Matthew Henry's Complete Commentary
Matthew Henry · 1714
Matthew Henry 사후(1714) 공개 도메인. 디지털판 CC0-1.0.
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학습 자료
여러 공개 도메인 주석서와 성서하우 한글 번역을 책과 장별로 탐색합니다. 주석서를 전환하며 번역만 읽거나 원문과 번역을 나란히 볼 수 있습니다.
현재 주석서
전체 주석서
23개 주석서
전체 항목
307,288
번역 81,431건
라이선스
출처별 표시
주석서 원문, 저자, 번역 진행률, 라이선스 정보를 출처별로 구분해 표시합니다. 성서하우의 한글 번역·편집물은 원문 자료와 별도로 관리됩니다.
Matthew Henry · 1714
Matthew Henry 사후(1714) 공개 도메인. 디지털판 CC0-1.0.
Robert Jamieson, A. R. Fausset, David Brown · 1871
Commentary Critical and Explanatory on the Whole Bible (1871). CCEL expanded electronic edition states it is in the public domain.
Albert Barnes · 1834
Albert Barnes' Notes on Revelation Of St. John The Divine (New Testament, English original, public domain). Sourced from the Christian Classics Ethereal Library (CCEL). Public domain. Retrieval mirror: biblehub.com/commentaries/barnes.
Adam Clarke · 1831
Public domain English commentary by Adam Clarke, normalized from Wikisource book pages for scripture.how. Public domain. Retrieval mirror: biblehub.com/commentaries/clarke.
John Gill · 1763
John Gill(1697-1771), Exposition of the Old and New Testament(1746-1763). Public domain. Retrieval mirror: biblehub.com/commentaries/gill.
John Calvin · 1850
종교개혁 신학 원천 (영역본 PD, 대부분 — 전권 아님)
Matthew Poole · 1685
간결 절별 전권 개혁주의 주석
ed. H.D.M. Spence & Joseph S. Exell · 1890
전권 강해·설교·예화 풍부 (항목 대량)
Carl F. Keil, Franz Delitzsch · 1866
구약 학술 표준 — 히브리어·문헌비평·고대근동 배경
ed. Charles J. Ellicott · 1878
학술+가독 균형 전권 주석
Cambridge (다저자) · 1900
준전권 준학술 (권별 저자·연도 확인)
Marvin R. Vincent · 1887
신약 헬라어 단어 연구
A.T. Robertson · 1933
헬라어 시제·문법 해설 결정판 (KR PD / US 1931+ 권별)
ed. W. Robertson Nicoll (다저자) · 1910
헬라어 신약 학술 (권별 저자 PD 확인 필요)
Heinrich A.W. Meyer · 1880
신약 학술 정밀주해 (독일 — K&D 대응)
John Wesley · 1755
간결 실용 전권(NT 1755 / OT 1765) 웨슬리안
Joseph Benson · 1815
웨슬리안 전권 주석
Charles H. Spurgeon · 1885
시편 주석 고전 (설교 자료 풍부)
Alexander Maclaren · 1910
설교형 강해 명저 (전권, 절별 가공 필요)
B.W. Johnson · 1891
평이 절별 신약 해설 (일반신자·모바일)
Thomas Coke · 1803
감리교 전권 주석
John Trapp · 1660
청교도 전권 주석 — Henry/Gill 보완
Charles Hodge · 1860
프린스턴 조직신학 관점 신약 정밀 주석 (롬·고전후·엡)
열왕기상·하 서론
70인역으로 알려진 헬라어 번역자들은 "모세 율법서"를 다섯 부분으로, "사무엘서"를 두 부분으로 나누었고, 원래 하나였던 "열왕기"도 지금 거의 보편적으로 받아들여지는 방식, 곧 "첫째 책"과 "둘째 책"으로 나누었다. 이렇게 이루어진 구분은 헬라어에서 형성된 초기 라틴어 역본들에서도 자연스럽게 이어졌고, 제롬이 오늘날 "불가타"라고 불리는 판본을 내놓을 때에도 이미 확립되어 있던 관습을 따랐다. 서방 교회가 불가타를 널리 받아들임으로써, 70인역이 도입한 배열은 거의 보편적인 수용을 얻게 되었다.
이 책의 이름은 그 내용에서 온 것이다. 전체 주제가 솔로몬의 즉위부터 바벨론 포로기까지 이스라엘과 유다의 "왕들"의 역사이기 때문이다.
통일성의 두 번째 증거는 문체와 언어의 전반적 균일성이다. 모든 저자가 인정하는 이 균일성은 두세 곳에서만 약간 침해될 뿐인데, 그 불규칙성은 저자가 사용한 자료의 다양성과 그 자료에서 발견한 표현을 가깝게 따른 데서 설명될 수 있다.
이러한 일반적인 증거들에 더하여 두 책 전체에 스며 있는 사고나 표현상의 특정한 특징들을 들 수 있다. 이 특징들은 모두 정도의 차이는 있으나 한 저자를 가리킨다.
언어의 단순한 관용구만을 놓고 보면, 열왕기와 사무엘서 사이에 뚜렷한 선을 긋기 어렵다는 말은 어느 정도 사실일 수 있다. 그러나 열왕기 저자의 가장 특징적인 많은 면모는 다른, 아마도 더 이른 저작에는 전혀 나타나지 않는다. 이러한 이유들과 그 밖의 이유들 때문에 "열왕기"는 고유성과 독립성을 주장할 수 있다.
열왕기의 언어는 의심할 여지 없이 포로기 시대에 속한다. 그것은 이사야, 아모스, 호세아, 미가, 요엘, 나훔의 언어보다는 늦고, 역대기, 에스라, 느헤미야, 학개, 스가랴의 언어보다는 이르다. 전반적인 성격으로는 예레미야와 에스겔의 언어와 매우 가깝게 닮아 있으며, 주전 6세기에 배정될 수 있다.
내용에서 얻을 수 있는 결과도 비슷하지만, 조금 더 구체적이다. 이 작품의 마지막 독립 단락인 열왕기하 25:27-30을 작품의 본래 일부로 본다면, 우리는 에윌므로닥 원년인 주전 561년을 이 저작이 완성될 수 있었던 가장 이른 연대로 얻게 된다. 또한 이 작품이 유대인들의 포로 귀환을 전혀 언급하지 않는다는 사실에서, 가장 늦은 가능 연대는 스룹바벨 아래 귀환이 이루어진 해인 주전 538년, 곧 느부갓네살의 죽음과 바벨론에서 고레스가 즉위한 사이가 된다. 언어적 고려와 그 밖의 고려들은 실제 완성이 이 기간의 이른 시기, 곧 주전 560년경이었다는 견해를 지지한다. 그리고 작품의 대부분이 그보다 약 20년 앞선 주전 580년경에 이미 기록되었을 가능성도 작지 않다.
그럼에도 모든 것을 고려할 때 예레미야 저작설이 매우 개연성 있어 보이지만, 그것이 입증된 것은 아니며 따라서 어느 정도 불확실하다는 점은 인정해야 한다.
(1) "솔로몬의 행장"(열왕기상 11:41);
(2) "이스라엘 왕 역대지략"(열왕기상 14:19 등);
(3) "유다 왕 역대지략"(열왕기상 14:29 등).
그 자신의 역사는 적어도 부분적으로 이 작품들에서 유래하였다. 더 작은 저작들도 그에게 열려 있었을 것이다. 나아가 저자는 역대기 저자가 인용한 어떤 자료와도 성격이 다른 한 작품, 곧 아마도 선지자 학교들 가운데 하나에서 작성된 엘리사의 기적 모음집에도 접근할 수 있었던 듯하다.
그러므로 열왕기의 자료는 세 갈래로 볼 수 있다. 첫째, "왕들의 역대지략"이라 불린 일반 역사 문서들, 둘째, 특정한 짧은 시기의 역사에 관한 몇몇 특별 논고들, 셋째, 매우 독특한 성격을 지닌 한 작품, 곧 한 주목할 만한 인물의 사적 전기이다.
"왕들의 역대지략"은 아마도 공문서, 곧 국가 연대기의 성격을 지녔을 것이다. 다시 말해 권위 있는 사람이 작성한 각 왕의 통치 기간 중 주요 공적 사건에 대한 기록이었다. 이스라엘 사람들에게서 그 권위 있는 사람은 거의 모든 경우 선지자였을 것이다. 이사야(역대하 이사야 26:22; 이사야 36-38), 예레미야(렘 39-43:7; 52), 다니엘(단 1-6)의 예에서 보듯, 선지자들은 이것을 자신들의 주요 임무 가운데 하나로 여겼다. 각 통치가 끝날 때, 혹은 통치 중에도, 그 시대에 가장 높은 지위에 있던 선지자가 "왕들의 역대지략"에 추가 기록을 남겼을 것이다.
그러나 선지자들은 이러한 공식적 기록들 외에도, 다소 더 큰 규모의 역사 저작들을 작성하였고, 특히 종교적 문제에 대한 설명을 더 풍부하게 제시하였다. 예를 들어 이사야의 역사 장들(사 36-39)에 담긴 선지자적 단행 기록과 열왕기하의 병행 장들(왕하 18-20)에 담긴 "역대지략"의 더 건조한 요약 사이의 차이를 비교해 보라. 또한 예레미야 39-44장과 열왕기하 25:1-26을 비교해 보라. 더 나아가 역대기에 제시된 역사와 열왕기의 해당 역사를 일반적으로 비교하면, 역대기 저자는 대체로 여러 선지자 저자들의 개별 저작들을 따른 듯하고, 열왕기 저자는 주로 공식 문서들을 따른 듯하다. 역대기에서 가장 눈에 띄는 점은 유다의 종교사에 대한 훨씬 더 풍부한 서술이다. 이것은 주로 여러 선지자적 저작들에서 온 것이며, 그 성격과 국가 연대기의 일반적 성격 사이의 대조를 보여 준다.
열왕기 저자는 주로 편집자였다. 그는 자신이 사용한 앞선 저자들의 여러 서사를 선택하고 배열하며 하나로 엮었다. 이것은 특정 서사들 안에 낡은 형태나 지방적 형태가 보존되어 있다는 점과, 편집자가 기록하던 당시에는 적절하지 않은 여러 진술이 나타난다는 점 모두에서 분명하다.
열왕기하 18:15-20:19와 이사야 36-39 사이의 긴밀한 언어적 일치는, 저자가 히스기야 통치에 관한 이사야의 기록을 국가 연대기에 들어 있던 형태 그대로 변경 없이 발췌한 데서만 생겨날 수 있다. 또한 역대기의 상당 부분과 열왕기의 언어적 일치도, 두 저자가 같은 권위 자료에서 문자 그대로 발췌했다고 가정할 때 가장 잘 설명되는 경우가 많다.
반면 열왕기 저자는 때때로 자신이 사용한 저자들의 표현에서 벗어나 순전히 자기 자신의 표현을 대신 사용하였다.
그리고 분명히 독창적인 구절들도 있다. 예레미야 저작설을 지지하는 논증은 특히 작품의 이 부분들에 근거한다.
공통 원인은 본문 손상이다. 그 이유는 부분적으로 숫자에서 생기는 오류가 문맥에 의해 거의 바로잡히지 않기 때문이고, 부분적으로는 전문 필사자들이 어떤 축약된 숫자 표기 체계를 사용했으며, 그들이 사용한 기호들이 서로 혼동되었기 때문이다.
특유한 오류 원인은 원래 한 주석자가 여백에 기록했던 연대 주석들이 본문 안으로 삽입된 데 있었던 듯하다. 처음 나타나는 연대인 열왕기상 6:1은 이런 성격의 주석으로 보이며, 이스라엘과 유다 왕조 사이의 모든 동시대 연대표도 비슷한 기원에서 나온 것이 아닌가 의심할 수 있다. 원래 작품은 각 왕에게 배정된 연수만을 "역대지략"에 따라 제시하고, 자매 왕국의 동시대 군주가 몇 년째 통치하고 있을 때 각각의 왕이 왕위에 올랐는가 하는 추가 문제에는 들어가지 않았을 가능성이 높다. 작품에서 이 부분들을 빼면, 연대기의 주요 난점들과 거의 모든 실제 모순이 사라진다.
이 점을 제외하면, 열왕기는 모든 본질적인 면에서 철저히 건전한 상태로 우리에게 전해졌다. 70인역이 히브리어 본문과 중요하게 다른 유일한 곳은 열왕기상 12장이다. 거기에는 현재 히브리어 본문에는 없는 느밧의 아들 여로보암에 관한 긴 단락이 열왕기상 12:24와 12:25 사이에 들어 있다. 그러나 이 단락은 분명 원래 서사의 일부가 아니다. 그것은 외경 에스드라서 방식의 이야기로서, 성경의 사실들을 재구성하고 첨가를 더해 만든 것이다. 알렉산드리아의 저자는 자신이 접근할 수 있었던 어떤 유대 자료에서 그 첨가를 취했을 수도 있으나, 그것이 열왕기 저자에게서 온 것은 결코 아니다. 그 사실들 가운데 아마도 르호보암이 즉위할 때의 나이라는 단 하나를 제외하면, 우리 역사가의 실제 서사에 속하는 것은 없다.
그러나 이 역사는 대부분의 역사처럼 시민적 관점에서가 아니라 종교적 관점에서 기록되었다. 유대인은 보통 민족이 아니라 하나님의 백성으로 간주된다. 역사가는 자신이 기록하는 왕국들의 단순한 정치적 진전을 보여 주려 하지 않고, 하나님께서 언약을 맺으신 그 민족을 어떻게 다루셨는지를 우리에게 묘사하려 한다. 그가 시민사의 사건들을 기록할 때, 그의 계획은 다윗에게 주어진 경고와 약속이 결합된 말씀(사무엘하 7:12-16)의 성취를 추적하는 것이다.
그러므로 일반 역사가라면 매우 중요하다고 여겼을 사건들이 우리 저자의 서사에서는 생략되거나 가볍고 빠르게 다루어질 수 있으며 실제로 그렇게 된다. 그는 시삭의 예루살렘 정복(열왕기상 14:25-26), 아비얌과 여로보암 사이의 전쟁(열왕기상 15:7), 아마샤와 에돔의 전쟁(열왕기하 14:7), 요시야와 바로느고의 전쟁(열왕기하 23:29)을 극히 간략하게 다룬다. 이 사건들은 역대기의 병행 구절들에서는 길게 다루어진다. 일반적으로 두 왕국의 군사사는 틀림없이 "역대지략"에 세심하게 기록되어 있었겠지만, 열왕기 저자는 대체로 그것을 생략한다. 그는 보통 세속 역사라면 가장 큰 비중을 차지했을 사건들에 대해서는 독자들을 국가 연대기로 돌려보내는 것으로 만족한다.
반대로 저자의 특별한 목적은 세속 역사가라면 가볍게 다루거나 침묵으로 지나쳤을 사건들에 두드러진 위치를 부여하고 충분히 다루게 한다. 선지자들의 가르침과 그들의 기적은 그 시대의 종교사에서 핵심 지점이었다. 백성의 배교가 변명할 수 없는 것이 된 것은 특히 그것들 때문이었다. 그러므로 다윗에게 주어진 약속에도 불구하고 예루살렘이 멸망하고 열두 지파 전체가 포로로 끌려갔다는 사실을 보여 주어야 하는 역사가는, 그 엄중함의 근거를 충분히 드러내야 하며, 따라서 백성의 죄책을 그렇게까지 크게 만든 정황들을 자세히 다루어야 한다.
그가 서술해야 하는 역사의 성격, 그 전반적 경향과 최종 결말은 자연스럽게 그의 전체 서사 위에 어두운 분위기를 드리운다. 이 작품의 어조는 예레미야의 확실한 저작들의 어조와 조화를 이루며, 그 선지자의 저작설을 지지하는 추가 논거를 제공한다.
열왕기의 문체는 대체로 평탄하고 균일한 단순 서사체이다. 때때로 더 고양된 어조가 스며들어, 주제에 따라 문체가 높아지고 어떤 곳에서는 거의 시적인 표현에 이르기도 한다(열왕기상 19:11-12; 열왕기하 19:21-31). 가장 인상적인 장들은 열왕기상 8장, 18장, 19장, 열왕기하 5장, 9장, 18장, 19장, 20장이다.
그러나 엘리야 이야기, 또는 엘리사 이야기의 작은 일부 이상을 나머지 저작에서 분리할 비평적 근거는 없다. 특히 엘리야의 역사는 이스라엘 왕국의 역사와 매우 긴밀하게 얽혀 있고, 전체적으로 매우 공적인 성격을 띠므로, "이스라엘 왕들의 역대지략"에는 거의 필연적으로 그에 관한 기록이 들어 있었을 것이다. 엘리사 역사의 중요한 부분도 비슷한 성격을 지닌다. 더 나아가 그 기록이 동시대의 것이 아니었다거나, 훨씬 뒤에 살던 저자가 이 주목할 만한 인물들의 행적을 한 권으로 모아야 했다고 상상하는 것은 전적으로 근거 없는 일이다. 가능성은 오히려 그 반대다. 선지자들 자신이 그 시대의 역사가였으므로, 엘리사가 엘리야의 기적들과 그 밖의 주목할 만한 행적들을 모으고, 엘리사 자신의 행적은 그의 죽음 뒤에 "선지자의 생도들" 가운데 어떤 사람이 모았다는 것이 자연스럽다. 여기에 더하여, 서술된 기적들은 모두 목격자에게서 유래한 묘사의 분위기를 지니며, 전승이 결코 보존할 수 없는 세밀한 정황 묘사로 가득하다. 전체 결론은 이렇다. 우리가 기적을 "선험적" 불가능성 때문에 믿을 가치가 없다고 아예 배척하지 않는 한, 열왕기에 있는 두 위대한 이스라엘 선지자에 관한 기록은 나머지 서사와 동등하게 받아들일 권리를 지닌 것으로 보아야 한다.
내적 일관성과 개연성, 그리고 외적 증언은 열왕기에 담긴 세속사의 전반적 진정성을 강하게 지지한다. 솔로몬의 제국은 초기 동방사가 우리에게 익숙하게 보여 주는 종류의 것이다. 그것은 애굽과 앗수르가 동시에 약해져 있었기 때문에 그 형성이 가능했던 바로 그 시기에 나타난다. 그 급속한 확장과 더욱 급속한 수축은 동방 지배에 관한 다른 기록들과 조화를 이룬다. 그 예술과 문명은 같은 시기 인접 국가들에 존재했던 것으로 알려진 것들과 닮아 있다. 이 책들이 다루는 기간 동안 유대가 애굽, 앗수르, 바벨론과 접촉한 사실은 애굽 연대기와 일치하며, 어떤 점에서는 쐐기문자 비문들에 의해 매우 인상적으로 설명된다. 바벨론, 애굽, 두로의 이교 역사가들인 베로수스, 마네토, 메난드로스, 디우스는 유적들과 함께, 본문에 붙은 주석이 충분히 입증하듯, 우리 저자의 진실성과 정확성을 뒷받침한다.
연대기의 더 넓은 특징들조차 내적으로 개연성이 있고, 다른 나라들의 연대기에 의해 외적으로도 확인된다. 솔로몬의 즉위부터 시드기야의 포로기까지의 기간은 433년 반으로 제시되며, 이 기간은 열여덟 세대, 또는 여호야긴을 제외하면 열일곱 세대에 속하는 스물한 군주에게 나누어진다. 이것은 각 세대에 매우 개연성 있는 기간인 25년 반을 허용한다. 연대기가 이중으로 제시되고 주요한 내적 난점들이 발생하는 역사의 부분에서도, 두 체계 사이의 차이는 240년 또는 250년 가운데 약 20년에 지나지 않을 정도로 작다. 애굽 연대기는 시삭의 침공과 소의 동맹에 관한 성경의 연대를 대략 확인한다. 앗수르 연대기는 사마리아 함락의 연대에서 히브리 기록과 일치하며, 하사엘과 예후, 디글랏빌레셀과 아하스, 산헤립과 히스기야, 에살핫돈과 므낫세를 동시대 인물로 제시한다는 점에서도 일치한다. 연대기상 어려움이 있는 곳에서도, 그것들은 모든 세속 역사가의 독자에게 익숙한 어려움, 사실상 고대 연대기 전체에 퍼져 있는 어려움을 조금도 넘어서지 않는다. 그것들은 부분적으로 계산 방식의 차이로 설명될 수 있으며, 때로는 의심할 여지 없이 손상된 독법이나 권위 없는 삽입에서 비롯된다.
다윗이 늙자 의사들의 조언에 따라 수넴 여자 아비삭이 그를 봉양한다. 아도니야가 요압과 아비아달과 함께 왕권을 차지하려고 모의한다. 나단과 밧세바가 이 소식을 늙은 왕에게 알린다, 11-27절. 다윗은 즉시 솔로몬을 자신의 후계자로 선언하고, 사독과 나단에게 그를 왕으로 선포하고 기름 붓게 한다. 아도니야와 그의 친구들이 그 소식을 듣고 두려워하여 달아난다. 아도니야는 제단 뿔을 붙잡고, 솔로몬이 자기 생명을 보장해 주기 전에는 거기서 내려가기를 거절한다. 솔로몬은 그렇게 해 주고 그를 자기 집으로 돌려보낸다.
열왕기상 서론
이 책과 다음 책은 본래 한 권의 책이며 두 부분으로 나뉜 것으로, 유대인들 사이에서는 열왕기라는 공통 이름으로 통했다. 시리아어 역본에서는 열왕기(the Book of Kings)라 불리고, 아랍어 역본에서는 선지자 다윗의 아들 솔로몬의 책이라 불리는데, 이는 이 책이 그 아버지의 죽음에 뒤이은 솔로몬의 통치로 시작하기 때문이다. 또 불가타 라틴어 역본에서는 열왕기 제3서라 불리는데, 앞선 두 권인 사무엘서가 때때로 열왕기 제1서와 제2서로 불렸고 그 책들이 사울과 다윗의 통치를 담고 있기 때문이다. 칠십인역에서는 이 책과 다음 책을 모두 왕국기(Kingdoms)라 부르는데, 솔로몬의 아들 르호보암 때의 분열 이후 이스라엘과 유다 왕국과 그 여러 왕들을 다루기 때문이다. 곧 분열 이전에는 솔로몬을 다루고, 그 이후로는 유다의 왕들, 즉 르호보암, 아비얌, 아사, 여호사밧, 여호람, 아하시야, 요아스, 아마샤, 웃시야 곧 아사랴, 요담, 아하스, 히스기야, 므낫세, 아몬, 요시야, 여호아하스, 여호야김, 여호야긴, 시드기야를 다루며, 이스라엘의 왕들로는 여로보암, 나답, 바아사, 엘라, 시므리, 오므리, 아합, 아하시야, 예후, 여호아하스, 요아스, 요아스의 아들 여로보암, 스가랴, 살룸, 므나헴, 브가히야, 베가, 호세아를 다룬다. 그러므로 이 책들은 유다와 이스라엘 두 왕국의 왕들에 관한 책 또는 역사라 불리는 것이 매우 합당하다. 누가 이 책들을 기록했는지는 말하기 쉽지 않다. 어떤 이들은 나단, 실로 사람 아히야, 잇도, 이사야, 예레미야처럼 여러 통치기에 잇달아 살았던 선지자들이 조각조각 기록한 것을 후에 영감받은 기록자가 하나로 엮은 것이라고 본다. 유대인들은 흔히 (a) 예레미야가 열왕기를 기록했다고 말하는데, 이는 이 책과 다음 책을 뜻한다. 그러나 이 책들은 에스라가 기록했을 가능성이 매우 높으니, 그 안의 역사가 바벨론에서 여호야긴에게 자유가 주어진 데까지 내려오기 때문이다. 그러나 에스라가 앞선 모든 역사서를, 심지어 모세오경까지 기록했다는 것은 받아들일 수 없다. 그것은 스피노자(Spinosa)의 억측이며 (b), 그 논고의 일부가 지금 막 어떤 이에 의해 한 자도 다름 없이 난외에 적힌 제목으로 재간행되었다 (c). 그러나 에스라가 모세오경의 기록자가 아니라는 것은 분명하니, 그가 그것을 모세가 기록한 것으로, 또 자기 시대의 종교와 예배의 규범으로 언급하기 때문이다, Ezra 3:2. 또한 이 기록들이 요시야, 아마샤, 요아스의 시대에, 참으로 다윗의 시대에, 심지어 여호수아의 시대에도 존재했음이 확실하다, 2 Chronicles 34:14. 여호수아서로 말하자면, 그것도 에스라의 시대보다 훨씬 앞서 기록되었다. 그것은 다윗의 시대보다 훨씬 앞서, 곧 여부스 사람들이 예루살렘에서 쫓겨나기 전에 기록되었음이 분명하니, 그 기록자가 그들이 자기 시대에 거기 거하였다고 말하기 때문이다, Joshua 15:63. 사사기는 사무엘과 다윗의 시대 이전에 기록되었음이 분명하니, 전자가 그 연대기를 언급하고, 1 Samuel 12:9, 후자가 그 안의 몇몇 대목을 암시하기 때문이다, Psalm 68:7. Judges 5:4 을 보라. 또 요압의 말은, 2 Samuel 11:21, 그것이 그때 이미 현존하던 역사임을 보여 준다. 여기에 덧붙일 것은, 그 안에서 예루살렘이 여부스라 불린다는 점이다, Judges 19:10. 다윗이 여부스 사람들의 손에서 그 성을 빼앗은 후로는 결코 그렇게 불리지 않았다, 2 Samuel 5:6. 룻기는 아마도 사무엘이 기록했을 것이다. 만일 그것이 더 후대의 것이거나 에스라가 기록한 것이라면, 그 끝맺는 족보가 틀림없이 다윗보다 더 멀리 이어졌을 것이다. 사무엘서, 특히 그 안의 한나의 노래는 시편 백십삼 편이 지어지기 전에 기록되었을 가능성이 매우 높으니, Psalm 113:1, 그 시편의 몇몇 표현이 거기서 취해진 것으로 보이기 때문이다. 그러므로 열왕기 두 권은 에스라가 기록하거나 편집했다고 인정할 수 있으나, 앞선 열 권은 그에게 돌릴 수 없다. 그러나 이 두 권의 신적 권위를 의심할 여지는 없으니, 우리 주님께서 그 안의 여러 역사를 인용하거나 언급하심으로써 그 책들에 돌리신 영예를 살펴보면 그러하다. 곧 스바 여왕이 솔로몬의 지혜를 들으러 온 기사, 엘리야 시대의 기근, 그 선지자가 사렙다 과부에게 보내진 일, 엘리사 시대에 수리아 사람 나아만이 깨끗함을 받은 일이 그것이다, Matthew 12:42 from 1 Kings 17:1 2 Kings 5:10. 여기에 사도들이 그 안의 구절들을 인용하고 언급한 것도 더할 수 있으니, 사도 바울이 Romans 11:2 에서 1 Kings 19:14 를 인용한 것이 그러하며, 거기서 이 책은 명백히 성경이라 불린다. 또 사도 야고보가 James 5:17 에서 분명히 1 Kings 17:1 을 언급한다. 그리고 성경의 이 부분에는 이교 저술가들의 증언으로 확증되는 여러 사실이 있는데, 이는 그 주해 과정에서 살펴볼 것이다. 이 책들의 용도는 유대 민족의 역사를 이어 가고, 그 시대 하나님의 교회의 상태와 나라의 온갖 변천과 부침 속에서 그 교회를 향한 하나님의 섭리적 돌보심을 보여 주며, 무엇보다 메시아의 참된 족보를 우리에게 전해 주는 데 있으니, 이는 복음서 기자 마태의 족보 기사를 확증하는 데 이바지한다.
(a) T. Bab. Bava Bathra, fol. 15. 1.((b) Tractat. Theolog. Politic. c. 8. & 9. p. 150, &c. (c) Tractatus de Primis 12. Vet. Test. Lib. &c. Londini 1763.
열왕기상 1장 서론
이 장은 노년에 이른 다윗의 병약함과 그를 그 가운데서 돕기 위해 사용된 방법을 전하고, 1 Kings 1:1, 그의 아들 아도니야가 왕위를 찬탈하려고 준비한 일을 전하며, 1 Kings 1:5, 그 일로 밧세바가 자기 아들 솔로몬을 위하여 왕에게 아뢴 일을 전한다. 이 일은 선지자 나단이 그에게 권한 것이었고, 나단이 뒤이어 이를 뒷받침하였다, 1 Kings 1:11. 그때 왕은 맹세로써 솔로몬이 왕국을 계승할 것을 확정하고, 선지자 나단과 제사장 사독에게 그에게 기름 부으라 명하였으며, 이는 큰 예식과 함께 그대로 행하여져 왕과 그 신하들을 만족하게 하였다, 1 Kings 1:28. 그 소식이 아도니야와 그 친구들에게 전해지자 그들은 두려움에 사로잡혔고, 이에 흩어졌다, 1 Kings 1:41. 그리고 아도니야가 솔로몬에게 잘 처신하겠다고 약속하매 그는 용서받고 놓여났으니, 그는 도망하여 제단 뿔을 붙잡고 있었던 것이다, 1 Kings 1:51.
THE FIRST BOOK OF THE KINGS
I. Kings.
BY
THE RIGHT RET. ALFRED BARRY, D.D.
INTRODUCTION
TO
THE BOOKS OF THE KINGS.[1]
[1] While I alone am answerable for this Introduction, I have to acknowledge with gratitude some valuable criticisms and suggestions from my colleague in the work, the Rev. C. J. Ball, A.B.
I. Unity of the Book, and Relation to the Earlier Books.—The history of the kings (Sêpher Melachim) is really but one book. The division into two books, which has no existence in the old Hebrew canon, and has been borrowed by us from the LXX. and Vulgate, is a purely arbitrary division, not even corresponding to any marked epoch in the history. It may have been made merely for convenience of use and reference. It may have been simply artificial; for there is a curious note in St. Jerome’s account of the arrangement of the Hebrew Canon in twenty-two books, according with the letters of the Hebrew alphabet, in which he remarks that to the five double letters corresponded five double books, of which the Book of Kings is one. In any case it is to be disregarded, and the two books treated as having a perfect unity of idea and authorship.
In the LXX., followed in this by the Vulgate, the Books of Samuel are called the “First and Second Books of the Kings,” and our Books of Kings are made the Third and Fourth. It has been supposed that this ancient alteration of the Hebrew titles is intended to point to a common authorship. Some have gone so far as to make the whole history from Judges to Kings one unbroken compilation, in which the present divisions are but accidental; and in confirmation of this view it has been noticed that all the successive books open with the simple conjunction “And” (in our version, “Now”), that the various books contain common phrases and terms of expression, and that even in the Book of Judges (Judges 17:6; Judges 18:1; Judges 19:1) we find allusions to the future monarchy of Israel. Now these indications certainly show that the successive books were regarded as forming part of one history, and that the compilers had probably much the same ancient sources of information before them. Possibly, they may also imply the agency of what we should call an editor, at the time of the inclusion of the books in the Canon. But they cannot argue anything as to contemporaneous compilation. The connection in particular of the Books of Samuel and Kings is easily accounted for without any such supposition, by the consideration that, in actual fact, these books do include the whole history of the Israelitish monarchy. Against the notion of common authorship we must set the marked difference of language and character, which can hardly escape the most careless reader. Even in respect of the language of the books, there seems little doubt that the Hebrew of the Books of Samuel belongs to an earlier and purer age. But looking to the whole style and narrative, we observe that the Books of Kings have far more of an official and annalistic character; they mark dates and epochs, and quote authorities; they include the story of some 430 years in the same space which in the earlier books is devoted to about a century. Except in the sections which deal with the lives of Elijah and Elisha, and include descriptions of the characters of Ahab and Jezebel, they have far less freedom of style, less graphic vividness and beauty, and less of moral and spiritual force than the earlier books. There is (for example) no character in them which stands out with the living personality of David, or even of Saul; unless perhaps the characters of the two great prophets may be excepted. The successive kings are viewed as kings, rather than as men. Many of them are to us little more than names marking epochs. Even where they are drawn in some detail, as in the case of Solomon, Jehoshaphat, Jehu, Hezekiah, Josiah, the kingly character mostly predominates over the human individuality. It is impossible not to see that each of the two works has a marked internal unity of peculiar style and character, in which it differs from the other. By whomsoever they were compiled, they must be referred to different hands, and to different periods.
II. Sources from which it was Drawn.—While, however, the Books of Kings have been brought by one hand into their present form, they are manifestly a compilation from more ancient sources. This is, indeed, avowed in their constant appeal to extant documents. But it would be obvious, even without such appeal, from internal evidence—from the alternate accordance and discordance with them of the independent record contained in the Books of Chronicles; from the occurrence of expressions (as “unto this day,” in 1Kings 8:8 and elsewhere) which could not belong to the time of compilation; and from the marked variety of style and treatment in the various parts of the history itself. The only sources to which they actually refer are “the book of the Acts of Solomon” (1Kings 11:41), and the “books of the Chronicles of the kings of Israel and of Judah.” The former is expressly ascribed, in 2Chronicles 9:29, to the authorship of Nathan the prophet, Ahijah the Shilonite, and Iddo the seer. The latter may have been most frequently drawn up by “the recorder” or chronicler, whom we find mentioned as a court official in the successive reigns (see 2Samuel 8:16; 1Kings 4:3; 2Kings 18:18). But in many cases the office of annalist was undoubtedly discharged by the prophets; as, for example, by Shemaiah and Iddo for Rehoboam (2Chronicles 12:15), by Iddo for Abijah (2 Chronicles 13, 22), by Jehu son of Hanani, for Jehoshaphat (2Chronicles 20:34), by Isaiah for Uzziah (2Chronicles 26:22). In the record of the reign of Hezekiah, the compiler of the Books of Kings has embodied, almost verbatim, the historical chapters appended to the earlier part of the Book of Isaiah (Isaiah 36-39.). It is, indeed, thought that the later name for Seer (Chözeh), which is altogether distinct from the earlier title (Rôeh) applied to Samuel (1Samuel 9:9; 1Samuel 9:11, &c.), was an official title, indicating a position of authority and service in the court. Among the duties of his office the work of the historian may have been sometimes included. Probably it is not by mere technical arrangement that the historical books were included among “the Prophets” in the Jewish division of the Old Testament.
But although these sources alone are distinctly indicated, we can hardly doubt that others were actually available. There were Temple archives, from which so much of the record of the Book of Chronicles appears to be drawn; and it is difficult not to suppose that from these much is taken of the almost technical account of the building and furniture of the Temple, and of the full and detailed history of its consecration. The records, again, of the careers of the prophets, especially of the great prophets Elijah and Elisha, bear the impress of a character wholly different from that of the more official parts of the history. The beauty and vividness of the style, and the spiritual force of the narrative, appear to indicate that they are taken from some personal biographies, probably produced in the Schools of the Prophets, and possibly handed down by oral tradition, before they were committed to writing. The story of Elijah at Carmel and at Horeb, and on the great day of his translation, the picture of Elisha in his intercourse with Naaman, in the house of the Shunammite, amidst the angel guards at Dothan, or in the prophetic foresight of his dying hour, could have come from no official records. In the Books of the Chronicles (see Introduction to Chronicles) we find repeated references to prophetic annals. It is hardly likely that a prophetic School of History would have omitted to dwell on the glorious history of the prophetic order. The supposition entertained by some critics, and enunciated with an almost intolerant positiveness, that the story of the great prophets is a half-imaginative composition of later growth, is contradicted by the very characteristics of the story itself—the unity and vividness of the characters depicted, the graphic touches of detail, and the solid realism of the whole narrative. Probably it would never have been entertained, except on the ground of a priori objection to all record of miracle.
III. Date of its Compilation.—While, however, these older materials of various kinds were employed, it is clear, from the general coherency of the narrative, the recurrence of fixed phrases and methods of treatment, and the characteristics of the style and language, that the books, as we at present have them, were put into form by one author. They may previously have passed through many hands, each compiler leaving his work to be dealt with by his successor. There may be a germ of truth in the confident assertions of the Biblical critics who describe the “old prophetic Book of Kings” as confidently as if they had collated it, and distinguish the contributions of the “Deuteronomist editor” as if they had seen him at work. But, as the book now stands, it is acknowledged by all that the style, the language, and some of the expressions used, refer it very plainly to the era of the Captivity. The curious notice, in the closing verses of the Second Book, of the release of Jehoiachin from prison by Evil-Merodach, the king of Babylon, in the thirty-seventh year of his captivity (unless, indeed, it be supposed, somewhat arbitrarily, to be an addition), may be taken, like the abrupt conclusion of the Acts of the Apostles, to indicate the actual date of the final composition of the books themselves.
Tradition of Authorship.—The old Jewish tradition, embodied in the Talmud, ascribing the book to the prophet Jeremiah, at least points unmistakably to its composition in this era. On the accuracy of this ascription itself the most careful criticism is still divided. The traditions of the Talmud vary very greatly in antiquity and value; and the strange character of some of the ascriptions of authorship of Scriptural books obliges us to receive all with reservation. Still they must have some primâ facie force of testimony, unless they be plainly contradicted by internal evidence. In this case, moreover, it cannot be doubted that the tradition has in its favour considerable probability, when we remember the great honour in which Jeremiah was held by the Chaldæan conquerors (see Jeremiah 39:11-14; Jeremiah 40:2-6), and the consequent facilities which he might have enjoyed for saving some of the records of the Temple before its destruction (illustrated by the curious legend of his preservation of the Ark and the Tabernacle in 2 Maccabees 2:1-6); when we consider how naturally he, the last of the prophets of the era of Israel’s independence, would be led to preserve the record of its long probation; and when we trace his actual devotion to the work of the historian, as shown in the many historical chapters interwoven with his prophecy. To these considerations many critics add some notable similarities which they believe that they trace between these books and the Book of Jeremiah, not only in detailed points of the history, but in style and diction;[2] they note also the coincidence, with variations of detail, of Jeremiah 52 with the last chapter of the Second Book of Kings (which, however, would in itself only show that the compiler of the latter book had knowledge of the Book of Jeremiah); and dwell on the remarkable omission of all notice in the Book of Kings of the prophet Jeremiah, who played so important a part in the history, and who is expressly noticed more than once in the far briefer account in the Chronicles. (See 2Chronicles 35:25; 2Chronicles 36:12.)[3] These evidences are not conclusive; but, when we take them in conjunction with the old Jewish tradition, and the probabilities of the case, we cannot but conclude that there is at least some considerable ground for the theory of the authorship of Jeremiah, or perhaps of Baruch the scribe, to whom the written form of some part at least of the Book of Jeremiah (see Jeremiah 36:4; Jeremiah 36:32; Jeremiah 45) must be traced.
[2] See Canon Rawlinson’s Introduction in the Speaker’s Commentary, § 4.
[3] See, for example, Keil’s Introduction, the article “KINGS” (by Bishop hord A. Hervey), in the Dictionary of the Bible, and Canon Rawlinson’s introduction in the Speaker’s Commentary.
IV. Its General Character and Purpose.—The compiler, whoever he was, was evidently much more than a mere copyist. The very character of his work shows that he had in view throughout the great purpose which pervades the whole prophetic utterances—to bring out the Divine government over the covenanted people; to trace their sins and their repentance, God’s punishments and His forgiveness; to draw forth, for the learning of the servants of God in all ages, the spiritual lessons taught by the voice of “God in history.” To suppose that the carrying out of this didactic purpose is in the slightest degree incompatible with faithful accuracy in narration of facts, is to misunderstand the main principles of true historical composition, which alone make history something higher than the “old almanac” of the shallow epigrammatist. To study the books themselves without discovering in them, again and again, evidences of historical and geographical accuracy, even in points of detail—traces of the incorporation of official documents and of the narratives of eye-witnesses—curious signs of independence, and yet of coincidence, in respect of the glimpses into Tyrian, Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and even Moabite history, which recent discoveries have given us—marks of a lofty and austere candour, not only disregarding the prejudices of patriotic vainglory, but even bringing out the better features of character in those whom it condemns—examples of a simple profoundness of insight into the causes underlying external history—might well seem to be impossible; unless we bring to the study some foregone conclusions as to the impossibility of the miraculous, in fact or in foresight, which are destructive of the historical character of the whole of Scripture. Still that the historian is a true prophet, teaching by examples, is obvious in every line of his history.
The evidence of this purpose is not to be found only or chiefly in the passages of grave reflection scattered through the books. Such are, for example, the constant references to the prohibited “high places,” showing that in these he, by the light of subsequent events, saw a danger which escaped even the most earnest reformers of earlier times. (See 1Kings 3:3; 1Kings 15:14; 1Kings 22:43, &c.) Such, again, is the significant notice (in 1Kings 12:15) of the judicial blindness of Rehoboam, as carrying out the appointed vengeance of the Lord on the apostasy of Solomon; the reflections on the sentences pronounced on the houses of Jeroboam and Baasha, and on the special sin of Ahab, which drew down similar destruction on the house of Omri (1Kings 12:30; 1Kings 13:33-34; 1Kings 16:7; 1Kings 21:25-26); the emphatic reference to the mercy of God, giving to the kingdom of Israel a last deliverance and probation in the revival of power under Joash and Jeroboam II. (2Kings 13:5-6); above all, the solemn chapter of sad confession of God’s righteous judgment, in the fall of that kingdom after many warnings and many acts of forgiveness (2Kings 17:7-23), and the corresponding reference in the case of Judah to the unpardonable and ineradicable corruptions introduced by Manasseh, which even Josiah’s reformation could not take away (2Kings 21:10-15; 2Kings 23:26-27; 2Kings 24:3-4; 2Kings 24:20). In all these there is a deep prophetic insight into the ways of God, not untinged by the sadness so characteristic of all the prophets (especially of Hosea and Jeremiah, the prophets of woe to Israel and to Judah), but yet convinced that the Judge of the whole earth must do right, and even resting with satisfaction on His righteous judgment.
But the whole tenor and construction of the history tell this story with even greater emphasis. On attentive study it will be seen to be not so much a continuous narrative, as a series of records of great epochs of historical significance, strung on a thin thread of mere annalistic sequence. Thus, (a) the First Book opens with a section of comparatively detailed narrative, full of lessons of practical instruction, describing the great reign of Solomon, and the revolution which avenged its apostasy and destroyed its glory (1 Kings 1-14.). After this, (b) a period of at least forty years is dismissed in two chapters (1 Kings 15, 16) with the briefest possible notice, only just sufficient to give connection to the general narrative. To this succeeds (c) the most magnificent section of the whole book (1 Kings 17 -2 Kings 11), unsurpassed in power in the historical books of the Old Testament, which, in the lives of the great prophets Elijah and Elisha, represents to us the great crisis of the Baal apostasy, the victorious struggle against it by the prophetic inspiration, supported by a special outburst of miraculous power, and the final vengeance which extirpated it, alike in Israel and in Judah. After this comes (d) an epoch of important historical events—first, of a marvellous revival of prosperity and power to Israel under Joash and Jeroboam II., to Judah under Joash, Amaziah, Uzziah; next, of a period of revolution, anarchy, and bloodshed, which ushered in the final destruction of the northern kingdom. But it was (as the prophetic writings of Amos and Hosea show us) an epoch in which no spiritual vitality showed itself through national prosperity or national disaster; and therefore it is compressed within six chapters (2 Kings 12-17) in which, moreover, whole reigns, like the long and prosperous reign of Jeroboam II., are all but a blank, (e) Similarly in the last epoch, when the kingdom of Judah alone survived, the two reigns of religious reformation—those of Hezekiah and Josiah—are given in graphic and detailed narrative, occupying five chapters (1 Kings 18-20, 22, 23), while the long reign of Manasseh, which, in its apostasy and corruption, filled up hopelessly the measure of national iniquity, is dismissed in a few verses (1Kings 21:1-18), and the whole history of the last agony of Judah, after the death of Josiah, occupies little more than two chapters (1Kings 24, 25). It is clear from the very method of the historical narrative that the purpose of the book is mainly didactic. The writer dwells rather on the lessons of history than the mere record of facts; on typical characters of good and evil, which appeal to the humanity of all times, rather than on the social and political conditions of the nation which belonged only to his own age; on the solemn march of the righteous providence of God, rather than on the confused and multitudinous struggles of human wills. In other words, he discharges what is virtually the prophetic office—only that he declares the works, instead of the direct word, of God. In this lies the spiritual value of the book for us. In this characteristic view of all events, far more than of the miraculous element of the record, we find the distinctive characteristic of what we call “Sacred history.”
V. Illustrations from other Books.—The study of the books, moreover, from this point of view is greatly helped by the illustration which they derive from comparison with other books of Holy Scripture, belonging to the same period of Jewish history.
The Chronicles.—It is, of course, obvious to compare them with the parallel record given in the Second Book of Chronicles. That record is of far later date. We cannot doubt that the Chronicler had the Books of Kings before him; for there are places in which he seems deliberately to pass over, or merely to glance at, what had been fully recorded there. But it is also clear that his work is, on the whole, independent; he evidently had and used the same ancient materials, and, besides these, other materials, especially the Temple records, and the prophetic annals, which he frequently cites; in passages of general coincidence there are constantly touches of variation, sometimes of apparent discrepancy; and in the history of the kingdom of Judah, to which he confines himself, there are many epochs in which he fills up generally what in our book is but a bare outline, or supplies special incidents which are there omitted. (See Introduction to Chronicles.) Considering the date and character of the two works, it is probably well to take the Book of Kings as the standard account, and so far accept the significance of the title of Παραλειπομένων (“things omitted”), given in the LXX. to the Chronicles, as to make them a commentary, an illustration, and a supplement of the older word. But each has its independent character and value. The Book of Kings has been called the prophetic record, the Book of Chronicles the priestly record, of the time. This would be a misleading antithesis, if it was taken to convey the notion of antagonism or even marked diversity of idea between the books, which any attentive study of both must dissipate. But it is so far true as this—that the Book of Kings, dealing so largely with the kingdom of Israel, naturally gives special prominence to the office and work of the older prophets, who ministered chiefly to that kingdom; while the Book of Chronicles, being almost exclusively the history of Judah, brings out the power of the priesthood and the royalty of David, which played so great a part—sometimes in union, sometimes in antagonism—in the spiritual history of the southern kingdom.
But besides this direct comparison of the two historical records, there is illustration no less valuable of the idea and purpose of the Books of Kings to be derived from other Scriptural books not properly historical, which, indeed, its narrative binds together in one continuous order of development.
The Psalms.—The illustration to be derived from the Psalms would be far more instructive, if we were not driven to rely mainly on internal evidence as to their date and occasion, and were not accordingly, in most cases, unable to fix these points with any certainty. But even with this drawback, the illustration is invaluable, as painting to us the inner life of Israel during the period of our history; for to this period a large portion of the Psalter must certainly be referred. There seems much probability that the first division of the Psalter (Psalms 1-41) took shape in the time of Solomon, for use in the Temple worship. In the later divisions many psalms are, with more or less authority, ascribed to Asaph, to Heman (and the sons of Korah), and to Ethan, the three chief musicians of David, and probably of Solomon also. Of these subsequent divisions it is at least not unlikely that some mark and illustrate the religious revivals of Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, and Josiah. Nor is more particular reference altogether wanting. Two psalms (72, 127) are ascribed to Solomon—the one, a picture of the glory and majesty of his kingdom; the other (one of “the Songs of Degrees”), ascribing to the Lord alone the blessings of earthly prosperity and happiness. Other psalms, especially among those ascribed to the sons of Korah, are of a national character—crying to God in national disaster (Psalms 44), thanking Him in the hour of triumph and deliverance (Psalms 46-48, 85), singing hymns at the marriage of the king (Psalms 45), or proclaiming the loveliness and gladness of the dwellings of the Lord of Hosts (Psalms 84). One group (Psalms 91-100) has been thought by some to belong to the golden age of Hezekiah’s glory and Isaiah’s prophecy. The “great Hallel” (Psalms 113-118), though found in the divisions of the Psalter belonging to the era after the Captivity, yet illustrates the festal worship of the people in the Temple of God: such psalms as Psalms 137 mark the sorrows of the Captivity by “the waters of Babylon.” In all cases, the Psalms are the lyric expression of the inner life of the chosen people, and of the individual servants of God, underlying the simple narrative which our books supply. We must study them if we would catch the spirit which animates the letter of the historic record itself.
The Sapiential Books.—But plainer illustration is gained from books which can be more certainly referred to distinct periods in the history. Thus the golden age of the glory of Solomon is illustrated by consideration of the various books which may be called “Sapiential.” The great Book of PROVERBS, both in its poetical and gnomic portions, tracing itself to him as the chief master of wisdom—perhaps much as the Psalter bears the name of David—is in its representation of wisdom the key at once to the true nature of the culture and glory of his age, and to the tendencies which, gaining the mastery, brought on its fall. The SONG OF SOLOMON—now by all the best authorities referred unhesitatingly to his age, probably to his hand—is full of the passion for beauty, the delight in nature, the sensibility to pure love, the knowledge of humanity marking both the character of the great king, and the culture of his time; yet is not without the tendency to rest on the visible and the sensual, in which was the germ of his voluptuous polygamy. The Book of JOB—which, whatever be the date of its original materials, is commonly referred to his time—certainly opens the great questions of Natural Religion, concerning man as man, which belong to an age searching after wisdom, and having contact with the thought and inquiry of races outside the covenant. The wonderful Book of ECCLESIASTES, to whatever period it is to be referred, in its depiction of a souľs tragedy shows no little insight, into the character of him in whose person it speaks, as wearied out with the search after happiness in wisdom and in pleasure, in contemplation and in action, and coming back at last in despair to the simple command, “Fear God, and keep His commandments,” which was the first teaching of childhood. Only when studied in connection with the history can these books be rightly understood; so studied they give, on the other hand, an infinite life and colour to the bare massive outline drawn in the historical books.
The Prophetic Books.—Again, the later history of the Second Book borrows even greater illustration from the prophetic writings—much as the earlier part of the record derives its chief interest from the action of the elder prophets of unwritten prophecy from Ahijah to Elisha. Thus, the period of national revival in Israel under Jeroboam II., and the unhappy period of decline and fall which succeeded it—so briefly and coldly narrated in our books—live in the pages of AMOS, the prophet of the day of hollow and licentious prosperity, and HOSEA, the prophet of the well-merited doom of judgment. There we discover the evils which lurked under a material prosperity and an outward semblance of religion; there we see how they burst out, rending the very bonds of society, as soon as that prosperity began to wane. So, again, the character of the reckless and cruel greatness of the Assyrian Empire, shown so terribly in the destruction of Israel and in the imminent danger of Judah, is marvellously illustrated by NAHUM, in his grand patriotic hymn of triumph over the foreseen fall of Nineveh. To the days of prosperity of Uzziah, who “loved husbandry,” belong (it seems) the utterances of JOEL, picturing physical disasters as God’s judgment, calling to repentance, promising temporal and spiritual blessing, and beginning the series of Apocalyptic visions of the vain struggle of the enemies against the people of God. Once more, the great epoch of Hezekiah’s religious revival is marked by the writings of the prophet MICAH, who, indeed, gave the signal for it (see Jeremiah 26:8), and in whom first Messianic prophecy becomes clear and definite. The two grand crises of that reign—the danger under Ahaz from Syria and Israel, and the invasion of Sennacherib—form two chief themes of the supreme prophecy of ISAIAH, out of which the Messianic hope rises almost to actual vision. To the interval between Hezekiah and Josiah, when the Chaldean power begins to come into prominence, we may perhaps refer the magnificent brevity of the prophecy of HABAKKUK. Certainly the pathetic interest of the reign of Josiah, is illustrated by the foreboding utterances of ZEPHANIAH. The bitterness of the captivity of Judah—probably the great Captivity—is brought out in the denunciation of Edomite triumph and cruelty in the hour of Judah’s disaster by OBADIAH. Nor is it too much to say that the whole history of the last agony of the kingdom of Judah can be read adequately only in the historical and prophetical chapters of the great Book of JEREMIAH. The Books of Kings supply the thread of connection, which binds the prophetic books together, enabling us rightly to understand the sub- stance of each, and the method of prophetic development running through them all. The prophecies, on the other hand, supply constantly the key to the true sense of the history, drawing out explicitly the lesson which it teaches by implication, and giving us a living picture of the ages which it sketches only in outline.
VI. Illustrations from Profane History.—To these all-important illustrations must be added, as subsidiary, the light thrown upon the narrative by the study of the various heathen records, whether found in the works of ancient historians, or read in the monumental history of nations which came in contact with Israel, discovered and deciphered in modern times. This kind of illustration, hardly known in the case of the earlier books, begins substantially in the Book of Kings.
The account of Josephus, with all its acknowledged defects, is of very great value, both as a gloss on the Scriptural account, and an occasional supplement to it. The variations found in the LXX. version, in the way of transposition, addition, and omission, are not, indeed, of great importance; for the only substantial addition in the history of Jeroboam (see Note at the end of 1 Kings 11) is obviously legendary. But they are of considerable interest, and occasionally indicate the existence of independent traditions. The authors quoted by Josephus or early Christian historians (such as Berosus, Manetho, Ptolemy), the monuments of Egypt, Assyria, and Babylon, even the Moabitic stone, all throw light again and again on the Book of Kings; and, though not without occasional difficulties and discrepancies of detail, have unquestionably furnished the strongest confirmation of its historic truth, and have cleared up some obscurities in its brief record. The history, it will be observed, comes in contact with the history of Tyre in the reigns of Hiram and Ethbaal, father of Jezebel; with the history of Egypt in the reign of the Pharaoh father-in-law of Solomon, of Shishak, of “Zerah the Ethiopian,” of Sabaco (the So or Seveh of 2Kings 17:3), of Tirhakah, and of Pharaoh-necho; with the history of Assyria under the “Pul” of 2Kings 15:19, Tiglath-pileser, Shalmaneser, Sargon, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon; with the history of Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar; even with our one glimpse of the history of Moab under Mesha in the reign of Jehoram of Israel. Most of our knowledge of these histories is comparatively new. When it is read through the extraordinary monumental records of Egypt, Assyria, and Babylon—the discovery and deciphering of which form some of the most wonderful chapters in historical study—it not only brings cut facts, determines dates, confirms or corrects our interpretations, but it gives us a vivid picture of the very life and character of the great Empires, which often explains the different views taken of them in Scripture, and always gives force and colour to our conceptions of the Scripture history itself. The treasure-house is far from being exhausted. Future generations may rival or excel the advance made in this generation and the last, and every advance will be of no inconsiderable value to the student of Scripture history.
The effect of all this study and illustration of the book is to bring out more and more both its historical authenticity and its didactic value. The substance of the history, and even the text, have but few obscurities, and these are generally elucidated by comparison with the ancient versions.
VII. The Numbers given in the Book.—The one difficulty in the interpretation of the book lies in the numbers, chronological and other, which occur in it. These are now always written in full; but there is every reason to believe that in the original manuscripts they were, as usual, indicated by Hebrew letters—a method of indication which, as is well known, gives the greatest facility to accidental or intentional corruption. Thus, in our book, and still more in the Chronicles, it is difficult not to suppose that the large numbers given in the history (as, for example, 1Kings 20:29-30; 2Chronicles 14:8-9; 2Chronicles 17:12-18; 2Chronicles 25:5-6; 2Chronicles 26:12, &c.) are without authority, due to careless transcription, or to corruption of the original document by the exaggeration of Jewish scribes.
The Chronology.—It is possible that this facility of corruption in numbers may bear upon what is the chief critical difficulty of the book, the determination of its chronology. In this book, unlike the earlier historical books, the calculations of dates are given in the text with great exactness, whether by the hand of the historian or by that of some later chronologer.
The first remarkable date is that mentioned in 1Kings 6:1, fixing the commencement of the Temple in the 480th year after the Exodus. With regard to this date, which has presented much difficulty to chronologers, see Note on the passage. By whomsoever given, it deserves very careful consideration in the calculation of Biblical chronology.
Next we have the reign of Solomon given at forty years (1Kings 11:43); against which the statement of Josephus that he reigned eighty years (Ant. viii. 7. 8) can hardly be held to be of serious moment.
From the time of the disruption, we have, marked with great precision, first, the duration of the successive reigns of the kings of Israel; next, the duration of the reigns of the kings of Judah; lastly, statements of the synchronism of accessions in each line with certain years in the reigns of the kings of the other line. Now, in the present condition of the text, these three lines of calculation present occasional discrepancies; and this is especially the case with the synchronistic notices, which are, indeed, believed by many to have been added by a later hand, both because of their rather formal artificiality, and of the evident confusion which they introduce. Setting these last aside, the discrepancies are slight. In any case they are not great and may be easily exhibited.
The whole history (after the reign of Solomon) can be divided into three periods—(a) from the contemporaneous accession of Jeroboam and Rehoboam to the contemporaneous deaths of Jehoram of Israel and Ahaziah of Judah by the hand of Jehu; (b) from the contemporaneous accession of Jehu and Athaliah to the fall of Samaria in the sixth year of Hezekiah; (c) from the sixth year of Hezekiah to the capture of Jerusalem. Now, (a) in the first period there is no difficulty. The united reigns in Israel amount to 98 years,[4] in Judah to 95; and, remembering that the dates are always given in round numbers, reckoning, after the Hebrew manner, any part of a year as a year, there is here no real discrepancy, even in the synchronistic notices. We may accept the lower calculation, or perhaps something even less than this, as the true period. In the second period (b) the discrepancy begins. The united reigns in Israel amount to 143 years, in Judah to 165; and the synchronistic notices in the later part of the period are not only disturbed by this discrepancy, but are occasionally self-contradictory.[5] Of this discrepancy there must be some account to be given; for it is too patent to have escaped the notice of the historian himself, or even of a later chronologer. It is, of course, possible to refer it to corruption of the text; but of such corruption we have no indication in any variations of the ancient versions. If this be set aside, there are but two ways of accounting for it. There may have been (as Archbishop Ussher supposed) periods of interregnum in Israel—one of eleven years after the death of Jeroboam II., and before the accession of Zachariah, the other of about the same period between Pekah and Hoshea. But of these the former is most unlikely, for the period of anarchy had not yet set in; the latter, more probable in itself, is apparently inconsistent with the actual words of the historian (2Kings 15:30); of neither is there any trace in the history. The only other possible supposition is, that in Judah some kings may, after common Oriental custom, have acceded to power during their fathers’ reigns, as coadjutors or substitutes. It happens that this is specially likely during this period in two cases. If, as has been thought by some critics, Amaziah after his defeat by Joash was kept in captivity till his conqueror’s death, it would be natural that his son should be placed on the throne; and, when Uzziah had been smitten with leprosy, we actually know that Jotham acted as king before his father’s death (2Kings 15:5). This supposition is, on the whole, most probable. It will not correct the confusion of the synchronistic notices, but it will account for the discrepancy in the collective duration of the reigns in the two lines. In this case it is perhaps, therefore, best again to take the lower calculation. In the third period (c), amounting to 133 years, Judah exists alone, and no difficulty can arise.
[4] If the civil war of four years (see 1Kings 16:15-23) between Omri and Tibri be not included in the reign of Omri, then the period is 102 years.
[5] See (for example) 2Kings 15:27; 2Kings 15:30; 2Kings 15:32; 2Kings 15:16
The general result, therefore, is that, taking the shorter calculation, we have, from the division of the kingdom to the fall of Samaria, a period of 238 years, and from the same point to the fall of Jerusalem a period of 371 years. If the longer calculation be taken, twenty-two years must be added to each of these periods.
Now, we are able to test these calculations by independent chronological data, found in ancient historians and chronologers, and in the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments. By such comparison their general accuracy is very remarkably illustrated, although some discropancies in detail occur.
(a) Thus the capture of Samaria is fixed by Ptolemy’s Canon in B.C. 721; the capture of Jerusalem is determined by undoubted authorities in B.C. 586. The interval between these dates corresponds almost exactly with the time assigned in our text to the sole existence of the kingdom of Judah.
(b) Starting from either of these dates, the calculation in the text, taking the shorter reckoning, would place the accession of Rehoboam at 957 or 959 B.C. Now, the Egyptian records fix the accession of Shishak at about 983 B.C. His invasion took place in his twentieth year, B.C. 963, and as this coincided with the fifth year of Rehoboam, this would fix the accession of Rehoboam at B.C. 968—about half-way between the dates determined by the longer and shorter calculations of the chronology of our book.
(c) The invasion of Pharaoh-necho is placed in our history about twenty-three years before the final capture of Jerusalem, i.e., about B.C. 609. But the Egyptian chronology fixes his reign from 610 to 594, and makes his expedition against Assyria take place early in his reign.
(d) The accession of Sabaco II. (the So or Seveh of 2Kings 17:4) is fixed by the Egyptian records in B.C. 723; the Hebrew text notes the intercourse between him and Hoshea about three years before the capture of Samaria, i.e., 723 or 724. In all these cases there is a very close coincidence between the two chronologies.
(e) The Assyrian chronology agrees less closely. Thus our text makes Menahem’s reign end about thirty years before the fall of Samaria, i.e., B.C. 751. The Assyrian records make Tiglath-pileser receive tribute for him in 741. In our text the expedition of Sennacherib is fixed to about eight years after the fall of Samaria, i.e., B.C. 713. The Assyrian monuments place it about B.C. 701; and this later date seems, to be confirmed by the Canon of Ptolemy. These discrepancies cannot be removed, except by alteration of our text, unless there be some error in the data of our Assyrian calculations. It will be observed that they are simply in detail.
(f) The chronological notices in Josephus, which by their minute accuracy suggest some independent sources of information, do not enable us to pronounce decisively between the two reckonings of the text. Thus (α) he has placed Josiah’s fulfilment of the prophecy against the altar at Bethel 361 years after its utterance, immediately after the division of the kingdom (Ant. x. 1. 4). Now the eighteenth year of Josiah would be according to the shorter reckoning about 336 years, according to the longer reckoning about 352 years, after the division of the kingdom; and the incident recorded took place not earlier, though it may have been later, than the 18th year. (β) In Ant x. 8. 4 he remarks that the kings of David’s race reigned on the whole 514 years, “during twenty of which” (he adds, oddly enough) “Saul reigned, who was not the same tribe.” Allowing forty years for David and eighty (according to Josephus’ calculation) for Solomon, and (it would seem) twenty for Saul, the period for the division of the kingdom to the fall of Jerusalem would be 370 years, which agrees with the shorter reckoning. (γ) The Temple is said (Ant. x. 8. 5) to have fallen “in the tenth day of the sixth month of the 470th year” after its dedication; but since this was in the eleventh year of Solomon, or (according to Josephus) sixty-nine years before the disruption, this would give 401 years for the same period, which is in excess even of the longer reckoning. (δ) In Ant. ix. 14. 1, he gives the period from the disruption to the fall of Samaria as “240 years, 7 months, and 7 days,” which agrees almost exactly with the 238 years of the shorter reckoning.
Hence the effect of this comparison, assuming the general correctness of the non-Scriptural records, is to bring out more clearly—what the condition of the chronology itself would suggest—the existence of some confusions in detail, but an undoubted general correctness even in this, which is acknowledged to be the point of the greatest difficulty. The books thus stand out as true history in the highest sense of the word, uniting clear historical accuracy, even of detail, with vivid depiction of character, and high prophetic insight into the laws of the Providence of God.
[In respect both of the Introduction and the Notes on the First Book of Kings, the author has to express his obligation to the Commentaries of Keil and Thenius; to Ewald’s History of Israel, and (in less degree) to Stanley’s Lectures on the Jewish Church; to Canon Rawlinson’s valuable Introduction and Notes in the Speaker’s Commentary, and his Bampton Lectures; to many articles in Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible, and Winer’s Realwörterbuch, and to Prof. Robertson Smith’s article (“KINGS”) in the Encyclopœdia Britannica. For the study of the text, the Variorum Bible of Messrs. Eyre and Spottiswoode is invaluable. The comparison of the text with the ancient versions, and the study of Josephus’ history, which is, in the main, virtually a paraphrase, are matters of course.]
THE FIRST BOOK OF THE KINGS,
COMMONLY CALLED,
THE THIRD BOOK OF THE KINGS.
General Summary of the Book.—The narrative of this book falls naturally into three sections: First, (a) in 1 Kings 1-14. we have a comparatively detailed record of the accession and reign of Solomon, and of the revolution which produced the disruption both of the kingdom and of the worship of Israel. This record itself varies greatly, both in style and in fulness. In some parts it is graphic and full of spiritual interest; in some it is clearly marked by official, and almost technical, detail; while in others it is brief and summary in style, more like a series of historical notes than a regular narrative. But although it covers only about forty years, it occupies more than half of the entire book. Secondly, (b) in 1 Kings 15, 16 we find only short annalistic accounts of the succession in the two kingdoms, and the chief events of each reign, from Jeroboam to Ahab, and from Rehoboam to Jehoshaphat. Thirdly, (c) in 1 Kings 17-22, with the appearance of Elijah the whole style of the narrative changes to increased fulness, great vividness of description, and expressive spiritual significance, and so continues to the end of the book, and through that portion of the second Book which contains the close of the history of Elijah and the history of Elisha.
In this variety of character we see clear evidence of compilation from older sources—the annals of the kings, the official records of the Temple, and the biographies of the prophets. In it we find, moreover, distinct evidence of the historical accuracy of a record, which is full, where it can draw from detailed records, and contents itself with brief summary, where such materials are wanting. (On the chronology, see Introduction.)
The opening narrative of the beginning of Solomon’s reign, in 1 Kings 1-3, and especially of the accession to the throne, in 1 Kings 1, is given with remarkable vividness and unusual fulness of detail. When we read in 2Chronicles 9:29, that the acts of Solomon were written partly “in the book of Nathan the prophet,” it is impossible not to conjecture that the record of these early days is drawn from this book of one who had been a prominent actor in the whole.
Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Commentary Critical and Explanatory on the Whole Bible
왕상 1:1-4. 아비삭이 다윗의 극심한 노년에 그를 봉양하다. 1, 2절. “다윗 왕이 나이가 많아”라는 말은 그가 칠십 세가 되었음을 가리킨다(삼하 5:4, 5). 그러나 군인으로 살아온 세월의 소모, 육체적 피로, 정신적 염려가 다윗의 강건한 체질의 힘을, 말하자면 이른 때에 고갈시켰다(삼상 16:12). 오늘날 팔레스타인과 이집트에서는 기후가 더워 사람들이 각자 “따로” 잠자리를 쓴다. 이 관습에서 벗어나는 것은 의학적 이유가 있을 때뿐이다(전 4:11). 다윗의 의원들이 권한 이 방법은 동방, 특히 아랍인들 사이에서 비슷한 경우에 아직도 처방되는 요법이다. 그것은 단순히 온기를 주기 위한 것이 아니라 “보살피기” 위한 것으로, 젊은 사람의 숨결을 들이마시면 쇠약한 몸에 새 생명과 활력이 생긴다고 여겼기 때문이다. 젊고 건강한 사람의 건강이 어느 정도 노쇠하고 병약한 사람을 지탱하기 위해 옮겨진다는 사실은 의학계에도 잘 알려져 있었다. 그러므로 늙은 왕에게 내려진 처방은 그의 시든 몸에 전해지는 자연적 온기로 편안함을 주려는 것만이 아니라, 그의 귀중한 생명을 연장하려는 위생적 관점에서 이루어진 것이었다[PORTER, Tent and Khan]. 그 시대와 지역의 일부다처 관습은 이런 조치가 도입된 배경을 설명해 줄 수 있으며, 아비삭이 다윗의 첩 또는 부차적 아내가 되었음은 분명하다(왕상 2:22 주석 참조).
이제 - 더 정확히는 "그리고"이다. 여기서 접속사는 여호수아, 사사기, 사무엘상 등의 시작 부분에서와 같은 연결 기능을 지닌 듯하며, 역사가가 자신의 작품을 앞선 역사 기록의 계속으로 보고 있음을 암시한다.
다윗 왕 - 더 단순한 "다윗" 대신 "다윗 왕"이라는 표현을 쓰는 것은 열왕기 저자의 특징이다. (열왕기 서론을 보라.) 이 구절은 역대기와 사무엘서에서는 비교적 드물다.
나이가 많아 - 다윗은 아마 이제 칠십 세였을 것이다. 그는 헤브론에서 왕이 되었을 때 삼십 세였고(사무엘하 5:4), 헤브론에서 칠 년 육 개월을 다스렸으며(사무엘하 2:11; 역대상 3:4), 예루살렘에서 삼십삼 년을 다스렸다(사무엘하 5:5). 이 표현은 이전에는 팔십 세가 넘은 사람들에게만 사용되었다(창세기 18:11; 창세기 24:1; 여호수아 13:1; 여호수아 23:1). 그러나 이때 유대인들은 장수하지 못했다. 다윗 이후의 유다 왕들 가운데 솔로몬과 므낫세를 제외하고는 육십 세를 넘긴 왕이 없었다.
이불 - 아마 "침구"를 뜻할 것이다. 왕은 분명 병상에 누워 있었다(열왕기상 1:47).
이제 다윗 왕이 늙었다 - 그는 아마 이때 약 예순아홉 살이었을 것이다. 그는 서른 살에 왕위에 올라 사십 년을 다스렸고, 칠십 세에 죽었다. 여기에 언급된 일들은 그의 죽음 약 일 년 전에 일어난 것으로 여겨진다.
그러나 그가 따뜻함을 얻지 못하였다 - 예순아홉은 아주 많은 나이가 아니었다. 그러나 다윗은 여러 가지 피로, 특히 가정의 고통으로 쇠진해 있었으므로, 실제 나이보다 체질상 훨씬 더 늙어 있었다. 게다가 그는 시편에서 자주 언급되는 어떤 소모성 질병들로 고생했던 것으로 보인다.
이 장에는 다음 내용이 있다. I. 다윗의 건강이 쇠약해진 일, 왕상 1:1-4. II. 아도니야가 왕위를 넘보고 이를 위해 자기 당파를 불러 잔치한 일, 왕상 1:5-10. III. 나단과 밧세바가 솔로몬의 왕위 계승을 확보할 방도를 세우고, 그 목적을 위한 다윗의 명령을 받아 낸 일, 왕상 1:11-31. IV. 이에 따라 솔로몬이 기름 부음을 받고 백성이 기뻐한 일, 왕상 1:32-40. V. 이 일이 아도니야의 왕위 찬탈을 효과적으로 저지하고 그의 당파를 흩어지게 한 일, 왕상 1:41-49. VI. 솔로몬이 아도니야에게 선한 행실을 조건으로 물러가도록 허락한 일, 왕상 1:50-53.