Revelation 9:5の注釈を参照せよ。ここで用いられている語——ἀδικῆσαι adikēsai、「害する」と訳されている——は、Revelation 9:5の語——βασανισθῶσιν basanisthōsin、「苦しめられる」と訳されている——とは異なる。この語は本来「不正を行う、不正に扱う、傷つける、害する」を意味し、この二つの語は、彼らがほかの者たちに不正を行うことによって、あるいは彼らを不正に扱うことによって、苦悩をもたらすであろうという考えを伝えているように思われる。その不正が身体的苦痛を加えることによるものではなく、苦悩と悲痛をもたらすほかの者たちへの不正によって特徴づけられるであろうことは、ここからは現れていない。
五ヶ月——Revelation 9:5の注釈を参照せよ(編者の序文も参照)。
英語原文
And they had tails like unto scorpions - The fancy of an Arab now often discerns a resemblance between the tail of the locust and the scorpion. See the remark of Niebuhr, quoted in the notes on Revelation 9:7.
And there were stings in their tails - Like the stings of scorpions. See the notes on Revelation 9:3. This made the locusts which appeared to John the more remarkable, for though the fancy may imagine a resemblance between the tail of a locust and a scorpion, yet the locusts have properly no sting. The only thing which they have resembling a sting is a hard bony subsubstance like a needle, with which the female punctures the bark and wood of trees in order to deposit her eggs. It has, however, no adaptation, like a sting, for conveying poison into a wound. These, however, appeared to be armed with stings properly so called.
And their power was to hurt men - Not primarily to kill people, but to inflict on them various kinds of tortures. See the notes on Revelation 9:5. The word used here - ἀδικῆσαι adikēsai, rendered "to hurt" - is different from the word in Revelation 9:5 - βασανισθῶσιν basanisthōsin, rendered "should be tormented." This word properly means "to do wrong, to do unjustly, to injure, to hurt"; and the two words would seem to convey the idea that they would produce distress by doing wrong to others, or by deeding unjustly with them. It does not appear that the wrong would be by inflicting bodily torments, but would be characterized by that injustice toward others which produces distress and anguish.
Five months - See the notes on Revelation 9:5; (also Editor's Preface).
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Revelation 9:11
「彼らの上に王がいた」――彼らの軍勢を整列させ、指揮する支配者がいる、という意味である。いなごはしばしば、いやむしろ一般的に群れをなして移動するが、特定の支配者や先導者の指示の下にあるかのように見えることはない。この場合、彼らに王がいるということが、ヨハネの目には注目すべき特徴として映った。その王は絶対的な支配権を持つかのように思われ、彼らが底なしの淵から出て来ることによって続いて起こることになる破壊はすべて、彼に由来すると見なしうるのである。
「彼は底なしの淵の天使である」――Revelation 9:1 の注解を参照せよ。ここで「天使」という言葉は、いなごが出て来たかのように見えた、あの暗く陰うつな領域を統括する悪しき天使たちのかしらを指すように思われる。これは、この悪しき天使が彼らを直接指揮していたという意味にも、彼の霊がこれらの軍勢の指導者のうちに注ぎ込まれたという意味にも取ることができる。
「その名はヘブライ語でアバドンと言う」――アバドンという名は文字どおり「滅び」を意味し、アポリオンと同じである。
「ギリシャ語ではその名をアポリオンと言う」――ἀπόλλυμι apollumi、すなわち「滅ぼす」から来た語である。この語は本来「滅ぼす者」を表すものであり、この名がいなごによって表されている軍勢の王に与えられているのは、これが彼の主要な特徴となるはずだったからである。
象徴の字義的な意味についてのこの詳細な説明の後、これを適用し、表されることが意図された出来事を確かめようと試みる前に、主要なイメージ、すなわちいなごについて明確な印象を持っておくことは有益であろう。これは多くの点で想像力の産物であり、動物界に実在するどんな形態の中にも、その正確な再現を見出せるとは期待できないことは明らかである。エリオットが用意した次の版画(vol. i. p. 410)は、ヨハネに現れたこの象徴的な姿を十分に正確に表わしているであろう。
今や問題は、第四のラッパのものであると想定される出来事の後、それに続いて、この象徴が当てはまりうる何らかの出来事が歴史の中で起こったかどうかである。働きの行われる場所が世界の別の地域へ移されたと考えるべき理由は、すでに示してある。最初の四つのラッパは、同じ一般的性格を持つ連続的な出来事の、途切れない系列を指し示し、しかるべき結末を持っていた。これらは、西方帝国の滅亡に終わった連続的な衝撃を指すものとして説明されてきた。その系列の終わりには、Revelation 8:13 の描写にひとつの休止があり、災いによって区別されるほかの場面が開かれるという荘厳な告知がある。これらは残りの三つのラッパが鳴らされることによって象徴されるはずのもので、すべてのものの完成の時までの全期間を包み、あるいは、七つの封印で封じられた巻物(Revelation 5:1)がすっかり巻き開かれてその内容が明らかにされるまでの、将来の大きな重要な出来事を描き出すものであった。今や場面全体が変わる。ローマは倒れた。それは異邦人の手に渡った。世界の上に広がっていたあの権力は、その形態においては終わりを遂げ、もはや存在しない。しかし、私たちが見るように(Revelation 11ff)、そこに存在するもう一つの権力、同じくらい恐るべき権力が、新しい一連の象徴によって描かれることになる。しかしここ Revelation 9 では、新しい権力が現れる。舞台はすべて東方的であり、東方で芽生えるはずの出来事を明らかに指している。注解者たちは驚くほど一致して、これをサラセン人の帝国、すなわちムハンマドが打ち立てた宗教と帝国の興起と進展への言及と見なしてきた。ここで検討すべき問題は、この象徴の中に導入されている諸事情が、サラセン勢力の興起と、メッカの預言者の諸征服の中に適切な成就を見出すかどうかである。
(1) 「その場面が置かれている国」。すでに述べたとおり、その場面は東方的である。いなごに言及することは、自然に東方を思い起こさせるからである。そこはいなごの多い世界の地域であり、実際、いなごはとりわけ東方の災いである。さらに今、より厳密で本来の意味でアラビアが意図されている可能性があることを付け加えることができる。すなわち、アラビアに関する出来事、あるいは征服のためにアラビアの軍勢が結集されることを象徴することが意図であったと認められるなら、いなごの象徴が用いられたであろう。象徴の基礎となっているいなごは、とりわけアラビア的なものだからである。いなごをエジプトに運んだのは東風であった(Exodus 10:13)。それゆえ、彼らはアラビアのどこかの地域から来たに違いない。アラビアはエジプトの東方に位置する国だからである。ヴォルネーの証言も同じである。ギボンが「現代の旅行者のうち最も思慮分別のある」人物と呼ぶ彼は、こう言っている。「シリアの住民は、いなごが常にアラビアの砂漠から来ることに気づいている」(ch. 20:sect. 5)。
この点についてさらに言うべきことがあるとすれば、それは、私たちの前にあるこの箇所において、霊感の御霊がムハンマドの追随者たちを指すことを意図されたと想定するならば、いなごのイメージこそ自然に選ばれたであろうものだという点である。これほど適切で印象的なものはほかにないし、アラビアという国をこれほど自然に示しうるものもほかにない。このことの一つの裏付けとして、またこの象徴がいかに自然なものであるかを示すために、フォースターの言葉を引用することができる。彼はその著 Mohammedanism Unveiled(vol. i. p. 217)の中でこう言う。「ベドウィンの物語アンタルでは、いなごはイシュマエル人の民族的紋章として導入されている。そして、ムスリムの伝承が、いなごがムハンマドの手に落ち、その翼に『われわれは偉大なる神の軍勢である』という銘を帯びていたと語っていることは、注目すべき一致である」。これらの事情は、この象徴がアラビアとサラセン人を指すという想定のもとでの、この象徴の適切さを示すであろう。
(2) 民。問題は、ヨハネによって描かれた象徴の中に、そのような言及を持つことが意図されていたという想定のもとで、ムハンマドの追随者たちを適切に示しうる何かがあったかどうかである。
(a) 数について。「彼ら(ミディアンのアラブ人)は、その数の多さのゆえにいなごのようであった」(Judges 6:5)。Revelation 9:3 の注解を参照せよ。アラビアから出て東方に――エジプト、リビア、モーリタニア、スペインに――広がり、さらにヨーロッパにまで広がろうと脅かしたサラセンの大群の数を、このようなひと群れのいなごの軍勢ほどよく表わすものはほかにないであろう。ギボンは言う。「彼がメッカから逃れてから百年後、彼の後継者たちの武器と統治は、インドから大西洋に至るまで、ペルシア、シリア、エジプト、アフリカ、スペインという名の下に包括されうる多様で遠隔の諸地方に及んだ」(vol. iii. p. 410)。「ヒジュラの第一世紀の終わりには、カリフたちは地球上で最も強力かつ絶対的な君主たちであった。最後のウマイヤ家の下では、アラビア帝国は東西に二百日の旅程、すなわちタタールとインドの境から大西洋の岸まで広がっていた」(ibid. p. 460)。これらの征服に投入された膨大な軍勢についての観念は、ギボンの第51章全体に目を通すことで得られる(vol. iii. pp. 408-461)。それらの軍勢は主としてアラビアから出たものであり、その数においては、同じ国から出て、空を暗くするほどであったいなごの大群とよく比べられうるであろう。
(b) 民の描写。
「その顔は、人間の顔のようであった」。これは他の諸国民との対照として、あるいは、表されている人々の外観に独特の何かを示すものと思われる。言い換えれば、その意味は、顔に関して言うなら、彼らの姿に男性的で武勇のある何かがあった、ということであるように思われる。注目すべきことに、(前のラッパのもとで表されていると私が考える)ゴート人たちの外観は、ヒエロニムスによって(イザヤ書8章についての注解と比較せよ)まさに正反対に描かれている。彼らは、顔を剃って滑らかにした、髭を生やしたローマ人と対照的な、女の顔のような顔を持つ者として描かれているのである。ここでの言及がアラブの軍勢の顎髭と口髭を指すと考えることは、単なる空想であろうか。私たちは、彼らが髭をどれほど大切に扱っていたかを知っている。そして、彼らについての描写が、とりわけ顔を剃ることによって女のようであった諸国民との対照においてなされるなら、象徴の中で表されている人々を「人間の顔のような顔を持つ者たち」として語ることは自然であったであろう。
「彼らの髪は、女の髪のようであった」。女性的な外観と、男性的な勇気のしるしとが、奇妙に入り混じっている。Revelation 9:8 の注解を参照せよ。ところが、これはアラブ人すなわちサラセン人の外観と厳密に一致する。ヨハネと同時代のプリニウスは、当時のアラブ人たちについて、髪を長く切らずに打ち垂れ、上唇には口髭、あるいは髭を残していたと語っている。Arabes mitrati sunt, aut intoso crine. Barba abraditur, praeterquam in superiore labro. Aliis et haec intonsa(Nat. Hist. vol. 6, p. 28)。同様にソリヌスも三世紀に彼らを描いている(Plurimis crinis intonsus, mitrata capita, pars rasa in cutem barba, 100:53)。アンミアヌス・マルケリヌスも四世紀に描き(Crinitus quidam a Saracenorum cuneo, vol. xxxi. p. 16)、クラウディアン、モプスエスティアのテオドロス、ヒエロニムスも五世紀に描いている。ヒエロニムスは大サラセン侵入の約二世紀前に生きており、アラビアの境にあるベツレヘムに住んでいたので、アラブ人の外観によく通じていたに違いない。さらに後の時代、アラブの詩の中で最も特色ある詩であるアンタル、すなわちムハンマドの幼少時代に書かれた詩においても、口髭と髭と肩に流れる長い髪とターバンが、みなアラビア人の特徴として明記されている。「彼は身なりをきちんと整え、ほお髭をねじり、肩から髪を引き上げてターバンの下に束ね入れた」(vol. i. p. 340)。「彼の髪は肩の上に流れ落ちた」(vol. i. p. 169)。「アンタルは復讐と侮辱のしるしにマウディの髪を切り落とした」(vol. iii. p. 117)。「われわれは彼を髪で吊るそう」(vol. iv. p. 325)。Elliott, vol. i. pp. 411, 412 を参照せよ。Newton on the Prophecies, p. 485 とも比較せよ。
「その頭には、金の冠のような物があった」。Revelation 9:7 の注解を参照せよ。すなわち、王冠、あるいは冠か花輪のように見える何かである。これはアラブ人すなわちサラセン人が着用したターバンによく一致し、彼らが知られるようになった初期の時代には、ターバンは彼らにきわめて特徴的なものであった。すでに引用した箇所で、プリニウスは彼らを Arabes mitrati と呼び、ソリヌスは mitrata capita と言い、アンタルの詩にも「彼は自分の髪をターバンの下に束ね入れた」とある。また注目すべきことに、エゼキエル書(Ezekiel 23:42)は、シバ人すなわちケトラ系統のアラブ人のターバンを、ここでヨハネが用いたのとまさに同じ呼び名の下に描いている。「荒野から来たシバの人々は、その頭に美しい冠をいただいていた」。またアンタルの序文にはこうある。「彼らの間では、神はアラブ人に四つの特別な物をお与えになった、というのが常の言い回しであった。すなわち、彼らのターバンは彼らにとって王冠の代わりとなり、彼らの天幕は城壁と家の代わりとなり、彼らの剣は塁壕の代わりとなり、彼らの詩は成文法の代わりとなる、と」。フォースターはその Mohammedanism Unveiled の中で、ムハンマドの訓戒として次の言葉を引用する。「ターバンを着用することを努めよ。それは天使たちの道であるから」。それゆえ、ターバンは冠として適切に表されえたし、疑いなくそれらはしばしば金メッキを施され飾り立てられて、「金の冠」と語られえたのである。
「彼らには胸当てがあり、鉄の胸当てのようであった」。Revelation 9:9 の注解を参照せよ。象徴として、これはアラビア人あるいはサラセン人を適切に描写するものであろう。アンタルの詩には、アラブ戦士たちの鋼鉄と鉄の胸当てがしばしば言及されている。「鋼鉄の甲冑に包まれた戦士」(vol. ii. p. 203)。「胸当てで武装し、戦いのために良く装備した一万五千人」(vol. ii. p. 42)。「彼らは鉄の甲冑と輝く胸当てを着けていた」(vol. i. p. 23)。「塵の中から鉄をまとった騎兵たちが現れた」(vol. iii. p. 274)。同じことはコーランにもある。「神は、あなたがたが戦いにおいて守られるように、あなたがたに鎖かたびらをお与えになった」(vol. ii. p. 104)。ムハンマドの歴史の中では、彼自身と彼のアラブ軍勢の胸当てについて、はっきりと読むところがある。ムハンマドの私的武器庫の目録には、七つの胸当てが記されている(Gagnier, vol. iii. p. 328-334)。クライシュ族との第二の戦いでは、彼の小さな軍勢のうち七百人が胸当てで武装していたと、ギボンによって語られている。Elliott, vol. i. p. 413 を参照せよ。これらの例証は、象徴の中のいなごたちが鉄のような胸当てを持つものとして表されていることが、いかに適切であるかを示すであろう。これがアラブ人とサラセン人を指すものであったと想定するなら、まさにこのような象徴が用いられたことであろう。実際、この象徴のすべての特徴は、その指すところが彼らであるという想定のもとで適切に用いられうるものであることばかりである。なるほど、前もって、どの民が指されているかを正確に描き出すことは不可能だったかもしれない。しかし、(a)恐るべき侵略者たちの大群の略奪から、何か恐ろしい災害が予期されなければならないことは容易に見て取れたであろうし、(b)出来事が起こったとき、この適用が誰に対してなされるべきかを決定するには、何の困難もなかったであろう。
(3) 「これが起こる時期」。これに関しては、サラセン人への適用に何の困難もありえない。最初の四つのラッパが西方帝国の滅亡を指すのであるという想定のもとでは、この象徴によって表されていると考えられる適切な時期は、その後である。しかし、最後の三つのラッパが導入される仕方(Revelation 8:13)は、四つのラッパの最後のものが鳴らされることと、第五のラッパが鳴らされることとの間に、間隔があるであろうことを示している。私の考えでは、第四のラッパによって表されている出来事は、第五世紀の終わり(紀元476-490年)に起こった。第七世紀の主要な出来事は、サラセン人の侵入と征服に関係していた。一世紀の間隔は、Revelation 8:13 の告知の公正な解釈が是認するところを超えるものではない。
(4) 「象徴的ないなごに与えられた任務」。これは次の事柄を含む。
(a)彼らは地の草をも、どんな青い物をも害してはならなかったこと。
(b)彼らは特に、額に神の印を持たない人々に向かうこと。
(c)彼らは彼らを殺すのではなく、苦しめること。
「彼らは地の草を害してはならなかった……」Revelation 9:4 の注解を参照せよ。これはコーランのある明示的な命令と著しく一致している。ムハンマドの義父で後継者であるカリフ、アブー・バクルが、シリア侵入にあたってサラセンの大群に発した、しばしば引用される命令は、彼らの宗教の精神として理解されていたものが何であったかを示している。「あなたがたは常に神の御前におり、死の瀬戸際にあり、さばきの確信の中にあり、楽園の希望の中にあることを覚えよ。不正と圧制を避けよ。兄弟たちと相談し、軍勢からの愛と信頼を保つよう心がけよ。主の戦いを戦うときは、背を向けることなく男らしく振る舞え。しかし、勝利を女や子どもの血で汚してはならない。やしの木を破壊してはならず、穀物の畑を焼いてはならない。果樹を切り倒してはならず、食べるために殺すもののほか、家畜にどんな害も加えてはならない。何らかの契約や条項を結んだときは、それを守り、自分の言葉に忠実であれ。進んで行くうちに、修道院に隠れ、そのようにして神に仕えようと心に決めている宗教者たちに出会うであろう。彼らを放っておき、殺してもならず(『彼らを殺してはならない』――5節)、彼らの修道院を破壊してもならない」等々(Gibbon, iii. 417, 418)。
同様にギボンは、コーランのこの訓戒に注意を向けている。「メッカから六十マイルのタヤフの包囲戦において、ムハンマドは果樹を根絶することによって、みずからの法に違反した」(ii. 392)と彼は言う。同じ命令はヘブライ人の間にも存在し、ムハンマドがこの自分の訓戒をモーセの命令(Deuteronomy 20:19)から引き出した可能性がなくはない。ただし、ヘブライ人の間では憐れみであったものが、彼の場合にはおそらく単なる政策にすぎなかった。この訓戒がいっそう注目に値するのは、戦争においては、特に野蛮人および半野蛮人の間では、穀物や果実を破壊し、とりわけ敵にいっそう大きな損害を与えるために果樹を切り倒すことが、通例の習慣であったからである。こうして私たちは、ゴート人の侵入に際して、彼らの進路がこの種の荒廃によって示されていたのを見た(Revelation 8:7 の注解)。より近い時代においても、戦争の荒廃を庭園、果樹園、ぶどう畑にまで及ぼすことは、しばしば見られたことである。上メッセニアの一地方だけでも、ギリシアとの戦争の際に、ムハンマド・アリーの軍隊は五十万本のオリーブの木を切り倒し、こうしてその国から富の源を奪い去った。シオス島も美しい場所であり、楽しい別荘と庭園と果樹園の集まる地であったが、その美のすべては一日にして破壊された。それゆえ、この預言がサラセン人を指していたという想定のもとでは、これ以上適切なものはありえない。実際、野蛮で残忍な戦争の歴史全体を通して、庭園や果樹園に何の害も加えてはならないと命じた、このような明確な命令をもう一つ見出すことは困難であろう。
(d) 彼らの任務は、明示的に「額に神の印を持たない人々」に向けられていた。Revelation 9:4 の注解を参照せよ。すなわち彼らは、神の真の友でない者たち、あるいは彼らの判断においてそう見なされる者たちに向かうことであった。おそらく、文脈が別の解釈を要求しないとすれば、前者がこの箇所の最も自然な説明であろう。しかし、この言葉は、彼らが自ら召されたと考えた目的を指すものとして理解することもできる。すなわち、彼らは、まことの神に縁のない者たちと見なした人々、すなわち偶像礼拝者たちに向かうことであった、という意味である。さて、ムハンマドが自らを、主として偶像礼拝者たちと戦うために召された者であると考え、彼らをまことの神への仕えへの服従のもとに引き込むことを公言して進んだことは、よく知られている。ギボンは言う。「説得の手段は試みられ、寛容の時は過ぎ去った。そして彼は今や、剣によって自分の宗教を広め、偶像崇拝の記念物を破壊し、日や月の神聖さにかかわりなく、地の不信仰な諸国民を追うよう命じられた」(iii. 387)。「友情、服従、戦闘という公正な選択肢が、ムハンマドの敵たちに提示された」(ibid.)。ムハンマドは言う。「剣は天と地獄のかぎである。神の大義のために流された血の一滴、武器を取って過ごした一夜は、二か月の断食と祈りに勝る。戦いで倒れる者はだれでも、その罪は赦される。さばきの日には、その傷は朱のように輝き、じゃこうのように香り、失われた手足は天使たちとケルビムの翼によって補われるであろう」(Gibbon, iii. 387)。ムハンマドが最初に行った戦いは、自分の国の偶像礼拝者たち、すなわちどのような想定のもとでも「額に神の印」を持つ者とは見なされえない人々に向けられたものであった。その後の彼の戦争は、あらゆる階層の不信仰者たち、すなわち彼が「額に神の印」を持たない者たち、神の敵であると見なした者たちに向けられたものであった。
(e) 任務のもう一つの部分は、「殺すことではなく、彼らを苦しめること」であった。Revelation 9:5 の注解を参照せよ。上に引用したアブー・バクルの命令から取られた言葉と比較せよ。「勝利を女や子どもの血で汚してはならない」「彼らを放っておき、殺してもならず、彼らの修道院を破壊してもならない」。これを、キリスト教世界に対する彼らの任務に適用して理解するなら、その意味は、彼らが進んで「殺す」のではなく「苦しめる」こと、すなわち、定められた期間、キリスト教諸国民の上にもたらすであろう諸災害によって苦しめることであったと思われる。実際、上に見たとおり、修道院において静かで平和な生活を送っていると見出された人々を死に至らせてはならないというのは、アブー・バクルの明示的な命令であった。もっとも、別の階級の者たちに対しては、「その頭蓋を割れ」という明示的な命令を彼は与えたのであるが(Gibbon, iii. 418 を参照)。サラセン人とキリスト教徒との衝突に適用するなら、ここでの意味は、いなごによって表されている人々に許された権力が、教会を断ち切り滅ぼすことではなく、定められた期間続く諸々の災害を教会の上にもたらすことであった、ということになろう。
こうして、教会の上に下った最も過酷な苦難のうちには、疑いなくメッカの預言者の追随者たちに由来するものがいくつかあった。その宗教の初期の歴史には、人間のあらゆる外見から判断する限り、それが普遍的に勝利を収め、キリスト教会を完全に取り替えてしまうかのように見えた時代があった。しかし教会はなおも生き延び、サラセンの大群に教会を完全に滅ぼす権力が与えられたことは、ついに一度もなかった。この点に関して、歴史の中では注目すべきいくつかの出来事が起こった。偽預言者の追随者たちは、東と西の二方面からヨーロッパの征服とキリスト教の破壊を企て、二つの軍隊がイタリア北部で合流し、そこからローマへ進軍することを期待していた。彼らは二度にわたってコンスタンティノープルを包囲することによって、キリスト教世界の急所を攻撃した。第一は、紀元668年から675年まで続いた七年の包囲であり、第二は、イサウリア出身のレオが帝国の帝位にあった紀元716-718年におけるものである。
しかし、いずれの場合も、彼らは敗北と恥辱のうちに撤退を余儀なくされた(Gibbon, iii. 461以下)。次に彼らは、西方に対する攻撃を新たにした。北アフリカを征服した後、彼らはスペインに渡ってその国とポルトガルを服従させ、その征服をロワール川にまで広げた。そのとき彼らはフランスを服従させ、東方から来ることを期待していた軍勢と合流した後、イタリアに攻め下り、ヨーロッパ征服を完成させるつもりであった。この目的は、カール・マルテルの武勇によってくじかれ、ヨーロッパとキリスト教世界は服従から救われた(Gibbon, iii. 467以下)。ギボンは言う。「勝利に満ちた進軍路は、ジブラルタルの岩からロワール川の岸まで、千マイル以上にわたって延びていた。同じ距離がもう一度繰り返されていたなら、サラセン人はポーランドの境とスコットランドの高地にまで達したことであろう。ライン川はナイル川やユーフラテス川よりも渡りがたいものではなく、アラビア艦隊は海戦を経ることなくテムズ川の河口に乗り入えることもできたであろう。おそらく今ごろは、コーランの解釈がオックスフォードの諸学校で教えられ、その説教壇からは、割礼を受けた民に向かってムハンマドの啓示の神聖さと真実性が論証されていたことであろう」。ヨーロッパが服従させられる前にサラセンの大群が阻止されたことは、予期する理由のまったくなかった事態であり、それを説明することができるという点は、今なお歴史家たちを当惑させている。
ギボンは言う。「サラセン人の急速な進軍に従おうと努める冷静な歴史家は、教会と国家がこの差し迫った、そして一見回避できない危険から、いかなる手段によって救われたのかを説明するために、研究しなければならない」。ハラムも言う。「不注意で表面的な人々を驚かせるこれらの征服は、冷静な探究者にとっては、その停止よりも当惑の度合いが少ない。ローマ帝国の半分を失ったことよりも、残りの半分が保存されたことの方が、より当惑を誘う」(Middle Ages, ii. 3, 169)。これらの例証は、この象徴の意味を、すなわち彼らの大いなる任務が絶滅また根絶ではなく、悩ませ苦しめることであったということを、解明するのに役立つであろう。実際、彼らは破壊を第一の目的として出て行ったのではなかった。ムスリムの告知は常に「コーランか、貢納か、剣か」であり、宗教を受け入れるか貢納によって服従がなされたときには、命は常に助けられた。「友情、服従、戦闘という公正な選択肢が、ムハンマドの敵たちに提示された」とギボンは言う(iii. 387)。vol. iii. 453, 456 とも比較せよ。私の考えでは、ここで述べられている苦しみは、アラビアから出て、厄介で破壊的ないなごの大群のようにそれらすべての国々を席巻した大群が、キリスト教世界、すなわちエジプト、北アフリカ、スペイン、ガリア、東方の上にもたらした諸災害を指す。実際、この数えきれないいなごの大群よりも、サラセン侵入の結果をよく表しうるイメージが他にあるだろうか。今この時でさえ、これをよく表すイメージを見出すことができるだろうか。
(5) この大群の指導者。
(a) 彼は、天から落ちて来た星のようであった(Revelation 9:1)。明るく華やかな君主、天から授けられたかのような、しかし堕落した君主である。ムハンマドの天才、権力、華やかでありながらゆがめられた才能を、これよりよく特徴づけるものがあるだろうか。しかもムハンマドは、生まれとしてはメッカの支配者たちであるクライシュ族の王家に属しており、この呼び名がこれほど適切に当てはまる者は、その家門のほかにはいなかった。
(b) 彼は王であった。すなわち、ただ一人の君主、このすべての大群が従うただ一つの支配的な霊があるはずであった。アラビアの大群の指導者に適用されたこの称号ほど適切なものは、かつてなかった。それらすべての大群は、ただ一つの心、すなわちその計画を起こしたただ一人の指導者の命令に従っていたのである。
(c) アバドン、すなわちアポリオンという名――「滅ぼす者」(Revelation 9:11)。この名は、これほど世界中に自分の征服を広めた者、これほど多くの都市や町を荒廃させた者、これほど多くの王国を覆した者、そしてその結果としてこれほど多くの人間を墓に送り込むことになる最終的な征服の基礎を据えた者に、適切なものであろう。
(d) この指導者を「底なしの淵の天使」として描いたこと(Revelation 9:11)。これが、「底なしの淵の天使」、すなわちやみの霊自身がその計画を起こし、この大群に力を注ぎ込んだという意味であると見なされるなら、この指導者をこれよりよく特徴づける言葉が他にあるだろうか。また、これが、支配する悪の霊によって遣わされた者としてのムハンマドについての詩的な描写であるなら、下界の霊の代表者として、彼ほど適した者が地上に遣わされえたであろうか。彼は、より才能があり、より聡明で、より強力で、より好戦的で、より悪であり、地の諸国民を闇の君の支配に服従させ、長い時代にわたってそのくびきの下に彼らをとどめておくのに、これほどふさわしい者であった。
(6) 苦しみの期間。Revelation 9:5 には、これが五か月、すなわち預言的には百五十年であると記されている。Revelation 9:5 の注解を参照せよ。ヒジュラ、すなわちムハンマドの逃亡は、紀元622年に起こった。サラセン人は紀元629年に初めて砂漠からシリアへ出て、キリスト教世界に対する一連の戦争を始めた。これらの時期からそれぞれ数えるなら、五か月、すなわち百五十年は、紀元772年あるいは779年にまで及ぶことになる。この百五十年という期間を、いなごによって象徴された諸集団が実際に存続していた期間として理解する必要はなく、ただ彼らが自分たちの「苦しみ」を加える期間として理解すればよい。すなわち、「彼らは五か月の間苦しめられる」ものであった期間である。言い換えれば、これは彼らの加える災いの激しさの続く期間であって、その時には、その急流に顕著な緩和が訪れるであろうということである。それで問題は、サラセン人の歴史の中に、彼らの征服の歩みがほぼ百五十年続いた後に、これらの「苦しみ」の緩和あるいは停止を示すような時期があったかどうかである。
もしあったなら、これだけで、この象徴がアラビアの大群に適用できると決定するために必要なことはすべて整ったことになる。この問いに対する答えとして、私たちはギボンに言及するだけでよい。彼の著作の第四十一章と第四十二章の冒頭に付けられた目次は、望まれるすべての情報を与えてくれる。私は、「五か月」すなわち百五十年が私たちをどの時期へ導くかを見積もった後、そのころムハンマドの勢力と影響力の中に、アラビアの大群がキリスト教世界に加えた災害の緩和あるいは停止を示すと見なしうる何かが起こったかどうかを確かめるために、その目次に目を通した。ギボンがムハンマドとその後継者たちの下にあったアラビアの大群の性格と征服を詳細に記録した後で(vol. iii. 360-460)、私は、その百五十年が私たちを導くはずの時期のまさにそのころに、彼らの権力の衰退についての陳述を見出すのである。ちょうどその時に、メッカの預言者の追随者たちに重要な変化が起こり、彼らは征服への愛から文学と学問の追求へと転じたのである。
その時期以後、彼らは教会にとって恐るべき存在であることをやめた。彼らの版図は次第に縮小し、彼らの権力は衰え、キリスト教世界は彼らとの関係において実質的に平和となった。サラセン人の性格と目的におけるこの変化は、紀元755年に統治を開始したカリフ、アブド・アッラフマーン――その下でスペインのウマイヤ家による平和な支配が始まり、それは二百五十年間続いた――の治世の終わりに際して、ギボンによって次のように描かれている。「カリフたちの奢侈は、彼ら自身の幸福にはそれほど無益であったが、アラビア帝国の力を緩め、その前進を終わらせた。世的な征服と霊的な征服は、ムハンマドの最初の後継者たちの唯一の仕事であった。そして生活の必需品を確保した後には、全収入がその有益な仕事に厳格に充てられた。アッバース家は、その多数の必要と、節約を軽んじたことのゆえに、貧しくなった。野心という大きな目的を追う代わりに、彼らの閑暇、愛情、精神の力は、華やかさと快楽に向けられた。武勇への報酬は女たちと宦官たちによって着服され、王の陣営は宮殿の奢侈のために荷を負わされた。同様の気質が、カリフの臣民たちの間にも広まった。彼らの厳格な熱心は、時の経過と繁栄とによって和らげられた。彼らは産業の営みの中に富を、文学の追求の中に名声を、家庭生活の平安の中に幸福を見出した。
戦争はもはやサラセン人の情熱ではなかった。給与の増額や度重なる下賜物も、戦利品と楽園の希望を抱いてアブー・バクルとウマルの旗のもとに殺到した、あの自発的な戦士たちの子孫を引き寄せるには十分でなかった」(iii. 477, 478)。ウマイヤ家、すなわちアブド・アッラフマーンの後を継いだ君主たちについては、ギボンは概してこう述べている。「彼らの相互の計画や開戦の宣言は、効果を上げることなく消え去った。そして、ヨーロッパ征服への扉を開く代わりに、スペインは王国の本体から切り離され、東方との果てしない敵対関係に入り、コンスタンティノープルとフランスのキリスト教徒の君主たちとの平和と友情へと傾いていった」(iii. p. 472)。これは、彼らがともに住むようになった諸国民にとって「苦しみ」の源であることをやめるような変化が起こったことを、どれほどよく示していることであろうか。この時期以後、彼らは平和の技に身を委ね、文学と学問を耕し、征服の精神と世界的支配への野心を完全に失った。やがて彼らは、かつて最も恐怖を呼び起こし、その権力と野心の全盛期に侵入したキリスト教世界の各地域から、徐々に退くか、駆り立てられるかした。ギボンの歴史の「目次」に目を通すだけでも、「五か月」すなわち百五十年に含まれるであろう時期のころに起こった、次の諸時期がはっきりと示されている。
「紀元668-675年、アラブ人によるコンスタンティノープルの最初の包囲。677年、平和と貢納。716-718年、コンスタンティノープルの第二の包囲。716-718年、サラセン人の失敗と撤退。716-718年、ギリシャ火の発明と使用。721年、アラブ人によるフランス侵入。732年、カール・マルテルによるサラセン人の撃破。732年、サラセン人、フランク人の前で撤退。746-750年、アッバース家の擡頭。750年、ウマイヤ家の没落。755年、スペインの離反。755年、カリフ国の三分割。750-960年、カリフたちの壮麗。750-960年、個人の幸福と公共の幸福への影響。754年以下、アラビア人の中への学問の導入。754年以下、諸科学における彼らの実際の進歩。」
ここから、彼らの軍事的・政治的権力の衰退、ヨーロッパを服従させようとする試みにおける敗北、そして文学と学問という平和な営みへの関心の転換が、五か月すなわち百五十年によって示されるであろう時期と、著しく一致していることを見て取ることができる。付け加えるべきことには、紀元762年に、カリフのアルマンソールがバグダードを建設し、それをサラセン帝国の首都とした。以後そこはアラビアの学問と奢侈と権力の座となり、サラセン帝国の富と才能は次第にこの首都へと引き寄せられ、彼らはキリスト教世界を悩ませ煩わせることをやめた。バグダードの建設は、「五か月」が示す時点から数えてちょうど十年以内のことであった。これはヒジュラ、すなわちムハンマドの逃亡から数える場合である。また、ムハンマドが説教を始めた時(紀元609年――Gibbon, iii. 383)から数えるなら、その期間と正確に一致するには、わずか三年を要するのみであった。
これらの考察は、第五のラッパ、すなわちいなごの象徴が、ムハンマドとその後継者たちの導きの下にあったアラビアの大群を、いかに適切に指し示しているかを明らかにしている。ヨハネがこれらの出来事を象徴することを意図したという想定のもとでは、その目的に最も適した象徴が、他のどのものよりもよく選ばれたのである。今やこれらの出来事が過ぎ去った後で、もしそれらを適切に表す何らかの象徴を見出そうと努めるとしても、ここでヨハネが用いたものよりも、より印象的で、より適切なものを見出すことはできないであろう。
英語原文
And they had a king over them - A ruler who marshalled their hosts. Locusts often, and indeed generally, move in bands, though they do not appear to be under the direction of anyone as a particular ruler or guide. In this case it struck John as a remarkable peculiarity that they had a king - a king who, it would seem, had the absolute control, and to whom was to be traced all the destruction which would ensue from their emerging from the bottomless pit.
Which is the angel of the bottomless pit - See the notes on Revelation 9:1. The word "angel" here would seem to refer to the chief of the evil angels, who presided over the dark and gloomy regions from whence the locusts seemed to emerge. This may either mean that this evil angel seemed to command them personally, or that his spirit was infused into the leader of these hosts.
Whose name in the Hebrew tongue is Abaddon - The name Abaddon means literally "destruction," and is the same as Apollyon.
But in the Greek tongue hath his name Apollyon - From ἀπόλλυμι apollumi - "to destroy." The word properly denotes "a destroyer," and the name is given to this king of the hosts, represented by the locusts, because this would be his principal characteristic.
After this minute explanation of the literal meaning of the symbol, it may be useful, before attempting to apply it, and to ascertain the events designed to be represented, to have a distinct impression of the principal image - the locust. It is evident that this is, in many respects, a creature of the imagination, and that we are not to expect the exact representation to be found in any forms of actual existence in the animal creation. The following engraving, prepared by Mr. Elliott (vol. i. p. 410), will give a sufficiently accurate representation of this symbolical figure as it appeared to John.
The question now is, whether any events occurred in history, subsequent to and succeeding those supposed to be referred to in the fourth trumpet, to which this symbol would be applicable. Reasons have already been suggested for supposing that there was a transfer of the seat of the operations to another part of the world. The first four trumpets referred to a continual series of events of the same general character, and having a proper close. These have been explained as referring to the successive shocks which terminated in the downfall of the Western empire. At the close of that series there is a pause in the representation Revelation 8:13, and a solemn proclamation that other scenes were to open distinguished for woe. These were to be symbolized in the sounding of the remaining three trumpets, embracing the whole period until the consummation of all things - or sketching great and momentous events in the future, until the volume sealed with the seven seals Revelation 5:1 should have been wholly unrolled and its contents disclosed. The whole scene now is changed. Rome has fallen. It has passed into the hands of strangers. The power that had spread itself over the world has, in that form, come to an end, and is to exist no more - though, as we shall see (Revelation 11ff), another power, quite as formidable, existing there, is to be described by a new set of symbols. But here Revelation 9 a new power appears. The scenery is all Oriental, and clearly has reference to events that were to spring up in the East. With surprising unanimity, commentators have agreed in regarding this as referring to the empire of the Saracens, or to the rise and progress of the religion and the empire set up by Muhammed. The inquiry now is, whether the circumstances introduced into the symbol find a proper fulfillment in the rise of the Saracenic power, and in the conquests of the Prophet of Mecca:
(1) "The country where the scene is laid." As already remarked the scene is Oriental - for the mention of locusts naturally suggests the East - that being the part of the world where they abound, and they being in fact especially an Oriental plague. It may now be added, that in a more strict and proper sense Arabia may be intended; that is, if it be admitted that the design was to symbolize events pertaining to Arabia, or the gathering of the hosts of Arabia for conquest, the symbol of locusts would have been employed for the locust, the groundwork of the symbol is especially Arabic. It was the east wind which brought the locusts on Egypt Exodus 10:13, and they must therefore have come from some portion of Arabia - for Arabia is the land that lies over against Egypt in the east. Such, too, is the testimony of Volney; "the most judicious," as Mr. Gibbon calls him, "of modern travelers." "The inhabitants of Syria," says he, "have remarked that locusts come constantly from the desert of Arabia," ch. 20:sect. 5.
All that is necessary to say further on this point is, that on the supposition that it was the design of the Spirit of inspiration in the passage before us to refer to the followers of Muhammed, the image of the locusts was that which would be naturally selected. There was no other one so appropriate and so striking; no one that would so naturally designate the country of Arabia. As some confirmation of this, or as showing how natural the symbol would be, a remark may be introduced from Mr. Forster. In his Mohammedanism Unveiled, vol. i. p. 217, he says, "In the Bedoween romance of Antar, the locust is introduced as the national emblem of the Ishmaelites. And it is a remarkable coincidence that Muslim tradition speaks of locusts having dropped into the hands of Muhammed, bearing on their wings this inscription - 'We are the army of the Great God.'" These circumstances will show the propriety of the symbol on the supposition that it refers to Arabia and the Saracens.
(2) the people. The question is, whether there was anything in the symbol, as described by John, which would properly designate the followers of Muhammed, on the supposition that it was designed to have such a reference:
(a) As to numbers. "They (the Midianite Arabs) came as locusts for multitude," John 6:5. See the notes on Revelation 9:3. Nothing would better represent the numbers of the Saracenic hordes that came out of Arabia, and that spread over the East - over Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Spain, and that threatened to spread over Europe - than such an army of locusts. "One hundred years after his flight (Muhammed) from Mecca," says Mr. Gibbon, "the arms and the reign of his successors extended from India to the Atlantic Ocean, over the various and distant provinces which may be comprised under the names of Persia, Syria, Egypt, Africa, and Spain," vol. iii. p. 410. "At the end of the first century of the Hegira the caliphs were the most potent and absolute monarchs on the globe. Under the last of the Ommiades the Arabian empire extended two hundred days' journey from east to west, from the confines of Tartary and India to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean" (ibid. p. 460). In regard to the immense hosts employed in these conquests, an idea may be formed by a perusal of the whole fifty-first chapter in Gibbon (vol. iii. pp. 408-461). Those hosts issued primarily from Arabia, and in their numbers would be well compared with the swarms of locusts that issued from the same country, so numerous as to darken the sky.
(b) The description of the people.
"Their faces were as the faces of men" This would seem to be in contrast with other people, or to denote something that was unique in the appearance of the persons represented. In other words, the meaning would seem to be, that there was something manly and warlike in their appearance, so far as their faces were concerned. It is remarkable that the appearance of the Goths (represented, as I suppose, under the previous trumpets) is described by Jerome (compare on Isaiah 8) as quite the reverse. They are described as having faces shaven and smooth; faces, in contrast with the bearded Romans, like women's faces. Is it fancy to suppose that the reference here is to the beard and moustache of the Arabic hosts? We know with what care they regarded the beard; and if a representation was made of them, especially in contrast with nations that shaved their faces, and who thus resembled women, it would be natural to speak of those represented in the symbol as "having faces as the faces of men."
"They had hair as the hair of women" A strange mingling of the appearance of effeminacy with the indication of manliness and courage. See the notes on Revelation 9:8. And yet this strictly accords with the appearance of the Arabs or Saracens. Pliny, the contemporary of John, speaks of the Arabs then as having the hair long and uncut, with the moustache on the upper lip, or the beard: Arabes mitrati sunt, aut intoso crine. Barba abraditur, praeterquam in superiore labro. Aliis et haec intonsa (Nat. Hist. vol. 6, p. 28). So Solinus describes them in the third century (Plurimis crinis intonsus, mitrata capita, pars rasa in cutem barba, 100:53); so Ammianus Marcellinus, in the fourth century (Crinitus quidam a Saracenorum cuneo, vol. xxxi. p. 16); and so Claudian, Theodore of Mopsuesta, and Jerome, in the fifth. Jerome lived about two centuries before the great Saracen invasion; and as he lived at Bethlehem, on the borders of Arabia, he must have been familiar with the appearance of the Arabs. Still later, in that most characteristic of Arab poems, Antar, a poem written in the time of Muhammed's childhood, we find the moustache, and the beard, and the long flowing hair on the shoulder, and the turban, all specified as characteristic of the Arabians: "He adjusted himself properly, twisted his whiskers, and folded up his hair under his turban, drawing it from off his shoulders," vol. i. p. 340. "His hair flowed down on his shoulders," vol. i. p. 169. "Antar cut off Maudi's hair in revenge and insult," vol. iii. p. 117. "We will hang him up by his hair," vol. iv. p. 325. See Elliott, vol. i. pp. 411, 412. Compare Newton on the Prophecies, p. 485.
"And on their heads were as it were crowns of gold" See the notes on Revelation 9:7. That is, diadems, or something that appeared like crowns, or chaplets. This will agree well with the turban worn by the Arabs or Saracens, and which was quite characteristic of them in the early periods when they became known. So in the passage already quoted, Pliny speaks of them as Arabes mitrati; so Solinus, mitrata capita; so in the poem of Antar, "he folded up his hair under his turbans." It is remarkable also that Ezekiel EZechariah 23:42 describes the turbans of the Sabean or Keturite Arabs under the very appellation used here by John: "Sabeans from the wilderness, which put beautiful crowns upon their heads." So in the preface to Antar, it is said, "It was a usual saying among them, that God had bestowed four special things on the Arabs; that their turbans should be unto them instead of diadems, their tents instead of walls and houses, their swords instead of intrenchments, and their poems instead of written laws." Mr. Forster, in his Mohammedanism Unveiled, quotes as a precept of Muhammed; "Make a point of wearing turbans, because it is the way of angels." Turbans might then with propriety be represented as crowns, and no doubt these were often so gilded and ornamented that they might be spoken of as "crowns of gold."
"They had breastplates, as it were breastplates of iron" See the notes on Revelation 9:9. As a symbol, this would be properly descriptive of the Arabians or Saracens. In the poem Antar the steel and iron cuirasses of the Arab warriors are frequently noticed: "A warrior immersed in steel armor," vol. ii. p. 203. "Fifteen thousand men armed with cuirasses, and well accoutred for war," vol. ii. p. 42. "They were clothed in iron armor, and brilliant cuirasses," vol. i. p. 23. "Out of the dust appeared horsemen clad in iron," vol. iii. p. 274. The same thing occurs in the Koran: "God hath given you coats of mail to defend you in your wars," vol. ii. p. 104. In the history of Muhammed we read expressly of the cuirasses of himself and of his Arab troops. Seven cuirasses are noted in the list of Muhammed's private armory (Gagnier, vol. iii. p. 328-334). In his second battle with the Koreish, seven hundred of his little army are spoken of by Mr. Gibbon as armed with cuirasses. See Elliott, vol. i. p. 413. These illustrations will show with what propriety the locusts in the symbol were represented as having breastplates like breastplates of iron. On the supposition that this referred to the Arabs and the Saracens this would have been the very symbol which would have been used. Indeed, all the features in the symbol are precisely such as would properly be employed on the supposition that the reference was to them. It is true that beforehand it might not have been practicable to describe exactly what people were referred to, but:
(a) it would be easy to see that some fearful calamity was to be anticipated from the ravages of hosts of fearful invaders; and,
(b) when the events occurred, there would be no difficulty in determining to whom this application should be made.
(3) "the time when this would occur." As to this there can be no difficulty in the application to the Saracens. On the supposition that the four first trumpets refer to the downfall of the Western empire, then the proper time supposed to be represented by this symbol is subsequent to that; and yet the manner in which the last three trumpets are introduced Revelation 8:13 shows that there would be an interval between the sounding of the last of the four trumpets and the sounding of the fifth. The events referred to, as I have supposed, as represented by the fourth trumpet, occurred in the close of the fifth century (476-490 a.d.). The principal events in the seventh century were connected with the invasions and conquests of the Saracens. The interval of a century is not more than the fair interpretation of the proclamation in Revelation 8:13 would justify.
(4) "the commission given to the symbolical locusts." This embraces the following things:
(a) They were not to hurt the grass of the earth, nor any green thing;
(b) they were especially to go against those who had not the seal of God in their foreheads;
(c) they were not to kill them, but were to torment them.
"They were not to hurt the grass of the earth, ..." see the notes at Revelation 9:4. This agrees remarkably with an express command in the Koran. The often-quoted order of the Caliph Aboubekir, the father-in-law and successor of Muhammed, issued to the Saracen hordes on their invasion of Syria, shows what was understood to be the spirit of their religion: "Remember that you are always in the presence of God, on the verge of death, in the assurance of judgment, and the hope of paradise. Avoid injustice and oppression; consult with your brethren, and study to preserve the love and confidence of your troops. When you fight the battles of the Lord, acquit yourselves like men, without turning your backs; but let not the victory be stained with the blood of women or children. Destroy no palm-trees, nor burn any fields of grain. Cut down no fruit-trees, nor do any mischief to cattle, only such as you kill to eat. When you make any covenant or article, stand to it, and be as good as your word. As you go on, you will find some religious persons who live retired in monasteries, and propose to themselves to serve God in that way; let them alone, and neither kill them ('and to them it was given that they should not kill them,' ver 5), nor destroy their monasteries," etc. (Gibbon, iii. 417, 418).
So Mr. Gibbon notices this precept of the Koran: "In the siege of Tayaf," says he, "sixty miles from Mecca, Muhammed violated his own laws by the extirpation of the fruit-trees," ii. 392. The same order existed among the Hebrews, and it is not improbable that Muhammed derived his precept from the command of Moses Deuteronomy 20:19, though what was mercy among the Hebrews was probably mere policy with him. This precept is the more remarkable because it has been the usual custom in war, and particularly among barbarians and semi-barbarians, to destroy grain and fruit, and especially to cut down fruit-trees, in order to do greater injury to an enemy. Thus, we have seen (notes on Revelation 8:7), that in the invasion of the Goths their course was marked by desolations of this kind. Thus, in more modern times, it has been common to carry the desolations of war into gardens, orchards, and vineyards. In the single province of Upper Messenia the troops of Muhammed Ali, in the war with Greece, cut down half a million of olive-trees, and thus stripped the country of its means of wealth. So Scio was a beautiful spot, the seat of delightful villas, and gardens, and orchards; and in one day all this beauty was destroyed. On the supposition, therefore, that this prediction had reference to the Saracens, nothing could be more appropriate. Indeed, in all the history of barbarous and savage warfare it would be difficult to find another distinct command that no injury should be done to gardens and orchards.
(d) Their commission was expressly against "those men who had not the seal of God in their foreheads." See the notes on Revelation 9:4. That is, they were to go either against those who were not really the friends of God, or those who in their estimation were not. Perhaps, if there were nothing in the connection to demand a different interpretation, the former would be the most natural explanation of the passage; but the language way be understood as referring to the purpose which they considered themselves as called upon to execute: that is, that they were to go against those whom they regarded as being strangers to the true God, to wit, idolaters. Now it is well known that Muhammed considered himself called upon, principally, to make war with idolaters, and that he went forth, professedly, to bring them into subjection to the service of the true God. "The means of persuasion," says Mr. Gibbon, "had been tried, the season of forbearance was elapsed, and he was now commanded to propagate his religion by the sword, to destroy the monuments of idolatry, and, without regarding the sanctity of days or months, to pursue the unbelieving nations of the earth," iii. 387. "The fair option of friendship, or submission, or battle, was proposed to the enemies of Muhammed" (ibid.). "The sword," says Muhammed, "is the key of heaven and hell; a drop of blood shed in the cause of God, a night spent in arms, is of more avail than two months of fasting and prayer: whosoever falls in battle, his sins are forgiven; at the day of judgment his wounds shall be resplendent as vermilion, and odoriferous as musk; and the loss of his limbs shall be supplied by the wings of angels and cherubim" (Gibbon, iii. 387) The first conflicts waged by Muhammed were against the idolaters of his own country - those who can, on no supposition, be regarded as "having the seal of God in their foreheads"; his subsequent wars were against infidels of all classes; that is, against those whom he regarded as not having the "seal of God in their foreheads," or as being the enemies of God.
(e) The other part of the commission was "not to kill, but to torment them." See the notes at Revelation 9:5. Compare the quotation from the command of Aboubekir, as quoted above: "Let not the victory be stained with the blood of women and children." "Let them alone, and neither kill them nor destroy their monasteries." The meaning of this, if understood as applied to their commission against Christendom, would seem to be, that they were not to go forth to "kill," but to "torment" them; to wit, by the calamities which they would bring upon Christian nations for a definite period. Indeed, as we have seen above, it was an express command of Aboubekir that they should not put those to death who were found leading quiet and peaceable lives in monasteries, though against another class he did give an express command to "cleave their skulls." See Gibbon, iii. 418. As applicable to the conflicts of the Saracens with Christians, the meaning here would seem to be, that the power conceded to those who are represented by the locusts was not to cut off and to destroy the church, but it was to bring upon it various calamities to continue for a definite period.
Accordingly, some of the severest afflictions which have come upon the church have undoubtedly proceeded from the followers of the Prophet of Mecca. There were times in the early history of that religion when, to all human appearance, it would universally prevail, and wholly supplant the Christian church. But the church still survived, and no power was at any time given to the Saracenic hosts to destroy it altogether. In respect to this, some remarkable facts have occurred in history. The followers of the false prophet contemplated the subjugation of Europe, and the destruction of Christianity, from two quarters - the East and the West - expecting to make a junction of the two armies in the north of Italy, and to march down to Rome. Twice did they attack the vital part of Christendom by besieging Constantinople: first, in the seven years' siege, which lasted from 668 a.d. to 675 a.d.; and, secondly, in the years 716-718, when Leo the Isaurian was on the imperial throne.
But on both occasions they were obliged to retire defeated and disgraced - Gibbon, iii. 461ff. Again, they renewed their attack on the West. Having conquered Northern Africa, they passed over into Spain, subdued that country and Portugal, and extended their conquests as far as the Loire. At that time they designed to subdue France, and having united with the forces which they expected from the East, they intended to make a descent on Italy, and complete the conquest of Europe. This purpose was defeated by the valor of Charles Martel, and Europe and the Christian world were saved from subjugation (Gibbon, iii. 467, following). "A victorious line of march," says Mr. Gibbon, "had been prolonged above a thousand miles, from the rock of Gibraltar to the banks of the Loire; the repetition of an equal space would have carried the Saracens to the confines of Poland and the Highlands of Scotland. The Rhine is not more impassable than the Nile or the Euphrates, and the Arabian fleet might have sailed without a naval combat into the mouth of the Thames. Perhaps the interpretation of the Koran would now be taught in the schools of Oxford, and her pulpits might demonstrate to a circumcised people the sanctity and truth of the revelation of Muhammed." The arrest of the Saracen hosts before Europe was subdued, was what there was no reason to anticipate, and it even yet perplexes historians to be able to account for it.
The calm historian," says Mr. Gibbon, "who strives to follow the rapid course of the Saracens, must study to explain by what means the church and state were saved from this impending, and, as it should seem, inevitable danger." "These conquests," says Mr. Hallam, "which astonish the careless and superficial, are less perplexing to a calm inquirer than their cessation - the loss of half the Roman empire than the preservation of the rest" (Middle Ages, ii. 3, 169). These illustrations may serve to explain the meaning of the symbol - that their grand commission was not to annihilate or root out, but to annoy and afflict. Indeed, they did not go forth with a primary design to destroy. The announcement of the Mussulman always was "the Koran, the tribute, or the sword," and when there was submission, either by embracing his religion or by tribute, life was always spared. "The fair option of friendship, or submission, or battle," says Mr. Gibbon (iii. 387), "was proposed to the enemies of Muhammed." Compare also vol. iii. 453, 456. The torment mentioned here, I suppose, refers to the calamities brought upon the Christian world - on Egypt, and Northern Africa, and Spain, and Gaul, and the East - by the hordes which came out of Arabia, and which swept over all those countries like a troublesome and destructive host of locusts. Indeed, would any image better represent the effects of the Saracenic invasions than such a countless host of locusts? Even now, can we find an image that would better represent this?
(5) the leader of this host:
(a) He was like a star that fell from heaven, Revelation 9:1, a bright and illustrious prince, as if heaven-endowed, but fallen. Would anything better characterize the genius, the power, and the splendid but perverted talent of Muhammed? Muhammed was, moreover, by birth, of the princely house of the Koreish, governors of Mecca, and to no one could the term be more appropriate than to one of that family.
(b) He was a king. That is, there was to be one monarch - one ruling spirit to which all these hosts were subject. And never was anything more appropriate than this title as applied to the leader of the Arabic hosts. All those hosts were subject to one mind - to the command of the single leader that originated the scheme.
(c) The name Abaddon, or Apollyon - Destroyer, Revelation 9:11. This name would be appropriate to one who spread his conquests so far over the world; who wasted so many cities and towns; who overthrew so many kingdoms; and who laid the foundation of ultimate conquests by which so many human beings were sent to the grave.
(d) The description of the leader "as the angel of the bottomless pit," Revelation 9:11. If this be regarded as meaning that "the angel of the bottomless pit" - the spirit of darkness himself - originated the scheme, and animated these hosts, what term would better characterize the leader? And if it be a poetic description of Muhammed as sent out by that presiding spirit of evil, how could a better representative of the spirit of the nether world have been sent out upon the earth than he was - one more talented, more sagacious, more powerful, more warlike, more wicked, more suited to subdue the nations of the earth to the dominion of the Prince of Darkness, and to hold them for ages under his yoke?
(6) the duration of the torment. It is said Revelation 9:5 that this would be five months; that is, prophetically, 150 years. See the notes on Revelation 9:5. The Hegira, or flight of Muhammed, occurred 622 a.d.; the Saracens first issued from the desert into Syria, and began their series of wars on Christendom, 629 a.d. Reckoning from these periods respectively, the five months, or 150 years, would extend to 772 or 779 a.d. It is not necessary to understand this period of 150 years of the actual continued existence of the bodies symbolized by the locusts, but only of the period in which they would inflict their "torment" - "that they should be tormented five months." That is, this would be the period of the intensity of the woe inflicted by them; there would be at that time some marked intermission of the torrent. The question then is, whether, in the history of the Saracens, there was any period after their career of conquest had been continued for about a hundred and fifty years, which would mark the intermission or cessation of these "torments."
If so, then this is all that is necessary to determine the applicability of the symbol to the Arabian hordes. Now, in reply to this question, we have only to refer to Mr. Gibbon. The table of contents profixed to chapters forty-one and forty-two of his work would supply all the information desired. I looked at that table, after making the estimate as to what period the "five months," or hundred and fifty years, would conduct us to, to see whether anything occurred at about that time in the Muhammedan power and influence, which could be regarded as marking the time of the intermission or cessation of the calamities inflicted by the Arabic hordes on the Christian world. After Mr. Gibbon had recorded in detail (vol. iii.-360-460) the character and conquests of the Arabian hordes under Muhammed and his successors, I find the statement of the decline of their power at just about the period to which the hundred and fifty years would lead us, for at that very time an important change came over the followers of the prophet of Mecca turning them from the love of conquest to the pursuits of literature and science.
From that period they ceased to be formidable to the church; their limits were gradually contracted; their power diminished; and the Christian world, in regard to them, was substantially at peace. This change in the character and purposes of the Saracens is thus described by Mr. Gibbon, at the close of the reign of the caliph Abdalrahman, whose reign commenced 755 a.d., and under whom the peaceful sway of the Ommiades of Spain began, which continued for a period of two hundred and fifty years. "The luxury of the caliphs, so useless to their private happiness, relaxed the nerves, and terminated the progress, of the Arabian empire. Temporal and spiritual conquest had been the sole occupation of the first successors of Muhammed; and after supplying themselves with the necessaries of life, the whole revenue was scrupulously devoted to that salutary work. The Abassides were impoverished by the multitude of their needs, and their contempt of economy. Instead of pursuing the great object of ambition, their leisure, their affections, and the powers of their minds were diverted by pomp and pleasure: the rewards of valor were embezzled by women and eunuchs, and the royal camp was encumbered by the luxury of the palace. A similar temper was diffused among the subjects of the caliph. Their stern enthusiasm was softened by time and prosperity: they sought riches in the occupations of industry, fame in the pursuits of literature, and happiness in the tranquility of domestic life.
War was no longer the passion of the Saracens; and the increase of pay, the repetition of donatives, were insufficient to allure the posterity of those voluntary champions who had crowded to the standard of Aboubekir and Omar for the hopes of spoil and of paradise," iii. 477, 478. Of the Ommiades, or princes who succeeded Abdalrahman, Mr. Gibbon remarks in general - "Their mutual designs or declarations of war evaporated without effect; but instead of opening a door to the conquest of Europe, Spain was dissevered from the trunk of the monarchy, engaged in perpetual hostility with the East, and inclined to peace and friendship with the Christian sovereigns of Constantinople and France," iii. p. 472. How much does this look like some change occurring by which they would cease to be a source of "torment" to the nations with whom they now dwelt! From this period they gave themselves to the arts of peace; cultivated literature and science; lost entirely their spirit of conquest, and their ambition for universal dominion, until they gradually withdrew, or were driven, from those parts of the Christian world where they had inspired most terror, and which in the days of their power and ambition they had invaded. By turning merely to the "table of contents" of Mr. Gibbon's history, the following periods, occurring at about the time that would be embraced in the "five months," or hundred and fifty years, are distinctly marked:
"a.d. 668-675 First siege of Constantinople by the Arabs. 677 Peace and tribute. 716-718 Second siege of Constantinople. 716-718 Failure and retreat of the Saracens. 716-718 Invention and use of the Greek fire. 721 Invasion of France by the Arabs. 732 Defeat of the Saracens by Charles Martel. 732 They retreat before the Franks. 746-750 The elevation of the Abassides. 750 Fall of the Ommiades. 755 Revolt of Spain. 755 Triple division of the caliphate. 750-960 Magnificence of the caliphs. 750-960 Its consequences on private and public happiness. 754 etc. Introduction of learning among the Arabians. 754 etc. Their real progress in the sciences."
It will be seen from this that the decline of their military and civil power; their defeats in their attempts to subjugate Europe; their turning their attention to the peaceful pursuits of literature and science, synchronize remarkably with the period that would be indicated by the five months, or 150 years. It should be added, also, that in the year 762, Almanzor, the caliph, built Bagdad, and made it the capital of the Saracen empire. Henceforward that became the seat of Arabic learning, luxury, and power, and the wealth and talent of the Saracen empire were gradually drawn to that capital, and they ceased to vex and annoy the Christian world. The building of Bagdad occurred within just ten years of the time indicated by the "five months" - reckoning that from the Hegira, or flight of Muhammed; or reckoning from the time when Muhammed began to preach (609 ad - Gibbon, iii. 383), it wanted only three years of coinciding exactly with the period.
These considerations show with what propriety the fifth trumpet - the symbol of the locusts - is referred to the Arabian hordes under the guidance of Muhammed and his successors. On the supposition that it was the design of John to symbolize these events, the symbo has been chosen which of all others was best adapted to the end. If, now that these events are past, we should endeavor to find some symbol which would appropriately represent them, we could not find one that would be more striking or appropriate than what is here employed by John.
12
Revelation 9:12
第一の禍は過ぎ去った――Revelation 9:1-11で言及された禍である。Revelation 8:13では三つの禍が言及されており、それらは順番に起こるべきものであり、七つの封印と七つのラッパに含まれる全期間を包括するはずであった。最後の封印の下で私たちは、西方帝国の没落に関連した出来事を指す四つの連続した時期を考察してきた。そしてその後、世の運命に永続的な影響を与える出来事たちの中で一席を占めるに値する一つの重要な出来事、すなわちサラセン人たちの出現と性格と征服を見出した。これが第一の禍のラッパが指し示すものであった。いまや私たちは第二の禍の考察に入る。これはこの章の残りの部分を占める。それを説明する際にも、これまでと同じ方法に従うであろう。まず、語と、節と、象徴の文字通りの意味を説明し、次に、先の出来事に続いて用いられた言語と一致する歴史上の出来事があったかどうかを探究するであろう。
見よ、このようなのちに二つの禍が来る――人類に悲しみを伴う二つの重大で重要な出来事である。これは、人類に降りかかる他の災悪が全くないであろうという意味ではありえない。ただ、未来を見渡す目が、教会と世の運命に影響を及ぼす点で特別な卓越性を持つものとして、この二つの出来事の上にとどまったという意味である。
英語原文
One woe is past - The woe referred to in Revelation 9:1-11. In Revelation 8:13 three woes are mentioned which were to occur successively, and which were to embrace the whole of the period comprised in the seven seals and the seven trumpets. Under the last of the seals we have considered four successive periods, referring to events connected with the downfall of the Western empire; and then we have found one important event worthy of a place in noticing the things which would permanently affect the destiny of the world - the rise, the character, and the conquests of the Saracens. This was referred to by the first woe-trumpet. We enter now on the consideration of the second. This occupies the remainder of the chapter, and in illustrating it the same method will be pursued as heretofore: first, to explain the literal meaning of the words, phrases, and symbols; and then to inquire what events in history, if any, succeeding the former, occurred, which would correspond with the language used.
And, behold, there come two woes more hereafter - Two momentous and important events that will be attended with sorrow to mankind. It cannot be intended that there would be no other evils that would visit mankind; but the eye, in glancing along the future, rested on these as having a special pre-eminence in affecting the destiny of the church and the world.
13
Revelation 9:13
第六の御使いがラッパを吹いた ― 黙示録8:2、8:7の注解を参照されたい。
神の前にある金の香壇の四つの角から出る声を、私は聞いた ― ここで用いられている言葉には神殿への言及があるが、その場面は明らかに天に置かれている。神殿はその構えにおいて、重要な点で天の象徴となるよう意図されたのに違いない。そしてこの考えは聖書に絶えず現れる。ヘブル人への手紙全体と比較されたい。金の香壇は聖所の中、臨在のパンの机と金の燭台の間に立っていた。ヘブル9:1-2の注解を参照されたい。シッティム材すなわちアカシア材で作られたこの祭壇は、四すみに飾りを施され、全体が金の薄板で覆われていた。それゆえそれは、石で作られた犠牲の祭壇と区別して「金の祭壇」と呼ばれた。マタイ21:12以下の注解と比較されたい。その四すみには角と呼ばれる突出部があった(出エジプト記30:2-3)。それらは主として装飾のために意図されたものと思われる。ヤーン『考古学』332; ヨセフス『古代誌』iii.6.8を参照されたい。これが「神の前に」あったと言われるとき、その意味は、それが至聖所にある神の臨在の象徴のまっすぐ前、すなわち正面にあったということである。ヨハネの幻におけるこの像は天へと移し変えられる。その声は、神性のまさしい臨在から、すなわち神にささげものが捧げられる場所から出てくるかのようであった。
英語原文
And the sixth angel sounded - See the notes on Revelation 8:2, Revelation 8:7.
And I heard a voice from the four horns of the golden altar which is before God - In the language used here there is an allusion to the temple, but the scene is evidently laid in heaven. The temple in its arrangements was designed, undoubtedly, to be in important respects a symbol of heaven, and this idea constantly occurs in the Scriptures. Compare the Epistle to the Hebrews passim. The golden altar stood in the holy place, between the table of show-bread and the golden candlestick. See the notes on Hebrews 9:1-2. This altar, made of shittim or acacia wood, was ornamented at the four corners, and overlaid throughout with laminae of gold. Hence, it was called "the golden altar," in contradistinction from the altar for sacrifice, which was made of stone. Compare the notes on Matthew 21:12, following on its four corners it had projections which are called horns Exodus 30:2-3, which seem to have been intended mainly for ornaments. See Jahn, Arch. 332; Joseph. Ant. iii. 6, 8. When it is said that this was "before God," the meaning is, that it was directly before or in front of the symbol of the divine presence in the most holy place. This image, in the vision of John, is transformed to heaven. The voice seemed to come from the very presence of the Deity; from the place where offerings are made to God.
14
Revelation 9:14
ラッパを持っている第六の御使いに言った ― 黙示録8:2の注解を参照されたい。
解き放て… ― この権威は、ラッパを吹く務めに加えて、第六の御使いに与えられたものと思われる。もちろん、これらすべては幻の中のでことであり、文字どおり解釈することはできない。その意味は、この方がラッパを吹いた結果が、縛られていた御使いたちが突然解き放たれ、地の上に出て行くことを許されたのと同じであるということである。すなわち、そのような行為によって適切に象徴されるような何らかの出来事が起こるであろう、ということである。
四人の御使いを ― 黙示録8:2の注解と比較されたい。重要な出来事が御使いたちの奉仕の下で起こるものとして表されるのは、慣例であった。ここでの一般的な意味は、ユーフラテス川の近辺に、縛られるか、抑えられていた強大な勢力があり、今やそれらが世界の上に解き放たれようとしている、ということである。この成就において私たちが探すべきものは、明らかにこれである。すなわち、御使いたちによってであるかのように、見えない影響力によって抑えられているかに見えた何らかの勢力が、今や突然解き放たれ、後続の節々で言及される荒廃の目的を遂げることを許される、ということである。これらの抑制に実際に御使いたちが用いられたと想定する必要はないが、ここで言及される出来事に彼らの働きが関与していなかったと実証できる者もいない。ダニエル10:12-13の注解と比較されたい。なぜ四という数が明示されているのか、またその軍勢が何らかの意味で四つの師団、四つの国民、あるいは四つの民によって構成されていたのかが問いとされてきた。これに関して確実に決定できることはなく、四という数は単に大きく強力な軍勢を示すために用いられたのかもしれないが、最も明白な解釈は、それを、ここで語られていることを成し遂げる何らかの勢力の結合、あるいは何らかの権力の連合に関係づけることであろうと認めなければならない。もしそれが単一の国民であったなら、預言における通常の方法にさらに沿って、数を特定せずに、一人の御使い、あるいは一般的な御使いたちによって抑えられていたものとして描写されたであろう。
縛っている ― すなわち、彼らは縛られているかのように見えた、ということである。彼らと、その下にある軍勢とを抑えていた何かが存在し、彼らはこのように出て行けという命令を受けるまで抑えられていたのである。この成就においては、これらの勢力が破壊のわざを成し遂げるために出て行く使命を受けるまで、彼らに加えられた、阻止あるいは抑制という性質のものを探さなければならないであろう。
大川ユーフラテスに ― その名でよく知られた川であり、聖書では通常「大川」と呼ばれ、卓越した意味で「あの川」と呼ばれる(出エジプト記23:31、イザヤ8:7)。この川はパレスチナの東にあった。それゆえ、ここで用いられている言葉は、第六のラッパの下で言及される勢力が東方で興り、その川の近辺に起源を持つであろうことを、自然に示している。それゆえ、これをローマ人によるユダヤ侵入に適用する解釈者たちは、この点を説明するのに大きな困難に直面する。エルサレムの滅亡に用いられた軍勢は、東からではなく西から来たからである。公正な解釈は、ユーフラテスの近辺に、この時期まで縛られ、あるいは抑えられていた勢力があり、今や世界のかなりの部分の上にわざわいと悲しみを広めることを許された、ということである。
英語原文
Saying to the sixth angel, which had the trumpet - See the notes at Revelation 8:2.
Loose, ... - This power, it would seem, was given to the sixth angel in addition to his office of blowing the trumpet. All this, of course, was in vision, and cannot be literally interpreted. The meaning is, that the effect of his blowing the trumpet would be the same as if angels that had been bound should be suddenly loosed and suffered to go forth over the earth; that is, some event would occur which would be properly symbolized by such an act.
The four angels - Compare the notes at Revelation 8:2. It was customary to represent important events as occurring under the ministry of angels. The general meaning here is, that in the vicinity of the river Euphrates there were mighty powers which had been bound or held in check, which were now to be let loose upon the world. What we are to look for in the fulfillment is evidently this - some power that seemed to be kept back by an invisible influence as if by angels, now suddenly let loose and suffered to accomplish the purpose of desolation mentioned in the subsequent verses. It is not necessary to suppose that angels were actually employed in these restraints, though no one can demonstrate that their agency was not concerned in the transactions here referred to. Compare the notes on Daniel 10:12-13. It has been made a question why the number four is specified, and whether the forces were in any sense made up of four divisions, nations, or people. While nothing certain can be determined in regard to that, and while the number four may be used merely to denote a great and strong force, yet it must be admitted that the most obvious interpretation would be to refer it to some combination of forces, or to some union of powers, that was to accomplish what is here said. If it had been a single nation, it would have been more in accordance with the usual method in prophecy to have represented them as restrained by an angel, or by angels in general, without specifying any number.
Which are bound - That is, they seemed to be bound. There was something which held them, and the forces under them, in check, until they were thus commanded to go forth. In the fulfillment of this it will be necessary to look for something of the nature of a check or restraint on these forces, until they were commissioned to go forth to accomplish the work of destruction.
In the great river Euphrates - The well-known river of that name, commonly called, in the Scriptures, "the great river," and, by way of eminence, "the river," Exodus 23:31; Isaiah 8:7. This river was on the east of Palestine; and the language used here naturally denotes that the power referred to under the sixth trumpet would spring up in the East, and that it would have its origin in the vicinity of that river. Those interpreters, therefore, who apply this to the invasion of Judaea by the Romans have great difficulty in explaining this - as the forces employed in the destruction of Jerusalem came from the West, and not from the East. The fair interpretation is, that there were forces in the vicinity of the Euphrates which were, up to this period, bound or restrained, but which were now suffered to spread woe and sorrow over a considerable portion of the world.
15
Revelation 9:15
四人の御使いが解き放たれた ― この强大な軍勢を拘束していた者たちである。御使いたちが解き放たれたことは、実際、これらの軍勢のすべてが同時に解き放たれ、彼らが遂行するよう命じられていたわざを成し遂げるようになったことを意味する。
備えられていた ― 黙示録9:7を参照されたい。ここで用いられている語は、本来、何かのために整えられ、準備され、整序されたものを指す。たとえば旅のために整えられた人々、戦いのための馬、旅人のための道、飢えた者のための食物、住まいのための家などである。ロビンソンの『辞典』の ἑτοιμάζω(hetoimazō)の項を参照されたい。ここで用いられている場合、この語は、この軍勢の指導者たちである「これらの御使いたち」を、彼らが遂行するよう命じられていたわざのために整えるのに必要だったすべてのことが今やなされ、彼らがその計画を執行する準備の状態に立っていたことを意味する。これの成就においては、ユーフラテスの周辺に、これらの拘束された軍勢がこのわざの執行のために召し出される準備の状態にあった、あるいは存在する拘束が取り除かれれば自発的に出て行くような状態にあった、そういう取り決めが存在していたことを探さなければならないであろう。
時のために、… ― 欄外には「at」とある。ギリシア語の εἰς(eis)は、本来「…へ向かって、…に関して」を意味する。したがって、その意味は、その時に関して、彼らに必要なすべての準備が整っていたということである。スチュアート教授はこれを、彼らが「後に続く大いなる災厄のために神が定められた特定の年、月、日、時のために備えられていた」という意味に解している。しかし、その意味はむしろ、彼らがそのような期間の開始のために備えられたのではなく、時、日、月、年によって示されたその期間の全体のために備えられていた、ということであるように思われる。すなわち、この「わざわい」の持続がその期間全体にわたって及ぶであろうということである。なぜなら、
(a) これが「…のために」に当たる εἰς(eis)の自然な解釈であり、
(b) それは文全体を理解可能にするからである。なすべきことの開始を示しながら、何かが「一時のために備えられた」と言うことは適切であり得る。しかし、単にその開始だけを示す意図であるなら、何かが「一時、一月、一日、一年のために備えられた」と言うことは通常ではない。
(c) また、これは第一の「わざわい」に関する預言(黙示録9:5)とも調和する。そこでは「五ヶ月」という似た言語で期間が明示されている。それゆえ、私見では、ここで言及される時刻を、このわざわいが続く期間に関する預言的な表示と見なすべきである。
一時と一日と一月と一年の間 ― これを文字どおりに取るなら、もちろん、それは一年と少しの期間にすぎないであろう。しかし、預言において通常用いられる様式、すなわち一日が一年を表す様式で取るなら(ダニエル9:24以下の注解を参照。また編者の序文xxvページ以下も参照)、時間の総量(360+30+1+一時)は391年となり、一時によって示される一年の部分は、一日が十二時間と数えられるか二十四時間と数えられるかによって、十二分の一一年あるいは二十四分の一一年となる。これが正しい見方であることは明らかに思われる。これはこの書の通常の様式と調和するからであり、また、ここで言及される「備え」が、文字どおりに解釈した場合の期間のように短い期間のためのものであったとはほとんど考えられないからであり、さらに、「一時」ほどの小さな時間の部分が、文字どおりに取られるなら、これほど大きな取引の中で言及されることはありそうもないからである。したがって、公正な解釈は、約391年の期間を満たすいくつかの出来事を探すことを私たちに要求するであろう。
人間の三分の一を殺すために ― 黙示録8:7、8:9、8:12と比較されたい。ここでの意味は、ユーフラテスで拘束されていたこの巨大な軍勢が、解き放たれるとき、世界の約三分の一の上に荒廃を広めるであろうということである。これを厳密に文字どおりの意味で理解すべきだと考えてはならない。その意味は、その荒廃があまりにも広範に広がり、世界の三分の一を包含するかのように見えるであろうということである。エルサレム包囲戦で数千人のユダヤ人たちが断たれたような出来事は、ここで用いられている言語に符合しないであろうし、私たちは、人類全体にとってより一般的で、より災厄的な出来事を探さなければならない。
英語原文
And the four angels were loosed - Who had this mighty host under restraint. The loosening of the angels was, in fact, also a letting loose of all these hosts, that they might accomplish the work which they were commissioned to do.
Which were prepared - See Revelation 9:7. The word used here properly refers to what is made ready, suited up, arranged for anything: as persons prepared for a journey, horses for battle, a road for travelers, food for the hungry, a house to live in, etc. See Robinson's Lexicon, sub. voce Ἑτοιμάζω Hetoimazō. As used here, the word means "that whatever was necessary to prepare these angels" - the leaders of this host - for the work which they were commissioned to perform, was now done, and that they stood in a state of readiness to execute the design. In the fulfillment of this it will be necessary to look for some arrangements existing in the vicinity of the Euphrates, by which these restrained hosts were in a state of readiness to be summoned forth to the execution of this work, or in such a condition that they would go forth spontaneously if the restraints existing were removed.
For an hour, ... - Margin, "at." The Greek - εἰς eis - means properly "unto, with reference to"; and the sense is, that, with reference to that hour, they had all the requisite preparation. Prof. Stuart explains it as meaning that they were "prepared for the particular year, month, day, and hour, destined by God for the great catastrophe which is to follow." The meaning, however, rather seems to be that they were prepared, not for the commencement of such a period, but they were prepared for the whole period indicated by the hour, the day, the month, and the year; that is, that the continuance of this "woe" would extend along through the whole period. For:
(a) this is the natural interpretation of the word "for" - εἰς eis;
(b) it makes the whole sentence intelligible - for though it might be proper to say of anything that it was "prepared for an hour," indicating the commencement of what was to be done, it is not usual to say of anything that it is "prepared for an hour, a month, a day, a year," when the design is merely to indicate the beginning of it; and,
(c) it is in accordance with the prediction respecting the first "woe" Revelation 9:5, where the time is specified in language similar to this, to wit, "five months." It seems to me, therefore, that we are to regard the time here mentioned as a prophetic indication of the period during which this woe would continue.
An hour, and a day, and a month, and a year - If this were to be taken literally, it would, of course, be but little more than a year. If it be taken, however, in the common prophetic style, where a day is put for a year (see the notes on Daniel 9:24 ff; also Editor's Preface, p. xxv. etc.), then the amount of time (360 + 30 + 1 + an hour) would be 391 years, and the portion of a year indicated by an hour - a twelfth part or twenty-fourth part, according as the day was supposed to be divided into twelve or twenty-four hours. That this is the true view seems to be clear, because this accords with the usual style in this book; because it can hardly be supposed that the "preparation" here referred to would have been for so brief a period as the time would be if literally interpreted; and because the mention of so small a portion of time as an "hour," if literally taken, would be improbable in so great transactions. The fair interpretation, therefore, will require us to find some events that will fill up the period of about 391 years.
For to slay the third part of men - Compare Revelation 8:7, Revelation 8:9,Revelation 8:12. The meaning here is, that the immense host which was restrained on the Euphrates would, when loosed, spread desolation over about a third part of the world. We are not to suppose that this is to be understood in exactly a literal sense; but the meaning is, that the desolation would be so widespread that it would seem to embrace a third of the world. No such event as the cutting off of a few thousands of Jews in the siege of Jerusalem would correspond with the language here employed, and we must look for events more general and more disastrous to mankind at large.
16
Revelation 9:16
騎兵の軍勢の数は ― ここで注意すべきは、その軍勢の力が騎兵にあるように見えたことである。前の災いにおいては騎兵についての明確な言及はないが、ここで見る者に印象づけたのは、騎兵たちの膨大で類まれな数であった。
二万萬であった ― 万の万は一億であり、したがってここで言及される数は二億となる。これはこれまでに召集されたいかなる軍隊よりも大きいものであり、これを文字どおりに取るべきであると考えることはできない。それが非常に大きな軍勢――容易に数えられないほど大きい――であることは明らかである。原文の表現は、自然に莫大な数の考えを伝えながらも、彼らを数える方式における何らかの独自性をも指すように思われる。その言語は「万の万の二つ」、すなわち δύο μυριάδες μυριάδων(dyo myriades myriadōn)である。一万は万であった。その考えは次のようなものであろう。ヨハネは騎兵の莫大な軍勢を見た。彼らは、ある程度分離した大きな部隊に分けられているように見え、万単位で数えられ得るように思われた。これらの異なる隊群は多くあり、その大きく並外れた数を表現するために、彼は万の群れが幾万もある――万の万の二つ、すなわち一万の万の二倍――ように見えると言ったのである。したがって、その軍勢は莫大なもの――私たちの言い方をすれば、数万単位で数えられるべき軍勢――のように思われる。
また、私はその数を聞いた ― 彼らはあまりにも多数だったので、ヨハネは自分でその数を見積もることができるとは偽らなかった。それは彼の計算力を超えていたからである。しかし彼は、彼らが「万の万の二つ」いるという概数で述べられるのを聞いた。
英語原文
And the number of the army of the horsemen - It is to be observed here that the strength of the army seemed to be cavalry. In the former plagues there is no distinct mention of horsemen; but here what struck the beholder was the immense and unparalleled number of horsemen.
Were two hundred thousand thousand - A thousand thousand is one million, and consequently the number here referred to would be 200 million. This would be a larger army than was ever assembled, and it cannot be supposed that it is to be taken literally. That it would be a very large host - so large that it would not be readily numbered - is clear. The expression in the original, while it naturally conveys the idea of an immense number, would seem also to refer to some uniqueness in the manner of reckoning them. The language is, "two myriads of myriads" - δύο μυριάδες μυριάδων duo muriades muriadōn. The myriad was ten thousand. The idea would seem to be this. John saw an immense host of cavalry. They appeared to be divided into large bodies that were in some degree separate, and that might be reckoned by ten thousands. Of these different squadrons there were many, and to express their great and unusual numbers he said that there seemed to be myriads of them - two myriads of myriads, or twice ten thousand myriads. The army thus would seem to be immense - an army, as we should say, to be reckoned by tens of thousands.
And I heard the number of them - They were so numerous that he did not pretend to be able to estimate the number himself, for it was beyond his power of computation; but he heard it stated in these round numbers, that there were "two myriads of myriads" of them.
17
Revelation 9:17
このように、私は幻の中でその馬たちを見た ― すなわち、彼はこれから描写する通りの姿でそれらを見たという意味である。「このように」という語 οὕτως(houtōs)は後に続く事柄を指すからである。この語に関するロビンソンの『辞典』(b)を比較し、マタイ1:18、マタイ2:5、ヨハネ21:1、ヘブル4:4を参照。ただしスチュアート教授は先行する事柄を指すと考える。私見では、その意味は、彼がこの莫大な軍勢――馬とその騎手たち――の姿に注意を固定し、それらが彼に印象づけられたとおりに描写していったということである。
また、それに乗っている者たちを ― 彼は馬と騎手に注意を固定した。その姿は並外れており、特別な描写に値した。
火の胸当てを着て ― すなわち、それらに乗っている者たちがそのような胸当てを持っていたという意味である。ここで「胸当て」と訳されている語は、本来、首から腿まで身体を覆う鎖帷子を指す。エペソ6:14の注解を参照。これは騎手を見るときに目立つ対象であったろう。それは「火と、ヒアシンス色と、硫黄」とで構成されていると言われる。すなわち、普通鎖帷子で覆われる身体の部分がこの三つの色を持っていたということである。ここでの「火」という語は単に赤を示す。それは磨かれて明るく、火の炎のように見えた。「ヒアシンス色」という語、ὑακινθίνους(hyakinthinous)は「ヒアシンスのような」を意味する。示される色はヒアシンスの色、すなわち濃い紫あるいは赤みがかった青である。次にそれは同じ色の宝石を指し、鉱物学者たちのジルコンと近い関係にあり、ここで言及される色は濃い紫あるいは赤みがかった青である。「硫黄」と訳されている語 θειώδης(theiōdēs)は本来「硫黄の」、すなわち硫黄でできたことを意味し、ここでは単に黄を意味する。それゆえ全体の意味は、これらの騎手たちが、火のように輝き、青と黄の混じった特別な種類の甲冑をまとっているように見えたということである。この成就は、そのように装飾された騎兵の中に探すことが必要となろう。
馬の頭は獅子の頭のようで ― いくつかの点で、獅子の頭に似ていたという意味である。彼は、それらが獅子の頭であったとか、騎手たちが怪獣の上にいたとかは言わず、ただ、それらがいくつかの点で獅子の頭に似ていたと言うだけである。馬の頭部装飾を整える仕方によって、この全般的な外観を与えることは容易であったであろう。
また、その口からは出ていた ― すなわち、出て来るように見えたということである。これを、実際に彼らの口から出たと断言することとして理解する必要はない。ただ、そのように接近して来る軍勢を見る者には、そのように見えたであろうというだけである。異教の詩人たちは、馬が火と煙を吐くとしばしば語る(ウェルギリウス『農耕詩』第二巻140、同第三巻85、オウィディウス『変身物語』第七巻104)。これは、その息が煙と火の混じったもののように見えたという意味である。ここには、古典的描写のどこにも見出されない画像が一つ加えられている。すなわち、これが硫黄と混じっていたということである。これらすべてが彼らの口から出て来るように見えた。すなわち、それは軍勢の前方に吐き出され、あたかも馬たちがそれを自分の口から吐き出しているかのようであった。
火と煙と硫黄である ― 意図されたかどうかにかかわらず、正確な考えは、マスケット銃や大砲の発射によって伝えられるであろう。そのような発射の火と煙と硫黄の臭いは、この言語と正確に符合するであろう。そして、著者がそのような発射を描写しようとしたと仮定するなら、これこそ用いられたであろうまさにその言語である。さらに、戦いを描写するにあたり、これが馬の口から出て来るように見えたと言う以上に適切なものはない。それゆえ、古代の戦争様式と区別されて火器が用いられた出来事が何らか見出されるなら、この言語はそれを描写するのに適切であろう。そして、著者がそのような事実を指すことを意図したと確認されるなら、ここで用いられた言語は彼が採用したであろうまさにそれである。一つ確かなことは、これは、当時支配していた戦争様式における古代騎兵の突撃を描写するために用いられる言語ではないということである。唯一の武器が剣と槍であったときの、ペルシア人、ギリシア人、あるいはローマ人の中の騎兵の突撃を描写する者は誰一人、馬の口から火と煙と硫黄が出て来るように見えたと言おうとは思わなかったであろう。
英語原文
And thus I saw the horses in the vision - That is, he saw them as he proceeds to describe them, for the word "thus" - οὕτως houtōs - refers to what follows. Compare Robinson's Lexicon on the word (b), and see Matthew 1:18; Matthew 2:5; John 21:1; Hebrews 4:4. Prof. Stuart, however, refers to what precedes. The meaning, as it seems to me, is, that he fixed his attention on the appearance of the immense army - the horses and their riders, and proceeded to describe them as they struck him.
And them that sat on them - He fixed the attention on horse and rider. Their appearance was unusual, and deserved a particular description.
Having breastplates of fire - That is, those who sat on them had such breastplates. The word rendered here as "breastplate" denoted properly a coat of mail that covered the body from the neck to the thighs. See the notes on Ephesians 6:14. This would be a prominent object in looking at a horseman. This was said to be composed of "fire, and jacinth, and brimstone"; that is, the part of the body usually incased in the coat of mail had these three colors. The word "fire" here simply denotes red. It was burnished and bright, and seemed to be a blaze of fire. The word "jacinth" - ὑακινθίνους huakinthinous - means "hyacinthine." The color denoted is that of the hyacinth - a flower of a deep purple or reddish blue. Then it refers to a gem of the same color, nearly related to the zircon of the mineralogists, and the color mentioned here is deep purple or reddish blue. The word rendered "brimstone" - θειώδης theiōdēs - means properly "sulphurous," that is, made of sulphur, and means here simply yellow. The meaning of the whole then is, that these horsemen appeared to be clad in a special kind of armor - armor that shone like fire, mingled with blue and yellow. It will be necessary to look for the fulfillment of this in cavalry that was so caparisoned.
And the heads of the horses were as the heads of lions - Resembled, in some respects, the heads of lions. He does not say that they were the heads of lions, or that the riders were on monsters, but only that they, in some respects, resembled the heads of lions. It would he easy to give this general appearance by the way in which the head-dress of the horses was arrayed.
And out of their mouths issued - That is, appeared to issue. It is not necessary to understand this as affirming that it actually came from their months, but only that, to one looking on such an approaching army, it would have this appearance. The pagan poets often speak of horses breathing out fire and smoke (Virgil, Geor. vol. ii. p. 140; iii. 85; Ovid, Met. vol. vii. p. 104), meaning that their breath seemed to be mingled smoke and fire. There is an image superadded here not found in any of the classic descriptions, that this was mingled with brimstone. All this seemed to issue from their mouths - that is, it was breathed forth in front of the host, as if the horses emitted it from their mouths.
Fire and smoke and brimstone - The exact idea, whether that was intended or not, would be conveyed by the discharge of musketry or artillery. The fire, the smoke, and the sulphurous smell of such a discharge would correspond precisely with this language; and if it be supposed that the writer meant to describe such a discharge, this would be the very language that would be used. Moreover, in describing a battle nothing would be more proper than to say that this appeared to issue from the horses' mouths. If, therefore, it should be found that there were any events where firearms were used, in contradistinction from the ancient mode of warfare, this language would be appropriate to describe that; and if it were ascertained that the writer meant to refer to some such fact, then the language used here would be what he would adopt. One thing is certain, that this is not language which would be employed to describe the onset of ancient cavalry in the mode of warfare which prevailed then. No one describing a charge of cavalry among the Persians, the Greeks, or the Romans, when the only armor was the sword and the spear, would think of saying that there seemed to be emitted from the horses' mouths fire, and smoke, and brimstone.
18
翻訳準備中 · 英語原文Revelation 9:18
By these three - Three things - explained immediately as referring to the fire, the smoke, and the brimstone.
Was the third part of men killed - See the notes on Revelation 8:7-12, on each of which verses we have notices of calamities that came upon the third part of the race, of the sea, of rivers, etc. We are not to suppose that this is to be taken literally, but the description is given as it appeared to John. Those immense numbers of horsemen would sweep over the world, and a full third part of the race of people would seem to fall before them.
19
翻訳準備中 · 英語原文Revelation 9:19
For their power is in their mouth - That is, as described in the fire, smoke, and brimstone that proceeded out of their mouths. What struck the seer as remarkable on looking on the symbol was, that this immense destruction seemed to proceed out of their mouths. It was not that they trampled down their enemies; nor that they destroyed them with the sword, the bow, or the spear: it was some new and remarkable power in warfare - in which the destruction seemed to proceed from fire, and smoke, and sulphur issuing from the mouths of the horses themselves.
And in their tails - The tails of the horses. This, of course, was something unusual and remarkable in horses, for naturally they have no power there. The power of a fish, or a scorpion, or a wasp, may be said to be in their tails, for their strength or their means of defense or of injury are there; but we never think of speaking in this way of horses. It is not necessary, in the interpretation of this, to suppose that the reference is literally to the tails of the horses, anymore than it is to suppose that the smoke, and fire, and brimstone literally proceeded from their mouths. John describes things as they appeared to him in looking at them from a considerable distance. From their mouths the horses belched forth fire, and smoke, and sulphur, and even their tails seemed to be armed for the work of death.
For their tails were like unto serpents - Not like the tails of serpents, but like serpents themselves.
And had heads - That is, there was something remarkable in the position and appearance of their heads. All serpents, of course, have heads; but John saw something unusual in this - or something so unique in their heads as to attract special attention. It would seem most probable that the heads of these serpents appeared to extend in every direction - as if the hairs of the horses' tails had been converted into snakes, presenting a most fearful and destructive image. Perhaps it may illustrate this to suppose that there is reference to the Amphisbaena, or two-headed snake. It is said of this reptile that its tail resembles a head, and that with this it throws out its poison (Lucan, vol. ix. p. 179; Pliny's Hist. Nat. vol. viii. p. 35). It really has but one head, but its tail has the appearance of a head, and it has the power of moving in either direction to a limited degree. If we suppose these snakes fastened to the tail of a horse, the appearance of heads would be very prominent and remarkable. The image is that of the power of destruction. They seemed like ugly and poisonous serpents instead of tails.
And with them they do hurt - Not the main injury, but they have the power of inflicting some injury by them.
20
翻訳準備中 · 英語原文Revelation 9:20
And the rest of the men which were not killed by these plagues ... - One third part is represented as swept off, and it might have been expected that a salutary effect would have been produced on the remainder, in reforming them, and restraining them from error and sin. The writer proceeds to state, however, that these judgments did not have the effect which might reasonably have been anticipated. No reformation followed; there was no abandonment of the prevailing forms of iniquity; there was no change in their idolatry and superstition. In regard to the exact meaning of what is here stated Revelation 9:20-21, it will be a more convenient arrangement to consider it after we have ascertained the proper application of the passage relating to the sixth trumpet. What is here stated Revelation 9:20-21 pertains to the state of the world after the desolations which would occur under this woe-trumpet; and the explanation of the words may be reserved, therefore, with propriety, until the inquiry shall have been instituted as to the general design of the whole.
With respect to the fulfillment of this symbol - the sixth trumpet - it will be necessary to inquire whether there has been any event, or class of events occurring at such a time, and in such a manner, as would be properly denoted by such a symbol. The examination of this question will make it necessary to go over the leading points in the symbol, and to endeavor to apply them. In doing this I shall simply state, with such illustrations as may occur, what seems to me to have been the design of the symbol. It would be an endless task to examine all the explanations which have been proposed, and it would be useless to do so.
The reference, then, seems to me to be to the Turkish power, extending from the time of the first appearance of the Turks in the neighborhood of the Euphrates, to the final conquest of Constantinople in 1453. The general reasons for this opinion are such as the following:
(a) If the previous trumpet referred to the Saracens, or to the rise of the Muhammedan power among the Arabs, then the Turkish dominion, being the next in succession, would be what would most naturally be symbolized.
(b) The Turkish power rose on the decline of the Arabic, and was the next important power in affecting the destinies of the world.
(c) This power, like the former, had its seat in the East, and would be properly classified under the events occurring there as affecting the destiny of the world.
(d) The introduction of this power was necessary, in order to complete the survey of the downfall of the Roman empire - the great object kept in view all along in these symbols.
In the first four of these trumpets, under the seventh seal, we found the decline and fall of the Western empire; in the first of the remaining three - the fifth in order - we found the rise of the Saracens, materially affecting the condition of the Eastern portion of the Roman world; and the notice of the Turks, under whom the empire at last fell to rise no more, seemed to be demanded in order to the completion of the picture. As a leading design of the whole vision was to describe the ultimate destiny of that formidable power - the Roman - which, in the time when the Revelation was given to John ruled over the whole world; under which the church was then oppressed; and which, either as a civil or ecclesiastical power, was to exert so important an influence on the destiny of the church, it was proper that its history should be sketched until it ceased - that is, until the conquest of the capital of the Eastern empire by the Turks. Here the termination of the empire, as traced by Mr. Gibbon, closes; and these events it was important to incorporate in this series of visions.
The rise and character of the Turkish people may be seen stated in full in Gibbon, Decline and Fall, iii.-101-103, 105, 486; iv. 41, 42, 87, 90, 91, 93, 100, 127, 143, 151, 258, 260, 289, 350. The leading facts in regard to the history of the Turks, so far as they are necessary to be known before we proceed to apply the symbols, are the following:
(1) The Turks, or Turkmans, had their origin in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea, and were divided into two branches, one on the east, and the other on the west. The latter colony, in the 10th century, could muster 40,000 soldiers; the other numbered 100,000 families (Gibbon, iv. 90). By the latter of these, Persia was invaded and subdued, and soon Bagdad also came into their possession, and the seat of the caliph was occupied by a Turkish prince. The various details respecting this, and respecting their conversion to the faith of the Koran, may be seen in Gibbon, iv. 90-93. A mighty Turkish and Moslem power was thus concentrated under Togrul, who had subdued the caliph, in the vicinity of the Tigris and the Euphrates, extending east over Persia and the countries adjacent to the Caspian Sea, but it had not yet crossed the Euphrates to carry its conquests to the west. The conquest of Bagdad by Togrul, the first prince of the Seljuk race, was an important event, not only in itself, but as it was by this event that the Turk was constituted temporal lieutenant of the prophet's vicar, and so the head of the temporal power of the religion of Islam. "The conqueror of the East kissed the ground, stood some time in a modest posture, and was led toward the throne by the vizier and an interpreter. After Togrul had seated himself on another throne his commission was publicly read, which declared him the temporal lieutenant of the prophet. He was successively invested with seven robes of honor, and presented with seven slaves, the natives of the seven climates of the Arabian empire, etc. Their alliance (of the sultan and the caliph) was cemented by the marriage of Togrul's sister with the successor of the prophet," etc. (Gibbon, iv. 93).
The conquest of Persia, the subjugation of Bagdad, the union of the Turkish power with that of the caliph, the successor of Muhammed, and the foundation of this powerful kingdom in the neighborhood of the Euphrates, is all that is necessary to explain the sense of the phrase "which were prepared for an hour," etc., Revelation 9:15. The arrangements were then made for the important series of events which were to occur when that formidable power should be summoned from the East, to spread the predicted desolation over so large a part of the world. A mighty dominion had been forming in the East that had subdued Persia, and that, by union with the caliphs, by the subjugation of Bagdad, and by embracing the Muhammedan faith, had become "prepared" to play its subsequent important part in the affairs of the world.
(2) the next important event in their history was the crossing of the Euphrates, and the invasion of Asia Minor. The account of this invasion can be best given in the words of Mr. Gibbon: "Twenty-five years after the death of Basil (the Greek emperor), his successors were suddenly assaulted by an unknown race of barbarians, who united the Scythian valor with the fanaticism of new proselytes, and the art and riches of a powerful monarchy. The myriads of Turkish horse overspread a frontier of 600 miles from Taurus to Arzeroum, and the blood of one hundred and thirty thousand Christians was a grateful sacrifice to the Arabian prophet. Yet the arms of Togrul did not make any deep or lasting impression on the Greek empire. The torrent rolled away from the open country; the sultan retired without glory or success from the siege of an Armenian city; the obscure hostilities were continued or suspended with a vicissitude of events; and the bravery of the Macedonian legions renewed the fame of the conqueror of Asia. The name of Alp Arslan, the valiant lion, is expressive of the popular idea of the perfection of man; and the successor of Togrul displayed the fierceness and generosity of the royal animal. ('The heads of the horses were as the heads of lions.') He passed the Euphrates at the head of the Turkish cavalry, and entered Caesarea, the metropolis of Cappadocia, to which he had been attracted by the fame and the wealth of the temple of Basil" (vol. iv. 93, 94; compare also p. 95).
(3) the next important event was the establishing of the kingdom of Roum in Asia Minor. After a succession of victories and defeats; after being driven once and again from Asia Minor, and compelled to retire beyond its limits; and after subjecting the East to their arms (Gibbon, iv. 95-100) in the various contests for the crown of the Eastern empire, the aid of the Turks was invoked by one party or the other until they secured for themselves a firm foothold in Asia Minor, and established themselves there in a permanent kingdom - evidently with the purpose of seizing upon Constantinople itself when an opportunity should be presented (Gibbon, iv. 100, 101). Of this kingdom of Roum Mr. Gibbon (iv. 101) gives, the following description, and speaks thus of the effect of its establishment on the destiny of the Eastern empire: "Since the first conquests of the caliphs, the establishment of the Turks in Anatolia, or Asia Minor, was the most deplorable loss which the church and empire had sustained. By the propagation of the Moslem faith Soliman deserved the name of Gazi, a holy champion; and his new kingdom of the Romans, or of Roum, was added to the table of Oriental geography. It is described as extending from the Euphrates to Constantinople, from the Black Sea to the confines of Syria; pregnant with mines of silver and iron, of alum and copper, fruitful in grain and wine, and productive of cattle and excellent horses. The wealth of Lydia, the arts of the Greeks, the splendor of the Augustan age, existed only in books and ruins, which were equally obscure in the eyes of the Scythian conquerors. By the choice of the Sultan, Nice, the metropolis of Bithynia, was preferred for his palace and fortress - the seat of the Seljukian dynasty of Roum was planted one hundred miles from Constantinople; and the divinity of Christ was denied and derided in the same temple in which it had been pronounced by the first general synod of the Catholics. The unity of God and the mission of Muhammed were preached in the mosques; the Arabian learning was taught in the schools; the cadis judged according to the law of the Koran; the Turkish manners and language prevailed in the cities; and Turkman camps were scattered over the plains and mountains of Anatolia," etc.
(4) the next material event in the history of the Turkish power was the conquest of Jerusalem. See this described in Gibbon, iv. 102-106. By this the attention of the Turks was turned for a time from the conquest of Constantinople - an event at which the Turkish power all along aimed, and in which they doubtless expected to be ultimately successful. Had they not been diverted from it by the wars connected with the Crusades, Constantinople would have fallen long before it did fall, for it was too feeble to defend itself if it had been attacked.
(5) the conquest of Jerusalem by the Turks, and the oppressions which Christians experienced there, gave rise to the Crusades, by which the destiny of Constantinople was still longer delayed. The war of the Crusades was made on the Turks, and as the crusaders mostly passed through Constantinople and Anatolia, all the power of the Turks in Asia Minor was requisite to defend themselves, and they were incapable of making an attack on Constantinople until after the final defeat of the crusaders and restoration of peace. See Gibbon, iv. 106-210.
(6) The next material event in the history of the Turks was the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 ad - an event which established the Turkish power in Europe and completed the downfall of the Roman empire (Gibbon, iv. 333-359).
After this brief reference to the general history of the Turkish power, we are prepared to inquire more particularly whether the symbol in the passage before us is applicable to this series of events. This may be considered in several particulars:
(1) "The time." If the first woe-trumpet referred to the Saracens, then it would be natural that the rise and progress of the Turkish power should be symbolized as the next great fact in history, and as that under which the empire fell. As we have seen, the Turkish power rose immediately after the power of the Saracens had reached its height, and identified itself with the Muhammedan religion; and was, in fact, the next great power that affected the Roman empire, the welfare of the church, and the history of the world. There can be no doubt, therefore, that the time is such as is demanded in the proper interpretation of the symbol.
(2) "the place." We have seen (in the remarks on Revelation 9:14) that this was on or near the river Euphrates, and that this power was long forming and consolidating itself on the east of that river before it crossed it in the invasion of Asia Minor. It had spread over Persia, and had even invaded the region of the East as far as the Indies; it had secured, under Togrul, the conquest of Bagdad, and had united itself with the caliphate, and was, in fact, a mighty power "prepared" for conquest before it moved to the west. Thus, Mr. Gibbon (iv. 92) says, "The more rustic, perhaps the wisest, portion of the Turkmans continued to dwell in the tents of their ancestors; and from the Oxus to the Euphrates these military colonies were protected and propagated by their native princes." So again, speaking of Alp Arslan, the son and successor of Togrul, he says (iv. 94), "He passed the Euphrates at the head of the Turkish cavalry, and entered Caesarea, the metropolis of Cappadocia, to which he was attracted by the fame and the wealth of the temple of Basil." If it be admitted that it was intended by John to refer to the Turkish power, it could not have been better represented than as a power that had been forming in the vicinity of that great river, and that was prepared to precipitate itself on the Eastern empire. To one contemplating it in the time of Togrul or Alp Arslan, it would have appeared as a mighty power growing up in the neighborhood of the Euphrates.
(3) "the four angels:" "Loose the four angels which are bound." That is, loose the powers which are in the vicinity of the Euphrates, as if they were under the control of four angels. The most natural construction of this would be, that under the mighty power that was to sweep over the world, there were four subordinate powers, or that there were such subdivisions that it might be supposed they were ranged under four angelic powers or leaders. The question is, whether there was any such division or arrangement of the Turkish power, that, to one looking on it at a distance, there would seem to be such a division. In the "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" (iv. 100) we find the following statement: "The greatness and unity of the Turkish empire expired in the person of Malek Shah. The vacant throne was disputed by his brother and his four sons; and, after a series of civil wars, the treaty which reconciled the surviving candidates confirmed a lasting separation in the Persian dynasty, the oldest and principal branch of the house of Seljuk. The three younger dynasties were those of Kerman, of Syria, and of Roum; the first of these commanded an extensive, though obscure dominion, on the shores of the Indian Ocean; the second expelled the Arabian princes of Aleppo and Damascus: and the third (our special care) invaded the Roman provinces of Asia Minor. The generous policy of Malek contributed to their elevation; he allowed the princes of his blood, even those whom he had vanquished in the field, to seek new kingdoms worthy of their ambition; nor was he displeased that they should draw away the more ardent spirits who might have disturbed the tranquility of his reign.
As the supreme head of his family and nation, the great Sultan of Persia commanded the obedience and tribute of his royal brethren: the thrones of Kerman and Nice, of Aleppo and Damascus; the atabeks and emirs of Syria and Mesopotamia erected their standards under the shadow of his scepter, and the hordes of Turkmans overspread the plains of Western Asia. After the death of Malek the bands of union and subordination were gradually relaxed and dissolved; the indulgence of the house of Seljuk invested their slaves with the inheritance of kingdoms; and, in the Oriental style, a crowd of princes arose from the dust of their feet." Here it is observable, that, at the period when the Turkman hordes were about to precipitate themselves on Europe, and to advance to the destruction of the Eastern empire, we have distinct mention of four great departments of the Turkish power: the original power that had established itself in Persia, under Malek Shah, and the three subordinate powers that sprung out of that of Kerman, Syria, and Roum. It is observable:
(a) that this occurs at the period when that power would appear in the East as advancing in its conquests to the West;
(b) that it was in the vicinity of the great river Euphrates;
(c) that it had never before occurred - the Turkish power having been before united as one; and,
(d) that it never afterward occurred - for, in the words of Mr. Gibbon, "after the death of Malek the bands of union and subordination were relaxed and finally dissolved."
It would not be improper, then, to look upon this one mighty power as under the control of four spirits that were held in cheek in the East, and that were "prepared" to pour their energies on the Roman empire.
(4) "the preparation:" "Prepared for an hour," etc. That is, arranged; made ready - as if by previous discipline - for some mighty enterprise. Applied to the Turkmans, this would mean that the preparation for the ultimate work which they executed had been making as that power increased and became consolidated under Togrul, Alp Arslan, and Malek Shah. In its successful strides Persia and the East had been subdued; the caliph at Bagdad had been brought under the control of the sultan; a union had been formed between the Turks and the Saracens; and the sultanies of Kerman, Syria, and Roum had been established embracing together all the countries of the East, and constituting this by far the most mighty nation on the globe. All this would seem to be a work of preparation to do what was afterward done as seen in the visions of John.
(5) "the fact that they were bound:" "Which are bound in the great river Euphrates." That is, they were, as it were, restrained and kept back for a long time in that vicinity. It would have been natural to suppose that that vast power would at once move on toward the West to the conquest of the capital of the Eastern empire. Such had been the case with the Huns, the Goths, and the Vandals. But these Turkish hordes had been long restrained in the East. They had subdued Persia. They had then achieved the conquest of India. They had conquered Bagdad, and the entire East was under their control. Yet for a long time they had now been inactive, and it would seem as if they had been bound or restrained by some mighty power from moving in their conquests to the West.
(6) "the material that composed the army:" "And the number of the army of the horsemen." "And thus I saw the horses in the vision. And the heads of the horses were as the heads of lions." From this it appears that this vast host was composed mainly of cavalry; and it is hardly necessary to say that this description would apply better to the Turkish hordes than to any other body of invaders known in history. Thus, Mr. Gibbon (vol. iv. p. 94) says, "The myriads of the Turkish horse overspread a frontier of six hundred miles, from Taurus to Arzeroum," 1050 ad. So again, speaking of Togrul (vol. iv. p. 94), "He passed the Euphrates at the head of the Turkish cavalry" (ibid.). So again (vol. iii. p. 95), "Alp Arslan flew to the scene of action at the head of forty thousand horse." 1071 a.d. So in the attack of the crusaders on Nice, the capital of the Turkish kingdom of Roum, Mr. Gibbon (vol. iv. p. 127) says of the sultan Soliman: "Yielding to the first impulse of the torrent, he deposited his treasure and family in Nice; retired to the mountains with fifty thousand horse," etc. And so again (ibid.), speaking of the Turks who rallied to oppose the "strange" invasion of "the Western barbarians," he says, "The Turkish emirs obeyed the call of loyalty or religion; the Turkman hordes encamped round his standard; and his whole force is loosely stated by the Christians at two hundred, or even three hundred and sixty thousand horse," 1097 a.d. Every student of history knows that the Turks, or Turkmans, in the early periods of their history, were remarkable for their cavalry.
(7) "their numbers:" "And the number of the army of the horsemen were two hundred thousand thousand." That is, it was vast, or it was such as to be reckoned by myriads, or by tens of thousands - δύο μυριάδες μυριάδων duo muriades muriadōn - "two myriads of myriads." Thus, Mr. Gibbon (vol. iv. p. 94) says, "The myriads of Turkish horse overspread," etc. It has been suggested by Daubuz that in this there may be probably an allusion to the Turkman custom of numbering by tomans, or myriads. This custom, it is true, has existed elsewhere, but there is probably none with whom it has been so familiar as with the Tartars and Turks. In the Seljukian age the population of Samarcand was rated at seven tomans (myriads), because it could send out 70,000 warriors. The dignity and rank of Tamerlane's father and grandfather was thus described, that "they were the hereditary chiefs of a toman, or 10,000 horse" - a myriad (Gibbon, vol. iv. p. 270); so that it is not without his usual propriety of language that Mr. Gibbon speaks of the myriads of the Turkish horse, or of the cavalry of the earlier Turks of Mount Altai, "being, both men and horses, proudly computed by myriads." One thing is clear, that to no other invading hosts could the language used here be so well applied, and if it were supposed that John was writing after the event, this would be the language which he would be likely to employ - for this is nearly the identical language employed by the historian Gibbon.
(8) "their personal appearance:" "Them that sat on them having breastplates of fire, and of jacinth, and brimstone" - as explained above, in a "uniform" of red, and blue, and yellow. This might, undoubtedly, be applicable to other armies besides the Turkish hordes; but the proper question here is, whether it would be applicable to them. The fact of the application of the symbol to the Turks in general must be determined from other points in the symbol which designate them clearly; the only natural inquiry here is, whether this description would apply to the Turkish hosts; for if it would not, that would be fatal to the whole interpretation. On the application of this passage to the Turks Mr. Daubuz justly remarks, that "from their first appearance the Ottomans have affected to wear warlike apparel of scarlet, blue, and yellow - a descriptive trait the more marked from its contrast to the military appearance of the Greeks, Franks, or Saracens contemporarily." Mr. Elliott adds: "It only needs to have seen the Turkish cavalry (as they were before the late innovations), whether in war itself, or in the djerrid war's mimicry, to leave an impression of the absolute necessity of some such notice of their rich and varied colorings, in order to give in description at all a just impression of their appearance," vol. i. p. 481.
(9) "The remarkable appearance of the cavalry:" "Having breastplates of fire, and of jacinth, and brimstone; and the heads of the horses were as the heads of lions; and out of their mouths issued fire, and smoke, and brimstone." It was remarked in the exposition of this passage that this is just such a description as would be given of an army to which the use of gunpowder was known, and which made use of it in these wars. Looking now upon a body of cavalry in the heat of an engagement, it would seem, if the cause were not known, that the horses belched forth smoke and sulphurous flame. The only question now is, whether in the warfare of the Turks there was anything which would especially or remarkably justify this description. And here it is impossible not to advert to the historical fact that they were among the first to make use of gunpowder in their wars, and that to the use of this destructive element they owed much of their success and their ultimate triumphs.
The historical truth of this it is necessary now to advert to, and this will be done by a reference to Mr. Gibbon, and to the account which he has given of the final conquest of Constantinople by the Turks. It will be seen how he puts this new instrumentality of war into the foreground in his account; how prominent this seemed to him to be in describing the victories of the Turks; and how probable, therefore, it is that John, in describing an invasion by them, would refer to the "fire and smoke and brimstone," that seemed to be emitted from the mouths of their horses. As preparatory to the account of the siege and conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, Mr. Gibbon gives a description of the invention and use of gunpowder. "The chemists of China or Europe had found, by casual or elaborate experiments, that a mixture of saltpetre, sulpher, and charcoal produces, with a spark of fire, a tremendous explosion. It was soon observed that if the expansive force were compressed in a strong tube, a ball of stone or iron might be expelled with irresistible add destructive velocity. The precise era of the invention and application of gunpowder is involved in doubtful traditions and equivocal language; yet we may clearly discern that it was known before the middle of the fourteenth century; and that before the end of the same the use of artillery in battles and sieges, by sea and land, was familiar to the states of Germany, Italy, Spain, France, and England. The priority of nations is of small account; none could derive any exclusive benefit from their previous or superior knowledge; and in the common improvement they stood on the same level of relative power and military science.
Nor was it possible to circumscribe the secret within the pale of the church; it was disclosed to the Turks by the treachery of apostates and the selfish policy of rivals; and the sultans had sense to adopt, and wealth to reward, the talents of a Christian engineer. By the Venetians the use of gunpowder was communicated without reproach to the sultans of Egypt and Persia, their allies against the Ottoman power; the secret was soon propagated to the extremities of Asia; and the advantage of the European was confined to his easy victories over the savages of the New World," vol. iv. p. 291. In the description of the conquest of Constantinople Mr. Gibbon makes frequent mention of their artillery, and of the use of gunpowder, and of its important agency in securing their final conquests, and in the overthrow of the Eastern empire. "Among the implements of destruction he (the Turkish sultan) studied with special care the recent and tremendous discovery of the Latins; and his artillery surpassed whatever had yet appeared in the world. A founder of cannon, a Dane or Hungarian, who had almost starved in the Greek service, deserted to the Moslems, and was liberally entertained by the Turkish sultan. Muhammed was satisfied with the answer to his first question, which he eagerly pressed on the artist: 'Am I able to cast a cannon capable of throwing a ball or stone of sufficient size to batter the walls of Constantinople? I am not ignorant of their strength, but, were they more solid than those of Babylon, I could oppose an engine of superior power; the position and management of that engine must be left to your engineers.' On this assurance a foundry was established at Adrianople; the metal was prepared; and at the end of three months Urban produced a piece of brass ordnance of stupendous and almost incredible magnitude: a measure of twelve palms is assigned to the bore; and the stone bullet weighed above six hundred pounds.
A vacant place before the new palace was chosen for the first experiment; but to prevent the sudden and mischievous effects of astonishment and fear, a proclamation was issued that the cannon would be discharged the ensuing day. The explosion was felt or heard in a circuit of 100 furlongs; the ball, by force of gunpowder, was driven above a mile; and on the spot where it fell it buried itself a fathom deep in the ground," vol. iv. p. 339. So, in speaking of the siege of Constantinople by the Turks, Mr. Gibbon says of the defense by the Christians (vol. iv. p. 343): "The incessant volleys of lances and arrows were accompanied with the smoke, the sound, and the fire of their musketry and cannon." "The same destructive secret," he adds, "had been revealed to the Moslems, by whom it was employed with the superior energy of zeal, riches, and despotism. The great cannon of Muhammed has been separately noticed - an important and visible object in the history of the times; but that enormous engine was flanked by two follows almost of equal magnitude; the long order of the Turkish artillery was pointed against the walls; fourteen battories thundered at once on the most accessible places; and of one of these it is ambiguously expressed that it was mounted with one hundred and thirty guns, or that it discharged one hundred and thirty bullets," vol. iv. pp. 343, 344.
Again: "The first random shots were productive of more sound than effect; and it was by the advice of a Christian that the engineers were taught to level their aim against the two opposite sides of the salient angles of a bastion. However imperfect, the weight and repetition of the fire made some impression on the walls," vol. iv. p. 344. And again: "A circumstance that distinguishes the siege of Constantinople is the reunion of the ancient and modern artillery. The cannon were intermingled with the mechanical engines for casting stones and darts, the bullet and the battering-ram were directed against the same walls; nor had the discovery of gunpowder superseded the use of the liquid and inextinguishable fire," vol. iv. p. 344. So again, in the description of the final conflict when Constantinople was taken, Mr. Gibbon says, "From the lines, the galleys, and the bridge, the Ottoman artillery thundered on all sides; and the camp and city, the Greeks and the Turks, were involved in a cloud of smoke which could only be dispelled by the final deliverance or destruction of the Roman empire," vol. iv. p. 350. Assuredly, if such was the fact in the conquests of the Turks, it was not unnatural in one who was looking on these warriors in vision to describe them as if they seemed to belch out "fire and smoke and brimstone." If Mr. Gibbon had designed to describe the conquest of the Turks as a fulfillment of the prediction, could he have done it in a style more clear and graphic than what he has employed? If this had occurred in a Christian writer, would it not have been charged on him that he had shaped his facts to meet his notions of the meaning of the prophecy?
(10) the statement that "their power was in their mouth, and in their tails," Revelation 9:19. The former part of this has been illustrated. The inquiry now is, what is the meaning of the declaration that "their power was in their tails?" In Revelation 9:19 their tails are described as resembling "serpents, having heads," and it is said that "with them they do hurt." See the notes on that verse. The allusion to the "serpents" would seem to imply that there was something in the horses' tails, as compared with them, or in some use that was made of them, which would make this language proper; that is, that their appearance would so suggest the idea of death and destruction, that the mind would easily imagine they were a bundle of serpents. The following remarks may show how applicable this was to the Turks:
(a) In the Turkish hordes there was something, whatever it was, that naturally suggested some resemblance to serpents. Of the Turkmans when they began to spread their conquests over Asia, in the eleventh century, and an effort was made to rouse the people against them, Mr. Gibbon makes the following remark: "Massoud, the son and successor of Mahmoud, had too long neglected the advice of his wisest Omrahs. 'Your enemies' (the Turkmans), they repeatedly urged, 'were in their origin a swarm of ants; they are now little snakes; and unless they be instantly crushed, they will acquire the venom and magnitude. of serpents," vol. iv. p. 91.
(b) It is a remarkable fact that the horse's tail is a well-known Turkish standard - a symbol of office and authority. "The pashas are distinguished, after a Tartar custom, by three horsetails on the side of their tents, and receive by courtesy the title of beyler beg, or prince of princes. The next in rank are the pashas of two tails, the beys who are honored with one tail" - Edin. Ency. (art. "Turkey"). In the times of their early warlike career the principal standard was once lost in battle, and the Turkman commander, in default, cut off his horse's tail, lifted it on a pole, made it the rallying ensign, and so gained the victory. So Tournefort in his Travels states. The following is Ferrario's account of the origin of this ensign: "An author acquainted with their customs says, that a general of theirs, not knowing how to rally his troops that had lost their standards, cut off a horse's tail, and fixed it to the end of a spear; and the soldiers rallying at that signal, gained the victory."
He adds further, that whereas "on his appointment a pasha of the three tails used to receive a drum and a standard, now for the drum there have been substituted three horses' tails, tied at the end of a spear, round a gilded haft. One of the first officers of the palace presents him these three tails as a standard" (Elliott, vol. i. pp. 485, 486). This remarkable standard or ensign is found only among the Turks, and, if there was an intended reference to them, the symbol here would be the proper one to be adopted. The meaning of the passage where it is said that "their power is in their tails" would seem to be, that their tails were the symbol or emblem of their authority - as in fact the horse's tail is in the appointment of a pasha. The image before the mind of John would seem to have been, that he saw the horses belching out fire and smoke, and, what was equally strange, he saw that their power of spreading desolation was connected with the tails of horses. Anyone looking on a body of cavalry with such banners or ensigns would be struck with this unusual and remarkable appearance, and would speak of their banners as concentrating and directing their power. The above engraving, representing the standard of a Turkish pasha, will illustrate the passage before us.
(11) the number slain, Revelation 9:18. That is said to have been "the third part of men." No one in reading the accounts of the wars of the Turks, and of the ravages which they have committed, would be likely to feel that this is an exaggeration. It is not necessary to suppose that it is literally accurate, but it is such a representation as would strike one in looking over the world, and contemplating the effect of their invasions. If the other specifications in the symbol are correct, there would be no hesitation in admitting the propriety of this.
(12) the time of the continuance of this power. This is a material, and a more difficult point. It is said Revelation 9:15 to be "an hour, and a day, and a month, and a year"; that is, as explained, three hundred and ninety-one years, and the portion of a year indicated by the expression "an hour"; to wit, an additional twelfth or twenty-fourth part of a year. The question now is, whether, supposing the time to which this reaches to be the capture of Constantinople, and the consequent downfall of the Roman empire - the object, in view in this series of visions - in reckoning back from that period for 391 years, we should reach an epoch that would properly denote the moving forward of this power toward its final conquest; that is, whether there was any such marked epoch that, if the 391 years were added to it, it would reach the year of the conquest of Constantinople, 1453 a.d. The period that would be indicated by taking the number 391 from 1453 would be 1062 - and that is the time in which we are to look for the event referred to. This is on the supposition that the year consisted of 360 days, or twelve months of thirty days each. If, however, instead of this, we reckon 365 days and six hours, then the length of time would be found to amount to 396 years and 106 days.
This would make the time of the "loosening of the angels," or the moving forward of this power, to be 1057 a.d. In the uncertainty on this point, and in the unsettled state of ancient chronology, it would, perhaps, be vain to hope for minute accuracy, and it is not reasonable to demand it of an interpreter. On any fair principle of interpretation it would be sufficient if at about one of these periods - 1062 a.d. or 1057 ad - there was found such a definite or strongly marked event as would indicate a movement of the hitherto restrained power toward the West. This is the real point, then, to be determined. Now, in a common work on chronology I find this record: "1055 a.d., Turks reduce Bagdad, and overturn the empire of the caliphs." In a work still more important to our purpose (Gibbon, iv. 92, 93), under the date of 1055 a.d., I find a series of statements which will show the propriety of referring to that event as the one by which this power, so long restrained, was "let loose"; that is, was placed in such a state that its final conquest of the Eastern empire certainly followed.
The event was the union of the Turkish power with the caliphate in such a way that the sultan was regarded as "the temporal lieutenant of the vicar of the prophet." Of this event Mr. Gibbon gives the following account. After mentioning the conversion of the Turks to the Moslem faith, and especially the zeal with which the son of Seljuk had embraced that faith, he proceeds to state the manner in which the Turkish sultan Togrul came in possession of Bagdad, and was invested With the high office of the "temporal lieutenant of the vicar of the prophet." There were two caliphs, those of Bagdad and Egypt, and "the sublime character of the successor of the prophet" was "disputed" by them, iv. 93. Each of them became "solicitous to prove his title in the judgment of the strong though illiterate barbarians." Mr. Gibbon then says, "Mahmoud the Gaznevide had declared himself in favor of the line of Abbas; and had treated with indignity the robe of honor which was presented by the Fatimite ambassador. Yet the ungrateful Hashemite had changed with the change of fortune; he applauded the victory of Zendecan, and named the Seljukian sultan his temporal vicegerent over the Moslem world. As Togrul executed and enlarged this important trust, he was called to the deliverance of the caliph Cayem, and obeyed the holy summons, which gave a new kingdom to his arms. In the palace of Bagdad the commander of the faithful still slumbered, a venerable phantom. His servant or master, the prince of the Bowides, could no longer protect him from the insolence of meaner tyrants; and the Euphrates and the Tigris were oppressed by the revolt of the Turkish and Arabian emirs.
The presence of a conqueror was implored as a blessing; and the transient mischiefs of fire and sword were excused as the sharp but salutary remedies which alone could restore the health of the republic. At the head of an irresistible force the sultan of Persia marched from Hamadan; the proud were crushed, the prostrate were spared; the prince of the Bowides disappeared; the heads of the most obstinate rebels were laid at the feet of Togrul; and he inflicted a lesson of obedience on the people of Mosul and Bagdad. After the chastisement of the guilty, and the restoration of peace, the royal shepherd accepted the reward of his labors; and a solemn comedy represented the triumph of religious prejudice over barbarian power. The Turkish sultan embarked on the Tigris, landed at the gate of Racca, and made his public entry on horseback. At the palace gate he respectfully dismounted, and walked on foot preceded by his emirs without arms.
The caliph was seated behind his black veil; the black garment of the Abbassides was cast over his shoulders, and he held in his hand the staff of the Apostle of God. The conqueror of the East kissed the ground, stood some time in a modest posture, and was led toward the throne by the vizier and an interpreter. After Togrul had seated himself on another throne, his commission was publicly read, which declared him the temporal lieutenant of the vicar of the prophet. He was successively invested with seven robes of honor, and presented with seven slaves, the natives of the seven climates of the Arabian empire. His mystic veil was perfumed with musk; two crowns were placed on his head; two scimetars were girded to his side, as the symbols of a double reign over the East and West. Their alliance was cemented by the marriage of Togrul's sister with the successor of the prophet," iv. 93, 94. This event, so described, was of sufficient importance, as constituting a union of the Turkish power with the Moslem faith, as making it practicable to move in their conquests toward the West, and as connected in its ultimate results with the downfall of the Eastern empire, to make it an epoch in the history of nations. In fact, it was the point which one would have particularly looked at, after describing the movements of the Saracens (Revelation 9:1-11), as the next event that was to change the condition of the world.
Happily we have also the means of fixing the exact date of this event, so as to make it accord with singular accuracy with the period supposed to be referred to. The general time specified by Mr. Gibbon is 1055 a.d. This, according to the two methods referred to of determining the period embraced in the "hour, and day, and month, and year," would reach, if the period were 391 years, to 1446 a.d.; if the other method were referred to, making it 396 years and 106 days to 1451 a.d., with 106 days added, within less than two years of the actual taking of Constantinople. But there is a more accurate calculation as to the time than the general one thus made. In vol. iv. 93 Mr. Gibbon makes this remark: "Twenty-five years after the death of Basil his successors were suddenly assaulted by an unknown race of barbarians, who united the Scythian valor with the fanaticism of new proselytes, and the art and riches of a powerful monarchy."
He then proceeds (pp. 94ff) with an account of the invasions of the Turks. In vol. iii. 307 we have an account of the death of Basil. "In the sixty-eighth year of his age his martial spirit urged him to embark in person for a holy war against the Saracens of Sicily; he was prevented by death, and Basil, surnamed the slayer of the Bulgarians, was dismissed from the world, with the blessings of the clergy and the curses of the people." This occurred 1025 a.d. "Twenty-five years" after this would make 1050 a.d. To this add the period here referred to, and we have respectively, as above, the years 1446 a.d., or 1451 a.d., and 106 days. Both periods are near the time of the taking of Constantinople and the downfall of the Eastern empire (1453 a.d.), and the latter strikingly so; and, considering the general nature of the statement of Mr. Gibbon, and the great indefiniteness of the dates in chronology, may be considered as remarkable. - But we have the means of a still more accurate calculation.
It is by determining the exact period of the investiture of Togrul with the authority of caliph, or as the "temporal lieutenant of the vicar of the prophet." The time of this investiture, or coronation, is mentioned by Abulfeda as occurring on the 25th of Dzoulcad, in the year of the Hegira 449; and the date of Elmakin's narrative, who has given an account of this, perfectly agrees with this. Of this transaction Elmakin makes the following remark: "There was now none left in Irak or Chorasmia who could stand before him." The importance of this investiture will be seen from the charge which the caliph is reported by Abulfeda to have given to Togrul on this occasion: "The caliph commits to your care all that part of the world which God has committed to his care and dominion; and entrusts to thee, under the name of vicegerent, the guardianship of the pious, faithful, and God-serving citizens." The exact time of this investiture is stated by Abulfeda, as above, to be the 25th of Dzoulcad, A.H. 449.
Now, reckoning this as the time, and we have the following result: The 25th of Dzoulcad, A.H. 449, would answer to February 2, 1058 a.d. From this to May 29, 1453, the time when Constantinople was taken, would be 395 years and 116 days. The prophetic period, as above, is 396 years and 106 days - making a difference only of 1 year and 10 days - a result that cannot but be considered as remarkable, considering the difficulty of fixing ancient dates. Or if, with Mr. Elliott (i.-495-499), we suppose that the time is to be reckoned from the period when the Turkman power went forth from Bagdad on a career of conquest, the reckoning should be from the year of the Hegira 448, the year before the formal investiture, then this would make a difference of only 24 days. The date of that event was the 10th of Dzoulcad, A.H. 448. That was the day in which Togrul with his Turkmans, now the representative and head of the power of Islamism, quitted Bagdad to enter on a long career of war and conquest. "The part allotted to Togrul himself in the fearful drama soon to open against the Greeks was to extend and establish the Turkman dominion over the frontier countries of Irak and Mesopotamia, that so the requisite strength might be attained for the attack ordained of God's counsels against the Greek empire. The first step to this was the siege and capture of Moussul; his next of Singara. Nisibis, too, was visited by him; that frontier fortress that had in other days been so long a bulwark to the Greeks. Everywhere victory attended his banner - a presage of what was to follow."
Reckoning from that time, the coincidence between the period that elapsed from that, and the conquest of Constantinople, would be 396 years and 130 days - a period that corresponds, with only a difference of 24 days, with that specified in the prophecy according to the explanation already given. It could not be expected that a coincidence more accurate than this could be made out on the supposition that the prophecy was designed to refer to these events; and if it did refer to them, the coincidence could have occurred only as a prediction by Him who sees with perfect accuracy all the future.
(13) The effect. This is stated, in Revelation 9:20-21, to be that those who survived these plagues did not repent of their wickedness, but that the abominations which existed before still remained. In endeavoring to determine the meaning of this, it will be proper, first, to ascertain the exact sense of the words used, and then to inquire whether a state of things existed subsequent to the invasions of the Turks which corresponded with the description here:
(a) The explanation of the language used in Revelation 9:20-21.
The rest of the men - That portion of the world on which these plagues did not come. One third of the race, it is said, would fall under these calamities, and the writer now proceeds to state what would be the effect on the remainder. The language used - "the rest of the people" - is not such as to designate with certainty any particular portion of the world, but it is implied that the things mentioned were of very general prevalence.
Which were not killed by these plagues - The two-thirds of the race which were spared. The language here is such as would be used on the supposition that the crimes here referred to abounded in all those regions which came within the range of the vision of the apostle.
Yet repented not of the works of their hands - To wit, of those things which are immediately specified.
That they should not worship devils - Implying that they practiced this before. The word used here - δαιμόνιον daimonion - means properly "a god, deity"; spoken of the pagan gods, Acts 17:18; then a genius, or tutelary demon, e. g., that of Socrates; and, in the New Testament, a demon in the sense of an evil spirit. See the word fully explained in the notes on 1 Corinthians 10:20. The meaning of the passage here, as in 1 Corinthians 10:20, "they sacrifice to devils," is not that they literally worshipped devils in the usual sense of that term, though it is true that such worship does exist in the world, as among the Yezidis (see Layard, Nineveh and its Remains, vol. i. pp. 225-254, and Rosenmuller, Morgenland, iii.-212-216); but that they worshipped beings which were inferior to the Supreme God; created spirits of a rank superior to human beings, or the spirits of people that had been enrolled among the gods. This last was a common form of worship among the pagan, for a large portion of the gods whom they adored were heroes and benefactors who had been enrolled among the gods - as Hercules, Bacchus, etc. All that is necessarily implied in this word is, that there prevailed in the time referred to the worship of spirits inferior to God, or the worship of the spirits of departed people. This idea would be more naturally suggested to the mind of a Greek by the use of the word than the worship of evil spirits as such - if indeed it would have conveyed that idea at all; and this word would be properly employed in the representation if there was any homage rendered to departed human spirits which came in the place of the worship of the true God. Compare a dissertation on the meaning of the word used here, in Elliott on the Apocalypse, Appendix I. vol. ii.
And idols of gold, and silver, ... - Idols were formerly, as they are now in pagan lands, made of all these materials. The most costly would, of course, denote a higher degree of veneration for the god, or greater wealth in the worshipper, and all would be employed as symbols or representatives of the gods whom they adored. The meaning of this passage is, that there would prevail, at that time, what would be properly called idolatry, and that this would be represented by the worship paid to these images or idols. It is not necessary to the proper understanding of this, to suppose that the images or idols worshipped were acknowledged pagan idols, or were erected in honor of pagan gods, as such. All that is implied is, that there would be such images - εἴδωλα eidōla - and that a degree of homage would be paid to them which would be in fact idolatry. The word used here - εἴδωλον eidōlon, εἴδωλα eidōla - properly means an image, spectre, shade; then an idol-image, or what was a representative of a pagan god; and then the idol-god itself - a pagan deity. So far as the word is concerned, it may be applied to any kind of image-worship.
Which neither can see, nor hear, nor walk - The common representation of idol-worship in the Scriptures, to denote its folly and stupidity. See Psalm 115; compare Isaiah 44:9-19.
Neither repented they of their murders - This implies that, at the time referred to, murders would abound; or that the times would be characterized by what deserved to be called murder.
Nor of their sorceries - The word rendered "sorceries" - φαρμακεία pharmakeia - whence our word "pharmacy," means properly "the preparing and giving of medicine," Eng. "pharmacy" (Robinson's Lexicon). Then, as the art of medicine was supposed to have magical power, or as the persons who practiced medicine, in order to give themselves and their art greater importance, practiced various arts of incantation, the word came to be connected with the idea of magic sorcery, or enchantment. See Schleusner, Lexicon. In the New Testament the word is never used in a good sense, as denoting the preparation of medicine, but always in this secondary sense, as denoting sorcery, magic, etc. Thus, in Galatians 5:20, "the works of the flesh - idolatry, witchcraft," etc. Revelation 9:21, "of their sorceries." Revelation 18:23, "for by thy sorceries were all nations deceived." Revelation 21:8, "Whoremongers, and sorcerers." The word does not elsewhere occur in the New Testament; and the meaning of the word would be fulfilled in anything that purposed to accomplish an object by sorcery, by magical arts, by trick, by cunning, by sleight of hand, or "by deceiving the senses in any way." Thus, it would be applicable to all jugglery and to all pretended miracles.
Nor of their fornication - Implying that this would be a prevalent sin in the times referred to, and that the dreadful plagues which are here predicted would make no essential change in reference to its prevalence.
Nor of their thefts - Implying that this, too, would be a common form of iniquity. The word used here - κλέμμα klemma - is the common word to denote theft. The true idea in the word is that of privately, unlawfully, and feloniously taking the goods or movables of another person. In a larger and in the popular sense, however, this word might embrace all acts of taking the property of another by dishonest arts, or on false pretence, or without an equivalent.
(b) The next point then is, the inquiry whether there was any such state of things as is specified here existing in the time of the rise of the Turkish power, and in the time of the calamities which that formidable power brought upon the world. There are two things implied in the statement here:
(1) that these things had an existence before the invasion and destruction of the Eastern empire by the Turkish power; and,
(2) that they continued to exist after that, or were not removed by these fearful calamities.
The supposition all along in this interpretation is, that the eye of the prophet was on the Roman world, and that the design was to mark the various events which would characterize its future history. We look, then, in the application of this, to the state of things existing in connection with the Roman power, or that portion of the world which was then pervaded by the Roman religion. This will make it necessary to institute an inquiry whether the things here specified prevailed in that part of the world before the invasions of the Turks, and the conquest of Constantinople, and whether the judgments inflicted by that formidable Turkish invasion made any essential change in this respect:
(1) The statement that they worshipped devils; that is, as explained, demons, or the deified souls of people. Homage rendered to the spirits of departed people, and substituted in the place of the worship of the true God, would meet all that is properly implied here. We may refer, then, to the worship of saints in the Roman Catholic communion as a complete fulfillment of what is here implied in the language used by John. The fact cannot be disputed that the invocation of saints took the place, in the Roman Catholic communion, of the worship of sages and heroes in pagan Rome, and that the canonization of saints took the place of the ancient deification of heroes and public benefactors. The same kind of homage was rendered to them; their aid was invoked in a similar manner, and on similar occasions; the effect on the popular mind was substantially the same; and the one interfered as really as the other with the worship of the true God. The decrees of the seventh general council, known as the second council of Nice, 787 a.d., authorized and established the worshipping (προσκυνέω proskuneō - the same word used here - προσκυνήσωσι τὰ δαιμόνια proskunēsōsi ta daimonia) of the saints and their images.
This occurred after the exciting scenes, the debates, and the disorders produced by the Iconoclasts, or image-breakers, and after the most careful deliberation on the subject. In that celebrated council it was decreed, according to Mr. Gibbon (iii. 341), "unanimously," "that the worship of images is agreeable to Scripture and reason, to the fathers and councils of the church; but they hesitate whether that worship be relative or direct; whether the Godhead and the figure of Christ be entitled to the same mode of adoration." This worship of the "saints," or prayer to the saints, asking for their intercession, it is well known, has from that time everywhere prevailed in the papal communion. Indeed, a large part of the actual prayers offered in their services is addressed to the Virgin Mary. Mr. Maitland, "the able and learned advocate of the Dark Ages," says, "The superstition of the age supposed the glorified saint to know what was going on in the world; and to feel a deep interest, and to possess a considerable power, in the church militant on earth. I believe that they who thought so are altogether mistaken; and I lament, abhor, and am amazed at the superstition, blasphemies, and idolatries, which have grown out of that opinion" (Elliott, ii. p. 10).
As to the question whether this continued after the judgments brought upon the world by the hordes "loosed on the Euphrates," or whether they repented and reformed on account of the judgments, we have only to look into the Roman Catholic religion everywhere. Not only did the old practice of "daemonolatry," or the worship of departed saints, continue, but new "saints" have been added to the number, and the list of those who are to receive this homage has been continually increasing. Thus, in the year 1460, Catharine of Sienna was canonized by Pope Pius II; in 1482, Bonaventura; the blasphemer, by Sixtus IV; in 1494, Anselm by Alexander VI. Alexander's bull, in language more pagan than Christian, avows it to be the pope's duty thus to choose out, and to hold up the illustrious dead, as their merits claim, for adoration and worship.
(2) the statement that idolatry was practiced, and continued to be practiced, after this invasion: "Repented not that they should not worship idols of gold, silver, and brass." On this point, perhaps it would be sufficient to refer to what has been already noticed in regard to the homage paid to the souls of the departed; but it may be further and more clearly illustrated by a reference to the worship of images in the Roman Catholic communion. Anyone familiar with church history will recollect the long conflicts which prevailed respecting the worship of images; the establishment of images in the churches; the destruction of images by the "Iconoclasts"; and the debars on the subject by the council at Hiera; and the final decision in the second council of Nice, in which the propriety of image-worship was affirmed and established. See, on this subject, Bowers' History of the Popes, ii. 98ff, 144ff; Gibbon, vol. iii. pp. 322-341.
The importance of the question respecting image-worship may be seen from the remarks of Mr. Gibbon, iii. 322. He speaks of it as "a question of popular superstition which produced the revolt of Italy, the temporal power of the popes, and the restoration of the Roman empire in the West." A few extracts from Mr. Gibbon - who may be regarded as an impartial witness on this subject - will show what was the popular belief, and will confirm what is said in the passage before us in reference to the prevalence of idolatry. "The first introduction of a symbolic worship was in the veneration of the cross, and of relics. The saints and martyrs, when intercession was implored, were seated on the right hand of God; but the gracious, and often supernatural favors, which, in the popular belief, were showered round their tombs, conveyed an unquestionable sanction of the devout pilgrims who visited, and touched, and kissed these lifeless remains, the memorials of their merits and sufferings. But a memorial, more interesting than the skull or the sandals of a departed worthy, is a faithful copy of his person and features delineated by the arts of painting or sculpture. In every age such copies, so congenial to human feelings, have been cherished by the zeal of private friendship or public esteem; the images of the Roman emperors were adored with civil and almost religious honors; a reverence, less ostentatious, but more sincere, was applied to the statues of sages and patriots; and these profane virtues, these splendid sins, disappeared in the presence of the holy people who had died for their celestial and everlasting country.
At first the experiment was made with caution and scruple, and the venerable pictures were discreetly allowed to instruct the ignorant, to awaken the cold, and to gratify the prejudices of the pagan proselytes. By a slow, though inevitable progression, the honors of the original were transferred to the copy; the devout Christian prayed before the image of a saint, and the pagan rites of genuflexion, luminaries, and incense again stole into the Catholic Church. The scruples of reason or piety were silenced by the strong evidence of visions and miracles; and the pictures which speak, and move, and bleed, must be endowed with a divine energy, and may be considered as the proper objects of religious adoration. The most audacious pencil might tremble in the rash attempt of defining, by forms and colors, the infinite Spirit, the eternal Father, who pervades and sustains the universe. But the superstitious mind was more easily reconciled to paint and worship the angels, and above all, the Son of God, under the human shape, which on earth they have condescended to assume.
The Second Person of the Trinity had been clothed with a real and mortal body, but that body had ascended into heaven; and had not some similitude been presented to the eyes of his disciples, the spiritual worship of Christ might have been obliterated by the visible relies and representations of the saints. A similar indulgence was requisite, and propitious, for the Virgin Mary; the place of her burial was unknown; and the assumption of her soul and body into heaven was adopted by the credulity of the Greeks and Latins. The use, and even the worship of images, was firmly established before the end of the sixth century; they were fondly cherished by the warm imagination of the Greeks and Asiatics; the Pantheon and the Vatican were adorned with the emblems of a new superstition; but this semblance of idolatry was more coldly entertained by the rude barbarians and the Arian clergy of the West," vol. iii. p. 323.
Again: "Before the end of the sixth century these images, made without hands (in Greek it is a single word - ἀχειροποίητος acheiropoiētos), were propagated in the camps and cities of the Eastern empire; they were the objects of worship, and the instruments of miracles; and in the hour of dangler or tumult their venerable presence could revive the hope, rekindle the courage, or repress the fury of the Roman legions," vol. iii. pp. 324, 325. So again (vol. iii. pp. 340ff): - "While the popes established in Italy their freedom and dominion, the images, the first cause of their revolt, were restored in the Eastern empire. Under the reign of Constantine the Fifth, the union of civil and ecclesiastical power had overthrown the tree, without extirpating the root, of superstition. The idols, for such they were now held, were secretly cherished by the order and the sex most prone to devotion; and the fond alliance of the monks and females obtained a final victory over the reason and the authority of man."
Under Irene a council was convened - the second council of Nice, or the seventh general council - in which, according to Mr. Gibbon (iii. 341), it was "unanimously pronounced that the worship of images is agreeable to Scripture and reason, to the fathers and councils of the church." The arguments which were urged in favor of the worship of images, in the council above referred to, may be seen in Bowers' Lives of the Popes, vol. ii. pp. 152-158, Dr. Cox's edition. The answer of the bishops in the council to the question of the empress Irene, whether they agreed to the decision which had been adopted in the council, was in these words: "We all agree to it; we have all freely signed it; this is the faith of the apostles, of the fathers, and of the Catholic church; we all salute, honor, worship, and adore the holy and venerable images; be they accursed who do not honor, worship, and adore the adorable images" (Bowers' Lives of the Popes, ii. 159). As a matter of fact, therefore, no one can doubt that these images were worshipped with the honor that was due to God alone - or that the sin of idolatry prevailed; and no one can doubt that that has been continued, and is still, in the papal communion.
(3) the next point specified is murders Revelation 9:21; "Neither repented they of their murders." It can hardly be necessary to dwell on this to show that this was strictly applicable to the Roman power, and extensively prevailed, both before and after the Turkish invasion, and that that invasion had no tendency to produce repentance. Indeed, in nothing has the papacy been more remarkably characterized than in the number of murders perpetrated on the innocent in persecution. In reference to the fulfillment of this we may refer to the following things:
(a) Persecution. This has been particularly the characteristic of the Roman communion, it need not be said, in all ages. The persecutions of the Waldenses, if there were nothing else, show that the spirit here referred to prevailed in the Roman communion, or that the times preceding the Turkish conquest were characterized by what is here specified. In the third Lateran council, 1179 a.d., an anathema was declared against certain dissentients and heretics, and then against the Waldenses themselves in papal bulls of the years 1183, 1207, 1208. Again, in a decree of the fourth Lateran council, 1215 a.d., a crusade, as it was called, was proclaimed against them, and "plenary absolution promised to such as should perish in the holy war, from the day of their birth to the day of their death." "And never," says Sismondi, "had the cross been taken up with more unanimous consent." It is supposed that in this crusade against the Waldenses a million people perished.
(b) That this continued to be the characteristic of the papacy after the judgments brought upon the Roman world by the Turkish invasion, or that those judgments had no tendency to produce repentance and reformation, is well known, and is manifest from the following things:
(1) The continuance of the spirit of persecution.
(2) the establishment of the Inquisition. 150,000 persons perished by the Inquisition in thirty years; and from the beginning of the order of the Jesuits in 1540 to 1580, it is supposed that nine hundred thousand persons were destroyed by persecution.
(3) the same spirit was manifested in the attempts to suppress the true religion in England, in Bohemia, and in the Low Countries. Fifty thousand persons were hanged, burned, beheaded, or buried alive, for the crime of heresy, in the Low Countries, chiefly under the Duke of Alva, from the edict of Charles V against the Protestants to the peace of Chateau Cambresis in 1559. Compare the notes on Daniel 7:24-28. To these are to be added all that fell in France on the revocation of the edict of Nantz; all that perished by persecution in England in the days of Mary; and all that have fallen in the bloody wars that have been waged in the propagation of the papal religion. The number is, of course, unknown to mortals, though efforts have been made by historians to form some estimate of the amount. It is supposed that fifty million of persons have perished in these persecutions of the Waldenses, Albigenses, Bohemian Brethren, Wycliffites, and Protestants; that some fifteen million of Indians perished in Cuba, Mexico, and South America, in the wars of the Spaniards, professedly to propagate the Catholic faith; that three million and a half of Moors and Jews perished, by Catholic persecution and arms, in Spain; and that thus, probably no less than sixty-eight million and five hundred thousand human beings have been put to death by this one persecuting power. See Dr. Berg's Lectures on Romanism, pp. 6, 7. Assuredly, if this be true, it would be proper to characterize the times here referred to, both before and after the Turkish invasion, as a time when murders would prevail.
(4) the fourth point specified is sorceries. It can hardly be necessary to go into detail to prove that this also abounded; and that delusive appeals to the senses; false and pretended miracles; arts adapted to deceive through the imagination; the supposed virtue and efficacy of relics; and frauds calculated to impose on mankind, have characterized those portions of the world where the Roman religion has prevailed, and been one of the principal means of its advancement. No Protestant surely would deny this, no intelligent Catholic can doubt it himself. All that is necessary to be said in regard to this is, that in this, as in other respects, the Turkish invasion, and the judgments that came upon the world, made no change. The very recent imposture of the "holy coat of Treves" is a full proof that the disposition to practice such arts still exists, and that the power to impose on a large portion of the world in that denomination has not died away.
(5) the fifth thing specified is fornication. This has abounded everywhere in the world; but the use of the term in this connection implies that there would be something special here, and perhaps that it would be associated with the other things referred to. It is as unnecessary as it would be improper to go into any detail on this point. Anyone who is acquainted with the history of the Middle Ages - the period here supposed to be referred to - must be aware of the widespread licentiousness which then prevailed, especially among the clergy. Historians and poets, ballads, and acts of councils, alike testify to this fact. It is to be remarked also, as illustrating the subject, that the dissoluteness of the Middle Ages was closely, and almost necessarily, connected with the worship of the images and the saints above referred to.
The character of many of those who were Worshipped as saints, like the character of many of the gods of the pagan Romans, was just such as to be an incentive to every species of licentiousness and impurity. On this point Mr. Hallam makes the following remarks: "That the exclusive worship of saints, under the guidance of an artful though illiterate priesthood, degraded the understanding, and begat a stupid credulity and fanaticism, is sufficiently evident. But it was also so managed as to loosen the bonds of religion, and pervert the standard of morality" (Middle Ages, vol. ii. pp. 249, 250; edit. Phil. 1824). He then, in a note, refers to the legends of the saints as abundantly confirming his statements. See particularly the stories in the Golden Legend. So, in speaking of the monastic orders, Mr. Hallam (Middle Ages, vol. ii. 253) says: "In vain new rules of discipline were devised, or the old corrected by reforms. Many of their worst vices grew so naturally out of their mode of life that a stricter discipline would have no tendency to extirpate them. Their extreme licentiousness was sometimes hardly concealed by the cowl of sanctity."
In illustration of this we may introduce here a remark of Mr. Gibbon, made in immediate connection with his statement about the decrees respecting the worship of images. "I shall only notice," says he, "the judgment of the bishops on the comparative merit of image-worship and morality. A monk had concluded a truce with the demon of fornication, on condition of interrupting his daily prayers to a picture that hung in his cell. His scruples prompted him to consult the abbot. 'Rather than abstain from adoring Christ and his mother in their holy images, it would be better for you,' replied the casuist, 'to enter every brothel, and visit every prostitute in the city,'" iii. 341. So again, Mr. Gibbon, speaking of the pope, John 12. says: "His open simony might be the consequence of distress; and his blasphemous invocation of Jupiter and Venus, if it be true, could not possibly be serious. But we read with some surprise that the worthy grandson of Marozia lived in public adultery with the matrons of Rome; that the Lateran palace was turned into a place for prostitution, and that his rapes (if virgins and of widows had deterred the female pilgrims from visiting the tomb of Peter, lest, in the devout act, they should be violated by his successor," iii. 353. Again, the system of indulgences led directly to licentiousness. In the pontificate of John 22, about 1320 a.d., there was invented the celebrated Tax of Indulgences, of which more than forty editions are extant. According to this, incest was to cost, if not detected, five groschen; if known and flagrant, six. A certain price was affixed in a similar way to adultery, infanticide, etc. See Merle D'Aubigne's Reformation, vol. i. p. 41. And further, the very pilgrimages to the shrines of the saints, which were enjoined as a penance for sin, and which were regarded as a ground of merit, were occasions of the grossest licentiousness.
So Hallam, Middle Ages, says: "This licensed vagrancy was naturally productive of dissoluteness, especially among the women. Our English ladies, in their zeal to obtain the spiritual treasuries of Rome, are said to have relaxed the necessary caution about one that was in their own custody," vol. ii. 255. The celibacy of the clergy also tended to licentiousness, and is known to have been everywhere productive of the very sin which is mentioned here. The state of the nunneries in the middle ages is well known. In the fifteenth century Gerson, the French orator so celebrated at the council of Constance, called them Prostibula meretricum. Clemangis, a French theologian, also contemporary, and a man of great eminence, thus speaks of them: Quid aliud sunt hoc tempore puellarum monasteria, nisi quaedam non dico Dei sanctuaria, sed veneris execranda prostibula; ut idem sit hodie puellam velare, quod et publice a.d. scortandum exponere (Hallam, Middle Ages, ii. 253). To this we may add the fact that it was a habit, not infrequent, to license the clergy to live in concubinage (see the proof in Elliott, i. 447, note), and that the practice of auricular confession necessarily made "the tainting of the female mind an integral part of Roman priest-craft, and gave consecration to the communings of impurity." It hardly needs any proof that these practices continued after the invasions of the Turkish hordes, or that those invasions made no changes in the condition of the world in this respect. In proof of this we need refer only to Pope Innocent VIII, elected in 1484 to the papacy.
His character is told in the well-known epigram:
Octo nocens pueros genuit, totidemque puellas;
Hunc merito potuit dicere Roma patrem.
It was to Alexander VI, his successor, who at the close of the fifteenth century stood before the world a monster, notorious to all, of impurity and vice; and to the general well-known character of the Roman Catholic clergy. "Most of the ecclesiastics," says the historian Infessura, "had their mistresses; and all the convents of the capital were houses of ill fame."
(6) the sixth thing specified Revelation 9:21 is thefts; that is, as explained, the taking of the property of others by dishonest arts, on false pretences, or without any proper equivalent. In the inquiry as to the applicability of this to the times supposed to be here referred to, we may notice the following things, as instances in which money was extorted from the people:
(a) The value fraudulently assigned to relics. Mosheim, in his historical sketch of the twelfth century, observes: "The abbots and monks carried about the country the carcasses and relics of saints, in solemn procession, and permitted the multitude to behold, touch, and embrace the sacred remains, at fixed prices."
(b) The exaltation of the miracle-working merit of particular saints, and the consecration of new saints, and dedication of new images, when the popularity of the former died away. Thus, Mr. Hallam says: "Every cathedral or monastery had its tutelar saint, and every saint his legend; fabricated in order to enrich the churches under his protection; by exaggerating his virtues and his miracles, and consequently his power of serving those who paid liberally for his patronage."
(c) The invention and sale of indulgences - well known to have been a vast source of revenue to the church. Wycliffe declared that indulgences were mere forgeries whereby the priesthood "rob people of their money; a subtle merchandise of Antichrist's clerks, whereby they magnify their own fictitious power, and instead of causing people to dread sin, encourage people to wallow therein as hogs."
(d) The prescription of pilgrimages as penances was another prolific source of gain to the church that deserves to be classed under the name of thefts. Those who made such pilgrimage were expected and required to make an offering at the shrine of the saint; and as multitudes went on such pilgrimages, especially on the jubilee at Rome, the income from this source was enormous. An instance of what was offered at the shrine of Thomas Becket will illustrate this. Through his reputation Canterbury became the Rome of England. A jubilee was celebrated every fiftieth year to his honor, with plenary indulgence to all such as visited his tomb; of whom one hundred thousand were registered at one time. Two large volumes were filled with accounts of the miracles performed at his tomb. The following list of the value of offerings made in two successive years to his shrine, the Virgin Mary's, and Christ's, in the cathedral at Canterbury, will illustrate at the same time the gain from these sources, and the relative respect shown to Becket, Mary, and the Saviour
First Year British shillings d. pounds Christ's Altar 3 2 6 Virgin Mary's 63 5 6 Becket's 832 12 9 Next Year Christ's Altar 0 0 0 Virgin Mary's 4 1 8 Becket's 954 6 3
Of the jubilee of 1300 a.d. Muratori relates the result as follows: "Papa innumerabilem pecuniam ab iisdem recepit; quia die et nocte duo elerici stabant a.d. altare Sancti Pauli, tenentes in eorum manibus rastellos, rastellantes pecuniam infinitam. " "The pope received from them a countless amount of money; for two clerks stood at the altar of Paul night and day, holding in their hands little rakes, collecting an infinite amount of money" (Hallam).
(e) Another source of gain of this kind was the numerous testamentary bequests with which the church was enriched obtained by the arts and influence of the clergy. In Wycliffe's time there were in England 53,215 faeda milltum, of which the religious had 28,000 - more than one-half. Blackstone says that, but for the intervention of the legislature, and the statute of mortmain, the church would have appropriated in this manner the whole of the land of England, vol. 4, p. 107.
(f) The money left by the dying to pay for masses, and that paid by survivors for masses to release the souls of their friends from purgatory all of which deserve to be classed under the word "thefts" as already explained - was another source of vast wealth to the church; and the practice was systematized on a large scale, and, with the other things mentioned, deserves to be noticed as a characteristic of the times. It is scarcely necessary to add, that the judgments which were brought upon the world by the Turkish invasions made no essential change, and worked no repentance or reformation, and hence that the language here is strictly applicable to these things: "Neither repented they of their murders, nor of their sorceries, nor of their fornication, nor of their thefts."
本章の分析
残る三つのラッパ(Revelation 9-11)は、通常、「わざわいのラッパ」と呼ばれる。それは「わざわい」の布告(Revelation 8:13)に由来する(Prof. Stuart)。この三つは、私の考えるところ、時の終わりまで、あるいは著者自身が考えているところによれば(Revelation 11:15)、「この世の国がキリストの国となる」時期まで及び、特に世俗的な観点から、起こるべき最も重要な出来事の簡潔な眺めを含む。書に付された分析を見よ。私の理解するところでは、Revelation 11:19 において新しい眺めが始まる。それは内部における教会に関し、反キリストの興隆、そしてその恐るべき力の興隆が教会の内的歴史に及ぼす効果について、その転覆の時と神の国の勝利的確立の時まで及ぶ。これはもちろん、その始まりと終わりにおいて、すでに通り過ぎた部分と同時であるが、眺めは異なる。Revelation 11:19以下に付された分析を見よ。
この章 Revelation 9 は本来、三つの部分を含む。第一に、それらのラッパの第一、すなわち全体の順序における第五の描写、Revelation 9:1-12。このわざわいは、バッタの莫大な軍勢が地の上にもたらす災いの姿の下に表わされる。星が天から落ちて何らかの強力な指導者を表わし、彼に底なしの淵のかぎが与えられるのが見える。彼が淵を開くと、天を暗くする数えきれないバッタの大群が出て来て、地の上に出て行く。彼らは、ある一定のわざを行うようにという命令を与えられている。彼らは地も、何らかの青い物も損なってはならず、額に神の印を持たない人々に向けられて送られる。しかし彼らの主要な仕事は、彼らを殺すことではなく、限定された時間——五か月の間——苦しめることであった。次に、バッタの姿についての描写が続く。彼らは、その全般的な外観においても、彼らがもたらす被害においてもバッタに似ているのでバッタと呼ばれるが、主な点では架空の存在であり、現実には決して結合して見出されない性質を自分たちのうちに組み合わせている。
彼らは戦いのために備えられた馬に強い類似を示し、頭には金の冠を着け、人の顔を持ちながら女の髪とししの歯を持ち、鉄の胸当てを着け、さそりのような、刺のある尾を持っていた。彼らの先頭には、彼が世界の上にもたらすであろう破壊を意味する名を持つ、強力な王がいた。これらの神秘的な存在たちは底なしの淵に起源を持ち、地の上に荒廃を広げるために呼び出される。第二に、これらのラッパの第二、順序では第六の描写、Revelation 9:13-19。これが吹き鳴らされると、神のみ前にある祭壇の四つの角から声が聞こえる。御使いは、大川ユーフラテスにくくられている四人の御使いを解くように命じられる。これらの御使いは解き放たれる——定められた期間のために備えられていた御使いたち、すなわち一年と一月と一日と一時のために——人の三分の一を殺すために。
現れる軍勢の数——騎兵から成る——は二十万に上ると告げられ、次にこれらの騎兵たちの独特な性質が述べられる。彼らは、火と、ヒヤシンスと、硫黄との胸当てを持つこと、馬の頭はししに似ていること、火と硫黄とを吐き出すことで注目に値する。人の三分の一が、火と煙と硫黄とによって彼らの前に倒れる。彼らの力はその口と尾にある。尾はへびのようだからである。第三に、これらのラッパの下で世界の上にもたらされたさばきの効果の述べ、Revelation 9:20-21。合理的な結果が期待され得た限りでの効果は失われる。諸国民は偶像礼拝から立ち返らない。悪はなおはびこり、地の上で長く行われてきた忌むべき行いを悔い改めようとする気持ちが少しもない。