Schaff-Herzog Religious Encyclopaedia

MORUS, SAMUEL FRIEDRICH NATHANAEL: German Protestant exegete; b. at Lauban (75 m. e. of Breslau) Nov. 30, 1736; d. at Leipsic Nov. 11, 1792. He received his primary education at home, his father being an instructor in the Lauban Latin school. At the University of Leipsic he came under the influence of J. A. Ernesti (q.v.), and was re- garded as that teacher's best pupil. Some years were spent in private tutoring, during which at the house of Professor Ludwig, one of his patrons, he met Goethe. In 1761 he began giving lectures on Greek and Latin writers at Leipsic. He became professor extraordinary in 1768 and full professor in 1771. After 1780 he lectured on New-Testament exegesis, and on the death of Ernesti was trans- ferred to the theological faculty. He afterward be- came rector and was four times dean between 1774 and 1785. In 1787 he became a member of the consistory of Meissen. In his exegeticid work Moms developed the methods of his teacher Eniesti. His De descrimine scnsus et significationis in inter preianch, De causis, quibus nititur interpretatio aliegoriarum, and his De nexu significationum eiusiiem verbi (in his Z>i«- sertationes theologicae el philologiccpf vol. i., Leipsic, 1787, vol. ii., ed. C. A. T. Keil, Leipsic, 17U4) are of lasting worth. The PrGeleetiones (2 vols., 1794-1810), collected from liis students' notebooks, has historical value only. His Epitome theologice Christiance (1789) is un.systematic, but free from the dogmatism of the period. A collection of his sermons was published at Ijcipsic, 1786. Moms also edited a number of Greek and Latin texts. He was of frail physique, unostentatious in his piety, modest, and a lover of peace. (G. MCller.) Bibliography: The autobiofijaphy of Morun appearo<i in Magazin fQr Prediger, vol. v., 12 vols., Zilllichau, 1781- 1791. Studies of his life and services are by D. Beck, Leipsic. 1792; Voigt, ib. 1792; J. G. C. Hopfner, ib. 1793; and ADB, xxii. 342-344. MOSCHUS, mes'cus: Greek theologian of the 6th century; d. at Rome about 619. The place and date of his birth are unknown and the details of his life are scanty. His name, according to the manuscripts, was Johannes, son of Moschus, but he is also known as "The Continent" or "The Monk." Photius records that he entered the monastery of St. Theo- dosius in Jerusalem, that he then dwelt for a time among the hermits of the Jordan valley, after which he joinetl the monks in the new monastery of Great tSabas, near the Dead Sea. He journeyed to Egypt and the Great Oasis, accompanietl by Sophronius, in the reign of Tiberius II. (578-.'>87). Later still he went to Cyprus and thence to Rome where he died. The fame of Moschus rests upon liis " Meadow," written at Rome and dedicated to Sophronius, probably his companion and later j)atriarch of Je- rusalem (d. 638; see Sophkonius, 2.), who has in- deed been declared (as by Nioephonis, John of Damascus, and the second Nicene Council) to be the author of the " Meadow." This work, in its present form, is a mass of disconnected stories, based on older sources, including a " Paradise," perhaps identical with the '' Old Folks' Book," doubtless a collection of apothegms. In its orig- inal form, however, the ** Meadow " seems to have been somewhat on the plan of the CoUaiianes of Cassian or of the Historia monacharum of Timotheua, recounting Moschus' personal experience with fa- mous ascetics or giving edifying stories told by them. The numerous tract-like stories are prob- ably interpolations. The object of the work was a contribution to ascetic life, but its style, as com- pared with older writings of similar character, is vulgar and uncouth, though the chaotic condition of the manuscripts render even the original extent of the work uncertain. Nevertheless the " Meadow " is a work of distinct importance, containing val- uable information on monastic life both in Pales- tine and in the other countries visited by the author, and also describing the liturgy, the poUt- ical relations of the day as disturbed by the inva^ sions of Persians and Arabs, and giving hints of such phases of culture history as the development of the cult of Mary. The work long remained pop- ular in the monasteries and exercised an influence on later literature of similar character, filled as it was with the marvelous and assailing heresy in a manner which renders it not without importance for the history of dogma. (E. Preubchen.) Biblioqrapht: A good edition of the work of Moaohu§ ii Btill a desideratum; it is printed with Latin tranal. in MPG, Ixxxvii., reproduced from F. du Due. in Bibliotkeca Oraeo- lyitina, pp. 1057-1159, preceded by a life, pp. 1054-57, Paris, 1624. Consult further: Fabridus-Harlea. Biblio<A«oa Orceca, x. 124 sqq., Hambuis. 1807; Knimbadier, Os- •chichie, pp. 187-188, et passim.

MOTT, JOHN RALEIGH: Methodist layman, leader in the Young Men's Christian Association movement; b. at Livingstone Manor, N. Y., May 25, 1865, He studied at Upper Iowa University, but was graduated from Cornell University, 1888; the same year he became student secretary of the international committee of the Y. M. C. A. and chairman of the executive committee of the Stu- dent Volunteer Movement; since 1895 he has also been general secretary of the World's Christian Federation, since 18!JS secretary of the foreign de- partment of the international committee of the V. M. C. A., arid since 1901 associate general aec- tetary of the same. He has been most efficient in promoting the foreign mission enthusiasm among young people, and organizes missionary conferences in ail parl9 of the world with marked skill. He en- joys a commanding position among the leaders of modem evangelization. He has written: Strategic Points in the H'orW's Conqueat {New York, 1897); The EiKingeHialion of the World in Ikia Generaiion <I!»(X)); Chnstiann of RealUg (Shanghai, I90J); The Pastor arul Moilem Missions (New York, 1004) ; and The Futiere Leoilerehip ojihe Church (lUOU).

MOULE, GEORGE EVANS: Anglican bishop in Central China; b. at Gillingham (24 m. n.e. of Dorchester), Dorsetshire, England, Jan. 28, 1S28. He was educated at Corpus Christ! College (B.A., 18.50), and was ordered deacon in 1851 and ordained priest in the following year. He was curate at Fordington, Dorset {lSJl-Ji5); chaplain of the Dor- set County Hospital (1855-57): a missionary, under the auspices of the Church Missionary Society, at !Ning-po and Hangchow, China, frotn 1857 to 1878; and curate of West SwfTord (1S78-SO). In 1880 he was consecrated missionary bishop in Central China, his diocese covering the provinces of Kcang-su, Cheh- kiang, An-hni, Hiiipeh, and parts of Keang-si and Hunan, heading this position till 1907, when he be- came missionary for the Church Missionary Society at Ilangchow, China. He has published FailA and Duty (sermons; Shanghai, 1902).

MOULTON, WILLIAM FIDDIAN: Wesleyan; b. at Leek (43 m, n, of Birmingham, Eng.) Mar. 14, 1835; d. at Cambridge Feb. 5, 1898. The son and grandson of Wesleyan preachers, he was educated at Wesleyan schools, at Woodhouse Grove School, near Leeds, until he was fifteen, when he entered Wesley College, Sheffield, In 1S5I he matriculated in London University. In 1853 he became a mas- ter in a private school in Devonport; he graduated with honors in London University (B.A., 18.'>4; M..4.., 18.'^). From 1854 till 1858 he was mathe- matical master at Queen's College, Taunton. In 1858 be entered the Wesleyan ministry, but, as in the judgment of the Conference he was better fitted for teaching than for preaching, he became at once assistant tutor at Richmond College, Surrey, and so remained for ten year^ when he became classical tutor in the same institution. In ISDS he was called to be headmaster and organizer of The Leys School, Cambridge, which he made a great school and re- mained with it till his death. Although he seldom preached and his reputAtion was in the fields of scholarship, he enjoyed the 81 Xotet Xoamiaf Oustonui franchises of his mimsterial brethren to a high de- gree. He was elected into the Legal Hundred in 1872, which was a singular honor for so compara- tively young a man, and in 1890 he was elected president of the Wesleyan Conference. His schol- arly labors were incessant and well directed. Mathematics had been his early choice, but it was as the best Greek scholar among English Wesleyans uf his day that he will be remembered. He was not prolific as an author mainly for the reason that he had always so much teaching to do and because he took infinite pains with his literary work, and by preference did work requiring infinite pains if it were to be well done. He made his mark first by a fine translation of Winer's Grammar of New Tes- tament Greek (Edinburgh, 1870) which superseded that by Edward Masson (1859). In 1870 he was selected as representative of the Wesleyans on the Bible Revision Committee and served very zeal- ously in the New Testament Company. His inter- est in the general subject of Bible revision led to his preparing a brief but excellent History of the English Bible (London, 1878). His critical and exe- getical studies were also well displayed in the com- mentaiy on Hebrews which he contributed to Bishop Ellicott's New Testament Commentary for English Reaeiers (1879), and that on John, in co- operation ii-ith William Milligan, in Philip Schaff's Popular Illustrated Commentary on the New Testor- merit (Edinburgh, 1880). Shortly before his death he appeared as editor with Alfred S. Geden of A Concordance to the Greek Testament according to the Texts of Westcott and Hort, Tischendorf and the Eng- lish Revisers (1897), but in his prefatory note he disclaimed more than a consultative position. So, though his separate publications were few, their quality was high and he will not quickly be forgot- ten. His versatility, his accomplishments, and his spirituality endeared him to his contemporaries. BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. F. Moulton. William F. MouUon: a Memoir, toiih a Chapter on {hia) Biblical Work and Opin- iont by J<Mm§s Hope Moulton, New York, 1899.

MOVEMENT, LAYMEN'S MISSIONARY: A movement organized in the chapel of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church, New York City, Nov. 15, 1906, at a layman's meeting held in connection with the celebration of the one hundredth anniver- sary of the " Haystack prayer-meeting " (see Mills, Samuel John) out of which grew the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (see CoNGREGATioNAUSTS, I., 4, § 11). Only about seventy-five laymen were present at the initial meeting. From three to six in the afternoon, a large part of the time was spent in prayer. During the evening session, one address was given, followed by discussion concerning the necessity of enlisting the laymen of all the churches more fully in the work of foreign missions. A series of resolutions was passed, calling into existence a committee of twenty-five or more representative laymen, to con- sult with the secretaries of the various foreign mis- sionary boards, with reference, first, to the conduct of a campaign of education among laymen, to in- terest them more largely in missions; second, to the devising of a comprehensive plan for the evan- gelization of the world in this generation; third, to endeavor to send a commission of fifty or more lay- men to visit the mission fields and report their findings to the Church at home. The chairman of this committee, Samuel B. Capen of Boston, pre- sented these proposals on behalf of the committee to the annual conference of foreign mi.ssion boards of the United States and Canada at Philadelphia, Jan. 9, 1907. The movement was heartily and unanimously endorsed by this conference, including all Protestant churches in North America. In the formal resolutions of the conference these para- graphs occur: " We recognize this movement as providential, having been bom of prayer anid of the Spirit. In its spontaneity and timeliness it gives evidence of the hand of God, and we are profoundly convinced that this is but another step in advance toward the completion of his great purpose in the redemption of mankind. . . . We recognize the imperative necessity for this new movement, in view of the tremendous demands of a world field white for the harvest, which requires that the churches of Christendom should lay plans and put forth effort adequate to meet the demands that are upon us." The plan of the movement is not to send out mis- sionaries nor to administer missionary funds, but HoBly only to cooperate in tie enlnrgement of the foreign missionary worii carried on by the various churches through their own regular agencies. In the summer of 1907, at the invitation of lead- ers of missionary work in Great Britain, a cammis- Bion of six laymen from the Ltnited States and Canada visited London, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and other cities in England and Scotland, presenting the methods and plana of the Laymen's Missionaly Movement. Committees were appointed both in England and Scotland to extend the work. The Scottish national committee employs a secretary to devote his time to the movement. In 10O7-OS, over sixty laymen visited varioua mission fields to investigute religious conditions, needs, and results. Since their return, many of them have been en- gaged largely in giving their testimony to the churches and have l)cen Buccessful in stimulating greatly increased interest in misaionary work. During the winter of 1908-09 a national misaionary ■campaign was conducted by the Laymen's Mission- aty Movement in Canada, conventions being held in & large number of the leading cities of the Domin- ion. On Mar, 31 to Apr, 4, 1909, there was held in Toronto a Canadian miaaionaiy congress, attended by over 4,000 commissioners, representing all Prot- estant churches. This congress adopted a notable national missionaiy policy, the first of its kind ever adopted by the representatives of sll the churches of a nation. It has since been ratifiod by all the church couns of the various commimiona in Canada. The complete proceedings of the congress have been published in Camilla's MissvmaTy Congraa (Toronto, 1009}. A Canadian council has direct supervision of the work in Canada. A similar national missionary campaign was con- ducted throughout tile United States during the winter of 1909-10, including conventions at seventy- five of the leading cities, culminating in a national misaionary congress at Chicago, May 3-6, 1910. Twelve of the denominations in the United States and Canada have organized their own denomina- tional committees of the Laymen's Missionary Movement, to promote its spirit and methods more thoroughly in their own communions. About twenty secretaries are now employed by different committees to give their whole time to the super- vision and extension of the movement. It is worthy of note that the oflerings to foreign missions by the churches of the United States and Canada id- creased during the fiscal year 1907-OS by 1602,000 over the contributions of the previous year. The gain in the fiscal year 1908-09 over the previous year was Jl,256,0O0. The Laymen's Missionary Movement has no mem- berabip and no organization, apart from a scries of committees. There h a general committee of over 100 InjTnen, which meets semiannuaLy, giving genernl direction to the movement. There is an executive committee of twenty-one members, which meets each month in Now York City, giving closer Bupervision to the work. The chief executive offi- cer is the general secretary, J. Campbell While, who was called to this office soon after the movement began and has continued in this position ever ranee. The offices are in the Metr(^N>htan Building, 1 Mad- ison Avenue, New York City. The chief features of a standard misaionary church, as emphasised by the Laymen's Misaionary Movement, are as follovB: (1) a missionary pastor; (2) a missionary committee; (3} systematic missionary education, through regular meetings, literature, and (4) canvass of entire membership for subscrip- ts) a weekly missionary offering; (6) all plans, prayers, efforts, and offerings are related to the world as a field. By these methods whole cities have more than doubled their entire previous misaionary offerings and at least one whole denomination has experi- enced a similar result. It is the hope and purpose of the movement to enlist the men of all churches in the steady support of a missionary policy, ade- quate to the presentation of the Gospel of Christ to every creature. J. Campbell White.

MOXOM, PHILIP STAFFORD: Congr^ation- alist; b. at Markham, Ontario, Aug. 10, 1848. After serving in the northern army throughout the Civil War, he was educated at Kalamazoo College, Mich. (1866-68), Shurtleff College. Ill. (1868-70), the University of Rochester {A.B., 1879), and Rochester Theological Seminary (1878). He was ordained to the Baptist ministry in 1871 and from 1872 to 1875 was pastor of the Baptist church at Albion, Mich. He was then pastor at Hi. Morris, N, Y,, and at the same time pursued his theological studies at Rochester, until 1878, after which he held successive pastorates at the First Baptist Church, Cleveland, O. (1879-85), and the First Baptist Church, Boston (1885-93), and since 1894 has been pastor of the South Congregational Church, Springfield, Mass. He was university preacher at Harvard in 1894-97 and Lowell lec- turer in 1895. He has written The Aim of Life (Boston, 1894); From Jerusalem to Nirira: The Church in the First Three Centuries (1895); and The Religion of Hope (1806).

MOZARABIC LITURGY: An ancient Spanish liturgy, called also Gothic because it developed during the Gothic dominion in Spain. The name " Mozarabic," from a participial form of the Arabic verb 'Araba and signifying "arabized," came Into use in the eighth century as a general designation for the Christians who remained in Spain after the Mohammedan conquest. Opinions have dif- fered as to the origin of the Spanish liturgy. In view of its marked divergence from the Roman ritual and its great resemblance to the Gallican, some have thought that the Spanish and Gallican liturgies both developed from the Asiatic (Lesley, Mabillon, Bickell, and others) and that the former was substantially the same as that brought into the country by the Goths. Others (Gams, Probst, Pinius) maintain that the oldest Spanish liturgy was the Roman and that the Gothic importation was influenced by it and worked over especially by Bishops Leander and Isidore of Seville. The question is solved if it be admitted that originally Rome had the same liturgy as the East (see Mass, II, 2, § 1). In the latter half of the eleventh cen- tury under Popes Alexander II. and Gregory VII. efforts were made to introduce the Roman ritual. In 1088 a synodal decree ordered the suppression of the Mosarabic Liturgy in Toledo, and when oppo- sition arose the decision, according to the custom of the time, was left to the ordeal (the two liturgies being exposed to fire); the Mozarabic rite coming through unscathed was regarded as having vin- dicated its right to exist. King Alfonso VI. de- termined to allow both liturgies side by side. At the end of the sixteenth centiuy the Mozarabic rite had been supplanted everywhere except in six churehes in Toledo. Cardinal Ximenes exerted himself to preserve it and had prepared new and careful editions of both the missal and breviary (published at Toledo 1500 and 1502); he also obtained papal permission for the six churches in Toledo to use the liturgy and built a chapel which he provided with a foundation for thirteen chap- lains who should perform the office and mass daily according to the liturgy. Similar foundations were made in Salamanca and Valladolid (see Mass, II, 3, § 1, and cf. J. Pinius in ASB, July, vi., 66-67; C. J. Hefele,, Cardinal Ximenes, TQbingen, 1844, pp. 161 sqq.). The order of festivals in the Mozarabic liturgy differs somewhat from that in the Roman; e.g., there are six Sundays in Advent and two festivals of the Annunciation (Mar. 24 and Dec. 18). The three lections (prophecy, epistle, gospel) are re- tained, and prominence is given to homiletical matter. After each of the readings there is a short discourse to the people, in which the hortatory element predominate. Certain usages, as the breaking of the host into nine parts, each of which has a special name and meaning, are reminiscent of the Greek Chxirch. The chant is more melodious than the Gregorian; it is named " Eugenian " from a certain Eugenius, archbishop of Toledo. Tbe Mosarabic man beg^na with the prayer of the priest as he ascends the altaiHiteps. Then follow the introit, the Gloria in excebis (but not always), the prayer of the day, tbe prophecy, the psallendum (gradual), the epistle, and the leospel. After this oomes the preparation and pnaentation of the offerings, which are not yet regarded as a proper sacri- fice and which the catechumens were allowed to see. The order of the mass of the faithful is as follows: a prayer ^led mtua, which varies according to time and festival; another prayer, the commemoration of saints and the dead; the OTotio poH nominat the oratio ad pcicem, with the kiss of peace: the preface under the name iUaiio, ending with the TrisagioD; the prayer po$t mndua; the coDsecration and elevation and, during the latter, the post pridie^ a prayer not unlike the final prayer of the Roman canon; the creed, the breaking of the bread into nine parts, of which each re- ceives the name of a mystery of the faith; memento of the living, especially of those present; the Lord's prayer; mix- ing of the nine fmi^nents with the holy blood; blessing of the people; oommimion, with music and prayer, thanks- giving; dismissal and solemn blessing with the words in tmitate SancH Spirittu henedicat vot Pater d Filius, amen. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Editions are: by A. Ortis at the instance of Cardinal Ximenes, missal, Toledo, 1500, breviary, 1502; in H. Florei, EapafUx aagrada, vol. iii., Madrid, 1748; by A. Lesley, Rome, 1755; the missal by F. A. Lorensaua and F. Fabian y Fuero. Angelopolis, 1770, and the brevi- ary by Lorensana, Madrid, 1775; by F. Arevalus, Rome, 1804; Lesley's ed. of the missal with his preface and Lorensana's, in Af PL, Ixxxv., and Lorensana's ed. of the breviary, ib. Ixxxvi.; another ed., Toledo, 1873; Liber comiciMt ed. G. Morin, in Anecdota Meredaolana, i (1893), 1-388. Ck>nsult: F. Probst, in ZHT, 1888, pp. 1 sqq.; idem. Die abendlAndiache Mewe vom 5-8 J€ihrhunderte, pp. 367 sqq.. Monster, 1896; J. Pinius, in A>S^, July, vi. 1-112, idem, IMwvia Mozarabica, Rome, 1740; J. M. Neale; Tetraloffia liturgicaf London, 1849; idem, Basaye in Litur- giology and Church Hi*t., ib. 1863; C. R. Hale, The Mo»- arabic Liturgy and the Mexican Branch of the Catholie Churchy New York, 1876; idem, Moearabic CoUectSt ib. 1881; G. Rietschel, Liturgik, i. 316 sqq.. Berlin, 1900; E. J. y Moraleda, El Rito Mozdrabe, Toledo, 1904.

MOZLEY, JAMES BOWLING: Church of Eng- land theologian; b. at Gainsborough (15 m. n.w. of Lincoln), England, Sept. 15, 1813; d. at Oxford Jan. 4, 1878. He studied at Grantham, and subse- quently at Oriel College, Oxford (A.B., 1834; M.A., 1838; B.D., 1846; D.D., 1871); was elected to a fellowship at Magdalen College in .1840, where he resided until 1856, when he accepted the living of Old Shoreham, Sussex. Through Mr. Gladstone he was made canon of Worcester in 1869; and, in 1871, regius professor of divinity, an office which he held, in conjunction with his vicarage, until his death. He was appointed Bampton lecturer for 1865, and select university preacher in 1869. While Mozley was a student at Oxford, the influ- ence of Newman and Pusey was strong, and he was an enthusiastic though independent follower of those early leaders in the Tractarian movement. Yet when Newmann entered the Church of Rome, Mozley kept firm in his allegiance to the Anglican Church. Thus he found himself separated from the party with which he had been originally iden- tified. Agreeing with the predestinarianism of St. Augustine, and at odds with the doctrine of his party, he labored to reconcile the Christian tradition about baptism with the theology of Cal- vinism. Accordingly he stood almost quite alone as a theologian; he never quite sympathized with the Evangelicals in their general spirit and tone, and he never ceased to be a Churchman, and in fact a High-churchman; but the developments of that party were not to his taste and he found no other that he could join. Mozley was at his best in argument, and may indeed be called the "Butler of his generation." He was also recognized as one of the best theological thinkers of his day, and his sermons were of a superior quality. For a long period he was known only as a contributor to The Critic and The Chriidian ReirKmbrnncfT, while hia nii tings in general covered subjects critical, dogmatic, anil apologetic. His produc- lions etnbraee: The Influence of Ancicid Oracles in Public and PrivaleLife (vol. v. at Oxford EiigHth Prize Esaayt, Oxford, ISIB); A Trealiae on the Auguttininn Doctrine of Predeatinalion (London, 1855); The Primitive Doctrine of Baptifmal Re- generation (1856); A Renew of the Baptismal Con- (rDDcr*!/ (1862); Eight Lecturet on Miraclee Preached before the Univer»ily of Oxford in . . . 1865 (Bamp- ton lectures, 1865; latest ed., 1895); Sermons Preached before the University of Oxford, and on Variotn Occafdons (Oxford and Cambridge, 1876; latest ed., 1895); Ruling Ideas in Early Ages and their Relation to Old Testament Faith; Lectures (London, 1877; latest ed„ New York, 1908); Esiays, llistorieal and Ther^ogicai (2 vols., 1S78); The Theory of Development. A Criticism of Dr. Ncwman'e Esiay on the Dei'dopmerU of Christian Doctrine (1878); Sermons, Parochial and Occasional (1879); and Lectures and Other Theological Papers (1883; reissue, 1907). Bikuooiufht: Thi Ltttrrt of J. B. Moiltu. . . . EdilnS by hia SiMcr [Anne Moiley), Ixiadou, 18H4; ihe Introduc- tioQ to th« Ba^aj/a, Mtt\i\t., by hifi ButflT» and & biogTAphicnl noli« by R, W, Chureh, in the Biime; R, W. Cliuwh. Tht Oxford UoMMtta. LDiuJon, ISQl; DNB, ixux. Z4ft-2£1. MUEHLATT, inQ'lau, HEIKRICH FERDINAHD: German Lutheran; b. at Dresden June 20, 18.'i9, Re was educated at the universities of Leipaic and Erlangen from 1857 to 1862 (Ph.D., LeipsJc, 1861), anil in 1869 became privat^iocent for Old- Testament exegesis at the former university. In the following year he was called to Dorpat as pro- fessor of the same subject, remaining there until 1895, when he became professor of New-Testa- ment exegesis at the University of Kiel, resigning in 1909. Ho has edited J. F. BOttcher's Neue ere- getisch-kritische Aehrenlcse zum Alten Testament (3 ■vols., Leipaic, 1863-65) and Ausf-akrliche* Lehrbuch d'sr hebrdischen Sprache (2 vols., 18e6-^i8); Liber Genesis sine intnctis excriplut (in collaboration with E. F. ICautzsch; 1868); and tlie eighth to the elev- enth editions of W, Gescnius's HebrSisches und dudddisehes Handw&rtcrbuch (in collaboration with W. Volck, 1878-90); and has written De prmTerbi- orum qu<E dicuntur Agtiri et Lcmudis origine et indole (Leipeic, 1869); Die bUdische Lchre vom Gemssen (Dorpat, 1889); Zur pavlinischen Ethik (Kiel, 1898); Martinas Seusenius' Reiseins heiligc Land (1902); and Die Oslsecprovimen Russlands vnd ihrc deuttche Kuitur (1906).

MUEHLENBERG, HENRY MELCHIOR: The patriarch of the Lutheran Church in North America; b. at Einbeck (39 ra. s.e. of Hanover, Germany) Sept. 6, 1711; d. at New Provi- dence (Trappe), Pa., Oct. 7, 1787. In the Latin school of his native town the foundation was laid for his excellent classical training. From 1735 to 1738 he studied theology at GOttingen, and then served as teacher in the Prancke institutions at Halle. Having been ordained at Leipsic in 1739 he was called to Grosshennersdorf through the in- fluence of Baroness von Geredorf, the patroness of that charge. In the year 1741 August Hemukim Francke (q.v.) urged him to accept a call from the three Lutheran congregations in Pennsylvania (New Providence, New Hanover, and Philadel- phia), which had been transmitted by the Rev. Ficdriech Michael Ziegenhagen in London. In April, 1742, he arrived in London and in June of the same year embarked for Georgia, where he was to visit the SaUburg colonists under pastors Bo(- zius and Gronau, near Savannah. He arrived in Philadelphia, Nov. 25, 1742. At the time of his entrance into the new world Muehlenbetg was in the prime of his young man- hood. Having enjoyed a fine classical education be spoke Latin fluently. He was also able to use the Dutch and English tongues in preaching, be- sides his native German. He was a scholarly theologian, firmly rooted in the Luthei^n Confession. The slight touch of Halle Piettsm which he had received proved a wholesome feature in bis pastoral deahngs with individuals. He was dignified and magnetic in hia personal appearance, well balanced in Ilia judgment of men and affairs, pleasant and cordial in his intercourse with men of high or low degree, and gifted with remarkable powers of or- ganixation and administration. Thus he was particularly well cjuipped for bringing order into the chaotic condition of the scattered Lutherans in America, and for laying the foundation for a solid organization. Among the German emigrants in the Province of Pennsylvania up to the middle of the eighteenth century the Mennonitca, Schwenck- feldera, and other sects were strongly represented. The German Reformed were also quite numerous. But the majority belonged to the Lutberau con- fession. Yet there was hardly any provision made for their spiritual needs. Men who had never been called to the ministry, or who had been discipUncd and deposed as unworthy of the office in the old country, like Valentin Kraft, pressed into the folds which were without ahcphords and assumed the pastoral office. Nearly t«n years before Mnehlen- berg's arrival the above-mentioned Pennsylvania congregations had applied to Drs. Ziegenlm^n in London and Francke in Halle for worthy Lutheran pastors. Their patience had been severely tried by tiresome negotiations. Just one year before Muchlcnberg's arrival Nicholas Ludwig Zinzendorf (q.v.) appeared in Pennsylvania under the name of Count von Thuemstcin and sought to gather around his [wrson a sortr of union of the best elements of German Christians. He proved to be particulariy aggressive toward the Lutherans. In Philadelphia Zinzendorf subjected Muehlcnberg to an Examen rigorosum, which he endured in a dignified manner. Having been re(iuired by the mayor of the city to give up the church records of the Lutherans, Zinzendorf left the city Jan. 1, 1743, and returned to Europe. Now the field was clear for Muehlenberg to take up the work of organizing the Lutheran Chureh in this western continent, and this proved to be his life-work. The sen-ice of the three congregations which had called him, was very exacting, as they were 36 miles distant from each other, without roads to connect them. He devoted himself to the instruction of the young, inusted on scrip- tural discipline for the communicants, installed elders and deacons, and built school-houses and churches. Other congregations also asked for his advice and services; for example, the Lutherans on the Raritan River, New Jersey; in southwestern Pennsylvania (Frederick) ; and even the churches on the upper Hudson, founded by the Palatinate immigrants, and the Dutch Lutherans in New York whom he served as pastor for two successive sum- mers. Thus his influence gradually extended over all the Lutherans in the provinces of North America. At his urgent request the fathers in Halle sent additional laborers into the American field, Peter Brunnholx, Nicolas Kurtz, Johann Helf rich Schaum, Johann Friedrich Handschuh, Johann Friedrich Schmidt, Justus Heinrich Christian Helmuth, and Johann Christopher Kunze, the most prominent and scholarly among them, who afterward became Muehienberg's son-in-law. In 1748, on the occa- sion of the dedication of St. MichaeFs Church in Philadelphia, Muehlenberg organized the first Lutheran synod on this western continent, the ministerium of Pennsylvania. The Swedish Luth- erans in Pennsylvania and Delaware were in full sympathy with him in his labors. Provost Johann Sandin taking part in the opening of the synod and Provost Magnus Wrangel de Saga being his intimate friend and safe counselor in all impor- tant church questions. In 1 76 1 Muehlenberg took up his residence in Philadelphia and prepared the first draft of a constitution for the congregation, which was at once signed by 500 heads of families and became the model for many Lutheran churches in Pennsylvania. In 1766 he undertook the erec- tion of Uie large Zion's Church, at the comer of Fourth and Cherry streets, Philadelphia, which could accommodate 2,000 persons and was long considered the largest and most beautiful church edifice in North America. In this church congress held the memorial service for Washington in 1799. In 1776 Muehlenberg returned again to Providence, but his re»gnation from the Philadelphia congre- gation was accepted only in 1779. From Aug., 1774, to Feb., 1775, he had undertaken another journey to the South, in order to settle certain difficulties which had arisen among the Salzburg colonists in Georgia. There he succeeded in es- tablishing peace between the contending parties and prevailed on the congregation to adopt a constitution prepared by himself. The last decade of his life was spent among his country congrega- tions, which he continued to 8er\'e with the Word and sacraments as far as his failins: strength would allow. In those years he prepared the draft of the first Pennsylvania hymn-book (1786) which to this day is known as the * 'Muehlenberg Hymn Book." While it showed here and there the influ- ences of the Halle Pietism, it was the best Lutheran bynm-book in eastern North America until it was replaced by the church-book of the General Council in 1877. Muehlenberg bore the full burden of " a church in the planting " under the most diflficult and dis- tressing circumstances. He found among his people a state of utter disintegration and demoralization. The various elements, coming from different re- gions of the fatherland and inclined to abuse their unaccustomed liberty, were hard to unite under a sound church discipline. And even the oppo- sition of worldly-minded pastors, who resisted his work of organization at every step, had to be met and overcome in all patience and wisdom. His own coworkers in the synod not infrequently annoyed him by their lack of tact and of pastoral wisdom. He died with the closing stanza of Paul Ger- hard t's hymn "Commit thou all thy griefs" on his lips. The Philadelphia congregation desired to have him buried under the pulpit of Zion's Church, but the family decided in favor of the churchyard of the Augustus-Church in New Prov- idence (Trappe) as the place of his interment. His tombstone bears the prophetical inscription (which may be translated; "Had he no monu- ment, future ages still would know how great a man he was ") : Qualia et qttantus fuerit, Non ignorahunt sine lapide FtUura aacula. Dr. Muehlenberg was married to Anna Weiser, the daughter of the famous Conrad Weiser, Jr., who, as an Indian commissioner and interpreter, held a very prominent position in the provincial government. Three of his sons who were educated at Halle and were destined to enter the service of the Lutheran Church as ministers became quite il- lustrious in American history. John Peter Gabriel, bom at Trappe, Pa., Oct. 1, 1746, ordained in 1768, was pastor in New Jersey and afterward in Wood- stock, Va. In Jan., 1776, he exchanged the minis- terial gown for a colonel's uniform, and, at the head of his regiment, took part in the war against England. He became a general in the American army and enjoyed the intimate friendship of Wash- ington. After the war he was vice-governor of Pennsylvania, member of congress, and senator. He died in Philadelphia Oct. 1, 1807. The second son, Frederik August Conrad, b. at Trappe, Pa., Jan. 1, 1750, ordained 1770, was pastor of Christ Church, New York City, and founded the New York ministerium of the Evangelical Lutheran Chiutsh. Afterward he followed a political career, becoming a member of congress, speaker of the legislature of Pennsylvania, and president of the convention which ratified the constitution of the United States. He also presided over the first and the third congress as speaker. He died in Lancaster June 4, 1801. The youngest son, Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst, bom at Trappe, Pa., Nov. 17, 1753, is the only one who continued in the ministry. He was ordained in 1770, assisted his father in the ministry, and became third pastor of the Philadelphia congregation. From 1780 to 1815 he served the Evangelical Lutheran Trinity Church in Lancaster, Pa., and died there May 23, 1815. He achieved a reputation as a scholarly botanist. Adolph Spaeth. Bibuoorapht: Sources are the HaUeache Nachrichien^ 2 vols.. Hallo, 1760-87i republished with notes by W. J. Mann, B. M. Sohmiioker, and W. Qermann, Allentown, Pa., vx>l. i., 1886. Eng. tranal., begun by C. W. Schaeffer, part i., Reading. Pa.. 1882; the Selbdbiiooraphie, going as far as 1743, ed. W. Gennann, Allentown. Pa., 1881; and J. W. Richard's translation of Muehlenberg's diary, in Evangdical Review, vols, i.-iv. Lives are by J. Q. C. Helmuth, Philadelphia, 1788; M. L. Stoever, ib. 1856; W. J. Mann, in English, ib. 1887, in German, 1891; W. K. Frick, ib., 1902. Ck>n9ult further: W. B. Sprague, AnnaU of the American Lutheran Pulpit, New York, 1869; H. E. Jacobs, in American Church History Series, vol. iv., chaps, xii.-xvai., ib. 1893; T. E. Schmauk, HiH. of the Lutheran Church in Pennsylvania 0638-1890), vol. i., Philadelphia. 1903; and in general literature under Lutherans.

MUEHLHAEUSSER, KARL AUGUST: German theologian; b. at Kleinkems (28 m. 8.W. of Freiburg), Baden, Feb. 26, 1825; d. at Wilferdingen (8 m. 8.e. of Carlsruhe) Jan. 21, 1881. He was educated at Heidelberg; became vicar at Eppeiheim (1847), afterward vicar in Carlsruhe, and minister at Sulzfeid (1854). At the suggestion of Ullmann, who esteemed him highly, he was called to Carlsruhe in 1857 as asses- sor of the high consistory. When Ullmann resigned in 1860 on account of the controversy over the lit- uiigy, Muhlhiiusser, who became a regular member of the high consistory, remained in that body, but openly expressed his divergence from its views. In 1864 he frankly opposed it in favor of the pro- test signed by 119 clergymen of Baden against Schenkel's Charakterbild Jesu. By degrees his posi- tion became untenable, and in this same year he accepted a call to the country parish of Wilferdingen. There he developed an extensive activity relating to ecclesiastical policy. As an acknowledged leader of the ** positive " party, he assembled his friends in the " Evangelical Conference," and represented the conservative minority with ability and success in many general synods of Baden. As a member of the Baden diet he proved an experienced and ready parliamentarian. By word and pen he advocated the principles of the German Conservatives. After 1876 he collaborated ^ith GefTken in the publica- tion of the ZeUfragen dee chHstlichen Volkslebena, the first part of which, Christenlum und Prease^ was prepared by MUhlhiiusser himself, and emphasized the necessity of defending the Christian view of life by means of the press. He was an enthusiastic advocate of home missions in south Grermany, and was for many years the president of the south- western conference which he had attended since its establishment in 1864. Julius Ney. Bibijooraphy: J. Reinmuth, Karl Auguat M Uhlh&tisaer, Heilbronn. 1882. MUELLENSIEFEN,ma"len-si'f en, JULIUS: Ger- man Lutheran preacher; b. at Iserlohn (45 m. n.e. of Cologne), Apr. 28, 1811; d. at Wemigerode (22 m. s.8.e. of Brunswick) Apr. 28, 1893. After studying at Halle and Berlin, he became private tutor in the home of General von Diest; pastor in C6then, Brandenburg, 1836, and in 1852 chief pas- tor of the Marienkirche in Berlin, in which position he was active for thirty-three years, being made pastor emeritus in 1890. Miillensiefen's especial gift was the care of souls; he had a peculiarly clear insight into the most complicated conditions of the inner and outer life and a great faculty of discern- ing the possible solution of the problems presented. His high ethical standard and the uncompromising sternness of his moral judgment were united with a paternal sympathy for the needs of a burdened or troubled conscience. It was for this reason that he exerted a more wide-spread pastoral influence than almost any other clergyman in Berlin, as well by personal communication as through correspondence. His pastoral and pedagogical gift was unfolded more especially in catechetical instruction, to which he usually devoted sixteen hours each week during the entire year. His sermons also, of which three major collections have appeared (Der Weg des Frie- dena, Berlin, 1871; ZeugnisBe von Ckriato, 4 vols., 15th ed., Halle, 1894; Da8 Wort des Lebens, 4 vols., 8th ed., 1888) bear the same pastoral character. The most widely read are Tdgliche Andachten tur hdudichen Erbauung (19th ed., 1905). G. RiETBCHEL. Bibuoorapht: P. MQllaisiefen, in Deuta^e ewxngdieeke Blatter, zix (1894), 168 sqq.

MUELLER, ERNST FRIEDRICH KARL: Ger- man Reformed; b. at Muhlstadt, Anhalt, July 27, 18(i3. He wuB educated at the universities of TQ- biogeD and Halle; was assistant pastor at Ballen- stedt, Anhalt (1886-S8), inspector of the Silesian Konvikl at Halle (1SSS~91). In 1891 be became privat-doceot at the university of Halle; waa ap- pointed associate professor of New-Testament exe- gesis at the L'oivei^ty of Erlangen (1^92), professor of Reformed theology (1896), and minister of the Reformed congregation (1898). He hus written Die g6ttlicht Zuvorertehung und Brwdhlung Tiach PaulM (Halle, 1892); AUgUiubige und moderne GlSubige (Leipsic, 1894); Noch rinmal AUgldubige und moderne GIdubige (1896); S>/mbolik (1896); Zur chriiaiclien Erkmntnia (IS98); Die Bckenntnis- teJiri/Un der reformierten Kirche (1903); and A'eu- ttaamenUiche Theologie ( Erlangen, 1 907) ; und Johannes Calvin'* Unlerricht in der chrisllichen Re- ligion int DetiUcke ilberseU (1909). He is likewise engaged in the preparation of Johannes Calvins Au^egung der heUigen Schri/t in deulacher Ueber- trtzung, to be complete in fourteen volumes (Neu- kirch, 1902 sqq.).

MUELLER, GEORG FRIEDRICH: Plymouth Brother, founder of the Bristol Orphanages; b. at Kroppenstedt (20 m. e.w. of Magdeburg), Prussia, Sept. 27, 1805; d. at Bristol, England, Mar. 10, 1898. After preliminary training at the cathedral classical school at Halbeistodt, at Heimersleben under a classical tutor, and at the Nordhausen gymnasium, he entered the University of Halle, 1S25- Though his early life had been careless and even reckless, shortly after entering the university be was converted, and entered upon that life of faith which became so remarkable. He determined to become a miasiooary, and meanwhile manifested bis Christian leal in visiting the sick and in like labors, la Aug., 1826, he b^an to preach, living for trwQ months in Franke's Orphan House at Halle, in the free lodgings provided for poor divinity stu- denta. In Har., 1829, be went to Loodou, sod, after receiving an appointment from the London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews, be began preparing himself for that mis^iion. But after some months of the prescribed study of He- brew, Aramaic, and German Jewiah, he left the so- ciety in Jan., 1830, joined the Plymouth Brethren, and became minister at Teignmouth. Of his own accord he declined to receive any stated salary, abolished pew-renl«, and from Oct., 1830, lived upon voluntary offerings, though this oft«n reduced himself and wife to great straits. In 1832 be be- came pastor of Gideon Chapel, Bristol. Impressed by the number of destitute children be found in Bristol, and feeling that he was called to help them, he established in 18.34 The Scriptural Knowledge Institution for Home and Abroad, which was de- signed to assist day-schools, Sunday-schools, and adult-schools; to circulate the Holy Scriptures; to aid missionary work; to board, cloUie, and educate scripturally orpliun children. The institution, he decided, should have no patron but tbe Lord, no workers but believers, and no debts. Provided with assistants and money, he hired a house on Wilson Street, Bristol, and opened bis orphanage on Apr. 11, 1836, and by Mar., 1844, he had opened his fourth bouse. He then bought a site on Ashley Down, near Bristol, and put up the first building, 1840; by 1869 be opened his Bfth house. The. orphanage, however, had no endowment, and none of the usual machinery of support. Mr. Mllller looked to God to supply the daily food of the thou- sands of children therein gathered, and to pay all the expenses of their care. Besides managing his orphanages and the institution, and preaching to his congregation, he also took missionary tours through the British Isles, the United States, and Canada (1877). In 1881 be visited the East, and in 1882 India. He did not in the ordinary way ad- vertise any of his enterprises, but the attention and aid of the public was secured through books and pamphlets published with his sanction, and by the circulation of bis Life of Trugf.- Narralii^ of the Lord's Dealings vnth George Miiller (first is- sued, 2 parts, London, 1837, and continued in KS41, 1844, and 1856; reprinted in repeated editions in New York; translated into German, Stuttgart, 1844, and into French, Paris, 1848). Besides the Narralii'e above referred to, Mr. MQller published, TAe A^eipOrpAonScAooI (London, 1855); The Secret of Effectual Service to God (1865); Love One An- olher (two addresses; 1865); Jehovah Magnified: Addresari (1876); George MnUer and the Orphan Homes ofAsMey Down (1878); and Preaching Toun (1883). Bibuuohapbt; Tbs Ixst soum! ia pmbnbly Lhn Atdobiaii- rapiu. CampiUd by G. F. Burain, Pre/are and Coneludinf Chapter Itji A. T. Pierton, Looilon. 190S. CoDsult turthflrl W. E. Tsyler. Miohly lArowA God. lanian. laei; idom, AihUji Doa-n; or. living Faith in a livint God. ib. ISSI; G. VOD Palena, Geors MaUtr. HaUc, 1865; K. Mditu, FailA, Prayer and Work. I/indon, 1866; J. Weir, Th» BritM Orphan Hcmct and Ifin'r Faundrr. Ib. ISSfl; T. Stah?lin, Otora MnUtr in Jirufol. BomiI. 1874; Mn. E. R. PiCnuQ, Oeoret JfltUn- and Andrew Rtid. London, 1SS5; A. T. PieiBon. Gmni' MaUer of Brimol. ib. IB02: F. n. Wsmp, Gmrar UOUrr, the Modem HpoHli of Failh. ib. 1907. Dev cd.. lOOS: Ttn Ymn Aftrr; a Stquri to the Avlobiagraphu of Gears* MuttrT. bring an Acro^nl of th^ Work at AMev Down Orehanage /or Me Ten Yean fMov Mueller 40 ing the Death of Mr. Mailer, ib. 1909. For minute and detailed accounts of tbo institution consult the Annual Rejtorts.

MUELLER, HEINRICH: German Lutheran; b. at Lubeck Oct. 18, 1631; d. at Rostock (44 m. n.e. of Schwerin) Sept. 17, 1675. He studied at Greifswald and Rostock; entered the ministry at Rostock, 1652; became archidiakonus there, 1653; professor of Greek in the university, 1659, and of theology, 1662. Doctrinally, MQllcr occupied a middle ground in Lutheran theology, and his or- thodoxy was pervaded with the warm glow of an intimate personal faith, so that he stood out as one of the most eminent figures in the era preceding Pietism. And as such he was called to cooperate in the renewal of ecclesiastical life in the Evangel- ical church of Germany. In his sermons and de- votional writings, Muller often reveals a masterful and ** popular " eloquence. As a devotional writer, Muller was exceedingly prolific. Among his works are: Der himmlische Liebeskusa (1659; new ed. by Fiedler, 1831, Hamburg, 1848); Kreuz Buss und Betschule (1661); Betrachtungen uber den 143, Psalm (new ed., Hamburg, 1853; Leipsic, 1872); "collected Sermons" (2 vols., 1661^72); SMuss- kette und Kraflkem (1663; reissue, Halle, 1853, 1855); Evangelische ScMusskette (1672; reissued, Halle, 1855); Festevangelische Schluaakette (1673; new ed., Halle, 1855); Die geisUichen Erquick- stunden (1664; later editions, Leipsic, 1872; Ham- burg, 1889; Eng. transl., Hours of Spiritual Re- freshment, London, 1840); Der geistliche DankaUar (1668); Die ungeratene Ehe (1668); Thrdnenr- und Trostquelle oder der Ileiland und der Silnder (Frank- fort, 1676; new ed., Halle, 1855). After Mailer's death there appeared Der evangelische Herzens- Spiegel (1679), briefer homilies on the Evangelical pericopes (new edition, 2 vols., Hamburg, 1882, 1884); Das eiKingelisclie Praservativ wider den Schaden Josephs in alien dreien Stdnden (1681); and his funeral discourses, Grdber der Heiligen (1685). Muller also composed a number of spiritual hymns, of which several have been adopted in the Church hymnals. Hermann Beck. Bibliography. Biographies have been written by C. O. F. Aichel, Hamburg, 1854, and by O. C. ICrabbe, llostock, 1866. Clonsult further: E. E. Koch. OeftchicfUe des Kir- chenliedes, iv. 67 sqq., Stuttgart, 1868; C. O. Schmidt, Ge/whichte der Prediut, pp. 106-110, (lotha, 1872; K. Palmer, L€benM)ilder von Erbauungaschrif tiddler, vol. i., Stuttgart, 1870, A. F. W. Fischer, Kxrchenlieder Lexikon, p. 158, Gotha. 1878; H. Beck, Die religiose VolksliUeratur der cvangelischen Kirche DeiUachlanda, Gotha, 1891.

MUELLER, JOHANN GEORG: The name of two theologians. 1. Swiss Reformed teacher and educator; b. at Schaffhausen (23 m. n.n.e. of Zurich, Switzerland), Sept. 3, 1759; d. there Sept. 20, 1819. Being of a religious turn of mind and under the influence of Lavater's " Glimpses into Eternity *' and Young's Night Thoughts, he determined to study theology, which he did first at Zurich and later in Dessau, Bremen, and Bernburg. But Mailer had not yet begun to build on a sure basis, and while in Got- tingen his religious perplexities so increased that he turned to Herder for assistance. On going to Weimar, he was taken by Herder into his own house for six months, and the attachment thus formed was a lasting one. Under Herder's influence MOller became freer, more full of life, and was spurred on to further research. On his return home, MOller found his foundation alarmingly weak in spite of the many theologies with which his head was filled. He became bewildered in endeavoring to read the Bible with understanding; accordingly he concluded to put aside all theological books, even the Bible^ and to devote himself for two years to classical literature. On resuming his Bible study he attained the conviction he sought, based on the eternal truth of divine revelation. Not being able to fill a pastorate because of ill health, he accepted a pro- fessorship in the College of Humanity, Schaffhausen, and devoted his time to science and writing. His works were addressed in particular to the young, his endeavor being to make the Bible in its magnifi- cence and humanity once more of practical value. He agreed fully with the Augsburg and Helvetian Confessions and his theology differed rather in form, than materially, from the older system. He souf^t to simplify theology, to banish schcdasticism, to free the religion of Jesus from its Jewish garb, to present it pure and practicable, in short, to hu- manize theology; although its first principle — posi- tive revelation — ^would have to remain the same. At first lecturer, in 1794 he became professor ol Greek and Hebrew, and later of encyclopedia and methodology in the College of Humanity. He was thrown out of his clerical position by the Revolu^ tion, and cheerfully accepted the situation, believ- ing that he could in that way best serve his city. Through the confidence of his fellow citisens he was appointed first representative of the people^ then a member of the city council, and last deputy mayor. Mailer's chief works are Philoaophische AufstUxe (Breslau, 1789) ; UnterhaUungen mit Serena (2 parts, Wintherthur, 1793-1802; 3d ed., 3 parts, pait iiL ed. Kirchhofer, 1834-35); Bekenntnisse Merkwur^ diger Manner von sich selbst (16 vols., 1792-1809); Brief e Uber das Studium der Wissenschaften, beson- ders der OeschichU (Fassli, 1798); Ueber ein Wart, das Fram /. von den Fdgen der Reformation gesagt haben soil (1800); Reliquien alter Zeiten, Sitten und Meinungen (4 parts, Leipsic, 1803-06); Von Glauben der Christen. Vorlesungen (2d ed., 2 vols., Winterthur, 1823); and Ueber chrisUichen Religiansunierricht (1809). (G. Kirchhofeh.) Bibuogbapht: Sources are: The autobiography, produced in ProteMantiache MonaUbUUtcm, xviti (1861). 35 wiq.; the BrxefweehBd between himself and his brother, the his- torian Johann von Mailer, ed. E. Haug. Frauenfeld. 1893. Consult further: The biography by K. Stokar. Basel. 1885: three lectures by J. Kirchhofer. in Unoth, Zeittdkrifi fUr GeachichU wid AUertum dea Standea Schaffhauaen, L 65 sqq., Schaffhausen, 1864; and Aufzetchnungen mm Johann Georg MiUUr, ed. J. BiLchtoId, Berlin, 1881. 2. German Reformed teacher and comparative religionist; b. in Basel, Switzerland, May 8, 1800; d. there Aug. 31, 1875. From 1818 to 1825 he studied philosophy and theology at the Hochschule of Basel, having De Wette as his teacher in theol- ogy, and in his last terms attending lectures by Hagenbach and St&helin, passing his examinations and receiving ordination in 1825. He became teacher 41 Mueller of Latin in the Pftdagogium in Basel, 1828; in 1831, after taking his degree of licentiate, was appointed assistant teacher in the theological faculty; and in 1835 became professor. He studied the works of Philo, of Josephus, and of the apostolic Fathers, as auxiliaries for his spe- cialty, New-Testament exegesis and introduction; he published an edition of Philo's " Creation " (Beriin, 1841), and later ErkUbrung des Barnabas- briefeM (Leipeic, 1869). In 1870 appeared a Pro- gram on Philo's messianic prophesies. His edition of Josephus' Apian was published by two of his colleagues, Riggenbach and Orelli (Basel, 1877). His most valued labor was done in his lectures on introduction to the New Testament. His other field was comparative religion. In his early study of the philosophy of religion, he was strongly op- posed to a priori reasoning, sought solid historical foundation for his belief, and studied carefully the ethnic religions. Although there was no chair of comparative religion, Muller continued to give lectures on the histoxy of polytheistic religions, of which little was known at that time. His Geschichle der amerikafdachen UrreUgionen (Basel, 1855) is a product of this period. He also studied the eth- nographical problem of the relation between the Semites and Hamites, and published a program in 1860, in which he asks: " Who are the Semites, and on what authority do we say, ' Semitic lan- guages'? "; a second program, of 1864, treats of the nationality of the Hyksos and the Philistines; and in another at Gotha in 1872, Die Semilen in ihrem VerhdUniss zu Chamiien und JaphetHen, he tried to prove that *' Semite " was the designation of a group of related peoples, and not a proper name for a class of languages, and that the so-called " Semitic " languages should be called " Hamitic.'' Muller published an autobiographical sketch before his death. (Jacob Kt)NDia.) miELLERy JULinS: German Lutheran theo- logian; b. at Bri^ (28 m. s.e. of Bresiau) Apr. 10, 1801; d. at HaUe Sept. 27, 1878. He studied juris- pradence and theology at the universities of Bres- iau (1819-20), GOttingen (1822-23), and BerUn (1823-24), gradually coming to feel more and more th&t his interests lay in theology rather than in law. In 1825 he was called to the pastorate of Sch6n- Wm. Here, however, he became involved in con- troversy, denying the right of the government to interfere in church affairs and refusing to use either the agenda or the union ritual. He was saved from deposition by a call to become university preacher at Gdttingen in 1830. In the following year he be- cune privat-docent, and in 1834 was appointed as- *>ciate professor, and in the same year he was ^^ to Marburg as professor of dogmatics. Here he ^ called to defend the point of view of a truly ^ntific and believing theology against the ever- iQcreaong onslaught of the anti-Christian philoso- I^y of the times; and here, too, he wrote his chief tbeological work, his ChrisUiche Lekre von der 56»vfc (2 vols., Bresiau, 183^-44; Eng. transl., 2 ^, Edinburgh, 1877). The point of view is the "oftttant tenet of unrestricted scientific investi- fiatioQ which recognises no other authority than the immutable basis of the Bible. At the same time Muller sought to avoid all conflict between scientific thought and Christian feeling, insisting especially that reflection on sin must not lead to the anni- hilation of " religious awe." According to Muller not only did the doctrine of sin hitherto in vogue rest on an antiquated metaphysics, but sin was neither adequately expressed nor sufficiently ex- plained; nor could the antinomy, resulting from the view that sin could be committed only by free will, while no factor in the empirical development of the individual could bear the weight of such voluntary decision, be solved by the ecclesiastical doctrine of original sin. His solution was the assumption of an intelligible self-decision. But if the resolve to maintain the deepest truths justified seeking a better scientific foundation, nevertheless a theology truly revised on the basis of belief could be established only on a purer and profounder con- cept and foimdation of Christian truth than w^as afforded by the teachings of the Church. In so far as a theology thus established on the great princi- ples of general Protestant belief thrust into the background denominational differences, it neces- sarily implied the tendency to union which is clearly evident as a fundamental tenet of Miiller's system of thought. Miiller's doctrine of sin not only conditioned his entire attitude toward theology and the Church, but also determined his subsequent career. His im- portance became ever more evident, and in 1839 he was called from Marburg to Halle. Seven years later he was a deputy of the faculty of Halle to the (jieneral Synod, where he earnestly advocated union, his early opposition to this movement being removed by the change in the policy of church government. Entirely disapproving the course hitherto taken for union of the Lutheran and Reformed, M Ciller held that if uniformity in worship and in church gov- ernment were to have any value, both must rest on uniformity of belief; and an adequate expression of this consensus he held was expressed in the new formula of ordination proposed by Nitzsch. Here his idea was to preserve the denominational charac- teristics of each congregation, for if ordination thus became the expression of the unionistic standpoint of the entire church, nevertheless denominational rights were expressly recognized in the calling of pastors. It is easy to see that Miiller's peculiar at- titude was not imderstood, even though he de- fended it in Die erste GeneraUynode der evangdi- schen Landeskirche Preussena und die Jcirchlichen Bekenntniase (Bresiau, 1847). The confirmation and execution of the decisions of the synod dragged on until ended by the revolution of 1848; but the ensuing reaction in Church and State compelled him to resume the struggle. He now felt that he must defend the actual existence of the union, and be- sides a series of papers bearing on the problem he published an irenic statement of his views, designed to reconcile the moderate Lutherans, in Die evan- gelische Union, ihr Wesen und ihr gdttlic?ie8 Rechl (Beriin, 1854). While the results of Mailer's strug- gle for the union was successful in so far as the Re- formed were placed on an equal footing with the Lutherans in Prussia (and more he had not hoped Mueller Mueneter 42 for), he was deeply pained by having to combat those with whom he felt himself one in faith. Lone- liness and illness now beset him, and in 1856 he suffered a stroke of apoplexy. A year later, how- ever, he was able to resume his lectures, which he continued for twenty-two years. But further ex- tensive literary work was impossible, though he collected his GesammelU Dogmaiische Abhandlungen (Bremen, 1870), originally published in the Deutsche ZeUechrift fur christliche Wissenachaft und chriet- lichee Leben, which he had founded in 1850 with Neander and Nitzsch. In 1878, a few months be- fore his death, he retired from active life. (David Huppeld.) Bibliography: M. K&hler, Dr. JuHu» MuMer^ der haUiache Dogmatiker, Halle, 1898; L. Sohultse, Dr. Julius MOUer, MiUheUunoen aua aeinem Leben, Bremen, 1879.

MUELLER, KARL FERDINAND FRIEDRICH: German Protestant; b. at Langenburg (46 m. n.e. of Stuttgart) Sept. 3, 1852. He was educated at the universities of Tubingen (1870-74; Ph.D., 1876; lie. theol., 1878) and Gottingen (1876-77), inter- rupting his studies in 1875-76 to serve as curate at Ludwigsburg. He was a lecturer at the TObingen theological seminary (1878-80), became privat- docent for theology at Berlin (1880), and associate professor (1882). In 1884 he went in a similar capacity to Halle; to Giessen as full professor (1886); to Breslau, as professor of church history (1891); and to the University of Tubingen (1903). He has written : Der Kampf Ludwigs dee Bayem mit der r6mi- schen Kirche (2 vols., Tubingen, 1879-80); Die An- fdnge dea Minoritenordens und der Bussbruderschaften (Freiburg, 1885); Die Waldenaer und ihre eimdnen Gruppen bis zum Anfang dee vierzehnten Jakrhur^ derta (Gotha, 1886) ; Kirchengeschichte (2 parts, Frei- buig, 1892-1902); Luther und Kcarlstadt (Tubingen, 1907); and Die Esslinger Pfarrkircfie im M ittelaUer, in WiirtteTnbergi8c?ie Vierteljahrahefte fUr Landes- geechichte, xvi (1907).

MUELLER, WILHELM MAX: Lutheran; b. at Gleissenberg (a village near WaldmUnchen (38 m. n.e. of Regensburg), Bavaria, May 15, 1862. He was educated at the universities of Erlangen, Leip- sic (Ph.D., 1893), Berlin, and Munich. In 1888 he left Germany for the United States, and after two years' residence in New York City was appointed in 1890 to his present position of professor of Old- and New-Testament exegesis at the Reformed Episcopal Seminary, Philadelphia. He has written Asien und Europa nach cdtdgyptiachen Denkmdlem (Leipsic, 1893) ; Die Liebespoesie der alien Aegypter (1899); and Egyptological Researches (Washington, 1906). MUEMPELGART, mum'pel'gart, COLLOQUY OF: A disputation between Lutherans and Re- formed at the castle of MUmpelgart (a town better known to English readers under its French name Montbeliard, near the French border, 37 m. w. of Basel), Mar. 21-26, 1586. This was occasioned by the incorporation of the county of MUmpelgart into the duchy of Wurttemberg by inheritance. As early as 1526 Farel had preached the Gospel in MUmpel- gart, but soon had to flee. In 1535, however, a Calvinistic type of the Reformation was established by Tossanus, a Reformed Frenchman; then the duke of WUrttembeig attempted to reoiganize the church on the Lutheran model. Many Calvinists had found a refuge in MUmpelgart from French persecution, but were not easily admitted to the Lord's Supper. In order to create more friendly relations with the Lutherans, the disputation was arranged. On the Lutheran side, Jacob Andreas and Lucas Osiander of Tubingen were commissioned, together with two political councilors, Hans Wolf von Anweil and Friedrich SchUtz. On the Reformed side there were present Beza, Abraham Musculua, preacher at Bern; Anton Fajus, deacon at Geneva; Peter Hybner, professor of Greek in Bern; Claudius Alberius, professor of philosophy in Lausanne, and the two councilors, Samuel Meyer of Bern and An- ton Maiisius of Geneva. The points of controversy were (1) the Lord's Supper, (2) the person of Christ, (3) pictures and ceremonies, (4) baptism, and (5) election. The proceedings were not taken down in writing, but both parties in the beginning handed in written copies of their theses. Both parties claimed the victory. Against the agreement there was later published a protocol in the interest of the Lutherans. Beza disputed the correctness of the Acta of Tubingen and defended himself in Latin and German. A deputation from WUrttemberg requested at Bern satisfaction for the allegation of forgery which had been repeated by Musculus, but the deputation made no impression upon the Re- formed. The only result of the disputation was a deepening of the differences between the two parties. (A. ScHWEIZERf.) Bibliography: Sources are: Acta coUoquii MorUia BeOv- gartenatBt TObincen, 1594; Ad acta coUoquii Montiebdi- gardenna, T. Beza reaponeio, Geneva, 1587-88. Consult: H. J. J. Heppe, T. Beza, Leben und auagewAhUe Schnften, pp. 267 eqq., Elberfeld* 1861.

MUENCHMEYER, AUGUST FRIEDRICH OTTO: German divine; b. at Han- over Dec. 8, 1807; d. at Buer (10 m. n. of Essen), district of Munster, Nov. 7, 1882; studied at LUne- burg, Holzminden, Gottingen, Berlin, and at the preachers' seminary at Hanover. In 1840 he was appointed pastor at Lamspringe, near Hildesheim; in 1851, superintendent at Catlenburg; and in 1855, consistorial councilor and superintendent at Buer, and member of the ecclesiastical court of Osnar brUck. He was a zealous advocate of the complete separation of State and Church, which he sup- ported in the ZeUschrift fur Protestantismus und Kirche, and in the Gdttinger Monatsschrift (184d- 1847). He engaged in a controversy with HdHing over the latter's Grundsdtze evangdischrlutherischer Kirchenverfassungj to refute which he published Das Ami des Neuen Testaments nach Lehre der Schrift und der lutherischen Bekenntnisse (Osterode, n.d.). He was the author also of Das Dogma von der sichtbaren und unsichtbaren Kirche (Gdttingen, 1854). (J. G. W. UHMORNt.)

MUENSCHER, WILHELM: German theologian; b. at Hersfeld (32 m. s.8.e. of Cassel) Mar. 15, 1766; d. at Marbuig July 28, 1814. He studied at the gymnasiimi of his native town and at the Uni- versity of Marburg; officiated for some time as assistant to his father, pastor at Hersfeld; became 43 ICueller MuaxiBter in 1789 pastor of the collegiate church there; was three years later called to the chair of theology at the University of Marburg. Although his activity embraced all branches of theology except Old- Testament exegesis, he is known chiefly through his writings on doctrinal theology and church his- tory. His theological standpoint was that of a moderate rationalist, and for him the mission of doctrinal theology was to answer the question " How and why has the doctrine of Christianity gradually assiuned its present form? ** This ques- tion he endeavored to answer in a series of essays in various periodicals. He was the author also of Handbuch der chrUUichen Dogmengeschichie (4 vols., Marbuiig, 1797); Lehrbuch der chrisUichen Kirchen- gesckichte (Marburg, 1804); and a Lehrbuch der ekritUichen Dogmengeschichie (Marbuiig, 1811). (A. Hauck.) BnuooRAFBT: His life and writinsi were edited by L. Wachler, Frankfort, 1817. Consult also the Verauch einer OtaeMchtM der he»aiach-reformierten Kirche by his son, W. MOnseher, Cassel, 1850.

MUENSTER, BISHOPRIC OF: An ancient bishopric in Westphalia, originally comprising the Saxon territory between the Lippe and the Ems bounded on the south by the diocese of Cologne and on the west by that of Utrecht. It is probable that the first missionary work here was done bj clerics from the latter diocese, for when it was organized as a separate bishopric Charlemagne appointed a Frisian priest, Liudger (q.v.), as Hi first bishop. The exact date can not be determined; Liudger (q.v.) was still an abbot on Jan. 13, 802, and is designated as a bishop on Apr. 23, 805. The fact of his Frisian origin brought about the inclusion in his jurisdiction of five Frisian districts 47 MuenBter Muenzer to the north of the lippe, extending down to the mouth of the Elms. (A. Hauck.) For the first two centuries after the foundation of the see, the population of Westphalia was scanty and exclusively agricultural. Towns grew up first around the monasteries which Liudger founded in connection with the episcopal sees, as is witnessed by the name of MQnster, which supplanted the old name Mimigemseford, Mimigardevord. The high position assigned by Charlemagne to the Saxon bishoprics placed temporal jurisdiction in the bish- ops' hands from the beginning. In the twelfth centuiy this was increased by rich donations, and after the death of Duke Henry the Lion in 1180 Bishop Hermann II., Count of Katzenelnbogen (1174-1203), assumed the ducal powers in his diocese. His successors exercised similar rights, recognizing only the emperor as their overlord in temporal matters. These rights were stubbornly contested in the Frisian part of the diocese, and not fully acknowledged until 1276. In the thir- teenth century the chapter held the position of fint estate of the diocese, the nobility taking the second, and the towns, under the leadership of Monster, the third. But the two latter strove in- cessantly to increase their power, even by force of arms. Otto IV., Count of Hoya (1392-1404), established firmly tjie power which the bishopric long enjoyed in Westphalia. The introduction of the Reformation teachings in 1524 was supported by the independent spirit of the populace, and the town became a center of Anabaptist disturbances (see MCnbter, Anabaptists in). But with the election of Ernest, elector of Bavaria and archbishop of Cologne (1585-1612), the conflict was decided in favor of the predominance of the Roman Catholic religion, although the extent of the diocese was notably diminished during the sixteenth centuiy. The ecclesiastical boimda- ries of the diocese were enlarged by the bull De walute tmimarum in 1821, and it now consists of 366 parishes, with a Roman Catholic population of n«uiy a million. For a list of the bishops 809- 1622 cf. Hauck-Herzog, RE, xiii. 538-539. BnuooRAFHT: Souroes are: R. WOmaxis and F. PhUippi, Kai»erurkvnd€n der . . . WeMfalen, 2 vols., MOnster, l.Se7-81; Reottla hiaUnim Weatfaliw, ed. H. A. Erhard, 2 vols., ib. 1847-^51; WettflUiaehes Urkundenbuch, vol. m., ed. R. 'WHmans, ib. 1871; Die GeschichtaqueUen dea BiMvaui Manater, ib. 1851 sqq., Rettberg. KD, ii. 424; A. Tfbus, GmndungaQeachichle der SHfter . . . dea ciUen Biatuma MUruier, ib. 1867; A. Calmet, Hial. de Vabbaye de M&nater, Colimar. 1882; Hauok. KD, ii. 400^07; R. Staffer. Die HUeate Agende dea Biatuma Manater, Mon- ster. 1905. MUERTER, mOn'ter, FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN

MUENTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN KARL HEINRICH: Danish bishop; b. at Gotha, Saxe-Coburg, Germany, Oct. 14, 1761 ; d. at Copen- hagen Apr. 9, 1830. He studied philology and theology at the University of Copenhagen, and church history at Gottingen. He was appointed professor of theology at the University of Copen- hagen, 1787, in 1808 succeeding to the bishopric of Zealand. MQnter was a prolific writer, and several of his works pertaining to church history are still of value. His principal works are a hand- book on the history of the doctrinal theology of the oldest Christian church (2 vols., Copenhagen, 1801-4); a history of the Danish Reformation (2 vols., 1802); an exposition of the religion of the Carthaginians (1816; 2d ed., 1821); and a church history of Denmark and Norway (3 vols., 1823-33). Of great importance were also his " Symbols and Art-Notions of the Ancient Chris- tians " (2 vols., 1825) ; and Primordia ecdesice AfricarKB (1829), which for a long time was the principal guide for students of the oldest history of the African church. As a theologian MUnter was distinctly a historian, not a systematist. He had no firm theological or philosophical standpoint, but was always an ardent advocate of peace. He believed in the "divinity of Christianity," but his theology was leavened with rationalism. As a teacher he was successful only with those who shared his interest for archeology. (F. Nielsen f.) Bibliography: J. P. Mynster, in TSK, vi (1833); B. MQn- ter, Familien MUtUera StanUavle, Copenhagen, 1901.

MUFTI: The title of an official in Moham- medan, porticulariy Turkiah, countries, whose duty it is to assist the judge or cadi by expounding the law. He must be familiar with the Koran, with the body of Mohammedan tradition, as well as with the worits on law, as it is part of his work to ate decisions already made in similar cases. Bibliography: D. B, Macdonald, DtcHopmnt o/ Minlim Thf^tiiQy. JurUprudonce. and Con^Uutional Theory, pp. 115, 18*. 278, 277. Ne* York. 1903,

MUHLENBERG, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS: Protes- tant Episcopalian clergyman, poet, and philan- thropist; b. in Philadelphia Sept. 16, 1796; d. in New York Apr. 8, 1877. His great-grandfather was Henry Melchior Muhlenlierg, his grandfather Fred- erick Augustus Muhlcnbeig, and his father Henry William Muhlenberg, and he was baptized in the Lutheran communion, but while a little boy made choice of the Episcopal Church. He graduated from the University of Pennsylvania in 1814, and at once entered on his theological studies under Bishop White, by whom he was ordained deacon in 1S17, and whose assistant he become in Christ Church. On tiis ordination as priest, 1820, be accepted a call to the rectorship of St. James', Lancaster, Pa., where he remainiKl six years, and where he did much toward the advancement of public education. He occupied lumself also at this time in church hymnody; wrote a Plea for Chrit- Non HynmM, that was circulated at the special Gen- cnl Convention of 1821. and which, with other measures, resulted in 1826 in the adoption of a collection of hymns prepared by a committee of which he was the chief worker. His own well-known hymn, " I would not live alway," was written in Lancaster in 1824, and first printed in the Phila- delphia Epiacopal Recorder, in J826. He declared that a myth had grown up about bis famous hymn and tiiat it was not written under the depression of a ruptured engagement of marriage. But, con- Tiooed that it was too gloomy, he worked it over and tfaua enlarged and " evangelixed " it (cf. the publication mentioned below). Be championed the Christianizing of education. the union, in some practical form, of the Evangel- ical bodies of Christendom, and Christian brother- bood as exemplifying itself in institutions of charity Bikj beneficence for the poor and oppressed. On kaving Lancaster in 1826. he liecanie rector of St, Geoii^'a, Flushing, L, I., N. Y., and there opened a school in 1828, when he relinquished his charge. In I83S he joined the school to St. Paul's College, of which he was rector till 1846, when he entered on tbe pastorate of the Free Church of the Holy Com- nunioa. New York, the building of which was erected by his slater, Mrs. Mary A, Rogers. He was the originator of numerous important movements in the Episcopal Church (see Deaconess, 111., 2, d. S 2), and the methods he employed in his schools be- came most popular, being widely applied in other institutions. It was during bb ministry in this church that he enunciated moat cmpbaticully those " Evangelical Catholic " principles which he believed to be the true theory of the Christian Church, and which are signally expressed in The Muhlenberg Memorial (cf . Evangeliad Catholic Papers, New York, 1875). His grandest exemplifications of Christian brotherhood are the institutions of St. Luke's Hos- pital, New York, opened in 1859, with himself as ilit first pastor and superintendent; and the Church Village of St. Johniand on Long Island, incorporated in 1870. " The incarnation was the central idea of his theology and the inspiration of his Christian life —brotherhood vn Christ, brotherhood through Christ." He never married, and, though bom to affluence, did not leave money enough for his funeral- He died in St. Luke's Hospital, and was buried at St. Johniand. His works embrace / would not tivt alv.'ay, am! Other Pieces (New York, 1859; reissued with The Story o/the Hymn, and a Brief Accoura of St. Johniarul, 1871); Emngeiical Sixterhoodg; in Two IjetlcrB to a Friend (1867); Chritl and the Bihh; not the BibU and Christ (1869); and his Evangelical Catholic Papers; Comjrilcd bg Anne Ayree (1875). Bibliography: BiagiBph[» liave been written by E. Hor- wood and a. D. Wild«. Npw Yotk, 1877; A. Ayre», ib. I3.S0. new ed.. I8fl4 (the standard): and W. W. Newton, Bo9lan. 1H90. Coosull aUo E, A. Washburn. Sermoiu in Mtmorial of W. A. Mahlabrrs. New York. 1S77.

MULBERG, JOHANNES: Dominican monk and anticipator of the Reformation; b. at Klein-Basel in the middle of the fourteenth century; d. in Maul- bronn in 1414, He was the son of a cobbler and de- voted himself up to his twentieth year to his father's handicraft. He then first attended school and soon afterward entered the Dominican order. With fer- vent zeal he participated in the efforts for the reformation of his order and won many cloisters for the reform movement, especially in South Germany. He soon became one of the most successful and esteemed public speakers. From 1400 he began, in Basel, the struggle against the Beghards and Beguines (q.v.), who found earliest defenders in the Franciscans. From 1405 to 1411, he sojourneti in ItJily, and remained, after the Council of Pisa, under the obedience of Gregory XII. When he returned to Basel in 1411, be sharply assailed tlie moral shortcomings of the clergy in his sermons and, in & prophetic vein, announced to them a, great judg- ment. Driven from Boael as a Echismatic and here- tic, he died, widely revered as a god-sent prophet. Among hia works, the controversial writinga against the Beguines are noteworthy; these have been pub- lished in part by Haupt {ZKG, x. 611 eqi]., 18U6; cf. J. L. von Moaheim, De Brghardis, pp. 554 sq<|., Leipaic, 1790). H. Haupt. Bibliography: C. WuratiBen, Bauter ChTonick, pp. 201- 220. BbmI. ISHO: P. Ocha. Oaxhichtt d^ Slodt . . . HiuW. iii. 2e-3S, ib. ISIS; J. F. HauU. Of^KhichU: d>r Uniivrn- Ul Hriddben. I. 240-241. ii. 364 iqq.. Mannheim. 1802- ISH; K. Schider. UaoiMn- JohanHa Nidcr, pp. 1.1. 104 Ettq., Mnini. IftSS: Kcichert, in RfmucHe Quartatichrifl fllT AUrHumaiundc. liv (1900), 84, 95. Iv (ItWl). 128- 129, 139. 148.

MULE: The hybrid of the ass and the mare, In contrast with the hinny, the offspring of the stallion and the she-ass. The mule, on account of its sure-footedness, is more serviceable than the horse in mountainous regions, though inferior both in Eise and strength. Mules are mentioned in the £gyptian and Assyrian records, as well as in Homer. According to the latter, they were derived princi- pally from Myaia and Paphlagonia (Iliad, xxiv.). The Hebrews obtained these animals from Togar- mah (Armenia), which was rich in horses, through the Phenicians (Ezelt. xxvii. 14). They were also imported into Assyria. Among the Hebrews they ore first named in David's time as saddle animals of the kings and princes (II Sam. xiii. 30; 1 Kings i. ai), and as beasts of burden (I Chron. sii. 40). It is evident that at this period they were some- what rare; only later did their use become more general (I Kings iviii. 5; Zech. xiv. 15). They were sent to Solomon as tribute from conquered peoples (I Kings X. 25; II Chron. ix. 24). Whether the Hebrews themselves raised these animals in ancient times is not known; in the later legislation (I^ev. xix. 19) this is forbidden. The law was, however, evaded by breeding the animaJa outside the land. Bennscherib carried off a great number of mules, BBses, and horses a^ booty (according to the inscrip- tion on the famous cylinder of this king, iii. 18 aqq.) ; the returning exiles brought back a conuderahle number of mules \^-ith them, although the number of horses was three times as great (Ezra ii. G6; Nch. vii. 6S). I. Benzinoer. Bibliography: V. Roha, KuUurpflamfn unit Hautlhiere. nt, O. Schroddr, Berlin, ISOZ: F. ViKoumux, Dtettonmtre dt la Bible, fnnc. nvlll.. coin. 13^10-1338. Paris, 1906; DB. iii. tse-, EB, iii. 3224-25; JE. ii. 105.

MULFORD, ELISHA: Episcopalian; b. at Montrose, Susquehanna County. Pa., Nov. 19, 1833; d. at Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 9, 1885. He grad- uated from Yale College 1855; studied theology at Union Theological Seminary, New York, at Andover, Mass., and in Halle and Heidelberg, Ger- many; was ordained deacon 1859, and priest 1862; had charges ut Darien, Conn, 1861; South Orange, N. J., 1861-64; Friendaville, Peim., 1877-81. From 1861 to 1877 he resided without charge at Mont- rose, Pa.; after I8S1 he lived at Cambridge, where he lectured on apoli^etica in the Episcopal Divinity School. Dr. Mulford was in sympathy with the theological sentiment* expressed by the school of Coleridge and Frederick Denison Maurice, and stood for the union of the utmost liberty of philosophic thought in the treatment of Christian dogmas. He was also under the influence of Richard Rothe, and was in accord with the realism of HegcI. He wrote The Nation, the Foundation of Civil Order and Pa- lUirtd Life in the United States (New York, 1870, and often); and Tlie Republic of God, an Imtiluit of Theology (Boston, I8S1, and often).

MULLENS, JOSEPH: English Congregational' ist missionary; b. in London Sept. 2, 1820; d. at Chocombe, near Mpwapwa (200 m. w. of Zanzibar), German East Africa, July 10, 1879. He graduated from London University in 1841; in 1842 he offered himself to ttie London Missionary Society, and, after being ordained, sailed for India, where he began woiii at Showanipore, and was pastor of the native church there, 1840-58. While there he gathered statistics of the missiooa in India and Ceylon. Re- turning to Englaiid in 1S5S, he was prominent as secretary of the Liverpool Missionary Conference in 1860; in 1865 he became joint foreign secretary and in 1868 sole foreign secretary of the London Missionary Society; in 1870 he was present a( the annual meeting of the American Board of Com- missioners for Foreign Missiona; and he spent the year of 1873 in a visit to Madaga-scar in the interest of missionary work. He was active in securing the convention of the Mildinuy Couferencc, London, 1878. Hia last great desire was to establish on a permanent basis the miaaions of the London Society in Ujiji, Africa, and in this interest he accompanied several missionaries to Africa. Starting from Zan- zibar he got no farther than Mpwapwa. His states- manlike and udmitiistrativc abilities enabled him to perform wonders for the efficiency of the Londoo Missionary Society. Hia writinga embrace FcJn:t- lism, Brahminijtm, and Ckrialianit!/ Esamin^l and Compared. A Prize Eaay (Calcutta, 1852); Mit- »ion» in South India Visited and Dexribcd (London, 1854); The Religimta Aepai* of Hindu PhOoaophy Staled and DiscuKscd. A Prixe Ettay (I860); A Brief fieiTcto o/ Ten I'cara' Miswrnary Labor in India between 185S and !8Gt. Prepared from Loral Rt]iorta and Original Letter» (1863); London and Catculta Compared in their Heathenism, their Priri- leges and their Pronprcts il86S); and Twelve Months In Madagascar (IST5). Bibliography: O^fl, «hi. 2Ta-277; London MiimoTiaTV Sociity ChnmicU, Oat., 1S7S.

MULLINS, EDGAR YOUNG: Baptist; b. in Franklin Co., Miss., Jan. 5, 1860. He received his education at the Agricultural and Mechanical Col- lege of Texas (1876-79), the Southern Baptist Theo- logical Seminary (graduated 1SS5), and at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.; was pastor at Hnrrodsburg, Ky. (1885-S8), ot the Lee Street Bap- tist Church, Baltimore (1888-95); corresponding sccrotaiy of the Foreign Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convenlion (1895-!)6); pastor of the First Church, Newlon, Mass. (18116-99); has been president of the Southcni Baptist Theological Scni- inary and professor of theology since lUiyj; and is president of the Baptist Young People's Union of America. He is the author of Why is ChrUtianxty True f (Chicago, 1905); ^nd Axioms of Religion: a New Iiderprttatian of the Baptitl Faith (Philadelphia, 1908).

MURATORI, LUDOVICO ANTONIO: Italian Roman Catholic historian; b. at Vig- nola (SO m. n.n.w. of Florence) Oct. 21, 1672; d. St Modena Jan. 23, 1750. He studied theology, philosophy, and law at Modena, and in 1695 was at- tarhed to the Ambroaian Library at Milan, In 1700 be w&a recalled to Modena as archivist and libra- rian, vhere he spent the remainder of his life, being also provost of Santa Maria delta Pomposa. The TCBults of his activity at Milan were his Anecdota ex Ainhronani£ bihiiotheca codicihug (4 vols,, Milan and Padua, 1697-1713) and Anecdota Grarca (Padua, 1709). Here he discovered the famous Muratorian Canon (q.v.). The controversy which broke out in 1708 between tie emperor and the pope over the ■late and territory of Comacchio, in which Muratori was called to defend the house of Este against the papal claims, led to his first great historical work, the AntiehM EsUnsi ed Italiane (2 vols., Modenu, 1717-40). He then proceeded to an exhaustive collection of malarial for a history of Italy from the fifth to the sixteenth century. The results were his Rerum Halicarum scriptorea ob anno BOO-ISOO (28 vols., Milan, 1723-51), supplemented by his Antiquitalea Ilaiicm medii arvi (6 vols., 1738-42; Italian transl. by the author, Ditserloiioni sopra U aiitichild iuUiane, 3 vols., 1751) and his Noaus thevjunu vettrum inscriplionum (4 vols., 1739-43). The material thus obtained was summarized in a simple description of facts in rigid chronological order from the b^jmung of the Christian era to 1749, the work being entitled Annali d'llaiia (12 volsi., 1744-49). Here, too, belongs his lAturgia Bomrma veliis tria sacramenlaria eompUcUm (1748). The remaining worice of Muratori, many of them under paeudonyms, were devoted eitlier to literature, philosophy, jurisprudence, or theology. To the lirst class belong his Ddla perfettn poesia italiana (2 vols,, 1706) anil HrjUsfdoni sopra il buon gusto iiUomo le scienzc e le arli (1708); to the second hia Ddla CariiA cnntiana (1723), FUoaoJia morale es- posta (1735), DcUe forte dcU'intendimenla umano (1745), and Delia form ddla fantasia (1745); and to the third his Govemo ddla peste politico, viedico ed eccUniaalico (1714), DefMi delta giurisprvdema (1741), and Delia jndtbliea fdidtA (1749). His the- ological writings roused much controversy, espe- cially by his attacks on the Jesuit favoring of vows in Sicily to defend the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception even at the risk of Ufe, and by his criticisms of certain ecclesiastical proceedings, par- ticularly the excessive honor of the saints and the great number of holidays. To this class belong his De i-ngeniorum maieratione in rdigionis negotio (Paris, 1714; under the pseudonym of Lamindo Fritanio) ; De mperstitione vitanda sire ceTisura voli sanguinaHi (1740; under the pseudonym of An- tonius Lampridius); the pseudonymous Ferdinand* Valdesii epistolm (17411), and Delia regolata divo- zioTie lie' crisliani (1747; under the pseudonym of Lamindo Pritanio). The latter class of writings exposed Muratori to the attacks of his enemies and rivals. Muratori 's voluminous correspondence, hitherto either scattered in various publications or still only in manuscript, was edited by M, Campori in his Epistolario di L. A. Muratori (Modena, IMIl Sqq,). (G. LArBMANNf.) Bibuoorapht: Aconuota of bis lid! wore written by G, F, Uoli Muratori. Naples, 17Ui; and by A. Fabroniuii, id Vitm ItaloTom. I, 89-391, 18 vols,, Pisa, 1778-99. Con- sult furthers A, von Reumont. BrUraot lur tfoJienucAcn GtKliKhu, Hi. 216-270. a vols,, Bcriin. 18S3-S7; M. lan- dau, Ottchiclilc drr italirnitchrn LiltrralKr, Berlin, 1899.

MURDOCK, JAMES: American scholar; b. in Westbrook, Conn., Feb. 16, 1776; d. in Columbua, Mies., Aug, 10, 1856. He was graduated from Yale College, 1797; entered the Congregational ministry; was pastor in Princeton, Mass., 1802-15; professor of ancient languages in the University of Vermont, 1815-19; professor of sacred rhetoric and ecclesiastical history in Andover Theologi(?al Seminary, 1819-28; retired to New Haven, and from then till his death devoted himself e.\clu- iivdy to the study oE chureh history, orientalia, and philosophy. The principal fruits of this learned leisure are a translation from the German of MQq- scher's ElemeTds of Dogmaiic Histmy (New Haven, 1S30); a translation from the Latin of Moshcim'* Inntitutes of Eedenastical HUtory (New Havens 1832) ; a translation of Mosheim's ComnKntanea ay- • The Latin! en ia an approiiiuatioa ooty. intranslatabltf! 1>< Affairs of the Chri^ians before the Time of Con- aUatiine the Great (2 vola.. New York, 1851-52); Tte New Testament: a literal Translatian from the .SjTiof Peahiio Versimt (1852). He also cdiUil, with prehice ood notes, Milnuin's Jlitlonj of Chruiiianily (ISil), and wrote The Nature of the Atonement (Ancover, 1823); and Sketches of Modem Philoso- phy, fnpreiatty amimg the Germana (Hartford, 18-12}.

MURNER, THOMAS: German Catholic priest and poet; b. at Oberehnheim (ISm. a.w. of Strus- burg) probably Dec. 2'1, 1475; d. there Aug. 23, 1537. He entered the Franciscan order at Stra»- burg 1490; was ordained priest in 14SM; studied ibeolocy at Paris, ktv at Freiburg, and philosophy, phUolt^y, and mathematics at Cracow, 1496-1500, halting his doctorate some lime before 1509. About 1500 or 1501 Mumer is said to have lived at Solo- thum in order to become ramiliar with the Swiss monasteries. In 1502 he returned to Straaburg. He attempted at Cracow and other places to teach logic and even jurisprudence bj meana of charts, ChaHUudium Logica (Craeoiv, 1507) and Chartir- iudium InstUute Summarie (1518). In 1508 he was at Strosburg, where he was attacked by Ulrich Zo^us on account of his humanistic leanings. Mumer, on the other band, maintained that the study of ancient literature was not incompatible witb a pious and chaste life and that contact with Ibe world necessitated classical education even for clei^ymen. In his Lwlus Stwlentum FTeSniryert- rium (Frankfort, 1511) he taught even prosody in a figurative manner. His greatest renown was won by his satires, in which he was thoroughly at home. In 1512 appeared his NamnbesehwUmng and Sdtdmemunft, the former at Strosburg, 'he .atter at Frankfort, The NaireiAeschwdrtiiig was in- fluenced by the Narrtnschiff of Sebastian Bract, but its originality has not suffered from that fact. The Schetmetuunfl is the Narrenbeeehw6rung ab- breviated. In both poems Murner attacked the deficiencies and frailties of all classes, the gluttony «nd rebelljoua turn of the peasants, the arrogance, tgcaem, and niggardlineiis of cilixens, the vanity of women, the rapacity, debauchery, and brutality of the nobility, the insubordination and ^oism of the imperial princes, but especially the ignorance, levity, unchostity, avarice, and unscrupulousness of the clergy. But in criticism of the Church, Uumer never went beyond abuses in the Church; its constitution and doctrines he did not assail. Be attacked not personalities but principles, or ntber, the lack of them. In 1514 appeared his poem, Ein aniUchiig grigtliche Badenfahrt and in 1515 Die M-QiU vtm SehwymteUshcipti vnd Gredt ItiiUcrin Jahneii. Die geuehmat zu Straf alien triytarAra mannen (Basel, 1510) is directed against loolish lovers and ladles' men and forms a rich . Kniite for the history of manners, eustoms, and t I^iom. In 151!) appeared his translation of the \ 'Miiiilionen which in 1521 was renewed under llie title, Drr keyserliehen Slalrechien ein Ingang "iJ uwej Fundament. The popularising of legal "WMr was a need of the time. But, though Mur- "ffdiwtrned the corruption of the Roman Catholic '-''wdi, he was dccid^ly hoetile to the Reforma- tioD. Against Luther Mumer wrote no less than thirty-two pamphlets of which only five or six have been printed: Ein clirisllichc unii hricdtTticlie Kr- manung Jit dcm koehijHrrtcn. Doctor Martina Later (l.i20); Von Doctor Martiaus Litlera Icren and prcdiyen, das sie org wenig seint (1520); Von dem babstentliMm . . . in/rfer Doctor Martinum Luther { 1 520) ; Ain nevi lied von dem undcrgang dea Chritt- lichen Glauliena in Bruilcr Veilen than (1521); Ob der Kiinig ujw engeUand tin lUgner sey oder der Luther (1522). But in spite of his zeal, he gained littleocknowledgment even among Roman Catholics, and his attacks had not the least elTcct upon his opponents. His satires lacked religious enthu- siasm and sincerity. His best satire is Von dein gromen lutlierischen Narren irio j'n Doctor Mumer beschworen hat (1522). But the poem was imme- diately suppressed by the council of Strasbuig, and Mumer was forbi<ldcn to print anything else. In 1.V23 Murner visited in England with Henry VIII., whose treatise on the seven sacraments against Luther he had translated in the preceding year. Atler his return the Reformation had victoriously entered Straaburg, and Mumer removed to Obcr- ehnheim, but driven away by the Peasants' War, he lied to Switzerland. Having settled nt Lucerne, he became the head of the Roman party, and one of the most energetic opponents of Zwingli. But in 1521), after Lucerne was defeated in the firet war of Kappcl, Mumer had to flee once more. He escaped to Wallia and then took refuge with Elector Frederic If. in the Palatinate. In 1530 he returned to Oberehnhcim where he spent the rest of his life. (F. LiBTtO HiHUORRAi-inr: G. E. Wnlrlnu, NaehHelUm van Themoi Mumrrt Ubtn und fichriftm. Nurmulierg, 1775; J. flohd- ble. Dot Klnita. vol. iv.. Stulttinrt. IH40i J. Hub. Via humirrt!. Nurembem. l&W; W. Knwerau, ritotnat Mtinur unj dit Kinrhe da UMdnUa-i. HnlJc. 18B01 idlm, Tltamai Mwrarr unil die deuUclu Rcforraalinn, ib. 1S91; K. Ott. ia Alainannia, Euii. 1 44-183, 231-288.

MURPHY, FRANCIS: Apostle of total absti- nence and evangelist; b. at Wexford (64 m. s.w. of Dublin), Ireland, Apr. 24, ISiiC; d. at Los Angeles, Cal., June 30, 1907. He emigrated to tJie United States while a young man; served as a private during the Civil War; began work in Portland, Me., as an advocate of total abstinence in 1870, and led the campaign in that state for several years; bis success there led to the extension of the movement over the entire country, until it was estimated that over 10,000,000 had signed the pledge, which in- volved not only abstinence from intoxicating drinks but earnest effort to induce others to the some. The great results of his work in the I'nited States led, in ISSl, to his being colled to England and the con- tinent, where his successes were continued for four yeors. On his return he made his home for some years in Pittsburg, Pa., but continued his work on the platform. In 1900 he went to Hawaii to pnv sent his cause, then to Australia, returning in 1901 and making his home in Los Angeles, Cnl., but con- tinuing his work till foiling eyesight compelled his retirement in 1!K)6.

MURPHY, JAMES GRACEY : Irish Presbyterian . exegete; b. at Ballyaltikilligan in the parish of Comber (8 m. s.e. of Belfast), Ireland, Jan. 12, ISOS; d. at Belfast Apr. 1<), 1»<)6. He graduated from Trinity College, Dublin (A.B., 1833); became minister at BiiUyahannon, 183G; classical head miister at iJie Royal Belfast Academical Inatitu- tion, 1841; and professor of Hebrew, PreBbyterian College, Bcltaflt, 1S47. He wua the author of A Latin Gramtnar (London, 1847); A Hebrew Gram' mar (1857); Nineteen Impomiiniiliet of Pari Fint nj CotejiBO on Ihe Pentateuch Shoipn lo be Possible: ■with a Critique on Part Too (BeHiial, 1863); The Human Mind: A System of Human FhUonophy (London, 1873); the volume on Chronicles in Hamlbooha for Bible Claiaes (Edinburgh, 1879); Sacrijire us net forth in Sfripturt: The Carey Lee- lures for 1888 (London, 188!l). He was also the author of commentaries on Genesis (EAiinburgb, 1864); Exodus (1860); Leviticus (1872); PsalniB (1875); RevelaUon (London, 1882); and Daniel (1884); he translated C. F. Keil's commentary on Kings (Edinburgh, 1S&7) ; and asaisled in the trans- lation of E. W. HengaKnbcrg'a comroentary on Ezekiel (18S!)); he also translated, enlarged, and edited O. ZOckler's commentaty ou Chronicles (1880).

MURRAY, JOHN: Founder of the Univer- euli^t dcnoniiniition in America; b. in Alton (l.'i m. n.e. of Winchester), Hampshire, Eiig., Dec. 10, 1741; d. in Boston, Hoes., Sept. 3, 1815. Uis father was U.II Anglican and hia mother a Presbyterian, both strict Calviniste, and his home life was attended by rcIipouB severity. In 1751 the family settled near Cork, Ireland. In 1760 Murray returned lo England and joined Whil«(ield 'a congregation; but embracing, some what later, the Universaliatic teachings of James Rcily (q.v.) he was excom- municated. In 1770 he emigrated to America, nnd preached, as a Universaliat minister, his first Bermon in Good Luck, N. J., Sept. 30, 1770, which place he made his home till 1774, itinerating from Virginia to New Hampshire. In 1774 he settl«l at Gloucester, Mass., and established a congregation there. He was suspected of being a British spy, but in 1775 was chaplain of the Rhivle Island Brigade before Boston. He participated in the first general Universaliat Convention at Oxford, Mass., September, 1785. On Oct. 23, 17!)3, he be- came pastor of the Univcrsalist society of Boston, and faithfully served it until Oct. 19, 1809, when paralysis compelled him to give up preaching. He was a man of great courage and eloiiuence, and in the defense of his views endured much detcstn- tion and abuse. In regard to Christ, he taught that in him God became the Son; for "God the J'athcr, God the Son. and God the Holy Ghost, are no more than different exhibitions of the self- same existent, omnipresent Being." He taught ■ that all men would ultimately be saved through the sacrifice of Christ, the basis for this being the union of all men in Christ, just as they were united with Adam, and therefore partaking of the beziefits of his sacrifice. He was also a writer of hymns and a compiler of hymnals. BiBUoaBATBT : Soume are hii own LMtrt and StHcha of Strmmu, 3 vala., Boiloii. 1812; At^ohuiBraphii. oontiDiied by hia wila, ib. ISIS, centeiuuy ed., 1870. Consult; R. MURRAY, MICaOLAS: Presbyterian contro- versialist; b. at BallynsiSkeagh (26 m. s.w. of Belfast). Ireland, Dec. 25. 1803; d. at Elizabeth- town, N.J. , Feb. 4, 1861. He emigrated to America 1818; was employed aa printer by Harper i. Broth- ers. Brought up a Human Catholic, he was in 1820 converted to Proiestantistn. and, after grad- uation at Williams College (1826) and at Princo- ton Theological Seminary (1829) became a Pied>y- terian pastor, first at Wilkesbarre, Pa., 1829, and from 1834 till his death at Elixabelhtown, N. J. In 1849 he wa« moderator of the (Old School) Genera] Assembly. Uis fame rests upon bis able -and witty Letters lo the Right Rep. John Hughes, Roman-Calhalic Bi»hop of New York (3 series, New York, 1S47-48, revised ed., 1855), a keen exposure of certain abuses in the Church of Rome abroad. These letteta appeared in the A'eu>- Yark Obaenxr, over the signature of " Kirwan," since he, like Kirwan (q.v.) was a convert. TTiey attracted wide notice at the time, and made his name a household word. They have been trans- lated into several languages. He addressed another scries to Chief Justice Taney, published in 1852 under the title Romanism at Home (1852). He also ATote Notes, Historical and Biographical, con- cerning Elizabethloum (Elitabethlown, 1844); Men and Thimji a» I saw them in Europe (\%5i); Parish and Other PenciUings{lli5i); Preachers and Preach- ing (1860); and a volume of sermons, A Dying I^acy lo the Peo/iU of my Beloved Charge (1861). BiBLiooHArar: S. I. Prime, Memairt of Or Reo. NvAdat M array. New York. 18*2.

MUSAEUS, PETER: Lutheran theologian — brother of Johann Musaeus; b. at Langewiesen (27 m. 3.e. of Gotha), Thuringia, Feb. 7, 1620; d. at Kiel Dec. 20, 1674 He obtained bis edu- cation at Jena and Helmstedt; through the in- fluence of Georg Calixtus. he received a position at Rinteln, firat as professor of philosophy in 1648 and five years later aa professor of theology. In the latter capacity he took part in the colloquy of Cassel (16G1), but incurred the displeasure of the orthodox by the concessions which he favored. Musaeus himsetf is aaid to have been offended later by the encroachments of the Reformed and to Iiave left Rinteln. From 1663 to lCft.5 he waa profes- sor in Helmstedt, and in 1665 was called to the new university of Kiel, where he opposed syncretism and union, especially in hia Liber de fugiendo gyiure- lisjno juaau Chriatiani Atberti Ducia Hotaaiiar scrip- tu* (Kiel, 1670), but satisfied neither the Lutherans nor the Reformed. His versatile training in phil- oaophy and hia scholarship were considered even superior to his brother's, but their theological lend- encies were the same. (Johannes Kuneb.) Bibliography; J. MAller, Cimbria liimta, ii. 506-513. Copcnliaaen, 1744; C. A. Dollo, L^mtbtxhrnbung allrr ProJrtKrram Thsilaeia lu Rinlefn, i. 275-296. Himovor, 17.')2; F. W. Slrimler, HartKht QfUhnengachidxtt. ix. 321-328, CuBSel, 1794.

MUSTON, ALEXIS: Reformed Church of France; b. at La Tour dc I'eillz {12 m. e.s.e. of Lausanne), Switzerland, Feb, 11, ISIO; d. at Bordeaux, France, Apr. 6, 1888. He studied at Lausanne, and at Strasburg (B.D.. Lie. Theol., and D,D., 1834); was ordained, 1833; exiled from Piedmont, 1835; went to Nimes, France, where he was naturalized; lived at Bordeaux first as assistant pastor, 1836-40, then as pastor. His productions of interest and impor- tance are: Hisioire des Vaudois des vallta du Pie- motU tt de leurs cotoni^ depuis teur origins jusqu'ii noa jours (vol. i., Paris, 1834; put by the Roman Catholic hierarchy upon the Index); Let Martyrs Mutilatioiui and Ifarkg MyooniuB 62 vaudois au lea confesseura de la viriU dana lea vaUiea du PUmont . . . (1849); Ulsrad des Alpea, Pre- mitre hiatoire complkte dea Vaudaia du PUmarU et de leura coUmiea (1851; Eng. transl., Tfie larael of the Alpa: a Complete History of the Vaudoia of Pied- mont and their Coloniea, Edinburgh, 1857); Lea Vaudoia dea Alpea italiennea, de 1686 d 1694i poeme. Lea Premiere Chanta (Paris, 1855); Lea NOUmiiea, ou Vexpulaion, VexU et le retour dea Vaudoia dana hur patrie, de 1686 d 1690 (1850); La Goaaen op- primU: hiatoire juaqu*ici inconnue dea Sgliaea Vau- doiaea . . . (1850); Hiatoire populaire dea Vaudoia, enrichie dea documenla irUdita (1862); VaUUaie, poeme (1863); Le PrMatorique dana lea pay a de MontbUiard et lea contriea circonvoiainea (Mont- b^liord, 1887). He contributed papers on archeo- logical subjects to the journal of the Soci^td Scien- tifique et M^icale of Montb^liard.

MUTILATIONS AND MARKS, CEREMONIAL: In Deut. xiv. 1 the Hebrews are prohibited from practising two customs, cutting the person and " shaving between the eyes " for the dead; the reason assigned for the prohibition in The Legal verse 2 is that they are a people holy Status, to Yahweh. Ezekiel, in his legislation for the Hebrew Utopia (xliv. 20), for- bids the priests to indulge in either of two extremes, shaving the head and wearing the hair long. The priestly law in Lev. xix. 27-28 goes still further, verse 27 forbidding the rounding of the " comers of the head " and " marring the comers of the beard." An illuminative translation of verse 28 (in SBOT) reads: " You (i.e., the Hebrew p)eople) shall not make incisions in your skin for the dead; nor shall you tattoo any nmrks upon you." Lev. xxi. 5 forbids the priests to shave the head or to shave off the comer of the beard or to make cut- tings in the flesh; and the connection (verses 1-5) implies that the practise prohibited is connected with mourning. The passages from Leviticus are from the " Holiness Code," and the reason assigned is the same as in Deuteronomy; the basis of the proscription is religious, which implies that the practises forbidden were also connected with re- ligion. Other passages, some of earlier date, which either refer to customs similar to those proscribed or use the customs rhetorically, imply that in these as in other items the legislation cited is cor- Biblical recting practises (mostly connected Passages with mourning) which had hitherto Showing been observed but were at the time of Customs, the enactments deemed objectionable. The earliest in time of these passages is Hob. vii. 14 (R. V. margin), and apparently the ceremony referred to is one of prayer and petition to deities for the gift of crops. In Amos viii. 10; Isa. iii. 24, xxii. 12; Micah i. 16; Ezek. vii. 18; and Job i. 20 the shaving of the head is either noted without disapproval, or commanded as from Yah- weh, or predicted as signs of mourning which will result from certain calamities which are to occur by way of punishment for sin. Jeremiah makes frequent reference to such customs: xvi. 6 declares that the coming auction will be so severe that the rites of mourning, among them those of mutilation of the person by incisions and shaving of the head, will not be observed; xli. 5 records the fact of cer- tain men coming with offerings from Samaria ** to the house of the Lord " with beards shaven and gannents rent — both of these customs usual in times of mourning; in the rhetorical passage xlvii. 5 baldness (when artificial, a sign of mourning) is predicted for Gaza (this passage does not involve that the habit was current among Philistines, against DBf i. 538) ; probably a similar explanation holds for xlviii. 37 (cf. Isa. xv. 2), where the same mark is to indicate Uiat Moab will experience calamity (the rhetorical character of these passages prevents their use to prove the existence of the habit among Philis- tines and Moabites). Ex. xiii. 9, 16 (JE) seems to imply a (former?) custom of tattooing on forehead and hand which had religious significance, with which reference such a tender passage as Isa. xlix. 16 is to be compared. Contrast with this Deut. vi. 8, xi. 18, which represents a later stage when the symbols of religious faith were to be boimd upon (not tattooed into) hand and forehead. It is diffi- cult to decide whether the Elxodus passage is purely figurative; at any rate it seems to know the cus- tom of tattooing. Ezek. ix. 4-6 is expressive and characteristic, the literal rendering being " carve a Taw (i.e., the Hebrew letter T) upon the fore- heads," etc. Some rabbinic conmientators, prob- ably erroneously, explain this by the ankh, the E^gyptian sign of life, which, however, is quite dif- ferent in form from the letter Taw. The habit of inscribing a sign of religious affiliation on the hand is referred to in the Old Testament as late as the exile, since the Deutero-Isaiah says (xliv. 5) ** An- other shall write on his hand * Yahweh's ' " (cf . R. V. margin), the purpose being to designate a man as a servant or worshiper of Yahweh. I Kings xviii. 28 is not to be brought into connection with the phenomena under discussion, but is to be re- lated with those treated under Ecstasy (q.v.). Also of slightly different character is the " mark " of Cain (Gen. iv. 15), which is most probably to be brought into connection with the clan mark com- mon under totemism. The marie of Cain was to serve as a deterrent from murderous assault upon him, which is the way in which the clan mark op- erates, since the killing of a clansman is likely to cause a blood feud (cf. Comparative Reuoiox, VI., 1, c. § 3). The references to the custom of mutilation or tattooing reappear in the Book of Revelation; thus in xiii. 16, 17, xiv. 9, 11, xix. 20, and XX. 4, those who belong to the beast and wor- ship him are said to bear his mark in hand and forehead; while in vii. 3-4 the servants of God are said to be '' sealed in their foreheads." The cases cited in the preceding from the Bible fall under two categories, those which arise under circumstances of mourning, and those As which presuppose inunediate connec- Connected tion with deity. The former class is with by an increasing number of conmien- Mouming. tators related to the cult of the dead. The cutting or tearing of the hair and gashing of the flesh are customs common among diverse peoples of the past and present. He- 68 Kntilations and Harks Myoonliis rodotus (ii. 40) speaks of Egyptians beating them- selves at the celebration in honor of Isis; in ii. 60 he relates that Carian residents of Egypt cut them- selves with knives at the same celebration; accord- ing to iv. 71 the Scythian mourner cuts bits from his ear, shaves his head, cuts his arm, his forehead, and his nose, and thrusts an arrow through his left hand. Xenophon {CyropcBdia^ III., i. 13) reports practically the same customs among the Armenians. The Arabs had the custom of scratching the face and shaving the head during the period of mourn- ing (Wellhausen, Heidenium, pp. 123-124, 182, 11)8-199). The legation of Solon and the Twelve Tables forbade the women of Athens to bring blood by self-flagellation (for the legislation of Solon con- sult G. Grote, Hist. ofGreecef vol. iii., new ed., Lon- don, 1872; for that of the Twelve Tables, M. Voigt, Die XII. Tafdn. Geschichie und System des Civil- und Criminal-Rechtes, wis Processes der XII. Tafdn, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1883-84). The sacrifice of the hair and of blood in honor of the manes of the departed is well attested for the Greeks (cf. Iliads xxiii. 141- 151, 135-136); while among primitive peoples it is still believed that the ghost receives strength and new vigor from the blood shed by mourners. The indications of an ancestor cult among the Hebrews arc being studied anew, and it is a possibility that the mourning customs indicated or forbidden in the passages cited from the Old Testament are con- nected by derivation from this (cf. C. Grttneisen, Der AhnenkuUus und die Urreligum Israd, Halle, 1900; JE, i. 569-571). The second class of cases noted in the Bible are those in which the mutilations serve to indicate the connection of the worshiper with a deity. Light on this is thrown by ethnic usages. As Signs Herodotus (ii. 13) relates of a temple of Worship, near the Canopic mouth of the Nile that slaves might find sanctuary there by devoting themselves to the god and receiving upon their bodies sacred stigmata as signs of ser\'- icc; and in iii. 8 he notes that the Arabs used the tonsure in ring shape, leaving the hair on the crown of the head, in honor of their god Orotal. The many varieties of tonsure — a practise which ranges from India to Central America — all connected with religion, will at once occur to the reader. Lucian (Z>c dea Syria) shows that Syrian priests were tat- tooed on neck and wrist, while at Byblus the peo- ple shaved their heads at the annual mourning for Adonis, while women had the alternative of sacred prostitution. Philo (De monarchia^ i.) re- marks that idol worshipers were branded. In III Mace. ii. 29 it is stated that Ptolemy IV. Philo- pator branded Jews with the ivy leaf, the symbol of Dionysus. In Asia Minor the worshipers of Cybele and other deities received a mark in their flesh. For the significance of circmncision see that article. Among the races which are most addicted to tattooing — as Maoris and East Polynesians — the ceremony is often connected with the initiation at puberty into the mysteries, or with marriage, both being related to religion. The same is true of the totem mark, which is produced by scarification, tat- tooing, or painting. It is incorrect to assume, how- ever, that all tattooing is religious. Much is purely decorative, and other piuposes are also served, such as to indicate membership with societies not religious in character. Geo. W. Gilmore. Bibuogbapht: The commentaries on the passages cited are often illuminative, especially those which t.ike into account the ethnic customs. Consult further: T. Waits; Anthropohgie der NaturvOlker, passim, 6 parts, Leipsic, 1859-72; A. Laoaasagne. Let Tatouages, Paris, 1881; Goldsiher, in Revue de Chist. des religions, xiv (1886), 49- 61; Q. A. Wilken, Revue coUmiale international e, iii (1886), 225-279, iv (1887), 345-126; W. Joest, Tdtowieren, A'or- bemeiehen und KGrperbemalen, Beriin, 1887; R. Pietsch* mann. Oeschiehte der Phdnizier, i. 389-390. Beriin, 1889; J. Batchelor, Ainu, pp. 131-132, London, 1892; F. Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode, pp. 16-18, Giessen, 1892; Stade, in ZATW, xiv (1894), 250-251; H. G. Rob- ley, Moko: Maori Tattooing, London, 1896; Von Luschau, in Zeitschrift fUr Ethnologie, xxviii. 1896; J. Frey, Tod, Sedenglaube und SeeJenkult im alten Israd, pp. 127-173, Leipsic, 1898; E. Sergent, Les Tatouages dans les pays ehauds, Montpellier, 1901; E. B. TVlor, Primitive Culture, London, 1903 (especially valuable for citations of ethnic practises); W. R. Smith, Kinship, pp. 212 sqq.; idem* Rd. of Sem., chap, ix.; Nowack, Ar^tologie, i. 194-195, Bensinger, ArcfUiologie, p. 219; DB, i. 537-539, ii. 283- 285; EB, i. 971-975.

MYCONIUS, FRIEDRICH: German Reformer; b. at Lichtenfels in Upper Franconia (20 m. n.n.e. of Bamberg) Dec. 26, 1490; d. at Gotha Apr. 7, 1546. After gradusr ting from the school of his native city, he was sent in 1504 to the Latin school in Annaberg, where he met Tetzel (1510) who was traveling over Ger- many as commissary of indulgences. As he was greatly troubled by his spiritual condition he was persuaded in 1510 to enter the Franciscan monas- tery. From Annaberg he went to the monastery in Leipsic and in 1512 to that in Weimar. He there studied diligently Peter Lombard, Alexander of Hales, Bonaventura, Gabriel Biel, and especially Augustine, whose works made a deep impression upon him. In 1516 he was ordained priest in Weimar and soon received a position as preacher there. With great satisfaction he listened to Luther when he began his fight against indulgences, and Myconius was among the first who followed the new paths. But as the authorities of Weimar maintained a reserved attitude toward the Refor- mation, it became more and more difficult for him to hold his office. His intercourse and correspond- ence were closely watched, and he was threatened with life-long confinement in a monastery, being sent to the monasteries of Leipsic and Annaberg. But in 1524 he succeeded in escaping, and re- ceived at Zwickau a position as preacher in a hos- pital. At the instance of Wenzeslaus Link and Gabriel Didymus he was called to the congregatioB in the small town of Buchholz. In the same year (1524) Duke John called him to Gotha, at the re- quest of the council and the congregation. Though the groimd there had been cleared for the Reforma- tion, ecclesiastical affairs as well as secular were still in a hopeless condition. The higher and lower clergy had degenerated and a dead ecclesiastical mechan- icalism was all that showed. School affairs were in the hands of ignorant and indolent monks, and in the government of the city and among the mem- bers of the council avarice and disorder reigned. Myconius mastered the situation by his wisdom and energy. About 1525 Luther entered into oor- MyconiuB Myrtle THE NEW SCIIAFF-HERZOG 64 rcspoiulcnce with him, and encouraged him not to be frifjhtened off by the rebellious peasants, while Melanchthon, who began to correspond with him in 1527, warned him against imprudent interfer- ence in non-religious affairs. Myconius reformed the schools of the city and awakened the interest of the citizens in them. In the Augustinian monas- tery he erected a school whose first rector from 1524 to 1535 was Basilius Monner of Weimar. My- conius exerted great influence both by his sermons and in his practical pastorate and by his exemplary conduct. His influence, moreover, was not confined to Gotha. He accompanied as preacher Prince John Frederick three times to tlie Lower Rhine, to Cologne, Jolich and Cleves, and in 15«'M, after the latter had become elector, to Diisscldorf, Bruns- wick, and Celle. On these journeys, Myconius preached to large concourses. With Melanchthon, Menius, and others he took part in the church visi- tations of Thuringia in 1527 and 1533, also in many important conventions of the Reformation, in the religious coUociuy of Marburg 1529, the Wittenberg Assembly of 1530, the convention of Schmalkald 1537, the negotiations in Frankfort and Nuremberg 1539, and the convention of Hagenau 1540. In 1538 he went to England with Franz Burkhardt and Gcorg von Boyneburg in order to discuss the articles of the Augsburg Confession with the theo- logians of Henry VIII. He was successful in intro- ducing the Reformation in Saxony after the death of Duke George in 1530, at first in his beloved Annaberg, then in Leipsic, where ho preacheti the first Evangelical sermon in the Church of St. Nicolai. The princes left him there that he might carry through the work of the Reformation ; he remained nine months, meeting an obstinate and violent op- position, but finally mastered the situation. He won the affection of the citizens to such a degree that Elector John Freilerick was askeii to leave him there two years, but in 1540 he returned to his congregation. His health had always been very delicate and unequal to his arduous ta.sks. Owing to overexertion on the occasion of the Thuringian visitations, he was compelled after the year 1539 to interrupt his labors from time to time, especially as he developed bronchial troubles. Few characters of the Reformation appeal to tlie sympathy as strongly as does Myconius. Like Luther, he had attained the light and truth of the Gospel by personal experience. His character had been firmly fixed early in life and could not be unsettled by the theological disputes and opinions of the time. In Luther he recognized with glad- ness from the beginning " the chosen man of God and the last Elijah," and his devotion to Melanch- thon was not less sincere. The purity of his charac- ter was undi.sputed and secure(l him the respect of friend and foe. In spite of his efTicicncy in the Latin and German tongues and his popular gifts, he did not aspire to the fame of a writer or scholar, but exerted his activity in the practical work of the church. Nevertheless, he has left some treatises which are still valuable, as, for instance, Wie man (lie cinfeltigen wnd sonderlich die krancken^ im Chris- tcnthiimb vntcrrichtcn soil (Wittenberg, 1539; new ed., Frankfort, 1598, enlarged by the treatise Wie man mil den beseaaenen Le%den umgehen soU). Whenever the condition of his throat prevented him from preaching, he busied himself with search- ing the archives of the church, of znonasterieBy and the hospital, and published extracts of tbem under the title Neues Erbbuch und Kopey der Mm- istratur 1542 and wrote his HisUnia Re/ormaHonii 1517-42, both extant in manuscript in the archducal Ubrary at Gotha. Tliis histoiy reflects his experi- ences and impressions in an unpretentious, but fresh and plastic manner, and is the valuable coDtribu- tion of a contemporary of the events. (G. Kawerau.) BiBUOGRAPnT: His FliMoria ReformationiB contains many biographical detnil.s. Biographios were written by A. Probus, Schmalkalden. 1507; M. Adam, Frankfort, 1705; Junckcr, Walterehausen, 1730; J. G. Boswck, Leipsie. 1739: C. K. G. Lommatzsch, Annaberig, 1825; K. F. Lodderhosc, Gotlin, 1854; M. Mourcr, Leiptiic, 1864 (oon- tains an excellent list of literature); G. Krejrenbeiie, in Grendx^en, 1892, i. pp. 114 sqq,; and P. Scherffic Leipsie: 1009. Consult alio: H. £. Jacobs, Martin LtdKrr, pp. SS- 66, 79, 117. 287, New York, 1898; J. W. Richard. PkHip Melanchthon, pp. 150, 254, 280, ib. 1898.

MYCONIUS, OSWALD: Swiss reformer; b. at Lucerne 1488; d. at Basel Oct. 14, 1552. His original name was Geisshiisler. After completing his education at Basel, where he became acquainted with Zwingli, Holbein, and Erasmus, he became m teacher at the canons' school at Zurich in 1516. Here he published two pamphlets in one of which (1518) he held that the pope must be obeyed only so long as he required nothing contrary to Chris- tiunity. He took a decisive part in the calling of Zwingli to Zurich. Shortly afterward Myconius was called to teach in his native city, but he con- tinued to correspond with his lifelong friend Zwingli. In 1522 his views forced him to retire from his position. After teaching for a time at Einsiedeln he returned to Zurich, primarily as teacher at the school attached to the Fraumunster. Here he held German lectures on the New Testa- ment, besides taking a silent though active part in all the measures of Zwingli. To this period bdongi his Ad sacerdotes Helvetia qui Tigturinis male fe- quuniur suasoria ut male loqui desinant (1524). In 1531 Myconius was called to the church of St. Albans at Basel and in 1532 he was appointed the successor of CEcolampadius (q.v.). Though he ao- coptcd this only on condition that he might resign as soon as one more worthy could be found, he con- tinued to discharge the double office of head of the Basel church and professor of theology until his death. He was involved in many difficulties, how- ever, by Carlstadt (q.v.), who formed a faction in the faculty to subordinate the church to the uni- versity, only to be defeated by Myconius; and when the latter sought to carry out the reformatoiy measures of CEcolampadius, Carlstadt deehured to the council that his rival wished to make the civfl authorities slaves of the priests, and told the peo- ple that Myconius disapproved all their pleasure. Despite this the prestige of Myconius increased everywhere. In the euchariatic question, while remaining gen- erally in accord with the Zwinglian position, as is chuir from his letters and from his commentary on Mark (Basel, 1538), Myconius approximated Luther 65 Myrtle in certain r^ards. In the first Helvetic Confession, drawn up in 1536, he accordingly termed the Lord's Supi)er a mystic meal, and spoke of eating the flesh and drinking the blood of Christ not as perishable physical food but as liourishing eternal life. He sought, moreover, to reconcile Luther and Zwingli in their eucharistic views, and pursued a similar course in the Osiandrian controversies. The most distinguished pupil of Myconius was Theodor Bib- liander (q.v.), to whose edition of the letters of (Ecolampadius and Zwingli (Basel, 1536) Myconius contributed a first brief life of Zwingli (printed in the ViitB quatuor refonnatarum, ed. Neander, Ber- in, 1841). (Emil Eouf.) BtBUcxaAPHT: His eorrespondenoe with Zwingli is printed in the Opera of the latter, vols. vli..-viii. Biographiee are by M. Kircbofer. Zurich, 1813; and K. R. Hagenbach, Elbeifeld. 1S50 (oontains also the principal minor writings of MyoooioB). Further notices will be found in the litera- ture d«wt1ing with the Reformation in Switxeriand, also in the biosimphies of Bullinger, (Ecolampadius, and Zwingli. Coosolt: Schair. Chriatian Church, vii. 215 sqq.; T. and F. Platter, Sittenomehichte deM 16. JahrhunderU, ed. H. Booe. Leipsic, 1878; S. M. Jackson, Hiddreich Zwingli, New York, 1903. KmSTER, minister, JAKOB PETER: Dam'sh bishop; b. at Copenhagen Nov. 8, 1775; d. there Jan. 30, 1854. He studied theology at the imiver- sity of his native city, and became pastor at Spjel- lerup, on the island of Zealand, in 1802; first chaplain at the Church of Our Lady in Copenhagen in 1812; privatrdocent in psychology in the theo- logical seminaiy at Copenhagen in 1813, and court preacher in 1826. During his career in the Danish metropolis he published a volume of Kleine Theo- logische Sckrifien (in German, Copenhagen, 1825), which gives evidence of his knowledge of esthetic and philosophical literature, as well as of church hidtoiy. In 1834 he was appointed bishop of Zeor land, in which capacity he officiated until his death. During his incumbency of the bishopric the relig- ious movement caused by the appearance of Grundt- ?ig (q.v.) agitated the Danish Church, and Myn- Iter, who had no ^3rmpathy with the former's ideas of religious liberty, became one of his most ardent oppooentB. Grundtvig, however, succeeded in preventing the introduction of a revised ritual proposed by Mynster, and as the teachings promul- gated by the former found more and more adher- ents the old bishop found it impossible to stem the tide of liberalism, and he gradually gave up the Btnigi^, devoting himself to literary pursuits. He published numerous collections of sermons, and a work entitled " Thoughts on Christian Dogmas " (2 vols.. Germ, transl., Hamburg, 1840), which for m \oDg time remained popular both in Denmark «nd Germany. A collection of his writings in 6 Yols. speared at Copenhagen in 1852-57; collec- tioos of his letters in 1860-66; an autobiography In 1854 (2d ed., 1808); and a volume of sermons, 1875. (F. NiELSENt.) Bibliography: Besides the autobiography and letters lUUDcd above, oonsult: C. L. N. Mynster, " Reminis- esnees,** Copeohagen, 1877. Further literature in Danish b ClTeD in Haoek-Henog, RE, xiii. 009.

MYRRH: The fragrant gum of Balsamodendron myrrha, a tree or shrub growing chiefly in Arabia and Ethiopia, but not in Palestine, where its use was a luxury (cf. Matt. ii. 11). The gum, at first oily and then fluid, is primarily a yellowish white; but it hardens into reddish drops or kernels with a peculiar balsam smell and bitter taste. The best kind flows partly of itself. Generally the bark of the tree was incised to obtain the myrrh, which was exported from Arabia to the West especially by Nabataeans and Phenicians, who frequently adulterated it and doubtless sometimes substituted similar gums from other trees. Myrrh was used as incense (Cant. iii. 6), to perfume clothing and beds (Ps. xlv. 8; Prov. vii. 17; Cant. i. 13), as an un- guent (Ex. XXX. 23; Esther ii. 12; Cant. v. 5), and in pulverized form for embalming (John xix. 39), whence most of the Church Fathers interpreted the myrrh of Matt. ii. 11 as a symbol of the suffer- ing and death of Christ. Myrrh was also mingled with wine to impart to it an aromatic flavor and to render it less intoxicating; but the '' wine mingled with myrrh " of Mark xv. 23 was probably the sour wine of the Roman soldiers mingled with some bitter ingredient to produce stupefaction (cf. Matt. xxvii. 34). (R. Kittkl.) Bibliography: See under Myrtle.

MYRTLE: A tree about ten feet high, growing in the valleys and on the shores, as well as on heights not altogether devoid of moisture (cf. Neh. viii. 15), in Asia, whence it was transplanted to Greece and Italy. Its perfume and beauty, en- hanced by its smooth, evergreen leaves and white flowers, made it a favorite adornment of gardens (cf. Isa. xli. 19, Iv. 13), though it also grew wild in Palestine (Neh., ut sup.). Oil and a sort of wine were prepared from its black berries (Vergil, Gear- gica, i. 106; Pliny, Hist, naturalis, xv. 35-38, xxiii. 44) ; and its branches formed decorations of houses and rooms on festal occasions, as at the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh., ut sup.). The classics also show that myrtle branches were strewn in the way, and garlands of myrtle were worn at feasts, especially at marriage feasts since the myrtle was sacred to Aphrodite and the symbol of conjugal love. The name Hadassah, ** Myrtle," was thus appropriate as the name of a beautiful girl, and was the orig- inal appellation of Esther (Esther ii. 7). (R. KlTTEL.) Bibliography: C. Hart, Fauna and Flora of Sinai, Pelrae, etc., London, 1901-05; M. Callcott, Seriptitre Herbal, ib. 1842; H. S. Osbom. Plnnta of the Holy Land, Phila- delphia, 1860; H. B. Tristram, Fauna and Flora of Palet- tine, London, 1884; G. E. Post, Flora of Syria, Palestine^ and Syria, Beirut, 1896; C. Joret, in L'Orient cUtsaifjue, 1897, p. 355; G. Henslow, PlanU of the Bible, ib. 1906; Yigouroux, DicHonnaire, fasc. xxvii., cols. 1363-67.

NADAB: Second king of Israel, son and succes- sor of Jeroboam I. His dates according to the old chronology are 954-952, according to Kamphausen and the modem school 915-914. The Biblical source is I Kings xiv. 20, xv. 25-30. He was evidently ag- gressive in character and aimed to carry out the policy of his father in the relations with Judah, for his death occurred while he was besieging Gibbethon, a town of the Philistines and therefore appertaining to Judah. He was assassinated by Baasha (q.v.), who exterminated the family of Jeroboam and seized the throne, thus establishing a new dynasty.

NARD (SPIKENARD): A plant {Vtdenaia jntamanm, or NardoatackyB jatamansi) growing on heights and in plains of northern and eastern India, and in southern Arabia and Gedrosia, from which a favorite and costly perfume was obtained [d. Cant. i. 12, iv. 13-14; Mark xiv. 3-5). It «m brought into the trade of the West, ineluding Palfs- tine, by the Phenicians. The common nard unguent consisted of a mixture of oils of several aromatic plants belonging to the genus Faftriano, and wm usually placed in small alabaster boxes (cf. Hark xiv. 3) or in scent bottles. Nard was used not oaly aa an unguent but also to Bavor wine, and the oil was even drunk. With such costly nard Hary an- ointed Christ at Bethany six days before the Paa»- over {John xii. 1 siiq.), typifying his approactun; burial, since this oil was also used to preserve the corpse from decay (Arabic Gospel of the Infancy, v.). {H. KriTEL.) Bibliography: Tlimphraitun, Hi^. ptanilarMm. IX.. ra. 2; Pliny, NiU. hiM.. xii. 26-27. liii. 'i; O. Oliiiia. Him- botaairwn, ii. I-ll, Anwterdani. 1718; AnaUt RtuarrKa. ii. 405-417. Calculta, 1876; W. Dyuock. Pkamaatnif>m Indica, ii. 2.13-338, Ijoadon. 1891: DB, iv. 611; EK. it. 4740-51: DCS, ii. Z27. 671: Jif, ix. 170: VigounHU. Pir Honnain, foao. uvlii. 147S-SO.

NASH, HENRY SYLVESTER: Protectant Epi»- copalian; b. at Newark, O., Dec. 22, 1854. He mu pducnte<l at Harvard (A.B., 1878) and at the Ei«5- copal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass., from which he was graduated in IS81. In 1882 he wu appointed to hia present position of professor d the literature and interpretation of the New Testa- mcnt in the taller institution. He was aLm rector of the Chinch of the Redeemer, Chestnut Hill, Mass., REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Hatnr&l Lftw from 1888 to 1903. He hua writl«n : TheGenensof the Sochi Conxrimce (New York, 1897); Ethic* and Snrlalion (1899); HUtory of the Higlter CrUinsm 0/ thr A'eiK Teatammi (190O); and Atoning Life (1908).

NATURAL LAW: In an ethical sense (for another sense, see Nature, Laws of), those abso- lute and universally valid imperatives that are in- nate in the reason of every individual Stoic and necessarily come into conscious- Origin, ness with the development of the mind. This thought originated with the Stoics (see Stoicism). They wished to show that " the good " is not binding because of arbitrary human statute, but because of inner necessity, and to establish, in contrast to the former ethical par- ticularism, a system of morals binding on ever>'one. The thought was plausible by reason of the fact that among the peoples of the earth a far-reaching imanimity in moral judgment actually prevailed. This agreement seemed merely to have been brought to light by social intercourse, though in reality it had been, for the most part, created by such inter- course. The vehicle for the development of the thought was metaphysics and the psychology of the idealistic philosophy. By converting Plato's archetypal " ideas " into immanent, active " logoi " and combining these into a single '' logos," which they identified with the Godhead, the Stoics reached the conception of a divine world-reason, of which the reason of the individual is a part. It manifests itself in the dictates of finite reason as the impera- tive law of the Godhead. Knowledge of this natural moral law is instinctive and a priori, it being per- ceived by means of intuitively evident " common notions " (Gk. koinai ennoiai). Although these ideas were designated as ** innate " (emphytai) be- fore Cicero's time, he was really the first so to re- gard this original outfit of the practical reason, and, too, not only in embryo but also in general outline, inasmuch as the germs of moral laws are found in the animal impulses to procreation and care for the young, and since the four cardinal virtues are already pre-formed in the sense of percep- tion for truth, social order, size and independ- ence, and fitness and harmony. Under the emperors this thought was taken up in Roman jurisprudence, when Roman society had ex- changed its national for a cosmopolitan character. To the arbitrary laws of man, changing with time and place, conditioned by practical considerations, and not always perfect, it opposes the natural law, sanctioned by God, universally valid and un- changeable— the perfect law, and the standard for all statute-law. This Stoic conception was brought into Christian theology by the apologists to establish the truth of revelation and fix a boundary between In Christianity and Judaism. Their argu- Christian ment was, that the eternal, universal. Theology, natural law, because it had been ob- scured by sin, was publicly promul- gated by Moses and afterward confirmed by Christ, with the repeal of the ceremonial and political ad- jimcts. At first the natural moral law, this fimda- mental postulate of Christianity, which was in- tended to explain, establish, and put into effect the ethical knowledge already at hand, was conceived as an original endowment of the reason. Then the natural moral law, together with the conception of natural right, became in the church system the foundation of the new law revealed in Christ, which takes into account the sup)ematural purpose of man. This new law transcends both the natural and the Mosaic law, in that it applies to intention as well as to overt act, demands spiritual acts that culti- vate grace, and finally gives the Evangelical Counsels (see Consilia Evangelica). The fact that the natural law was regarded as obscured gave to the Church, as the cust^xiian of revealed law, the control and administration of the laws of the land. In contrast to the Roman Catholic conception of Christianity as nova lex, the Reformation recognizes Jesus as Redeemer only, and not as In the law-giver. It sees in the natural law Refer- the recognition of man's supernatural mation. destiny, which is imparted to him with the creation of the reasoning faculty; and, consequently, it includes in natural law, and the Mosaic law confirming the same, the highest de- mands of Christianity; viz., himiility, dependence, humble trust in God, etc. Since, however, as re- gards its content, the natural law is obscured and requires the grace of God to make it appear in all its splendor, the assertion that it is innate is noth- ing but an expression of the feeling of obligation to meet the Christian demand. If this is to move conscience, then the soul must be formed in accord- ance with it. Further, the conception of natural law served in the conflict with the visionaries to separate the parts of the Mosaic law that were uni- versally binding from those that were binding on the Jews alone. Finally, it established the inde- pendence of the temporal authorities as opposed to the Church, since the external acts it regidates are discovered by the reason. With Melanchthon comes the title under which this humane basis of Greco-Roman ethics was used to teach the Gospd and prove its truth. In the sequel natural right and natural moral law became the means of eman- cipation from the continued activity of Roman Catholic motives in Protestantism. The theocratic conception of the State as the guardian of both tables made the State responsible for the true worship of God and the Further salvation of its subjects. Now, through Develop- the further development of the idea of ment natural law, a new conception gains the ascendency, which regards the State as a human institution having as its object temporal peace. Revelation had always shown itself as a source of freedom of personality, and, tt the same time, as the tyrannizing domination of a foreign will. As a means of emancipation from this supernatural authority of revelation representativeB of Deism and the Enlightenment (qq.v.) made use of the traditional innate moral law. In philosoph- ical ethics rationalism and empiricism are here op- posed to each other. According to the rationalistie view, either the truth of absolute ethical impersr tives, like that of mathematical and logical axioms, brings its evidence to conscience intuitively, or else, as Kant maintains, the moral law followed from the formal power of the reason to apprehend the unconditioned or posit imity. On the other hand, the empiricists hold that the moral law is only the sum total of those rules of life, learned by experi- ence, which, if followed, will bring the greatest possible amount of satisfaction to a pre-moral in- stinct, either the egoistic, the altruistic, or both. The fact that among different peoples, and in diffe^ ent ages, the moral law has not always had the same content, has made it evident that the moral consciousness has had a history, that it is the re- sult of a gradual development. With this new view- point the old antagonism between rationalism and empiricism becomes absorbed in that between ideal- 86 Katnral Law Nature iam and evolutiomsm. While idealism conceives of the mind as the immanent cause of this develop- ment, evolutionism deduces these changes from external factors, after the analogy of the methods of natural science (see Evolution). Recognizing that it is not the origin of the moral law that gives to it its validity, but rather its power to lift the per- sonality to a higher plane, even Christian theology has now abandoned the fundamental part of the doctrine of an innate moral law. The supposed innate moral law is completely subject to the changes of history, in which Christian revelation proves itself by its fruits. See Ethics. J. GoTTscHicKf. Bibliography: M. Voigt, Die Lehrt vom jua naturaltf vol. i., Ldpaic, 1850; K. Hildenbrand, QemhichU vnd Syatem dtr Reehu- \a%d StaaUphHotophie, vol. i., ib. 1860; E. ZeUer, Die PkHoBophie der Orieehent vol. iii., part 1, ib. 1880. Ed«. transl., London. 1880-81; H. Drummond, Natvrol Lav in the Spiritual World, London. 1883. and often; F. Jodl. Geaehichte der Ethik, QtnttgtaU 1889; H. WeiM. Einieituno in die ehrieUichen Ethik, Leipdo. 1890; £. TrOltaeh, Vemunft und Offenbantng bei J. Gerhard vnd Meianehihon, Odttingen. 1891; T. Ebenhaus. Weaen und BmUtekung dee Gewiaeene, vol. i., Leipsic, 1894.

NATURAL THEOLOGY: The favorite term in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries designating the knowledge of God drawn from nature in dis- tinction from the knowledge of God contained in revelation. This division of theology into natural and revealed had its roots in the scholastic distinc- tion between the two truths, one derived from nature by the use of the Aristotelian logic, subject to the authority of the Church, the other, truth above reason, revealed by God but formulated and taught solely by authority of the Church (see Al- BERTU8 Magnus; Scholasticism). The deists re- lied exclusively on natural theology, on the ground that the being and attributes of God could be ex- haustively ascertained from the constitution and course of the world, thus superseding the necessity of supernatural revelation (see Deism). David Hume, by his theory of knowledge, proved that even this knowledge was too precarious for rational certitude. On the other hand. Bishop Butler (Anal- ogy o/Rdigion, London, 1736 and often) maintained that natural and revealed religion were so far one that the truths of natural theology provided a basis for the characteristic truths of the Christian faith, sueh as miracles, the incarnation, and redemption. Later, the wisdom, power, and even the goodness of God were held to be demonstrable by the proo- cflses of natural ^leology (S. Clarice, A Demanstror tion of the Being and AtiribtUea of God, London, 1705; Wm. Paley, Natural Theology, ib. 1802; Bridgewaier Treatises, q.v.). The fimction and name of natural theology continued in vogue until the latter portion of the last century (see God, rV.; and consult T. Chalmers, Natural Theology, Edinburgh, 1849; A. P. Chadboume, Lectures on Satural Theology, New York, 1867; E. H. Gillett, God in Human Thought, or Natural Theology, ib. 1874; W. Jackson, Philosophy of Natural Theology, London, 1874; J. H. Kennedy, Natural Theology and Modem Thought, ib. 1891 ; G. C. Stokes, Nat- varai Theology, ib. 1891; G. P. Fisher, Manual of Natural Theology, New York, 1893). This habit of thought has, however, been strongly opposed by lUtschl and his school. Relying pn Kant's distinc- tion between the pure and the practical reason, they seek the source of the knowledge of God not through the theoretic judgments of science or phi- losophy, but only through value-judgments to which revelation is addressed. Nature being im- personal can neither receive nor communicate the personal redemptive disclosm^ of God which man needs for reconciliation with him; this is to be sought ultimately only in Christ and the Christian community. R^nt thought tends to yet another mode of viewing the whole subject. The distinction between natural and supernatural, in which natural theology arose and flourished, is effaced. Ruling ideas are: philosophical monism; psycho-physics tending to the personal interpretation of reality ; evo- lution involving and revealing the unity of the world; the divine immanence as a postulate of religious thought. Moreover, the material included in natural theology is treated from a different point of view, as, e.g., the science of religion (C. P. Tiele, Elements of the Science of Religion, New York, 1897; J. Caird, Philosophy of Religion, Edinburgh, 1880; O. Pflei- derer. Philosophy of Religion, London, 1886; G. T. Ladd, Philosophy of Religion, New York, 1905; H. HOffding, Philosophy of Religion, London, 1906); apologetics (A. B. Bruce, Apologetics, New York, 1892; G. B. Foster, The Finality of the Christian Religion, Chicago, 1906); theism (Samuel Harris, Philosophical Basis of Theism, New York, 1886; B. P. Bowne, Theism, ib. 1902); or individual as- pects of fimdamental religious questions are dis- cussed with reference, e. g., to psychology (E. D. Starbuck, Psychology of Religion, London, 1899; G. A. Coe, The Spiritual Life, New York, 1900; W. James, Varieties of Religious Experience, ib. 1902) ; religion (L. H. Jordan, Comparative Religion, Its Genesis and Growth, Edinburgh, 1905; A. Saba- tier. Religions of Authority and Religions of the Spirit, New York, 1906); Christianity (A. Hamack, What is Christianityf London, 1901); metaphysics (J. Royce, The World and the Individual, New York, 1900-01); science (J. LeConte, Evolution and Its Relation to Religious Thought, New York, 1894; E. Caird, The Evolution of Religion, London, 1893); history (A. Menzies, History of Religion, London, 1895; W. Bousset, Das Wesen der Religion, darge- steUt in ihrer Geschichte, Halle, 1904). C. A. Beckwith. Bibliography: Besides the works mentioiied in the text, the reader may consult: J. A. Thomas, The Bible of Na- turet London, 1Q08; and R. Otto, Naturaliem and Rdigion, ib. 1909.

NATURE, LAWS OF: In general a law is a statement of the rule according to which something either necessarily takes place, as in external nature, or ought to take place, as in the normative sciences. While the laws of logic or ethics are often violated, no exception to the law of gravitation has ever been observed. Indeed, it is this assmned element of necessity that distinguishes the laws of nature from the recognized rules of thought, conduct, etc. However, it is by no means certain to what extent laws of nature, e.g., that of mechanical causation, find application; and it is still a mooted question whether they control psychical life and the prog- ress of history, as well as physical happeningSi or NKuinbarr THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOa whether a teleologicul etement must be reckoned with. Further, since Bueh laws are derived largely from experience, which is highly diveraified unii eeeminjjly endless, it is irapossililc to fix upon a. limited number of luws of uature and siiy thai Ihcy are all. Atlempla to set up a single lav,', upon which all natural processes dupeud, have proved as iu- effectual as similar atlempta of metaphysicians to reduce all ontology to some one formal proposition. In both coses the unifying principle is empty and abstruct, and its truth is denied by the wcry mul< tiplieity of existence. The law of causation bus been taken as mch a general formula; but it is Been ut once that thia tmnecends mere natural events. Evolution, as the single law to vrhich all natural events are to be subordinated, is likewise unsatisfactory. It would also control all psychical life, individual and social, as well as natural phe- nomena. Merely with such general formulas very little would have been accomplishwl by science; for they really give no explanation of phenomena. In the very conception of event and phenomenon, evolution and causation are alrcaily assumed. Even from the law of the conservation of energy, which seems to have more content than the two just men- tioned, it is impossible to deduce the single laws that actually govern natural events. Attempts to formulate the laws of nature reach far buck into antiquity. In the philosophy of An- aximander and Ileraelilus the eternal flux of things expresses the most general law; and similarly An- aximenes. Plato and Aristotle speak of laws of nature, but do not formulate them. Astotheorigin of Uiese laws, there are two familiar views. Accord- ing to the first, which originated with Ana-xiigorus, they were given to the world by the Godhead. Thus hold both deists and thelsts. According to the second, or naturalistic, view, which orig- inated with Democrifus, these laws are eternal and immanent [n tile world. Thus held Spinoza. Kant opposed both tiiese views. He taught that man is not only his own law-giver in the practical field, but that he is even the law-giver of nature, since all the concepts, axioms, and laws which make possible a synthesis of perceptions, or experience, or science based upon experience, are immanent in his under- standing. While there may be an □ priori element in the laws of nature, the fact remains that such laws, even the most universal, are discoveretl only on the basis of exx>erie nee. With the laws of nature must not be confused Natural Law ((|.v.). (M. HEiNZEf.} BlBuoaRAPBT: G. D. Cunpbcll (the duke of AmylL). Tlu Reien a/ Lav. new ed.. New York. IRS.',: F, SqhulHc. Phil- D»pAie dir Nalunci/aemr.'iatt. 3 pnrta, Iaiihic, ISSI; H. DrUDnqoDd. Natvrat Lnw ii Iht Spirilnnl Witrtd, Lofldon, 1883 and often: G. D. Cunpbrl], Tlii- t'nirv of Nalun, ib- 1SS4: Mem, Thr Rri^n of law. lb. ISOT nnA oftrn: N. S. Shftler. Tht Inlerfirrlatim 0/ Nalurt, Itmloa. ISftS; G. C. r, TrfxT I Wae T A'nluq R. RSbrich. RaUtlkafle Divgr. A'in/aAnmv in dit Gnmd- BCKtit iltr A'olur. LeipHic. IS97; C. H. Ctairfnni. .Vnlural 1004: E' Dennert, NaluTanrU. Zufall. VorKhvnal Hsm- burc, IDOS; K. Boulniiii. Uibff dm B'eriff dm NrUurgt- lliri . . . indtr Philotnphif dtr BtofniTort, Jena. 1807. HAIIDE, n6"d6', PHILIPPE: Franco-German Reformed: b. at MeU Dec. 28, 1654; d. at Beriin Mar. 7, 1729. As a boy he spent four years as page to the count of Weimar at Markauhl. Attempts made here to convert him from the Reformed to the Lutheran faith led him to devote himself to theo- logical studies, which he continued on his return to Metz. On the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (108.'^) he Hcd to Germany. In 1C87 he setlledat IJerlin as n teacher of mathematics, becoming pro- fessor of mathematics at the Academy of Sciences in 1704. His mathematical works ate overshadowed by his numerous theological writings. These are all devoted to defending the sovereign grace of God on a Bupralapsarian basis. In his Morale evan- gtiique (2 vols., Berlin. 16M), he attacked natural- istic ethics, divorced from revealed religion, which denied the origin of evil in the world. His La Sou- vfrainf Pcrfrdum de Dieu dana aes ilivem aUrUruU (2 vols., Amsterdam, 170S) was directed primarily against the philosopher Pierre Bayle and the French preacher at Berlin, Isaac Jaquelot, the former doubt- ing Christianity, the latl«r being universal istic in tendency. The RecueU dta objectiima (1709) sought to show that infralapsarians dilTer from supralap- earions only in phraaeolos'. He renewed his attack on Bayle in Rtfuialitm du " Commenlaire philo- naphique " (Berlin, 1718). His Eiamen de deux IraiUi (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1713) was directed against the non-traditional theology of the Copen- hagen preacher La Placctte and the Swiss theo- logian Oalerwald. He assailed the mysticism of Pierre Poiret in his GrUndtiche UnUTmchung dtr myatitcken Theologie (Zcrbst. 1713) and polemiied against the universaJistic tendency of the theolog- ical faculty of Frankfort in his ThcQU>gi»che Otdanken liter ((en Entwurf dtr Lehre von der Bachaffctthtii und Ordnuvg der gdltHchen Ratachluiat (1714). (F. W. CuNotO Bibliography: D. H. HBriag. Battnai iw OetckiiMt dtr tffonniertm Kircht in den preuu%tcJ\-br^ndmbvrin*^hn

NAVILLE, EDOUARD HENRI: Swiss Egyp- tologist; b. at Geneva June 14, 1844. He studied in Geneva, London, and Paris, and being interested in Egyptology sat under Lepsius at Berlin. In 1869 he made his first visit in Egypt. Since 1882 he has been connected with the Egypt Exploration Fund (q.v.) and has published many remarkable papers through it (see the list of publications in the article Egypt Exploration Fund). His first contribu- tion (1885) attracted wide attention since in it he detailed his investigation of the store cities of Pithom and the route of the Exodus, which he thought he had determined. In 1874 he was en- trusted by the Congress of Orientalists in London with a new edition of the text of the Book of the Dead and published the same, Das aegyptische Tod- tenbuch der 18. bis 20. Dynastie (Berlin, 1886). In 1891 he became professor of Egyptology in the University of Geneva. He is the author also of The Old Egyptian Faith (London, 1910).

NAVILLE, JULES ERNEST: Swiss philosopher and theologian; b. at Chancy in the canton of Geneva Dec. 13, 1816; d. in Geneva May 27, 1909. He was educated in Geneva and in Germany, was professor of philosophy in the University of Geneva from 1840 till 1846, when he lost his place in consequence of the Revolution, but was from 1860 till 1890 professor of apologetics and then till death honorary professor. His writings on religious and philosophical subjects em- brace Maine de Biran, sa vie et ses pensees (Paris, 1857, 3d ed. 1874); La vie eternelle (1861, 2d ed. 1862; German transl. Leipsic, 1863; Eng. transl., L\fe Eternal, London, 1863); Madame Swetchine (a Russian convert to Protestantism ; 1863, 2d ed. 1864); Le Pbre Uleete (1865, 3d ed. 1880; German transl., Leipsic, 1865; Eng. transl., The Heavenly Father, Lectures on Modem Atheism, London, 1865; Greek transl., Cyprus, 1893); Le Devoir (Lausanne, 1868; German transl., 1869); Le Problem du md (1868, 2d ed. 1869; German transl., Jena, 1871; Eng. transl.. The Problem of Evil, Edinburgh, 1871) ; U6gliae romaine et la liberte dee cvXiea (Geneva, 1878); Le Christ (1878, 2d ed. 1880; German transl., 1880; Eng. transl.. The Chri8t,Edmbmgh, 1880); La Loyique de Vhypothkae (Paris, 1880); La Physique modeme{lS83, 2d ed. 1890); Le Libre arbitre (ISdO, 2d ed. 1898); La Science et matirialisme (IS91); La Condition Bociale desfemmee (Lausanne, 1891); Le Timoignage du Christ et VunitS du monde ehrUien (Geneva, IS9S), La DifiniHon de laphHosophie (1894); Les Philosophies negaHves (1899); Le Credo des ehi- tiens (1901).

NAYLER, JAMES: English Friend; b. at Ardsley (5 m. s. of Leeds), Yorkshire, about 1617; d. at Holme (near King's Ripton, 16 m. n.w. of Cambridge) Oct., 1660 (buried Oct. 21). He was the son of a well-to-do farmer, and received an ex- cellent education; on the outbreak of the civil war in 1642 he joined the parliamentary army, and be- came quartermaster; while in the army he became a preacher, but was taken ill, returned home, and took up farming in 1650. In 1651 he was converted under the preaching of George Fox, and became a preacher among the Friends, suffering imprisonment on the charge of unsound doctrine. His success as a preacher disordered his mind; he allowed himself to be treated in such a quasi-reverential way, that in 1651 he was tried by parliament for blasphemy, and condemned to be whipped twice, to be branded, to have his tongue bored with a hot iron, and to be imprisoned during pleasure, with hard labor. After two years in jail he recovered and was re- leased and received into the confidence of the Friends. He was a collaborator with George Fox (q.v.) in the production of Quaker tracts, and his Writings were published in a collected edition (London, 1716). Bibliography: J. Deacon, The Qrand Impoator Bxamuud: or the Life, Tryal, and Examination of J. Nayier, London, 1656: idem. An Exact Hiat. of the Life of J. Naybr, ib. 1657; A True ^'arrative of the Examination, TryaU, ami Sufferinga of J. Nayier, London, 1657; A True RelaHen of the Life, Converaation, Examination, Confeaaion and jnd Deaerved Sentence of J. NayUn, London. 1657; Memmnef the Life, Ministry, Tryal, and Sufferinga of . . , Jamai Nailer, London, 1719; J. G. Bevan, A Refutation of 8em» of the more Modem Miarepreaenlationa of the 8oei^ ef Frienda, vith a Life of J, Nayier, London, 1800; DSB9 xl. 130-133.

NAZARENES: The name given to two modern religious sects. For Nazarene as applied to Jesus Christ and his disciples see Nazareth. 1. Adherents of Jacob Wirz, a silk- weaver of Basel (b. 1778; d. 1858). This little sect owes its origin to the most various spiritual elements. Its doctrines are based upon medieval Catholic ideas and the mystical conceptions of Jakob B5hme, Michael Hahn, and Friedrich Christoph Oetinger (qq.v.). Among its beliefs were the following: Jesus wished to be thoroughly and perfectly engen- dered in Wirz, who was to become by grace what Jesus is by nature; Jesus Jehovah, one being with the Father and the Holy Ghost, is the basis of man's life and action, whom we embrace in connection with the holy mother community in heaven, and its true members on earth, so that we may together grow into a perfect temple of the divine wisdom in Christ. The following elements are prominent: (1) the Catholic element, as expressed in the supplica- tions to Mary and the saints, in the practise of making the sign of the cross, and in the high esti- mation of celibacy; (2) the theosophical element, from which source the adherents draw their higher wisdom. Hoarding the objective facts of salvation as well as the subjective process of salvation, the crudenesB of the conceptions is striking, as, for in- stance, in the explanation of the birth, death, and resurrection of Christ. If ** the blood of Jesus *' is the material for the rebirth of the whole universe " then the man who lavishes to be blessed must en- tirely absorb this himian and divine substance by faith, which possesses a magnetic power." There- fore, justification is imputed only in the beginning; it must rise to the grade of a sanctifying and unifying justification, which brings with it a transformation into the divine being of light. The firm faith in this supposedly higher knowledge produced a certain ■elf-eonaciousness which not only turned against ecclesiastical Christianity, but also, and more espec- ially, assumed an attitude of opposition to theolo- gians and set its face against all scientific investiga- tioQ as a falling away from Christ. The vitality and growth of this sect is very limited; it exists only in a few scattered places, such as Barmen and Elber- feld, and in a few districts in the hill-countiy of Wurttonberg, and does not appear to have any future. J. Herzog. 2. HungAiian AnatMptistB. They originated about 1845 and number at present about 15,000. They have an active propaganda, are growing in importance, and have reproduced the quieter and purer type of Anabaptism of the middle of the six- teenth century. Little is known of them because they are inactive in the work of publication, and are averse to everything not strictly religious. Their hymn-bode is their only official publication (Zurich, 5^ ed., 1889). There is an excellent article con- cerning them by G. Schwahn (JPT, xvi. 484-545, 1890). Hie name " Nazarene " has long been officially used. Probably the brothers Hemsey, who labored about 1840 as artisans in Switzerland and came into contact with FrOhlich and his adherents in Thurgau or near Strafsburg, brought this type of Christianity to their native land. After 1848 a large number of Nazarenes were found in Hungary, whose most zealous apostle was Stephen Kalmdi* (d. 1863). They have since spread through southern Hungary. They have only one article of faith: the Bible gives God's commandments; to keep them con- scientiously is " the way " to salvation. They admit that in the other churches children of God are found, but claim that they should join the Nazarenes. They lay stress upon the doing of God's will, and upon suf- fering. Complete passivity and patient bearing of in- sults and ill-treatment characterize them. They do not complain of severe oppression, to which they were formerly especially exposed. This is the lot, they say, of the children of God. They firmly refuse to take an oath and decline military service. It is not the bearing of arms in itself to which they object, but the purpose of killing the enemy wMch they regard as antichristian. In their religious phrase- ology they agree with other pietists and prefer to use Biblical language. They are noted for their beautiful singing. They kneel at prayer, sometimes observing silence. Baptism is of adults and by immersion, followed by prayer and imposition of hands by the elders. They are sought as laborers because of their diligence, sobriety, honesty, and thrift, and are not opposed to amassing wealth. The persecutions through which they passed often produced in them a certain fanaticism, characteris- tically Anabaptist, evinced by their hatred of the church, of priests, and of the educated ministry. To these they apply all words spoken by Jesus against the Pharisees and scribes. From their pietistic standpoint, every external formality of worship appears to belong to the kingdom of apostasy. They therefore form no church organiza- tion; they do not even record their baptized mem- bers. All who become ** converted " and " have the testimony of the congregation " may receive inmiersion. These join thereby not an organized " church " but the " Christ-believing congregation." But almost all Nazarenes know each other person- ally, however dispersed they may be. Their elders enjoy an almost unrestricted influence, they advise in all possible concerns, even in matrimonial affairs. Their position is not fixed by rule; there is no formal control over financial administration and relief; everything is a matter of confidence. The Naza- renes have personal and epistolary intercourse with the Fr6h]ichians in Zurich and Strasburg, with some neo-Baptists in Wtirttemberg, with Lothringians, and with the Amish Mennonites in America, whom they call coreligionists. But their relation to the Bap- tists, otherwise nearest to them, is by no means friendly. The Baptist congregations they put on the same basis as the " church." Baptists who join them they baptize again. Their following is from the lower classes. Their future, when their virtues, their gro^^ing wealth, and their industry procure for them greater importance and when their narrow vision gives place to needed scientific education, can not be foreseen. Political changes in Hungary have greatly ameliorated their condition. The period 1848-1868 was their time of struggle. Their children were forcibly removed and baptized in the churches; and they themselves suffered long terms of imprisonment for refusing military 8er\ice. Sreal« M Many died in prison, some were even sentenced to death in the war of 1866 on account of this refusal. Since 1868 the constitution has granted liberty of conscience, but this has not always been observed. As late as 1902 many, otherwise blameless, were in prison for refusing military service. Even their marriage customs brought them into conflict with the authorities. With the new Hungarian legisla- tion of 1894 and 1895 some relief has come; they are no more obliged to belong to any of the acknowl- edged confessions. The State recognizes them as undenominational citizens when they apply as such, and they show respect for the '' authority appointed by God." They are not molested because their children take no part in the religious instruction of the church and disregard obligatoiy attendance at church. In their propaganda they are also unmo- lested. They do not believe in imiversal salvation. Hence in their propaganda they aim to save from the world only the " susceptible souls." S. Cramer. Bibliography: On 1 ooDsult: The founder's Biographic; Alt Ze%toni»a der Ntuarenergemeinde von der Eniwickiuno des Reiehea OoUe* auf Erden, Barmen, 1862; his ZevgniMt und Eriiffnimgen det OeiHea dwrch J. J. Wirt heiliot Urkun- den der Nazarenergemeinde, 2 vols., ib. 18A3-64; and C. von Palmer, Die Oemeinechaften und SdUen WMtembergM, pp. 143 sqq., Ttibingon, 1877.

NAZARETH: The native city of Jesus (Matt, xii. 54; Mark vi. 1 ; Luke iv. 23). There his parents lived (Matt. ii. 23; Luke i. 26, ii. 4, 39) and his brothers and sisters (Mark vi. 3) ; and there he grew up (Luke ii. 51, iv. 16). As the name of the place does not occur in the Old Testament and is not authentically certified in later Jewish literature, its Hebrew form can be inferred only from the Greek form in the New Testament, Nazareth, Nazareth or Nazara. The meaning of the name is uncertain. Jerome thought of n&^eTf " flower " (EpiH, xlvi., Ad Marcellam). In the Talmud Jesus is called " the Nazarene " and his disciples " Nazarenes " from a Greek form NazarSnoa (cf. Mark i. 24, x. 47), though another form is Nazdraioa (Matt. xxvi. 71; Luke xviii. 37). In Eusebius' Onomasticon the form is interpreted either as " holy, pure," or it is brought into connection with the Hebrew for " twig, flower," ut sup. Hitzig proposed to derive the word from the Hebr. nzyry in the unpointed text of Isa. xlix. 6 and to interpret the plural Acts xxiv. 5, " saved ones," in contrast with the ** perishing " of I Cor. i. 18, 21 ; II Cor. ii. 15. At a later time, according to Hitzig, the same word, as singular, was referred to Jesus himself, in the sense of '' saved one " as well as in allusion to Nazareth (Matt. ii. 23). Little is known of the early history of Nazareth. It was situated in Galilee (Matt. xxi. 11; Mark i. 9), on the slope of a hill (Luke iv. 29), and had a syna- gogue in which Jesus taught, though without suc- cess (Matt. xiii. 53-58; Mark vi. 1-6). According to Epiphanius {H<Br, i. 136) the town had only Jewish inhabitants until the time of Constantine, and even then only a few Christians settled there. Nazareth was evidently only at a comparatively late period received into the number of holy places of pilgrim- age. Hence the authenticity of the holy places now revered in Nazareth is doubtful. Under the doDodnion of the crusaders Nazareth was apparently a purely Christian place, the seat of a bishop, later of an archbishop. It suffered severely from the victories of Saladin 1187 and of Sultan Bibars 1263, also from the Turkish conquest in 1517. It flour- ished for a time under the dominion of Fa^r el- Din, prince of the Druses (1620-1634), but soon declined owing to discords among the inhabitants and attacks from outside. Nazareth rests concealed in a hollow surrounded by hills as if in the cavity of a shell. The slopes are well cultivated toward the south and east, corn- fields alternating with vineyards and fig-trees. The present population is estimated at 11,000, of whom the orthodox Greeks and Mohaomiedans form each a third, while the Latins number 1,500, the United Greeks 1,000, the Protestants 250, the Maronites 200; Jews are not tolerated there. Nazareth is the capital of a district and an important market UiVkTi, Of the holy places in Nazareth the orthodox Greek Church of St. Gabriel or the Church of the Armunciation is especially attractive, being built beside the spring of St. Mary in the northeast of the town. It was mentioned as eariy as 670, but the present structure was erected in 1780. The Roman Catholic church was built in 1730. Nazareth is now the seat of an orthodox Greek bishop and has a Greek monastery with a school for boys and girls; the Russians support several schools there. Ihe Roman Catholic Church is represented by the Fran- ciscans and by several orders of women. The Mar- onites also have a church. In 1851 the English Church Mission founded a Protestant eongregalioo, and the Female Education Society in London erected in 1872-75 a stately orphans' home for giria. (H GUTHB.) Biruographt: An exoellent treatment is to be found is F. Vigouroux, Dietionnaire de la Bible, fasc. xxviii. 1521- 1542. Paris, 1906. Consult further: Hitsis. in Tlihinget theolooiache Zeitachrift, i (1842), 410^13; T. Tobler, NaaareUi in PaltBstina, Berlin. 1868; V. Qu^rin. Deterip- Hon de la Palestine, iii., QalHee, i. 83-102. Paris. 1880; Survey of Weetem PcUestine, Memoirs, i. 275-279, Lon- don, 1881; W. M. Thomson, The Land and the Book, Central Palestine, pp. 310-322. New York, 1882; G. Ebos and H. Quthe, PaUUtina in Bild und Wort, i. 302 sqq.. Stuttgart, 1883; G. Schumacher, in ZDPV, xiii (1890>. 235 sqq.; G. A. Smith. Historical Qeograpky of the Holn Jjand, pp. 432-435. London, 1894; F. Buhl. Geograpkii des alten PaiAstina, pp. 215 sqq.. Tabingen, 1896; Robin- son. Researches, iii. 183 sqq.; DB, iii. 496-497; SB, vL 3358-62; JE, ix. 195: DCQ, ii. 235-237. The recent monograph is G. Le Hardy. Uiti. de NoMcweih el de ses wanctuaires, Paris, 1905. The subject is treated also in many of the works on the life of Jesus Christ.

NAZIRITES: The name given to Hebrews who assumed certain vows or upon whom these vows were imposed by their parents. The naziritic in- stitution (Hebr. naziTf " separate/' Gk. nagiraios, nazaraios) included both sexes, involved abstinence from intoxicating drinks, avoidance of contact with the dead, and the imchecked growth of the hair. It was a distinctly religious institution, and the resolution to assume the obligations which it imposed was regarded as inspired by Yahweh (Amos ii. 1 1), to whom the nazirite was consecrated (Num. vi. 2). This consecration might be for a lifetime (Samson, Samuel, John the Baptist), or for a shorter period, and it might be assumed by the parents for a child even before his birth. The law of the nazirite is given Lev. vi. 1-21 . In the required abstinence from wine there is discerned ihegurviva! of a prehistoric puritanic conception of the Semites which held the enjoyment of wine and like luxuries to be hindmnccB in the way of perfect service of the deity. The abstinences of the Rochabitea (Jer. xxxv.), of the Nabateans (Diodonis Sicuius, xit. 94), and of Mo- hammedans are examples of the survival of this conception. In the case of the nazirite there is a connection with the priesthood found in the prohi- bition of contact with the dead, even of purtjeipation in the mourning ceremonies for his own kin, showing the sanctity of the nazirite; this is illustrated by the tact that the Tajmudic tract Naxir (vii. 1} places the nazirite and the high priest on the same footing. But the naziritic vow did not necessarily involve Epecial service at the sanctuary. The prohibition to cut the hair arises from the fact that the hair is sacred to Yahweh. Many peoples regarded the growth of the hair as a divine ene[^ which was not to be assailed or weakeneil by contact with a tool of man's workmanship; the full growth of hair ex- hibired by a najsirite was, therefore, a sign of con- secration, and with Snmson was a condition of his divine power. Illustrative of this is the fact that Ihe t«rm nazir was applied to the untrimmed vine of the Sabbalical and Jubilee years. If during the period of his consecration the nazirite incurred pollution, his hair was shorn, the terra of consecra- tion was begun anew, and certain expiatory offerings were made (Num. vi. 9 sqq.). The Talmudic tract Temurah (vi. 4) prescribes that the hair of the pol- luted nazirite be not burned but buried; tie impli- cation is therefore that when the hair was burned in the sanctuaiy, the ceremony was constructively a sacrifice, and this h illustrated by ethnic usage like that of Mohanunedan pilgrims who leave their bair unshorn from the time of taking the vow of pilgrimage until Ihcy reach Mecca and then cut the hair and bum it on holy ground. In the case of the aa^irite who assumed the vows for a period only and not for life, the end of the term was marked by several kinds of sacrifices — burnt offering, sin-offer- ing, peace-offering, with their accessories (Num. vi. 13 sqq.). Not to be overlooked is the difference in spirit between this institution and similar observ- ances among Hindus and even Christians; in the latter case the object is suppresmon of sensual incli- nations, in the Hebrew institution the purpose was to conserve the full vigor of the body for the service Postexilic Judaism employed the naiiritic vow in caae of illness or misfortune (JosephuB, War, II,, x\'.), when undertaking a journey (Nazir, i. 6), and on like occasions; it even furnished a form of oath which gave rise to PhorJsaic casuistry and brought naiiritism into disrepute. Paul seems to have a casual relationship to naziritism in the incident aientioned Acts iviii. 18, though there is doubt w-hether the vow referred to Paul or Aquila, and indeed whether the vow was actually naziritic. On the other hand, Paul assumed the not inconsid- erable expenses attending the completion of the vows of four indigent Jews (Acts xx'i. 23 sqq.). This was a friendly service often rendered by the wealthy (cf. Josepbufl, Ant. XIX., vi. 1; Mishna, Natir,a,6). C. ton Okelli. cited; U. Vilmar. in TSK, xxxvu (1861), 43S Mia.l H. £nBLd. Anlii/uilii* of Itrarl. pp. 81-SS, Bostaii, 1876: J. Grill, ia JPT, vi (ISSO). B45 aqq.; J. B. Gray, in Jour- nal at Thmlairical Slvdirt, i (1900>. ZOl tqq.; C. ardDeuen, DfT AhnenctJIui, pp. 40. 71, 62, 112 Ktq.. Hails. 1900; Beniinger. AnMoUiit, pp. 361-383: NawBcli, ArcMliloeit, ii. 13*-I38: Vigourouj, Didiannain, mviii. 1515-20; DB. m. 407-BOI; EB, iii. 33B2-(M: DCO, ii. 237-23S: JE. Ix. leS-lflS.

NEAL, DANIEL: Historian of the Puritans; b. in London Dec. 14, 1078; d. at Bath Apr. 4, 1743. He studied first at Merchant Taylors' School, Ijon- don, then (I6'jft-9<1) in Hev. Thomas Rowe's acad- emy in Little Britain, and then for three yeara at I'trecht and Leyden. Returning to London in 1703, the next year he tv'aa chosen assistant pastor, and in 1706 full pastor, of the Independent Congre- gation in Aldersgate Street, and faithfully served it, until, a few months prior to his death, he was compelled by ill-health to resign. He was the author of two works which have given him lasting fame : The IlisUyry of New Enyland, Containiitg an Impartial Account of the Civil and EcclenoMlietU Affairs o/ Ihe Counlrytothe Ycaro/Our Lonil700{2vols.,Londoti, 1720) and the standard History of the Puritans, or ProttstaiU Non-con/ormitU, from (he Reformation in 1517, to the RevoMion in 1688 (4 vols., 1732-38; 2d. ed., 2 vols., 1754; ed. J. Toulmin, with Life, 5 vols., Bath, 1793-97; ed. J. O. Choules, 2 vols.. New York, 1844). BiBuoariArHi: Benides the I.ifr: by Tuulmia, ul auD.. eon- ■ult: WalCar Wilsou. HiM. and Antviuilum of D Chureha in Ijindon. iii. 90-102, London. IfllO; '

NEANDER, JOACHIM: Principal poet of the Reformed Church; b. at Bremen 1650; d. there May 31, 1680. He was educated at the Latin school of Bremen and in 1666 entered the Gymna- sium illustre. After a carelessly spent youth he was converted by a sermon of Tlieodor Undereick, pastor of St. Martini in Bremen, by whom he was led into the path of Reformed pietism. As the tutor of the sons of distinguished Frankfort merchants, and also to continue his studies, Neander went to Heidelbei^. In 1674 the Reformed congregation of Diisscldorf called him as rector to their Latin school, but private religious meetings instituted by him in 1676 and some arbitrary rules in the admin- istration of the school, brought him into conflict with the preacher and consistory. He was deposed in 1677, but before the notification reached him be signed a declaration in which among other things be condemned separation from the external churdi community as practised by Labadie and his people. He also renounced secret meetings and the " deten- tion of members from the Lord 's Supper. " Neander was in consequence merely suspended. In 1679 be was called to Bremen as third preacher of the churdi of St. Martin, but died in the following year. The first edition of his songs appeared under the title, A & Q Joachimi Neandri Glaub- und LUbes-Udnmg: Auffgemuntert durch einfdUige Bundes Lieder wd Danck-Psodmen . . . (Bremen, 1680), contained fifty-seven songs, of which about twenty editions app)eared before 1730. Although not suitable for church hymns because of their marked subjectivity, and though they contained reminiscences of Laba- die and of Cocceius, the songs were taken into the hymnals. In the second part of the hymn-book for Clcve, JUlich, Berg, and Mark of 1738, Neander's name stands beside that of Luther on the title page. 05 Keal« Neander While some of Neander's productions are awkward and lack polish, others are so powerful and impress- ive, so devout and sincere, and so highly imagina- tive that they secured an honorable place among spiritual songs. Neander proved himself also a true musician, for of the melodies to his hymns nineteen originated with him. (E. Simons.) Bibuoqrapht: J. H. Reiti, Hiatorie der Wiedmrtfeborenen, iv. 44-57, Itoiein, 1717; M. Gdbel, Oeachichte dea chriat- Hehen Lebena in der rheiniach-waatfiUiaehen Kircha, ii. 322- 358, Coblens, 1S49; C. Winkworth, The Chriatian Singera of Germany^ London. 1869; W. Nelle, Joachim Neander^ der Dichtar der Bundeaiieder und Dankpaalmen^ Hamburgt 1903; Julian, Hvnnoloffyt PP- 790-792; ADB, vol. xxiii.

NECTARIUS: Patriarch of Constantinople; b. in the first half of the fourth century; d. at Constan- tinople Sept. 27, 397. He was elected to the patri- archate by the council held at Constantinople in 381, but the precise reason for his selection is doubt- ful. According to Socrates (Hint, eccl., V., viii. 12), Nectarius was of senatorial rank and a praetor, a layman, and the candidate of the people. Sozomen (Hitt. ecjd., VII., viii.) states that he was a native of Tarsus, and also gives a number of less credible details, such as that Nectarius was still an unbap- tized neophyte and that, recommended by Diodorus of Tarsus to the bishop of Antioch as a suitable candidate tor the episcopate, he had been placed last on the list, but was chosen by the Emperor Theodosiua and made bishop while still in his bap- tismal robes. Be was not a man of great impor- tance. It is posaible that he was the Nectarius to THE NEW SCHAFP-HERZOG ■whom Basil miilressed a letter of consolotion on the death of his son. Nor was the earlier curcer of NccCariuB parlicularly honorable, if the allusion of Soiomon (HUt. feci., VII., x. 2) nuiy be acceptol. His cpiscopalc wan equally inglorious. In the con- duct of hia oiRce he was depiendent upon the guidance of others, the funeral eulogies at court which were part of hia duties «tre actually delivered by Gregory of Nyssa, and he unwisely abrogated the office of penitential priests. Ho is occasionally regarded as a saint in the East. Numerous manuscripts aBeril>e to hira a eulogy of the martyr Theodore [MPG., xxsi\., 1821-40), a production of little note except for ita archeological allusions. (F. Loofb.) BiBUonnAj-EiT: DCB, iv. 11-14 (taka a ricw of Nectorius oppOKilo Fram that in the Icill; G. Ramchen. JaJirbscher drr chrimliclien Kirrl-t inUcr dem Kautr Tlifadimut. Frci- faurR- 1897; J. Kunir, Dan nv-Anirfi'kanjitaTUinapaliiani- Khi S:^..J/i,l, LrlTwir', IHUS; OilUcr, AuUari mirfi: v. 18. aaO-2S2. The aoarra an Buffidontly indicawd in Iho t*il.

NECTARIUS: Patriarch of Jerusalem; b. in Crete 1(305; d. about 1680. He was educated by the monks of Sinai where he himself became a monk; but when thirty-five yeais of age he studied at Athens with Ihc Neo-Aristotelian Tbeophilua Cory- dallcua. About 1500 he was in Constantinople on business connected with his monastery, and on his return to Sinai was chosen abbot. But on his way to Jerusalem to be consecrated he was informed that he had been chosen patriarch of the Holy City, and was consecrated in April, 1661. As early as 1666 he sought to be relieved of his duties and by 166!) Dositheus had become his succesBor. He re- mained in Jerusalem, however, except when driven by the Latin monks for a short lime to Sinai. IIo took part in the synod of Jerusalem iu 1672. Among the writings of Nectarius the most impor- tant is his refutation of the theses of a certain Peter regarding the papal supremacy (ed. Dositheus, T.'ilh a life of Nectarius, Jassy, I68'i). He is still better known by hia recommendation of the Con- /esfio orthoiloxa of Mogilas (latest ed., fi. Legranil, Bibliog'aphie hc.U&nv{ue, ii. 208 sqq., 4 vols,, Paris, 1894-!ltl). A letter to the monks of Sinai is also contained in E. Renaudot'a GcnadH ■patrianhm Comtiintinopotitani homUiir de sacramado eucharia- /Iff, etc. (Paris, 1709, pp. 171-lS.')). In his doctrine of the F.ucharistNectarius was strictly orthodox, and a, zealous opponent of Cyril Lucar (q.v.) and the " Calvinistie " movement. (F. KA-miNnfacH.) Bibliography; B(nii|« thn hioBrsphy noied In the t«t M. Le ^uiFD. nrim ChruHanm. ill. B20-522. Piiria. ITIUi A. Pirhler, R.srflfrWf drr kirrhlirlifn Tmnuno rvivim drm OrirfU utvl OeHilmt, i. «74-4S1, Munich. 18M (iIdsI*

NEHEMIAH. His Lineage (§1). His Commission and Its Purpose (| 2). External and Intemad Opposition ({ 3). His Achievements and Character (§ 4). Post-exilic Jewish patriot and governor. Ac- cording to Neh. viii. 9, xii. 26, he bore the titles of tirahatha and pehah (governor), the first of which is probably a Persian title given to royal commission- ers, and the second is in origin Babylonian. The inference of the Syriac and Arabic translators from the title tirshatha and from Neh. x. 9 that Hacaliah and his son were priests is unfoimded, the words " these were the priests " (verse 8) not referring to the opening verse, and quite opp>osed to such an office is the passage Neh. vi. 11. More I. His probable is the very early and persist- Lineage. ent tradition that Nehemiah was of the family of David. This is supported by the fact that he calls Jerusalem *' the place of my fathers' sepulchers " (ii. 3, 5) and agrees with the known liking of Persian kings to have about them the descendants of royal families (Dan. i. 3). Ac- cordant also with this supposition is the confession in i. 6-7. 100 Keffro Bvanffellzfttloin Kene] temiah It was in the month Chisleu of the twentieth year of Artaxerxes I. Longimanus (445 B.C.) that Nehemiah first heard directly from Jerusalem of the pitiful condition at the capital, of the breaches in the wall, and the burning of the gates. The sadness in- duced by these tidings manifested itself in his coim- tenance and came to the notice of the king as he exercised his office of cupbearer. The latter asked for an explanation, which brought to the king's ear the cause of Nehemiah 's sorrow, and gave to the latter opportunity to ask to be sent home with the com- mission to build the walls of Jerusalem (Nch. ii. 5). That the mission was an extraordinary one is shown by the appointment of a definite time for his re- turn (ii. 6), and the circumstances of his return to the king twelve years later imply that during that time the king appointed him to the permanent office of governor. Furnished with a letter of safe-con- duct to the governors of the region beyond the Euphrates and with orders to take from 2. His the king's forest the necessary mate- Commission rials for repair of the gates and walls, and its and provided ^dth orders that an offi- Purpose. cial residence be furnished him, and also with an official escort, he arrived at Jerusalem (Neh. ii. 7-12). After three days' res- idence, he made a visit by night to the wall and gates of the city and observed the conditions. He then made an appeal to the national pride of the Jews and succeeded in stirring them up to the work of reconstruction, showing them the authority which be had from the king to accomplish the work. The zeal, cleverness, and energy of the man are suffi- ciently revealed by the accoimt of the work and by the shortness of the time in which Jerusalem became again a fortified city. The work of construction w^as done by the community imder the leadership of the principal people, associations, and gilds within fifty-two days. The result was intense disappoint- ment to the enemies of the Jews (Neh. vi. 15), and great thankfulness on the part of Nehemiah for the accomplishment of his plan and for the triumph over hindrances both external and internal. Nehemiah was aware from the first that the ac- compGshment of his purpose would go contrary to the political plans of the enemies of his people. These at first charged the Jews with harboring re- bellious intentions (ii. 20), went on to the use of insult and mockery (iv. 1-3), and finally prepared for actual hostilities, a plan foiled by the military readiness and foresightedness of Nehemiah. They went on to treacherous attempts to lure Nehemiah outside the walls that they might seize him, and at- tempted to compromise him by inducing him to in- vade as for personal security the tem- 3. Extenial pie area (vi. 2 sqq., 10). Especially and noteworthy among the active enemies Intenial were three men, Sanballat, Tobiah, and Oppositkm. Geshem. Geshem doubtless had at heart the interests of the settlers in the south and southwest of Judea; Tobiah was related to some of the first families of the land and had a strong following among them; while Sanballat (called "the Horonite," ii. 10, 19) enjoyed the authority and prestige of the position of priest at Samaria, a position which possibly was a conse- quence of the event narrated in II Kings xvii. 28. The internal hindrances Nehemiah had to combat were despondency arising from the nature of the work, the rumors of attacks in force by the neigh- boring people (iv. 10, 12), and the hard economic conditions of the country (v. 1-8) . The first obstacle was overcome by Nehemiah's encouragement and leadership and example, the last by inducing the vol- untary release by creditors of the conditions which made life so hard for the poor. Besides the fore- going hindrances is to be mentioned the fact that while part of the people were tractable, another part wished to maintain their relations with the foes on the outside, and assisted in the canyicig out of plots against the leader (vi. 9-14, 17-19), even to the procuring of false prophecy. When the honor of the city was restored by the completion of the walls, Nehemiah turned to the maintenance of that position. The city was half depopulated, and that condition had to be altered, but in accordance with legal and moral rights. To that end a search of the records and a census were ordered (vii. 4-5). The latter process was a lengthy one, and it is possible that to carry this through Nehemiah sought the office of governor. The former was accomplished by the casting of lots and the bringing of one out of ten to dwell in 4. His the city (xi. 1-2), the " princes of the Achieve- people " taking up their residence ments and there. The narrative of events is some- Character, what confused under the editing which the memoirs of Nehemiah have imder- gone. It is not improbable that the great feast de- tailed in chaps, viii.-x. took place in the year 444 B.C., while the consecration of the wall fell in the year 430 B.C., after the return of the governor from the king. Other accomplishments were the purify- ing of the temple by the exclusion of those unlaw- fully domiciled therein (xiii. 4-9, 28), provision was made for the orderly conduct and maintenance of the public service, and enforcement of the law against intermarriage with the heathen (xiii. 10, 23). The accomplishments of Nehemiah which are worthy of note then are the awakening of the sense of na- tional honor and of regard for the law, and the re- establishment of Jerusalem as the capital of the country and the rallying-point of the conununity. While Ezra brought together the Jewish conmiu- nities of the diaspora and the homeland under the dominion of the law, Nehemiah brought about ** the national-political organization as the amphictyony of the holy state." His character appears as that of a man with a lively sense of honor and distinction. He was true to his family, to the God of Israel, and to his duty to his people. He used his high rank, his official position, and his powers in the service he had imdertaken, the purpose of which was to pre- serve the glory of God and to further the welfare of his nation. He permitted no opposition to stand in the way of this service, and employed his own means ^ith great liberality. His first concern was to keep a good conscience toward God, and the memoirs which he left are a testimony to the hon- esty of his purposes and the diligence and discretion with which he carried them out. II Mace. ii. 13 attributes to Nehemiah also the creation of a libraiy THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG &nd collection of historical iirchivca and sacreJ books, and by tradition the fommtion of the third part of the canon in practically traced to him. (A. Klostermann.) BlBUmRAPirT: Canault, bniiln ttae literature urnipr Ein* iHD Nkheuuii. BaoKn or, P. RioHler, in UMLrhr Zril- K*rift, I (1«W), Z32-a»fl. li (1901). 15-27; DB, iii. 5(17- 610: £R. ill. 3;iSO-37: JE. ii. lUM-Sll; Vicounnli, nVr- tiBtmairt, xxvui. ISeS-TS.

NEIL, CHARLES: Church of England; b. in London May 11, 1841. He graduated from Trinity Hall, Cambridge (B.A., 186:2; M.A., IS06); he was ordained deacon 1865, and priest 1866; became curate of Bnulford Abbas, near Shcrbome, Doreet, 1865; vicar of St. Paul's, Bcthnal Green, 1866; in- cumbent of St. Matthiaa, Poplnr, London, 1875; and vicar of St. Mary's, Stamford Brook, London, ism. He waa called to the bar (Inner Temple) in 1864; and has been joint editor of the Clergyman's Magazine, London, 1876 sqq. He ia the author of the volume on Romans, in the Eipotitor'i Com- mentary (London, 1877); the volumes on Genesis, the Gospels, and Acts, in the Tearher'a CaieehUing Bible (18!)3-!I4); The Fallacy of Sacramenial Con- frgtion; DiseourMs Dcliirred at St. Matthia*, Pop- lar {IS'JG); and contributed the volume on the Paul- ine epistles to The Biblical Elaevialor (1896). He edited John Todd's Imlei Rerum (London, 1881); with H. D. M. Spence anil J, S. ExcU he edited Thirty Thoimtntl Thoughln l[l8S;i] sqq.); and, with C. H. H. Wright, A Prokatant Dictionary (liKM).

NELSON, DAVID: Presbj-lerian; b. near Jones- borough, Tenn., Sept. 24, 1793; d. at Oakland, III., Oct. 17, 1844. He was graduated at Washington College, Virginia, in 1810. He practised medicine, imbibed infidel opinions, but vas converted, and licensed Ifl preach in 1825. After five years' service in Teoneaaee and Kentucky, be established Marion College in Missouri, and was its first president, holding the position for Bin years; but his aboli- tionist vieu'B at hist forced his departure, and in 1836 he opened at Oakland, III., a training-school, particularly for missionaries. He wrote Cauae anJ Cure of Infidelity (New York, 1836), often reprint«d and edited, while it exists in translation in French, German, and Spanish.

NELSON, RICHARD HENRY: Protestant Epi»- copal bishop coadjutor of Albany, N. Y.; h. in New York City Nov. 10, 1859. He was educated at Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. (A.B., 18801, the University of Leipsic (1880-81), and Berkeley Divinity School, Middletown, Ojna., from which fae was graduated in 1883. After being curate of St. John's, Stamford, Conn. (1883-84), he wa* rector successivciv of Grace Church, Waterville, N. Y. {1884-87),* Christ Church, Norwich, Conn. (1887-97), and St. Peter's, Philadelphia, Pa. (1897- 1904). In 1904 he was consecrated bishop coad- jutor of Albany, N. Y.

NENNIUS: The traditional author of the His- toria Briionum, a work which purports to be a, his- tory of Britain to the Saxon conquest. It has httle historical value and tJiere is much dispute concern- ing its origin. It has been ascribed to Gildas, lo an Irish bishop of the ninth century known as Mark the Heimit, and to an anonymous writer. The later investigators believe it to be a compilation of various dates, in which Nennius may have taken part. If so, be is to be assigned to the close of the eighth or first half of the ninth century and was probably a monk of Wales. But information con- coming him is late and doubtful and the work itself offcn little that is conclusiuc. The best edition is by T. Mommsen in Cknmiai minora, iii. (MGH, Auet.ant,, xiii. 1898), Eng. transl. by J. A. Giles (London, 1S41, and in Bohn's ArUiquarian Li- brary). Bnu(KK4FBT; C. W. Srholl. Dt mjenufus Brbonim Settimmipu HiOirnm /oniibui. Beriin. 1851; W. F, Skooe, Tkr Four Anrirtil Sixuld d/ Wala. i. 37-41. Edinburgh, IMA; .4. de 1a Bordcrie, &tvda hittaritpta brttonnev ChtMoria Br<lonwn aUrihuiii i .Vmniui. Furia, 1883; H. ZimmfT. .VfiiruiH Tindifaiiu. BcrUn. 1803; idem, in XA, xii (ISM). 436-M3; the preface to Mumnuen'B edition, ut.m\ip.:R.Tb\itBeyima.\aZrilitAri/l/OrdnUclitTliHjIiigir, xiTiii (1X95). tW-l 13; F. Lot. in I^ Jfayfli jtet. viii (1)W5). 177-ltM, ix (iSM). 2S-3S; DA'S, xl. 217-231.

NEOSTADIENSIUM ADMONITIO: The moit important of the replies evoked by the Formula of Concord. The brief enforced return of Heidelbeq; to Lutheranism under the Elector Louis (1576-83) obUged the Reformed to flee to Neustadt, where they found themselves obliged to defend their belief against the Lutheran doctrines; Unsinus accordingly ^Tote, in their name, the AdnumiUo (Neustadt, 1581, foimd also in his Opera, vol. ii., Heidelbeig; 1612). Its twelve chapters contain a presentation of the Reformed doctrines, a refutation of the principles advanced in the Formula of CoQCord, and a critique of the Augsbuig Ck>nfe8sion uid Luther. The distinctive Reformed tenets discuand are Christology, communion, and predestination. The two natures of Christ are declared to be both imited and distinct, the personal union consisting ** in the subsistence and constitution of substance of a single person." Fellowship with Christ in the communion is regarded as given only through faith, thus excluding all idea of the real presence. The treatment of predestination is chiefly a sharper def- inition of the views advanced more vaguely and in- correctly by the Lutherans. The Latin edition of the Admonitio was soon followed by one in German, and the work naturally called forth several refuta- tions, especially by Selnecker, Chemnitz, and Timo- thcus Kirchner, which were answered in the Emm» recitatianum Nicolai Sdnecceri (1582) and the Ik- fensio adnumitumis Neostadiana contra apdogit Erfurtensis aopkismaia (1586). Throughout this period Neustadt was the Reformed center, and the place of publication of a number of the writings of the theologians of Anhalt and Bremen. (E. F. Karl MDlleb.) Bibliography: A. Schwdser, Die protestaniiscKen Cestrd' dogmen, i. 491 sqq., Zurich, 1854; R. Sudhoff, (Henaimt und Ursinus, pp. 432 sqq., EUbeifeld, 1857; H. Heppa, Geschichte des deutschen Proteatantismua, iv. 277 aqq., lla^ burK. 1859.

NERI, PHILIP, SAINT, AND THE ORATORIANS: The founder of the Roman Catholic order of Ora torians and his followers. The founder was born at Florence, Italy, July 22, 1515, and died at Rome May 26, 1595. In early childhood he showed marked evidence of piety, and in 1533 he went Life and to Rome, where he studied with the Character Augustinians, at the same time prac- of the tising works of asceticism, mercy, and Founder, religious instruction. On May 23, 1551, he was ordained to the priest- hood in the church of St. John Lateran, and took an active part in the confraternities and other or- ganizations evoked by the revival within the Ro- man Catholic Church for strengthening it and for saving the half-heathen populace in body and soul. He was one of the founders of the Confraternity of the Holy Trinity, designed primarily for the care of strangers and the convalescent poor. St. Philip gathered old and young, priests and laymen, to meditations held each evening, which, after 1556, crystallized into definite form. The meditations were held in the evening in an oratory, where prayer, readings from the Bible, the Church Fathers, and histories of martyrs alternated with catechizings and hynms set to music more popular in character than the Gregorian chant. No address was allowed to ex- ceed half an hour in length, and all rhetoric and casu- istry was excluded. From his apologetic lectures delivered here, Baronius formed the nucleus of his immortal Annales ecdesiastici, and from the music here sung the *^ oratorio " had its rise. The house of the community breathed a spirit of friendliness, jo3rfulness, and service, and several times a week the founder and his friends visited the hospitals to tend the sick, neglecting no menial tasks cither there or in their own house. St. Philip was firmly convinced that a joyous demeanor was far more suited to win souls to Christian virtue than a mel- ancholy air. His apparent light-heartedness and sociability brought upon him the suspicion of more puritanical leaders of the Roman Catholic move- ment for reform, and he was accused before the cardinal vicar of Rome of seeking empty honors and striving for high-church offices under cover of his conferences. He bore with patience his suspen- sion from hearing confession and from preaching, and the charge that he contemplated establishing a new sect was abruptly ended by the sudden death of the cardinal vicar. The accusations were later renewed, though without disturbing his somewhat whimsical humor, in which he seems to have sought to rebuke the pharisaical puritanism which held sway in Rome at the period. At the same time, he was capable of severe ascetic sternness, and it must be borne in mind that his biographers commonly ascribe his apparent levity to his humility and his determination to avoid all praise of men. He was ' thus curiously like the rigid Pope Sixtus V. (1585- 1590), whpc invincible humor likewise made a deep impression on the memory of the Roman people. Repeated efforts were made to induce St. Philip to accept the cardinal's hat, but in vain. Such was his influence, however, that when Clement VII. long refused to release Henry IV. of France from excommunication after his submission to the Church in 1593, St. Philip bade Baronius deny the pope absolution after his confession imtil he should grant it to Henry. Baronius obeyed in trembling, but the desired absolution was soon given to the king, thus accomplishing what had been impossible for the entire French episcopate. The Oratorians were confirmed by the pope in 1575 and again in 1612. All members were equal, the brethren even having legislative and judicial power over the superior. Government was by ma- jority vote, and the members of the community were secular priests, bound by no vows. The Italian retaining their own property, and at Oratory, liberty to withdraw at any time. They paid a certain amount monthly for the maintenance of their house, receiving only room- rent free. Nevertheless, their " Institution " con- tained many strict rules, such as a triweekly scour- ging in memory of the scourging borne by Christ for man (see Flagellation; Flagellants); and the problems and cases of conscience considered at meals were designed especially for confessors. On the other hand, St. Philip wished his followers to restrict themselves to prayer, the administration of the sacrament, and preaching. He permitted the establishment of daughter houses unwillingly, but such institutions, once founded, were placed more or less imder the jurisdiction of their respec- tive bishops, so that the Oratorians have no gen- eral, no convention of delegates, and no central organization. The oratories of Naples and Milan were founded by Tarucci in 1586, almost contem- porary with those at San Severino, Fermo, and Palermo, and these were quickly followed by others. Some years before his death, St. Philip resigned his place as superior to Baronius, though imtil his death he remained active as a confessor and in pastoral care, filled with the deepest humility to the last. In 1622 he was canonized. Among the distinguished members of the order which he founded were Ba- ronius and Reynaldus (d. 1671), the brothers Thomas and Francis Bozius (d. 1610 and 1635; the former the first to declare that Luther committed suicide and to recount the terrible deaths of GScolampadius, Butzer, Calvin, and others in his Z)e siffnis ecdesicBf Cologne, 1593), Antonius Gallonius (d. 1615; the author of the De sanctorum martyrum cmciatibua, Rome, 1594, and frequently), Giovanni Marciano, Andrea Gallandi (q. v. ; the editor of the celebrated Bibliotfieca veterum patrum, 14 vols., Venice, 1765 sqq.), and Cardinal Capecelatro (q.v.). The English Oratorians established in 1849 included F. W. Faber (q.v.) and Cardinal J. H. Newman (q.v.). A French oratory resembling the one founded by St. Philip was established at Paris in 1611 by Pierre de B^rulle, who was bom 1575, and died at Paris Oct., 1629. Ordained to the priesthood in 1599 and created cardinal by Urban VIII. in The French 1627, he designed his order primarily Oratory, to hear confessions and to give relig- ious instruction. The French Orato- rians were required to render to their respective bishops the same obedience as that given by the Jesuits to the pope, and the exaction of any mo- nastic vow was expressly forbidden. Of B6rulle's successors the first two (Condren (1629-41) and Bourgoing (1641-62) contributed most, both to extend the congregation and to develop it. It was far more centralized than the Italian branch and had both a convention of delegates and a general, who later received coadjutors. It gained the en- mity of the Jesuits, however, and later, after Jansen had invited Oratorians to settle in the Spanish Netherlands to teach strict Augustinian doctrines of sin and grace, became involved in the fortunes of Jansenism, besides being suspected of Cartesian- ism. Nevertheless, in 1760 the congregation pos- sessed seventy-three houses, fifty-eight in France, eleven in Holland, two in Venaissin (a papal dis- trict in Provence), one in Savqy, and one in Li^, some of these bdng seminaries and others colleges (both in contradistinction to the Italian organiza- tion). So deeply did the French Oratorians resist the absolutism of Church and State in the eighteenth centuiy, that at the outbreak of the Revolution some of them imited with the nobler advocates of the upheaval. During the first half of the nine- teenth century the congregation was in abeyance, but with the beginning of the second half it revived under the leadership of P^t^tot (d. 1887) and com- menced to make progress toward its former stand- ard of learning, its success being evinced by such Oratorians as Auguste Joseph Alphonse Gratry (q.v.) and H. de Valroger. The English Oratorians, already mentioned above, received many accessions from tlie Tractarian movement, and as early as 1850 had a house in each of the cities of Liverpool, London, and BirminghauL Here their organization favored their increase, being more in harmony with English traditions than the majority of Roman Cath- olic orders. They have materially aided the progress of Roman Catholicism in England, in part by their publication of the records of the Roman Catholic martyrs under the Tudors. (O. ZdCKLEBf.) Biblioorapht: The VUm by A. Gallonk> (Ital., Rome, 1600, 1818; Lat., Mains, 1002; Germ.. Mains. 1611) and G. Bamabei (Rome, 1622, 1703) are in ASB, May, vL 460 sqq. Other lives are by: P. J. Baoci, Rome, 1622, 1837, Germ, transl., RegensbuiSt 1859; P. Gu^rin. Lyons, 1852; N. P. S. Wiseman, London, 1856; A. Capecelatro, 2 vols., Milan, 1884, Eng. transl., 2 vols., London, 1894; G. M. Zampini, Turin, 1884; C. Massini, MUan. 1894; Comtesse D'Estienne d'Orves, Paris. 1900; A. F. von Pechmann, Freiburg, 1900; F. Baset, Albi, 190^; and Antrobus, St. Louis, 1903; and in XL, iz. 213 sqq. On the congregation consult: Heimbucher, Orden itnd Kongregationen^ iii. 413-424; I. Marciano, Memorxexstoriche ddla Conoreo. ddC Oratorio, 5 vols., Naples, 1693-1703; C. A. de Villaroso, Memorie degli acrittori FUippini, 2 vols., ib. 1837-42; A. Perraud, VOraioire de France, Paris, 1865: J. de la Pssardi^re, VOratoire de St. Philippe de Neri, Draguignan, 1880.

NERO: Roman emperor from 54 to 68 a.d.; b. at Antium (38 m. s. of Rome) Dec. 15, 37; d. near Rome June 9, 68. His name is associated with the first great persecution of the Christians known to history, and inunediately connected with the con- flagration which swept over Rome for six days and nights, beginning with the night of July 19, 64. These events fall in the daricest period of Nero's life; and though it is uncertain how well founded were the popular suspicions and the direct accusa- tions of Roman historians that he deliberately caused the fire, there is much evidence, such as his policy for rebuilding and beautifying the city, for believing them. At all events, the conflagration was atoned for by the blood of the Christians to avert the suspicions of the people from himself, after all other attempts to appease the populace had failed. The precise reason why the Christians were especially chosen as the victims is unclear. It is certain, however, that it was not jealousy of the Empress Poppsa for the alleged Christian mistress of Nero, Acte, as Aub4 supposed; or a religious motive of making the Christians, as despising the Roman temples, an expiation for their destruction, as Renan held. Nor can Hilgenfeld's theory that the persecution was due to paganism's instinctive fear of its approaching doom be maintained, for Christianity was not yet r^arded as in itself a " forbidden religion." It would seem, therefore, that a prime factor in the selection of the Christians was the popular hatred of Jews and of orientals in general, the Christians being involved because they were still regarded by the heathen as a Jewish sect. The situation was complicated, moreover, by the messianic expectations of the Jews which led them to proclaim divine judgment on the heathen and to see such a visitation in the burning of the metrop- olis of the world. On the other hand, the Chris- tians, with their expectation of an immediate sec- ond advent, looked for the destruction of the world by fire (cf. Minucius Felix, Odavius, id. I; Rev. xviii. 9 sqq.); they thus afforded a ready basis for the suspicion that they had kindled the conflagra- tion. The restriction of the accusation was not due to Jewish charges, as some have thought, but to the fact that, on the one hand, the Jewish population oC Rome was so laige and that the Jews were al- Teady intensely embittered against the Romans, and, on the other hand, that the Christians were retarded as the greatest fanatics and as guilty of grave vices, besides being the instigators of Jewish riots (cf. Suetonius, Claudiua, xxv.). While the precise course of investigation is not absolutely certain, Tacitus (Annates, xv. 44) seems to imply that certaia Christians were first arrested, and that in consequence of their statements the Christians ^w aeiied and condenmed en nuuse, their mere *(iherence to Christianity and their alleged hatred of all the rest of the human race being regarded as sufficient evidence of guilt, without proving their actual incendiary acts in every case. 1^ execution of the Christians was made a fes- tival of the Roman populace. In Nero's gardens, ^ present Place of St. Peter's, some were cruci- ^ or sewn in skins and torn by dogs, and others ^'^ rolled in pitch and burned at night as living torches. According to Tacitus, moreover, Nero him- "^ appeared as a charioteer at the circus games 9yen in connection with these executions and '^ed with the people; yet even so he was unable to avert the suspicion among the populace that the ^^hristians were not being sacrificed to the public wesi bat to the cruelty of an individual. It is dear from Tacitus and Suetonius, notwith- standing the assertions of Orosius (vii. 7) and Sul- pKzus Severus (ii. 28), that the persecution was Jwtricted to Rome; nor is the allusion to the mar- tyrdam of Antipas at Pergamus in Rev. ii. 13 mfficient evidence for a more general persecution. But though the actual scene of the Neronian per- seeutioii was local, its effects were far-reaching. In the buxning of the great metropolis and the bloody reaction of paganism against Christianity was seen the approaching end of the world, and this belief was confirmed by the events of the years follow- ing— the fall and death of Nero, the Jewish war, and the savage internecine strife for the throne of the Caesars. Nero's demoniac figure became inter- woven in the eschatology of the time (cf. Rev. xviii.). Escaping from his murderers, or, in an- other version, raised from the dead, he was to return as Antichrist to wage the last great war of annihilation against the followers of Christ, only to be crushed by the Messiah appearing in judgment. (Robert POhlmann.) Bibuoorapht: E. T. Klette, Die ChrUtenkatastrophe unter Nero nach ihren Quellen, Tabingen, 1907; B. Aub^» in Comptes rendiia de Vticadhnie dee inecripHone, 1866, pp. 194 sqq.; idem, Hi^. dee pereeciUione de Violiae^ p. 421, Paris, 1875; £. Renan. UAnUchriat, chaps, vi.-viii., Paris, 1873, Eng. transl., London, 1889; T. Keim, Aue dem UrchristerUhum, pp. 171-181, Zurich, 1878; idem, Rom und doe ChrieUrUhum, pp. 132 sqq., ib. 1881; G. Uhlhom, Conflict of ChriatianUy with Heatheniam^ pp. 241- 250, New York, 1879; C. F. Arnold, Die neronieche Chria- tenverfolguna, Leipsic, 1888; A. C. McGiffert, Apoelolie Age, pp. 627 sqq.. New York, 1897; Schaff, Chriitian Church, i. 376-390; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ed. J. B. Bury, ii. 79 sqq.; articles in ZWT, by Hilgenfeld, xii (1869). 421 sqq., xxx (1890). 223 sqq., by Hildebrand, xvii (1874). 94 sqq.; and by E. Zeller, xxxiv (1891), 357 sqq.; and in general, works on the church history of the apostolic period and on the history of the Roman empire

NESTOR: Russian monk of the eleventh cen- tury, incorrectly regarded as the earliest Russian annalist. According to his own statements, be entered the cave-monastery of Kiev shortly after the death of Abbot Theodosius in 1074, where he was soon ordained deacon or archdeacon, and where he wrote his " Readings from the Life and Death of the Blessed Martyrs Boris and Gleb " and " Life of the Abbot Theodoaius "; both works are charac- terized by edifying material and rhetoric rather than by history. Tlie first Russian historical writer, however, was Jacob a monk of the same cloister, possibly identical with the priest Jacob, who seems to have come from the monastery of Boris and Gleb in Pereioslaf, whom Abbot Theodoaius on his death-bed desired for hia successor. Before 1072 Jacob wrote his " Account of the Morlyrciom and Eulogy of the Murdered Holy Martyrs Boris and Gleb," and his " Memorial and Eulogy of t^e Rus- sian Prince Wolodimcr," As early as the middle of the thirteenth century the oldest Russian annals became connected with the name of Nestor; wrongly, however, for the an- nalist expressly states that he was an inmate of the monastery in the lifetime of Theodoaius. He was apparently bom at Kiev, and entered the cloister shortly after 1065, when seventeen years of age. He was, in all probability, Silvester, abbot of tlie monastery of St. Michael, who in 1116 stated that be bad written the annals in question. Though borrowing from John Molaltis and Gregoriua Ham- artolua, this pioneer Russian historian adhered strictly to the simpler annallstic form. (N. BONWBTBCH.) B(BUoaR*PHr: CAronioi WulDru.ed. F. Uil(loeich.pp. 183- ise, Vieuoa. 1860 ; L, Legsr. La Chrmique ditr dt Nator. Puig. 1884; P. Slrati!, Beilrasr tur muucArn Kireltengii- tchichle. Halle, 1S27; J.J. 8renw™liij, "The Niitiitiv* oDnfenuns the Baly Buns and Qleb." St. Pele»bui«, 1800 (inRuHmol; Knunbacher, OHcAicUe^ pp. 35, SSe-SfiT, 408. Nestorimns ISO

NETTLETON, ASAHEL: American Congrega- tionalist and revivalist; b. at North Killingworth, Conn., Apr. 21, 1783; d. at East Windsor, Conn., May 16, 1S44. He graduated at Yale in 1809; and, after studying theology, was licensed in 1811, and ordained as an evangelist in 1812. From 1812 to 1822 he was active as an evangelist in Massachu- setts, Connecticut, and New York. In 1827 he went to Virginia for his health, returning in 1S29. He held meetings in Connecticut and New York City m 1830-31, and visited Great Britain in 1831. In 1833 he waa appointed professor of pastoral theology in the recently established theological in- stitute of East Windsor (now Hartford Seminary), but though he declined, yet he settled there and occasionally lectured to the students. He was a powerful preacher, and large accessions to the church resulted from his efforts, which were strongly doctrinal and Calvinistic. He was regarded as tlie representative of the conservative tendency, in op- position to Charles G. Finney (q.v.), whose evan- gelistic labors aroused much criticism. He pub- lished Village Hymns (1824), r^arded as one of the best of American collections of hymns. Biblioqiupht: B.Tyltr. Manoir of Rn. A. HtUlilon.Euir (atd. IS44: W.B.Spnum«. Aanali of UieAmrnmnFuliia, a. fi42-fiM. New York, 18fie.

NEUCHATEL, INDEPENDENT EVANGELICAL CHURCH OF: A free Evangelical church organized in 1873 in the canton of Neuchatel, the object being to create a church entirely inde- pendent of the State. In origin the Independent Church of Neuchatel may be said to date back to the time of the Refor- mation. At that time the sovereigns of the coun- try remained attached to Roman Catholicism; and the governor, their representative, opposed with all his might the powerful preaching of Farel, and the reformatory impulse aroused in the people by that preaching. But the Reformed Church waa established in Neuchatel without, and even in spite of, the State; while in the other Swiss cantons the adminbtration of the Church and that of the State were generally united in the hands of the political power, since the grand councils placed themselves at the head of the movement, and im- posed the Reformation on the cotmtry, even against opposition. The pastors of the new church, with Farel, the Knox of Switzerland, at their head, used to meet regularly in the city of Neuchfl-tel to discuss the affairs of their churches. From these spontaneous reunions originated the body called the " Company of Pastors," which continued at the head of the Neuoh&tel Nevin 188 church of Neuchatel doif^-n to 1848, governing the church completely, independently of the State, and maintaining with great fidelity the preaching of the pure Gospel. For the material sustenance of the church a fund was provided, formed partly from old-church projwrty, partly from private contribu- tions. But in 1848 the revolution which dissolved the relation in which the state of Neuchatel had stood to Prussia since 1707 overthrew the ecclesias- tical sovereignty of the Company of Pastors. From the negotiations between that body and the new authorities resulted a reorganization of the church, according to which its administration was confided to a synoil, com{)osed of ecclesiiistics and laymen chosen by the forty churches of the country. The synod also appointed the professors of theology, without any interference from the side of the State. The former church property was absorbed by the State treasur>% which then was chai^ged with the payment of the ecclesiastical officers. Under this constitution the church lived until about 1865. At that time a number of freethinkers who had acquireii great influence in the circles of the government resolved to disrupt the stubborn dogmatic unity. A revision of the ecclesiastical law was decided upon in the grand council; and shortly after a new law was carried by a majority of seven votes. According to Art. 4 of the new law, every citizen of the State is by birth a member of the church, and has the franchise. According to Arts. 6 and 12 everj' minister is eligible to an office in the church, if he has a license to preach; and he can not be bound in advance by any meas- ure, regulation, or creed. Art. 17 leaves the sjmod no authority outside of the administration; and an article added during the debate transfers the ap- pointment of professors in theology from the synod to the council. This leil to a debate as to the nioasuros necessary under the circumstances, in which differences of opinion ilevelofKHl. Some thought that it was their duty to submit to the new law, though it was ruinous to the church, and to live on under the iloplorable constitution, waiting for bettor times. Others thought that the new establishment had nothing whatever in com- mon with the Church foundeil by Christ himself, ami insistoii xiyion the necessity of an oi^anization independent of the State. The adherents of the latter opinion iiissenibleil in 1873, and charged the memlH^rs of the oUl synod who were present with taking the necessary measures for the organization of the new church. The professors of the theolog- ical faculty were inviteil to open their lectures at the onlinarj' term, and under the direction of the synixl. Out of the forty parishes of the countrj-, twenty-one gnnips of faithful were fomuHl, which, with their pastors, declaretl in favor of forming the new church. The mi>st numerous groups con- taininl IwtwetMi five and six hundrtMl voters; others, however, onlv alxnit thirtv. A svnixl was electeii, consisting of all the i>:istors, and thn»e laymen for each pastor. A new constitution w:is also drawn up. and submit teil to the churches, which adopteii it with a unanimous vote. A s^'noiiical commit tw governs the church in the intcn'db between the sessions of the synod. The pastors are paid, not directly by their par- ishes, but from a central fund formed by volun- tary gifts. The annual budget, comprising the maintenance of the theological faculty of four pro- fessors, amounts to over 110,000 francs, each paotor being paid from 2,500 to 2,8()0 francs a year. As the use of the church-buildings is by law guaranteed to all religious denominations, the independent con- gregations can use the buildings; and about one- half of them do so. But the others, having met with various impediments in the exercise of their right, have built their own places of worship, and spent for that purpose another million. These sac- rifices, however, are not considered a burden since by those sacrifices the contributors have presen-ed the preaching of the pure Gospel, not only for them- selves and their children, but also in the state church; for the government has felt compelled to give up the introduction of rationalism in the state establishment, feeling convinced that a number of pious persons who still cling to that institution would, in such a case, immediately enlist in the ranks of the independent church. F. GoDErf. In 1906 it was conceived by a political party that for financial reasons the time had come to dises- tablish the national church of the canton, giving to all who care for religion the opportunity to apply some of the principles taught for twenty-five yean by the independents. The motion was rejected l^ a majority of five in the grand council, but was again brought forward by the central commiaaon in September of the same year. The electoral cam- paign which followed was marked by the admission of the state church that if the new motion should not carry, yet a new financial basis ought to be found for the support of their church. The popular vote of Jan., 1907, was against disestablishment by a majority of 6,679 in 23,500 votes, showing that free-church principles had not won. The statistics of 1908 show 24 parishes with 4,429 voters, 6,140 female members, and a body <d ad- herents of about 15,000. N. Weiss. Bibuoorapht: The BulUtina de Synodsa; G. Godet* U Question eecUwutique de Seueh^id, in Revue dkHtiame, Sept.. 1873-Jan.. 1874; C. Monvert. Hi$L de la /omdatiBm de riffliae ivangfliQue neuehdieioim indipendamie de TUd, Neuchatel, 1898. NEHDECKER, nei-dek'er, JOHAHH CHRI5IIAK 60TTH0LD: German Protestant; b. at Gotha (27 m. w. of Weimar), Germany, Apr. 10, 1807; d. there July 11, 1866. He was educated at the Uni- versity oi Jena (1826-29), and after a brief resi- dence at Leipsic, followed by a tour of southern Germany and Alsace, he became a private tutor at Cassel. From 1832 to 1842 he resided at Gotha as a private scholar, but in the latter year was ap- pointed teacher at the Knabenbdigerschule; he be- | came titular conrector there in the following year, : and in 1855 was made second rector of the garriflon i and Erfurt Vorstadtschule, while from 1860 until his death he was director of the Gotha BOrgerachole. Among his writings of theological interest are: AB- gemeincB Lexikon der ReUffion^- und chiMckt^ Kirchcnge9chichte fUr aUe Konfesnonen (4 vols, with supplement, Weimar, 1834-37); Urkunden out dff Re/ormatioMteU (Cassel, 1836); MerkwHrdige Ak- REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA tenslueke. aiu der Zrii der Re/ormtUion (2 parts, Nu- remberg, 1838); Lchrbuch der historiacli-kTituchen JCinUilung in dot Neue Te$lamerU (Leipsic, 1840); Ntue Beilrdge zut Gexhichl* der Reformation, mit kiMarUcJi-hiliechen Anmerkungen (3 vols., 1841); GeteMchU der RrfornuaUm von ISlJ-JSSg (1842); Gtaehidiie da evangeJUchcn ProlettaTUismiit in DtvtachJand fUr denkende und prujemie Christen <2 purt«, 1844-40); and Die Hauplrersuche tur Parifikalion der cvangelixh-protealantischen Kircke DeuttcMamU von der Reformation bis ou/ unsere Tage (1846). He also edited HandschrifUiche Ge- achiehle Matthaiu Rattebergeri ■iiber Luther und wine Zeit (Jena, 1850) and Georg Spalating hislorischer .\acMasa anrf BrUfe (with L. Prellcr; 1851), besidea continuing the third edition of W. Monscher's Lehr- bach der chriaUichen Dogmengeschichte (Cassel, 1838). (A. SracjiANNt.) tUauaooArBj: GvOuiiaclie Zatmv, July 14, 1806: ADB. xxiii. 47« Bqq.

NEUMEISTER, ERDMANN: Lutheran theolo- gian and hymnist; b. at llchteritz near Weissen- fe!s (20 m. s.w. of Leipsic) May 12, 1671; d. at Hamburg Aug. 18, nUG. He studied at Schul- pforta and Leipsic, and after transient academic oc- cupation entered the ministry, becoming pastor at St. Jumca' Church in Hamburg in 1715, He was a vehement antagonist of Pietism, and took the field against Spener himself, and afterward against Zin- zcndorf. The influence he tmd with ttia contem- poranes came through hia ascetic writings and his hymns. Of the former mention nmy be made of bis manual for communion: Der Zugany zum Gna- denattM Jesa Chrieti (Weissentels, 1703 and often); Daa Aafheben heUiger tl6nde zu Gott (2d ed., Ham- burg, 1726); and Daa Gott twbende und von Gott Ubende Hen (Hamburg. 1731). He wrote many hymns of worth, not a few of which ha^'e survived to this day, among which may be named " Jesu, grosser Wunderstem," Eng. transi. by E. Cronen- wett, "Jesual great and wondrous star"; and "Jesus nimmt die SUiider anl " often translated into English, e.g., by Mrs. Sevan, "Sinners Jesus will receive." He waa also the creator of the Church cantata. J. S. Bach, in particular, composed the music for seven of his cantatas. Hermann Beck. BiBuoaRiPHT: Julian. HvmnaloBv. pp. 7»7~7»S: E. E. Koch. GcKhichh da Kirdimlud: v. 371. 7 vola., Stutt- gart. 1866-72; ADB, xidii. 04.1 miq. . HEVIH, ALFRED: Presbyterian; b. at Ship- peuebui^. Pa., Mar. 14. 1816; d at Lancaster, Pa., Sept. 2. 1890. He graduated from JefTetson Col- lie, Canonsburg, Pa., 1836, and from the Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa., 1839; waa pastor of the Cedar Grove Church, Pa., 1840-45; of the German Reformed Chmrh, Chamberaburg, Pa., 1845-52; of the Second Presbyterian Church, Lancaster, Pa., 1852-57; and of the Alexander Church. Philadelphia, 1857-61; he was also lec- turer in the National School of Oratory. Philodel' phia, 1S7S-80. Among his works are: Churchei of the VaUejf; or, An Historical Sketch of the Pretby- terion Congregaliont of Cumberland arul Franklin CounticB in Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1852) ; Guide to the Oracles (Lancaster, 1857). reissued aa The Book Opened; Analysis of the BOle (Philadel- phia. 1869); The Age Question: or. A PUa for CkriMian Union (1868); Popuiar Expogitor: Gos- pel and Acts (1872); Notes, Excgetical, Practical and Devotional, on Exodus {IS73); Parables of Jesus (1881); Triumph of Truth; or, Jesuit the UgU and Life of the World (1881); Encyclopmdia of the Pres- byterian Church in the United Stales of America (1884).

NEVIN, EDWIN HENRY: Presbyterian; b. at Shippensburg, Cumberland County, Pa., May 9, 1814; d. at Philadelphia July 2, 1889. He was graduated at Jefferson College, Canonsburg, Pa., 1833, and at Princeton Theological Seminary, 1836; became pastor at Portsmouth, O., 1837; president of Franklin College, New Athens, O., 1841 ; pastor at Mount Vernon, O., 1845; of the Plymouth Con- gregational Church at Cleveland, O., 1851; Lan- caster, Pa., 1855; in Philadelphia (First Reformed), 1870; retired from the pastorate 1875, and joined the Central Presbytery of Philadelphia. He is the author of numerous hymns, perhaps the best known being " Always with us, always with us." He was also the author of Man of Faith (Boston, 1858); The City of God (Lancaster, Pa., 1868) ; The Minia- ter'8 Handbook (Philadelphia, 1872); Thoughts about Christ (1882). He was one of the editors of History of all Religious Denominations (1872). Bibliography: S. W. Duffield. English Hymns, pp. 28-29, New York. 1886; Julian. Hymnology, p. 799.

NEVIN, JOHN WILLIAMSON: Reformed (Ger- man); b. near Strasburg, Pa., Feb. 20, 1803; d. at Lancaster, Pa., June 6, 1886. He graduated from Union College in 1821; and from Princeton Theo- logical Seminary in 1826, where he taught Hebrew, 1826-28; he was stated supply at Big Spring, Pa., in 1829; professor of Hebrew and Biblical litera- ture in the Western Theological Seminary, 182^ 1840; then professor of theology at Mercersburg Theological Seminary, 1840-53; president of Mar- shall College, Mercersburg, Pa., 1841-53; professor of esthetics and history in Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, Pa., 1861-66; and president 1866-76, then professor, at the same college, of mental and moral philosophy, 1868-76. In 1876 he retired to private life at Caernarvon Place, near Lancaster, Pa. He was one of the founders of the Mercersburg Theology (q.v.). He edited the Mer- cersburg Review, 1849-^53, writing the largest part of its contents. He published A Summary of Bib- lical Antiquities; Compiled for the Use of Sunday School Teachers (Philadelphia, 1828; revised 1830); The Anxious Bench (Chambersburg, Pa., 1843); The Mystical Presence; or a Vindication of the Re- formed or Calvinistic Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist (Philadelphia, 1846); History and Genius of the Heidelberg Catechism (Chambersburg, 1847); Anti- christ; or the Spirit of Sect and Schism (New York, 1848). Bibliography: T. Appel, Life and Work of John WiUiam- 9on ffevin. New York, 1890.

NEVIUS, JOHN LIVINGSTON: American mis- sionary; b. near Ovid, Seneca Co., N. Y., Mar. 4, 1829; d. at Chefoo, North China, Oct. 19, 1893. He was educated at Union College, Schenectady, 1845-47, and Princeton Theological Seminary, 1850-53. In the latter year he was ordained, ac- cepted as a missionary by the Presbyterian Board, and assigned to Ningpo, China. He labored at this post 1854-59; at the mission center of Hang-chow, 1859, where he was the first to find a footing; and in 1859-61 sojourned in Japan, preparing a '' Com- pendium of Theology " for Chinese students. On his return he removed to the Shantung district, North China, serving at Tung-chow, 1861-64; and at Chefoo, 1871-93, where at his death he was occupied with a translation of part of the Bible. He wrote China and the Chinese (New York, 1869), and Demon Possession and Allied Themes (1895). Bibliography: Mrs. H. S. C. Nevius, Life of John Lvringeton Neviue, New York, 1895.

NEW THOUGHT: An imperfectly nucleated movement having its rise in the closing years of the nineteenth century. It can not be said to have advanced beyond the nebulous stage, nor to have crystallized into a formal philosophy or an organ- ized view of life. At the hands of some of its representatives, New Thought aspires to furnish a thoroughgoing philosophy of life; while others see in it a fragmentary principle or an eclectic and unassimilated synthesis of principles. In the absence of a universally recognized organizing principle, the movement can be characterized only in its main features. The atmosphere or mood of New Thought is the spirit of optimism. The confident outlook on life and the spirit of mastery in life Its Atti- are fundamental in all the aspects of tude and the movement. It is never hedonistic Diversity, search for happiness as a goal, but rather cheerfulness resulting from the recognition that '^ all things work together for good," or can be made to work together. Thus optimism as an ideal and meliorism as a motive for conduct are the dominant key-notes. But this optimism is only the common temperament of the movement. It is not a groundless optimism, it attempts to give an account of itself; it is a confi- dence ^nd buoyancy toward life which essays to find its justification in certain principles of thought, a temperament which offers a rational justification. At this point the apparent unity of New Thought practically disappears in the great divergence of theoretical or philosophic explanations offered. As a mood toward life, the term New Thought describes a sort of unitary thought-movement. As a philosophy justifying and directing the mood. New Thought presents little unity, but a great variety of diverse and often mutually contradictory principles. One exponent offers one consideration, another exponent builds upon a totally different consideration. Confusion and eclecticism charac- terize most of the expositions offered of the doc- trine as a whole. Examples of this diversity of emphasis are seen in the shibboleths and captions coined or employed by the movement. " In tune with the Infinite," " I can and I will," " harmony and health," " psychic control," " science of being," " thought force," " suggestion and will," " sub- mission to higher laws," " joy philosophy," " the optimism of faith," " the newer science," are phrases taken almost at random from the current literature of New Thought, illustrating the variety of emphasis employed. The modern emphasis upon the divine immanence is a fruitful principle for some of the theorists. Again, the emphasis is upon psychic Kew Thoiurht New YorkBabbath Ck>mmittae 148 control, mental therapeutics, or faith healing. Hypnotism and occultism figure largely in some of the literature; to others the notion of law gives the point of departure, while some attempt to give a natural science grounding to their theory of the universe and life. The philosophic bent of New Thought exponents varies all the way from natural- ism to mysticism; and the religious temper, all the way from fervent Christianity to avowed pantheism or implicit atheism. The classification clearly does not fix a man's philosophy. And it is doubtful whether New Thought, as such, can be said to carry any religious implications. It is a philosophy of life rather than a religion, but a philosophy which reflects, in some of its many phases, almost all the newer movements in philosophy, science, psy- chology, theology, psychical research, and the like. Since all the above thought emphases exist in their own right outside the New Thought camp, it is obvious that they do not serve to identify the New Thought movement. None of The them, per ae, are New Thought doc- Unifying trines, but are only modem concep- Principle. tions adopted by the latter movement, and employed with various applica- tions. Even optimism is no monopoly of New Thought but a sort of dominant mood. What is the essential unifying principle of New Thought 7 This inner principle consists chiefly in the insistence upon the power of mind to modify bodily conditions, as also to bring betterment in all conditions of life. New Thought is the affirmation that life can be controlled from the standpoint of mind. It is a form of idealism, ^sith a practical intent, usually with an ethical emphasis, and varying greatly in the place and scope of its application. Life, in- cluding physical conditions, may be controlled by the mastery which the mind can achieve. Mind is the world's master. In construing this principle of the supremacy of mind over life. New Thought employs one or more of the doctrines of modem thinking as its point of departure and its rational justification. These several doctrines are not in themselves marks of New Thought ; they are simply apologetic efforts to establish the reasonableness of the movement. Thus, e.g., the " immanence of God " opens an avenue for touching the life of God. The discovery of the " laws " of the imiverse founds a variety of philosophies of coming into " tune with the universe." Psychological knowledge opens up the laws of suggestion and of Psychotherapy (q.v.). Idealism in philosophy translates the utterances of modem science into the service of the mind. Ethi- cal and social sciences furnish the notions of unity and rclatedness in personal life, which are employed in manifold ways by New Thought, The modem insistence upon ethical " values " is usually, though not always, employed in the movement. Thus around the standard of New Thought are grouped a great variety of theorists whose points of contact seem to be the principles indicated above — optimism and the mind's control. It follows perhaps ine\itably from the above em- phasis upon psychic control, that the theorists of the movement are usually characterized by ex- treme subjectivism which often closely resembles the Transcendentalism (q.v.) of a generation ago. *' New Thought makes little use of the induc- tive method of modem science, but Subjectiv- deduces its principles from certain ism and axioms of idealistic philosophy." It Apriorism. should also be pointed out that a critical study of the movement shows great ambiguity and confusion as to the meaning of mental control. Sometimes it is the thought- factor in mind that is appealed to, again it is the will that is central. The psychology of the " mind " involved is seldom given definite and specific expression. It is apparent that New Thought has a close affinity with Christian Science (see Science, Chris- tian), from which it received its initial impulse, and from which it has recruited a ma- Relations to jority of its disciples. But it rejects Christian " Eddyism " as an essential, together Science; with the more dogmatic or sectarian Extension, features of the program of Christian Science. It retains much of the spirit and principles of the older movement, while it claims emancipation from the letter and the law of that cult. It insists upon inner and inherent resources rather than external. Unlike Christian Science, however, it recognizes the reality of the material; while affirming that the mind is the place of controL Like Christian Science, New Thought originated in the United States, and in like manner it has spread to England and the continent. The extent and in- fluence of the movement can not be justly estimated because of the indefinite nature of its propaganda. Moreover, all of the doctrines characteristic of New Thought are severally held by a great multitude who disclaim any sympathy with that movement As a description of a spirit and method. New Thought characterizes many minds. As a tech- nical propaganda or an oiganized movement, it defines a comparatively small group. Herbert Alden Yom. Bibuography: The following are a few of the works whidi advocate New-Thought principles: E. H. Anderson. Pnychical DevelopmetU and Philoaophy of the New Thovt^ Toledo. O.. 1901 : C. B. Patteraon, Dominion and Povtr. OBCSwana-on-Hudflon, N. Y., 1901: W. W. Atldnsno, Law of the New Thought, Chicago, 1902; C. A. Balkwsh. Power that HeaU and how to Uae it, De Land, FUu. 1902; £. W. Hopkins, Science of the New Tho%Hfht, Bristol. Cocul. 1904; J. W. Winkley. Firat Leemme in New ThovaH, Boston, 1904; Mrs. E. J. Towne, Life Power and hor to Uee it, Holyoke. Mass., 1906; J. Alien, Path to Protptr- ity. Way to Peace, 2 vols.. New York, 1907; F. C. Hsd- dock. Power of Will, Auburadale, Maas., 1907; S. Leavitt, EeaentiaU of the Unity of Life, New York, 1907; B. Mae- Lelland, Protperity throuffh Thought Force, Holyoke, MMLt 1907; J. Fair, The New Life, 4 vols., 1908: H. Fletcher, OpUmiem, a Real Remedy, Chicago, 1906; F. C. Had- dock, Personal Atmosphere: Studies in Poiae and Pmrcr, Auburadale. Mass., 1908; C. B. Newoomb. PrincipU$9f Psychic Philosophy, Boston, 1908; Mra. E. W. Wikoi. New Thought Common Sense, Chicago, 1908; H. Wood. New Old Healing, Boston, 1908.

NEW YEAR'S CELEBRATION: The Christian Church adopted the Julian year of the Romans. This year begins with Jan. 1, which at the beginning of the Christian era was observed in Rome as a public holiday. The festival was noisy, attended with games and sports, which degenerated into coarse and indecent behavior. From this the Christian Church held aloof, and penitential ser- mons were appointed for the day, warning against participation in the heathen feasts. But inasmuch as Christian participation in the feasts of the pagans did not cease, the Church prescribed a three-days' fast at New Year (Second Council of Tours, 567, canon xvii.), and in the decrees of later synods, the festival of Jan. 1 is mentioned among prohibited pagan customs ; as late as 1270, in a form of procedure by the in- quisitors for hearing persons who were suspected of taking part in idolatry and evil arts, it was pre- scribed that they be also examined as to whether they had spent Jan. 1 in heathen fashion (cf. J. Hansen, Qudlen und Uniersuchungen zur GeschichU des Hexenwahn», p. 43, Bonn, 1901). From the fourth century, when the festival of the Nativity was instituted on Dec. 25, the first of January had come to be the ''octave of Christmas " when, after Luke ii. 21, the circumcision and naming of Jesus were celebrated (see below), and neither in the missals nor in homilies is there any reference to the banning of a new year. This was the more natu- ral because in the Church the year opened with Christmas or with Biar. 1, or Mar. 25, or Easter. But since in civil life the year still began with Jan. 1, and as all calendars adhered to this usage, the Church could not continually disregard the same. The matter was first espoused by the inferior clergy, who, deferring to the uneducated, contrived the caricature of a serious festival, in the so-called feast of fools (see Fooiis, Feast of). Toward the close of the Middle Ages, the Dominicans introduced the custom of '' dispensing New Year from the pulpit," that is, of conveying to their hearers appropriate wishes in the sermon on New-year's day. Luther preached on Jan. 1 of the circumcision of Jesus, and rejected a celebration of the beginning of a new year on that day as a heathen custom. Nowadays the first of January is celebrated in the Evangelical churches as the beginning of a new year. Moreover, the custom was occasionally revived of *' dispensing New Year " from the pulpit. In the Roman Catho- lic Church, the feast of the naming of Jesus has been set, since 1721, for the second Sunday after Epiph- any, while Jan. 1 has continued to be the festival of the circumcision. Carl Bertheau. The festival of the circumcision of Christ is ob- served on Jan. 1 in the Greek, Roman Catholic, and Anglican Churches, and was placed on this day, the eighth after Christmas, with reference to Luke ii. 21. It is a double of the second class and a feast of obliga- tion in the Roman Catholic Church, and a " red-let- ter day " in the Anglican. The services for the day have no relation to the beginning of the civil Bibliography: Gbnsult the literature under Fbavtb and Festivals; aJoo Bingham^ OriainM^ XX., i. 3; H. Alt, Der thruUiche CtiUua, vol. ii., Beriin, 1843; C. P. Caspari, Eine At^tutin fiiUehlieh beiodegU homUia de aaenUoiUt pp. 10, ia-13, 33 aqq., 40, Christiaiiia, 1886; E. C. Aohelia, Ltkfliyeh der pnktimJun Theologie, i. 278 aqq., Leipaio, 1808; DCA, iL 1387-1389.

NEW YORK SABBATH COMMITTEE: An or- organization formed in 1857 to promote the observ- anoe of the Lord's Day, and especially to secure the enforcement of the laws which protect the quiet and order of Sunday and the right of all classes to the weekly rest. It grew out of a prevalent feeling of the need of some measures to check the growing public desecration of Sunday, and the alarming in- crease of drunkenness, disorder, and violent crimes on that day. At a conference of prominent citizens a permanent committee of twenty was formed, to whom the conduct of the reform was committed, with power to fill vacancies in their own number. The committee was composed of leading laymen, representing the different denominations and the various business and social interests of the city. Norman White, a layman who had taken the chief part in initiating the movement, was made chair- man, and to his eminent zeal, wisdom, and persever- ance the success of the committee in its earlier years was very largely due; an efficient secretary and executive officer was found in the person of R. S. Cook, who had previously been a secretaiy of the American Tract Society. The committee, from the beginning, secured the hearty support of the clergy, both Protestant and Roman Catholic. It adopted, and has always adhered to, these princi- ples in its work : viz., clearly to discriminate between the Sabbath as a religious and as a civil institution, and carefully to respect the proper limitations of civil intervention in guarding the weekly rest; to keep the one issue distinct from other measures of reform; to avoid impracticable measures; to recog- nize the controlling power of public sentiment, and to take no step until the way should be prepared for it; to advance one step at a time; to work through the constituted authorities, giving as little prominence as possible to its own agency; and to conduct its work on such broad and just grounds as to secure the cooperation of the widest possible constituency. The committee undertook, successively, the sup- pression of the noisy crying of newspapers on Sim- day, the Sunday selling of liquor, Sunday theatrical entertainments, noisy processions and parades on Sunday, unnecessaiy Sunday work on the public streets, and other encroachments upon the rest and quiet of the day, incident to a laige city. To accomplish these reforms, additional legisla^ tion was necessary and has been secured from time to time; notably the Sunday theater law, the Sun- day processions law, amendments to the excise law, the reenactment of the Sunday statutes in the penal code of 1882, and the like. In recent years vigilant efforts have been required to meet the assaults upon the Sunday laws in the alleged interests of the large foreign-born population. The committee from the beginning has made laige use of the public press and especially has issued a series of carefully prepared documents discussing the various aspects of the Sunday question. These documents and occasional fly-leaves, circulars, etc., have been printed in large numbers and widely distributed in English and other languages. Sev- eral of them have been reprinted in Europe. Espe- cial pains have been taken to enlist the wage-earning classes in the maintenance of their weekly rest. The success of the committee from the start was so signal that its influence was felt in inspiring movements in the same direction in other cities. The secretary and members of the committee have addressed public meetings in behalf of the reform in many of the larger cities of the country. It acted effectively in behalf of the Sabbath during the Civil War, and it was at its instigation that President Lincoln issued his famous Sunday order to the army and navy in 1862. It aided in the closing on Sunday of the national industrial expositions, and secured official recognition of Sunday by the representatives of the United States government at international expositions in Europe. The committee has accumulated a valuable refer- ence library open to the use of any who may wish to write or speak upon the Sunday question, and conducts a wide correspondence, at home and abroad. It has also been the organ of cooperation with similar movements in Europe and has been rep- resented by its secretary at the important inter- national congresses on Sunday rest which have been held on the continent. During its entire history it has had the service of a general secretary as its executive officer, who has devoted his entire time to its work, writing and editing its numerous pub- lications, holding public conferences, and acting with other friends of the cause in defeating hostile legislation. The first secretary was succeeded by Philip Schaff, who did a most important work in securing the sympathy and cooperation of large numbers of the German population. On his resig- nation in 1869 W. W. Atterbury was called to the position which he held for upward of thirty years. Upon his resignation because of advanced years, he was elected a member of the committee and its recording secretary. He was succeeded by William S. Hubbell. See Sunday.

NEW ZEALAND: A British colony in the South Pacific Ocean, about 1,000 miles southeast of Australia. It consists of two large islands. North Island with an area of 44,468 square miles, and South or Middle Island with 58,525 square miles; Stewart Island with 665 square miles; and smaller groups and individual islands, the total area being about 104,751 square miles. The colony has been developed from a settlement of adventur- ers and refugees since 1805, and the first missionaries landed in 1814. In 1839 the islands were declared to be a part of the colony of New South Wales, and in 1840 Wellington, the capital, was founded on North Island. Despite the favorable character of the country, the increase of immigration was rela- tively slow, the principal obstacle being the wars with the brave aborigines, the Maoris, which began in 1845 and did not cease until 1892. Notwithstand- ing this, the white population in 1891 was 626,700 and in 1906 888,578, in addition to 47,731 Maoris and 2,570 Chinese of various religions. There is no established church in New Zealand. Ecclesiasti- cal and religious conditions assumed a mixed char- acter in the course of time, and only three Protes- tant denominations and the Roman Catholic Church report a considerable number of communicants. The Anglican Church is naturally predominant, with a membership of over 368,000 in 1906. The first bishopric was Auckland, founded in 1841, New Zealand having been previously under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Australia (see Aus- tralia). In 1895 the Bishop of Auckland became primate of New Zealand. The other dioceses of the province are Christchurch (1856), Nelson (1858), Waiapu (1858), Wellington (1858), Melanesia (1861), and Dunedin (1866). In consequence of a laige immigration from Scot- land, the Presbyterian Church gained in importance, so that it numbers over 203,000 adherents. It has shared the fortimes of the Australian Presbyterians with regard to its relations with its foreign fellow believers. The Methodists number 89,000 and, as in the Australian commonwealth, their Wesleyan Union is extremely strong, although the denomina- tion is divided into two large sects. The Congrega- tionalists number 7,000, and the Lutherans, chiefly of German extraction and mostly scattered in the villages, have 4,840 members, while the Baptists, augmented especially by immigration from Austra- lia, have (in 1909) 4,435 communicants. Of the twelve or fifteen sects which are small or unimpor- tant elsewhere in the British Elmpire, the Plymouth Brethren have almost 7,500 adherents, and the Church of Christ, or Christian Disciples, 6,110. The Salvation Army reports 8,000 members, and the Mormons 270 disciples. To the Roman Catholic Church belong 127,227 inhabitants of the islands. The province of Well- ington was organized in 1887, the city having been the seat of a bishop since 1845. Auckland also formed a diocese after 1848, and Christchurch was made a diocese simultaneously with the elevation of Wellington to an archbishopric; in 1869 the diocese of Dunedin was separated from Well- ington. Among the non-Christians were (1906) 1,867 Jews and 2,430 Buddhists and Confucians. Other forms of faith are represented by smaller numbers of adherents, although 8,521 persons declared them- selves to be freethinkers, undenominational, and the like, while 24,325 refused to give any information regarding their religion. The Maoris are reckoned almost without exception among the Christian population. Wilhelm Gostz. BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Gisborne, Colony of New Zealand^ its History, London, 1891; Australian Handbook, ib. 1902 (indudeB New Zealand); R. Y. Irvine and O. T. G. Alpera, Progress of New Zealand in the Century, ib. 1902; T. F. Martin, The Position . . . of the Anglican Church in New Zealand, ib. 1903; It Hordey, New Zealand, ib. 1908; J. Cowan, The Maorie <4 New Zealand, ib. 1910.

NEW, JOHN FAIR: Founder of the Newtian Church; b. in New York city Feb. 12, 1832. He was of Quaker stock and religiously educated. When eighteen years old he began to preach what he called " The New Life Science," which may be summed up in the statement ** that sin, sickness, and death are not a necessity of our lives and that if we live a pure holy life as our ensample Jesus did, we shall ascend to the Father as he did." He has been twice around the world in the interest of this faith. Churches have been organized in Philadel- phia (May 10, 1907) and Boston (Jan. 22, 1909). Each church has for officers a president, secretary, and treasurer. Dr. New is the head bishop, but it is announced that in 1910 there will be an election of state bishops. In 1909 there were 74 ministers and over 300,000 adherents. Healing ia one of the characteristic features of the church. In 1890 the name of the movement was changed from " The New Life Society " to " The NewolofiyChureh," in 1907 to " The Newlife Church." It is propagated by leaders who, like the founder, travel, hold meet- ings, and beul the sick and afflicted. Bibliography: The Neu.'IifaM Magaiint and the books of John Fair New, ot New York.

NEWCOMB, HARVEY: Congregational author and clergyman; b. at Thetford, Vt., Sept. 2, 1803; d. at Brooklyn, N. Y., Aug. 30, 1863. From 1818 to 1826 he taught school in western New York; from 1828 to 1831 he was editor of several journals, of which the last was The Christian Herald, Pittsburg. From the latter year, until 1840, he wrote Sunday- Ecbool bfK)ks, and from 1840 till his death he was Congregational minister in Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania. He is said to have writ- ten 178 volumes, most of them for children. He vox ftlso the author of Manners and Customs of the North American Indians (Pittsburg, 1836), and A Cyclopedia of Missions (New York, 18S4).

NEWELL, SAMUEL: American missionary; b. at Durham, Me., July 25, 1785; d. at Bombay, India, Mar. 30, 1821. He graduated at Harvard in 1807, and went to Andover Seminary in 1809. He was one of the four students who presented the petition which contributed so much to the fomm- lion of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. In 1812 he married Harriet Atwood of Haverhill (see Newell, Harriet); on Feb. 6 was ordained at Salem with Judson, Nott, Rice, and Gordon Hall, and on the 19th sailed with Judson for Calcutta. Not being permitted to dis- embark, he went to the Isle de France (Mauritius); and in Jan., 1814, he joined Hall and Nott at Bom- bay. He died of the cholera. He published The Conversion of the World, or the Claims of Six Hun- dred Millions (Andover, 1818), which aroused much interest; and Life and Writings of Mrs. Harriet Newell (New York, 1831).

NEWFOUNDLAND: An island of North Amer- ica; situated in the southeast of Labrador, between the Atlantic Ocean on the east and south and the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the west; forming a colony of Great Britain; area, 40,200 square miles; pop- ulation, estimated (1905) at 225,533, exclusive of Labrador. The island was discovered by John Cabot in 1497; formally taken possession of by Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1583; settled, however, by the French, and ceded to the English in 1713. The population, concentrated in the southeastern part and mainly engaged in the fisheries, is ninety- seven per cent native bom, principally of English, Irish, and Scotch descent. In 1900 thirty-four per cent of the people were Roman Catholics, thirty- three per cent belonged to the Church ot England, and twenty-seven per cent were Methodists. A Ro- man Catholic vicariate established in 1796, with seat at St. John's, seems to have been discontinued in 1869. The interests of the Anglicans are cared for by a missionary bishop holding mission from the metropolitan see of Canterbury. The schools are wholly denominational; the school funds being proportioned according to the number of pupils of each denomination, and there are three superin- tendents of public instruction, one for each of the churches named. Education is not compulsory. Bibliography: J. Satton and M. Harvey. Newfoundland, ind Praipnii, London. inm; M. F. Howley, ■ ■■ pundfoKd. Bofllcn. 18S8: J. in Nncfottndland, London, IseZ; C. H. Mookridse. Bithopt of the Church of EmUnd in Nrwfomdtand. iti. 1896; D. W. Prowio, A HiO. of Neicfoundland. ib. 19(XJ; F. E. .Smith, The Ston, of Ntw- foundlaml. ib. 1001.

NEWMAN, ALBERT HENRY: Baptist; b. about 10 m. n.w. of Edgefield Court House, S. C, Aug. 25, 1852. He was educated at Mercer Uni- versity, Macon, Ga. (A.B., 1871), Rochester Theo- logical Seminary {from which he was graduated in 1875), and the Southern Baptist Theological Semi- nary (1875-76). He was acting profeaaor of church history (1877-80) and Pettingill professor of church history (1880-81) at Rochester Theological Semi- nary, and profesisor of church history in McMusler Univeraity, Toronto (1881-1901). Since 1901 ho has been professor of the same subject in the theo- logical seminary attached to Baylor University, Waco, Tex., which, as the Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, became independent in 1908, and removed to Fort Worth, Tex., in 1910. In 1906 he was professor of church histoiy '" ^'^ Divinity . School of the University of Chicago for the summer term. In theology he is a moderate conservative. He has written The Baptist Churches in the United States (New York. 189-4); A History of Anli-Pedo- baplian from Ihe Rise of Pedobaptism to A.D. 1609 (Philadelphia, 1897); Manual of Church Hi»tory (2 vols., 1900-03); and A Century of Baptist Achieve- mtnt (1901). He also prepared a new translation, with annotations and an introductory essay on Manicheanism, of the anti-Manichean treatises of Augustine tor the fourth volume of the Nieene and Posl-Nieetu: Fathers (New York, 1887), translated A. Immer's Hermeneutik des Neuen Testaments (Wittenberg, 1873) under the title Hermeneutics of the New Testament (And over, 1877), and edited Memoir of Daniel A. McGregor (Toronto, 1891).

NEWMAN, FRANCIS WILLIAM: Layman, brother of Cardinal Newman ; b. in London June 27, 1805; d. at Weston-aupcr-Mare (8 m. s.w. of Bristol), England, Oct. 4, 1897. He attended a private school at Ealing; studied at Worcester College, Oxford (B.A., 1826); was fellow of Balliol, 1826-30, but resigned because unable conscientiously to sub- scribe to the Thirty-nine Articles, which was then requisite before obtaining the master's degree; he lived and traveled in the East, 1830-33; became classical tutor at Bristol College, 1834; and pro- fessor of Latin in Manchester New College (now Manchester College, Oxford), Manchester, 1S40; and was professor of Latin in University (College, London, 1846-69. Originally he was a man of relig- ious tendencies, but gradually became a free-thinker. He was a voluminous writer on linguistic, mathe- matical, historical, social, and political, as well oa religious subjects. His most important theological works are History of the Hebrew Monarchy (London, 1847); Relation of Free Knowledge to Moral Senti- tnenl (1847); The Soul, its Sorrows and Aspirationa 0849, 9th ed., 1882); Phases of FaUh; Passages Jrommy man CrFerf(1850); Catholic Union: Essays toward» a Church of the Future as the Organization of Phiianlhropy (1854); Defective Morality of the New Testament (Ramsgate, 1867); Thoughts on a Free and Comprehensive Christianity (1&68); Thoughts on the Existence of Evil (1872); Theism, Doctrinal and Practical (London, 1858), reissued aa Hebrew The- ism: The Common Basis of Judaism, Christianity, andMohammedism{lS74); TheTwoT)ieismsllS7i): Life After Death (1886); and Miscellanies, of which vol. ii. consists of Essays, Tracts, Moral and Religious (1887). of J. H. Nta- I. Anne Uoiley. 2 vols., Loodon. ISBl; 1*. Urma- Ham. BmrrUwi Prvfeaar F. W. Norman, ib. 1897; I. G. S[«vekiDg, Urmoir ami Utlrrt aj FmiKii W. Nrvman. ib. 1B09; DNB. BupplHoent Ui. 221-223.

NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY: English cardinal; b. in London Feb. 21, 1801 ; d. in Birmingham Aug. 11, 1890. He attended Trinity College, Oxford, 1816-20 (B.A.), remaining there after obtaining his decree to do private tutoring, at the same time pre- paring himself to enter Oriel, the acknowledged center of Oxford intellectualism, and was elected fellow Apr. 12, 1822. He was ordained deacon June 13, 1824, and soon after became curate of St. Clement's Church, Oxford, preaching his first ser- mon at Warton, June 23, from Ps. cxxiv. 23: " Mao goeth to his work and to his labour until the even- ing " — nineteen years later he preached his last sermon as an Anglican clergyman from the same text. In March, 1825, he was appointed vice-prin- cipal of Alban Hall by Richard Whately, the prin- cipal (afterwards archbishop of Dublin), to whose influence Newman declared he owed more than to that of any other man during the formative period of his career. He became vicar of St. Mary's, the university church, in 18'28, and in 1831-32 he was one of the select university preachers, marking the close of his public activity at Oxford. In Dec., 1832, Newman and Richard Hurrell Froude visited southern Europe. While in Rome he collaborated with Froude on the Lyra Apostotica. In June, 1833, while traveling in an orange-boat from Palermo to Marseilles, the boat was becalmed for a whole week, during which time he wrote his most famous verses: " Lead, kindly light." On his arrival home in July of the same year Keble preached his assize sermon at St. Mary's on national apostasy, which Newman considered the start of the Oxford movement (see Tractarianism ) . According to Dean Church " the Oxford move- ment was the direct result of the searchings of heart and the communings from 1826-33 of Keble, Froude, and Newman. Keble gave the inspiration, Froude the impetus, and Newman did the work." The same author calls Newman's Arians of the Fourth Century (1833) " a book, which for originality and subtlety of thought was something very unlike the usunl theological writings of the day." With this publi- cation Newman's fame as an author was assured. Toward the close of the year 1835 Dr. Pusej" joined the Oxford movement, becoming (in the eyes of the world at large) its official head. In 18.16 Renn Dickson Hampden became regius professor of di- vinity at Oxford against considerable opposition, which was aroused by the liberalism of his Bampton lectures. Newman took a leading part in the con- troversy by his BlvridatioTis of Dr. Hampden's The- dogical Slalemenls (Oxford, 1836), opening the eyes of many to the meaning of the movement and ma- king friends day by day. There followetl a series of works in defense of Anglo-Catholicism, the firt. Lectures on the Prophetical Office of the Churfh, Vicu<eii rdalivdy to Romanism anil Popular Protee- tanliam (1837), occupying him for three years. lo 1838 he published Lectures on Justificalion and his tract on Autichrist. These publications were largely isible for the formation of a school of opinion, eventually came into collision with the nation be nation's church. At about this time New- )ecame editor of the British Critic, which was as the chief organ of Tractarianism, and at me his influence was already wide. While the A the Church of England set forth in his Pro- alOffice of the Church (1837) is the recognized •an view, by 1839 he himself began to question TBCtness, and his doubts were strengthened by lal Wiseman's article on the "Anglican Claim " DuUin Review (1839). ing the years in which the Tractarian move- held sway, No^inan wrote twenty-four tracts. 90 he wrote in 1841, the outcome of which hat the movement came imder the ban, and lan's position was no longer tenable. In July i same year he relinquished the editorship of Hritiih Critic to his brother-in-law, Thomas y. The next year he withdrew from Oxford rent to Littlemore, passing three years in se- >n; publishing in February, 1843, in the Coti- Hve Journal a retraction of his strictures upon liurch of Rome, and in September of the same resigning the living of St. Maiy's. During friting of his Essay on the DevdopmerU of Chris- Doctrine (1845), his doubts respecting the um Catholic Church gradually vanished, and n& received into that church on Oct. 9, 1845. i event was of far-reaching importance to the fch of England, and brought about the end of Oxford movement. Newman left Oxford on >. 23, 1846, to go to Oscott, and in October of the e year he went to Rome, where he was ordained St, and received the doctorate. At the close le foUowing year he returned to England, com- ioned by Pius IX. to introduce the Oratory Neri, Phiup, Saint) into his mother country, I he established at Alcester Street, Birmingham; Iter at Edgebaston. His Discourses to Mixed ^gotions (1849) is a volume which reveals him ) time at the zenith of his attainments as a cr. In this same year he assisted the Roman c priests of Bilston during an epidemic of himself taking the most dangerous posts, he established the London Oratory, while in had published his Lectures on Certain Diffir *' hy Anglicans in Submitting to the Catholic In October, 1850, the Roman hierarchy d (also called the Papal Aggression) was roducing a violent anti-Catholic agitation, next work was his Lectures on the Present Catholics in England (1851). In one of forcibly and in such plain language as- depraved nature of an apostate monk Qli, used in the anti-Roman agitation, 9 for libel were preferred against him. ** not guilty," and his chains were in jved by witnesses brought for the pur- taly, but the jury, under the influence by the magistrate, brought in a verdict nan, and he was fined £100 by Judge Jan. 23, 1853. In 1854 he went to ctor of the Catholic University. The I literaiy result of this experience was Umvenitff (1873). In 1858 he re- turned to Birmingham, where he proposed, but failed to carry through, the establishment of a branch house of the Oratory at Oxford. In 1859 he established at Edgebaston the school for the sons of well-to-do Roman Catholics. In reply to an adverse criticism (in fact a perverted statement) made by Charles Kingsley in 1864 Newman issued his Apologia pro Vita Sua, a work which has been regarded a triumphant vindication of his integrity and honesty of purpose throughout his life. In 1874 he answered an article written by Gladstone for the Contemporary Review and also Gladstone's Vatican Decrees, by his Letter to the Duke of Norfolk, in which he criticized severely the extreme state- ments of some Roman Catholics in relation to the matter at issue. In 1877 Newman was dected honorary fellow of Trinity College, Oxford, and in February, 1878, visited Oxford for the first time in thirty-two years. Soon after Leo XIII. became pope, several leading English Roman Catholic laymen represented to him the great work which Newman had accomplished in England, as a result of which Newman was called to the sacred college. This honor was appreciated the more in that it was unex- pected and in that he was exempt from residence at the pontifical court. On fiiay 12, 1879, he was formally created cardinal, with the title of St. George in Velabro. He paid one more visit to Trinity College, Oxford, and preached in St. Aloy- sius' Church. Thenceforth he made his residenoe at Edgebaston. A full list of his books, tracts, and other writings is given in DNB, xl. 349-350. An edition of his works is in 36 vols., London, 1868-81. Bibuoorapht: Ab sources use: His own Apologia pro vita »ua, ut sup.; and LeUera and Correapondtnee of /.' H. Newman, ed. Anne Mosley, 2 vols., London* 1801. Very useful is the literature on Tractarianism, particu- larly R. W. Church's Oxford Movement, London, 1891. Biographies have been written by: R. H. Hutton, Lon- don. 1804; H. J. Jennings, ib.. 1882; W. Lockhart. ib.. 1891; W. J. H. MeyneU, New York, 1891; £. A. Abbott, The Anglican Career of Cardinal Newman, 2 vols., London, 1892 (consult also his PhUomvthua, ib. 1891); W. Sanday, Engkmtte Debt to Newman, London, 1892; A. B. Donaldson, in Five Great Oxford Leaders, New York, 1900; A. R. Waller and Q. H. S. Barrow, Boston, 1902; A. Whyte, New York, 1902; W. Barry, New York, 1904; E. Cachod, Newman. Eeaai de hiograpMe pauchotogique, Paris, 1905; J. A. Hutton, PUgrime in the Region of Faith, Cincinnati, 1906; W. J. Williams, Newman, Paecat, Loiay and the Catholic Church, London. 1906; W. P. Ward, Ten Peraonaal Studiee, New York, 1908; A. Cecil. Six Oxford Thinkers, London, 1909. Consult also, H. P. liddon, Life of E. B. Pusey, 3 vols.. London, 1895; the Trial of O. G. Achilli vs. J. H. Newman, London, 1852; C. Sarolea, Cardinal Newman and His Influence on Re- ligious Life and Thought, New York, 1908.

NEWMAN, JOHN PHILIP: Methodist Episco- pal bishop; b. in New York Sept. 1, 1826; d. at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 5, 1899. He gradu- ated from Cazenovia Seminary, 1848; studied the- ology, and entered the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 1849; he filled appointments in the Oneida, Troy, and New York conferences, 1848-64, with an interval of a year's travel (1860-61) in the orient; he organized a Methodist Episcopal church in New Orleans, 1864; while there he estab- lished three annual conferences, two colleges, and a religious paper; he organized and became pastor of the Metropolitan Methodist Episcopal Church, Washington, 1869; he was chaplain of the United States Senate, 1869-74; inspector of United States consulates in Asia 1874-76; again pastor of the Metropolitan Church, Washington, 1876-79; of the Central Church, New York, 1879-82; of the Madi- son Avenue Church, New York, 1882-84; and a third time pastor of the Metropolitan Church, Washington, 1885-88; and in 1888 was elected bishop. He won high repute as a pulpit orator and lecturer. He was three times elected to the general conference of his denomination; and in 1881 went to England as delegate to the Methodist ecu- menical council. He wrote: From Dan to Beer- sheba, or the Land of Promise as It now Appears (New York, 1864); The Thrones and Palaces of Babylon and Nineveh, from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean . . . (1876); Christianity Trium- phant; its Defensive and Aggressive Victories (1883); Supremacy of Law (1890); and Conversations with Christ (1900), He was also editor of the New Or- leans Christian Advocate, 1866-69.

NEWSOM, GEORGE ERNEST: Church of Eng- land; b. at Blundellsands (5 m. n. of Liverpool), Lancashire, May 24, 1871. He was educated at Merton College, Oxford (B.A., 1894), and was or- dered deacon in 1895 and ordained priest in 1896. After being curate of Cannock from 1895 to 1897, he was vice-principal of King's College, London, from 1897 to 1903. Since 1903 he has been pro- fpHsor of pastoral theology in the same institution. He has also been warden of King's College Hostel and reader in the Temple Church since 1902, and examining chaplain to the bishop of Lichfield since 1905.

NEWTON, BENJAMIN WILLS: Plymouth Brother; b. at Plymouth 1805; d. at Tunbridge Wells 1898. He was educated at the Plymouth Grammar School, and at Exeter College, Oxford (B.A., 1828), where he read privately with Francis William Newman (q.v.), through whom he became acquainted with John Nelson Darby (q.v.), whom he induced to visit Plymouth. In the " Assembly " of the Plymouth Brethren (q.v.), he labored for seventeen years as a teacher, and contributed to The Christian Witness many papers of value. Until 1845 Newton held sway in the Plymouth *' gathering," as it was called, but early displayed divergence from Darby's teaching on ministry, justification, the " secret rapture of the saints,'' etc. Their different attitude on ministry and church gov- ernment led to a rupture between them in 1845, when Darby started another " meeting " in Plymouth. Newton continued in the original company until 1847. But in the mean time notes of a lecture by Newton on Christ's status as an Israelite, which he seemed to treat in such a way as to impair the Lord's personal sinless relations to God, coming into Darby's hands, were used by his old associate effect- ively against him, so that his remaining supporters were gradually detached from him as heterodox, with the exception of S. P. Tregelles, who was re- lated to him by marriage. Newton left Plymouth finally at the end of 1847 for residence in London and elsewhere. Thenceforth he ministered and worked in isolation, remaining a layman to the end of his life. Of his worics, which are numerous and well written, the chief are: ThouffhU on the Apocalypse (London. 1844, last <d. 1904); RemaHcM on the Sufferinoa of the Lord Jenu (1847, in expliiai> tion of hia views criticised by Darby); Ancient Truth £»• rpecting the Deity and True Humanity of the Lord Jenu (1857, new ed., 1803); Aide to Prophetic Enquiry (1848; 1961); ProepeeU of the Ten Kingdome t^ the Roman Empire (l»$t, new ed., 1873); Prophetic Sy^em c^ EttioU and Cmwrmv Coneidered (1850); Doctrinee of Popery Coneidered (1851: new ed., 1883); Occaeional Papera on Scriphtnd SiAjedt (1851. 1856); ThoughU on Leviticue (1852); Europe andAt Eaet (1855; new ed., 1878); Ftral and Second ChapterttfAi EpitOe to the Romana Coneidered (1856; new ed., 1807): Tht AnHehriet Future (1850; new ed., 1000); Ooepd TrA (1861); Remarke on Moeaie Coemogony (1864); Judgmttl of the Court <4 Arehee in Caee cf Rowland WiUiamu (1866); Prophecy of the Lord Jeeue ae Contained in MatL xn>., jxt. (1870); Old Teetament SainU not Excluded from the CkMnk in dory (1887) ; Babylon, He future Hietory and Doom (1800). E. E. Whitfieu). Bibuoosapht: W. B. Neatby. Hietory of the Pl^madk Brethren, London. 1002.

NEWTON, JOHN: Church of England; joint author with Cowper of the Olney Hymns; b. iia. London July 24, 1725; d. there Dec. 21, 1807. He was the son of a shipmaster in the Mediterranean. service, with whom he sailed until 1742. In 1743 he was impressed into the English naval service, was made midshipman, deserted, was recaptured and reduced to the ranks, exchanged to a ship in Uie African station, became servant to a slave-trader, and was rescued in 1748, being converted on the way home in a storm at sea. He continued to fol- low the sea till 1754, meanwhile studying Latin and the Bible. He was surveyor of tides at Liverpool, 1755-60, where he heard Whitefield and Wesley, and studied Greek, Hebrew, and Syriac. In 1783 he was brought to the notice of Lord Dartmouth fay Thomas Haweis, through whose influence be wai made deacon and priest, 1764, and given the cwtef of Olney. In 1767 Cowper settled there, and tlie result of their very close intimacy was the Otnf Hymns (London, 1779 and often), which gnsAf influenced English hymnology . In 1 780 he accepted the offer of the benefice of St. Mary Woolnoth irit^ St. Mary Woolchurch, London, where he officiated till his death. Hardly less famous than the Hf^ was his Authentic Narrative of Some . . . ParHf*^ lars in the Life of John Newton (London, 1764, 9tk. ed., 1799; an account of his early life). He mote also. Sermons Preached in . . . Olney (178«)J Omicron: Twenty-^ix Letters on Religious Sviijl^ (1774; subsequent editions, in which the nunbtf of the letters became forty-one); Cardiphoma; iTi the Utterance of the Heart in the Course rf aid Correspondence (2 vols., 1781); Letters to a If i^ (2 vols., 1793), and other woiks. A collected edition of his works was issued by his executon (6 volii, London, 1808; new ed., 12 vols., 1821). He waia strong support of the Evangelicals in tJbe Chuith d England, and was a friend of the dissenting defff as well as of the ministry of his own church. Cm of the questions much debated is whether the infit- ence of the sternly Calvinistic Newton on Cowps u-oa good. It is possible that this Ciilviiiiatic trend gave Cowper'a worka a gloomy cast; on the other hand, it may have been the tonic which he required. Hblioqi BAPBv: In an edition of Newton'. Work,. Edin- buish by R. Cecil; TA« XB^Bfit A'am.- Km. u urae > firetbiincl »un ■8, while Uio £,.11^ to niDUiin nvieli th&t iai. CooaulC L^Htm J. CampbeU. LonJoo ■ SOS; DAifi. xl. 3SS -398; S. W. Duffield. Efvlith Hvm-u. pp. 24S-aSS, New York. 1886; JuUbd Hvmn«l,m. PP . 803-804: »tid the lit. uticuluty the edition by Wright ofU»

NEWTON, RICHARD: Protestant Episcopalian; b. in Liverpool. England, July 25, 1813; d. in Philadelphia May 25, 1887. He accompanied liia parenta to America in 1823, and received his early training in Philadelphia and in Wilmington, Del.; he graduated from the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1836, and from the General Theologi- cal Seminary, New York, 1839; was ordained, and became rector of the Church of the Holy Trinity, West Chester, Pa., 1839; was rector of St. Paul's Church, Philadelphia, 1840-62; of the Church of the Epiphany. Philadelphia, 1862-81; and from 1882 of the Church of the Covenant in the same city. He was remarkably successful in his sermons for chil- dren and young people, which have been most widely translated. He was the author ot: Tht Wandiyr Catr (S vols., Biblr Woodrr,; NaJurtM Wandcri; Lmfm from «« Trtt of Lift: RilU from Ae Foantain of Life: Jncith TabcnarJe; and OianU and Wondrrful Thirtg: New York. 1850-74); Thi JtinH Cote CS voia.. Bat Thiimi: Kini^M High-wan; Safe Compait; BibU Blettineu aratt POol; Biblt Jeictta; 18&B- IMS); lUtiMraud Rawbla in Biblt Lawli (Philadelphia, 1S75): Kaui from llu San of RiohUoamra (New York, 1S7Q): Life af Jem CArut for the Yovnt (in 40 parts. Philadelphia. tSTT); The King in Au B«iulgf (Now York, IS7S): Ptbbla from At Brook: Strmm* to CHiUm (IH7H); Piartt from Ikt Ead: Sloriem and InridmU from Bible Hit- lorji (PhiladElphii. 18S1): l7o»nan< .Vomea and Priciti^et [New York. lSS-2): BHAt Pnmim: Sermoru Id Children (1884); BMt Portrait OaUcry (Philadelphia. 1885); Hrraet of the Reformatim (1BS5): BMe Wamimi: Sermmi la ChiMrm (New York. ISHfl): BibU Anijnalu and the Ler- ■nu Ta'.alil ba thtm (ISSS); Realh in Iht WHdimm: Srr- wwiu fo Of PeopU: to v*idi w added the Story of Ail Life and Minidrv by W. W. N. (ISSS): Heroa of Ae Early ChurrA (Pbilndclpbia, 1888); Fij>e MinvU Talkafor Young People: or. Ae Wau la Sucriei (1)191).

NEWTON, WILLIAM WILBERFORCE: Prot- estant Episcopalian, brother of the preceding; b. at Philadelphia, Nov. 4, 1843. He was graduated from the University of Pennsylvania (B.A., 1865) and the Protestant Episcopal Divinity School, Phil- adelphia (1868). He was assistant at the Church of the Epiphany, Philadelphia (1868-70), rector of St. Paul's, Brookline, Mass. (1870-75), Trinity, Newark, N. J. (1875-77), St. Paul's, Boston, Mass. {1877-81), and St. Stephen's, Pittsfield, Mass. (1881-1900), chaplain of the English Church at Dinan, Brittany (1903-04), and rector of the Church of the Ascension, Wakefield, R. I. (1905-06). He was editor of The American Church Sunday School Magazine (1885-1906). In theology he is a Broad Churchman. Among his publications special men- tion may be made of his Gate of the Temple: or. Prayers for Children {New York. 1875); six volumes of sermons for children (1877-90); Essays of To-day (Boston, 1879); The Voice of St. John (poems; New York, 1880); Priest and Man: or, Abelard and Heloisa (novel; Boston, 1883); Sumtner Semuma froma Berkshire Pulpit (Pittsfield, Mass., 1885); The Life of Dr. Muhlenberg (New York, 1890): A Run through Russia (Hartford, 1804); and Philip Mae Gregor (novel; 1895).

NIBHAZ: The name of one of the two deities or idols mentioned in II Kings xvii. 31 as set up by the Avvites (A. V. Avites), one of the foreign peo- ples settled by Sargon in the territory of the northern kingdom after the deportation of the Israelites. The reading is questionable, both the Hebrew and the Greek giving variants. Some Hebrew manu- scripts read Nibhan (cf. the same reading in San~ hedrin (13b), while those which have the ordinary reading point the word differently. Greek texts indi- cate a goddess, and have the forms Eblazer, EHai- ezer, Abaazer. No deity corresponding to any of these forms is known even in the cuneiform records, the nearest suggestion that comes is from the Mandean, in which there is mention of a demon Nebaz. The passage in Sanhedrin (ut sup.) connects the word with nbh, ■' to bark," and supposes the idol to have had the form of a dog. But nothing is known of a dog-shaped idol in the region except the dog-headed Anubis of Egypt, and that seems out of the question here. The reading NiJihan seems to have arisen from a mistake in reading the last letter of the origi- nal text. Nor is any light shed on the subject by considering the people who set up the idol. Pos- sibly the implied 'Awah of II Kings xvii. 31 is the Bameasthe'/Di'oAof IIKing3xviii.34,xix.l3: Isa. xxxvii. 13. But even then nothing is known ot such a place as a Syrian or Babylonian region or city, and consequently there is no knowledge of it« deities, Geo. W. Gilmore. Bibliography: J. Selden. Ocdii S)iru, London. IS17. Ens. trana]., The FabuliHu Oode Denounced in thf. Bible. Phila- delphia. 18R1: C. Iken, Diteertaiio dr Nibehai iJrfo Amturum, Btetnen. 1720; F. UQnter. Dii Religion drr Babylonier, pp. lO^lIO, Copenhagen. 1827: P. Srboli. tHHunditml und Zaabertnetrn bei dm allm Hebrllcm. pp. 3gSsqq.,ReBeniLburK, 1S7T; flchrsder. K/r.p. 484; BB, iii. 3405-3406; and tbe conmenlariea on the pawage.

NICARAGUA. See Central America.

NICCOLLS, SAMUEL JACK: Presbyterian; b. at Greenfield Farm, Westmoreland Co., Pa., Aug. 3, I83S. He was graduated from Jefferson College (now Washington and Jefferson), Cannonsburg, Pa. (A.B., 1857), and Western Theological Seminary, Alleghany, Pa. (I860). He was then pastor of Failing Springs Presbyterian Church at Chambeis- burg. Pa. (1860-64), and since 1864 has been pastor (if the Second Presbyterian Church, St. Louis, Mo. He was also chaplain of the 126tb Pennsylvania Volunteers in 1863, and a member of the com- mittee on the revision of the Westminster Con- fession of Faith in 1890 and 1900. He is likewise president of the board of directors of McCormick Theological Seminary, Chicago, and has written The Eastern Question in Prophecy (St. Louis, 1878). He is evangelical in belief and holds the Reformed theology. See CoN8TANnNOPoiJTA.N

NICEPHORUS, CALLISTUS XANTHOPULUS: Church historian of the fourteenth century. Dup- ing the reigns of the Paleologues there were several writers of the name of Xanthopoulos. Two monks of Mount Athos, Callistus (patriarch 1397 a.d.) and Ignatius his brother, wrote a tractate on ascetics, while Gabriel composed hymns for liturgical use. Theodore attended the Council of Florence (1439) as secretary. But the most celebrated of the name was CallistoB or Callletou (i.e., " son of Callistos "), who grew up at Constantinople and was trained, as it seems, by the famous George of Cyprus (patriarch 1283-89) in close relationship with Nicephorus Chumnos, Theodore Metochites, Maximos Planudes, and Michael Gabras, a coterie of classical students who, like the humanists of the fifteenth century, cultivated style and phraseology often at the e^c- pense of sense. The Emperor Andronicus was their adored patron, since he supported Greek culture and orthodoxy against the Latins. Except for a few homilies, prayers, hymns, and commentaries, poems, and epigrams, the authen- ticity of which needs further investigation, the name of Nicephorus is chiefly connected with hid ecclesi- astical history in eighteen books, under the acrostic letters: Nikephorou Kallistou (610 a.d.). This work has been severely criticized by most Roman Catho- lic and Protestant writers, but has received high praise from the great Tübingen master Baur. Aa de Boor has pointed out, the whole work is nothing but a modernization of an anonymous church his- toiy of the tenth century. It is not valuable even for the reconstruction of its older sources (such as the llial. eat. of Eusebius), because the Byzantine author roughly paniphrsses tiiem. Some apocry- phal matter is all that possesses interest. E. VON D0B8CHt>T2. Bibliography: Hin rennuna. including the " Hialoiy." ■ Catalogut imprralarum a patriartlmnim Catuianlinopoli- lamirum, and a Carmm de aeidio Hieroaolir'itano are in MPG. clllv.■^!\Wii. ConauH: KniHibacher, Oachicile, pp. 291-293; Fabririun-Hnrlea. BibluMera Oraca. vii. 437-«44, Hsmburg. 1801; C J. Voes, Dc Autoriru OiKU. pp. 387-368, Leipsic 1838; F. C. BaUf. Dm Eporlim drr kinUvhtn OcKkirhlachrriburui. PP- 32 arm.. Tübingen. 1S62: C. de Boor, in ZKG. vi (1S84). 478-494; J. Bidei and L. Pwmentier. in Rrmic dt rimlnictian publiiiue m Btlgt, xl (1897), IBI-178; Papadopouloa-Kenuneiu, In Bgantiniidu Zeiticlirifl, li (190S), SS (qq. Nlotttas Aoomlnatua Vloholas I.

NICETAS ACOMINATUS: Byzantine historian and theologian; b. at Chono" (the ancient Colossæ whence he is often called Choniates); d. at Nicæa after 1210. Rising to high offices of state, he was governor of the province of Philippopolis when Frederick Barbarossa marched through that dis- trict in 1189; but on the taking of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204 he fled with many others to Nicæa. The Historia Byzantina of Nicetas, in twenty-one books, embraces the period from 1180 to 1205, and is noteworthy for reliability and good judgment. His theological studies found their culmination in his " Treasury of Orthodoxy." This begins with an account of Judaism and Hellen- ism, followed by a presentation of the chief doctrines of the Church. The fourth book begins the polemics against Simon Magus, and thus prepares the way for the ultimate consideration of many obscure heresies. The latter books are devoted to Islam, the Roman Catholics, and the divergencies of opin- ion within the Greek Church. The work is, there- fore, an indispensable source for a knowledge of the heresies of the twelfth century, though only the first five books (in Latin translation) and a portion of the twentieth book have as yet been published (reprinted in MPO, cxxxix. 1101-1 144, cxl. 9-281). (Philipp Meyer.) Bibliography: T. I'npennky wrote an account of Nicetas in Rusnian. St. Petereburic, 1874; Krumbacher, Geachiehte, pp. 01-02, 281 miq.; C. Neumann. GrUrhitche GexhiehlM- achrnbfr . . . im H. Jahrhundert pp. 103 atiq., Leipsic. 1888.

NICETAS, DAVID: Bishop of Dadybra in Paphlagonia; d. 880. He was one of the most distinguished of the Byzantine panegyrists and de- voteil himself particularly to the eulogy' of the apos- tles. His productions have little historical basis, however: and his panegj'rics on certain saints are equally valueless. His biography of the Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople, on the other hand, is of distinct historical importance. His works, which also include lengthy comments on the poems of Gregory' Nazianzen, are in MPit, iv. 682-842, xxwiii. S»2-84t). cv. ir>-,>vV2. ^Philipp Meyer.) Bibliography: \. M.ii. l\Urum n<»r«i biS!u*thera, vi. 2, pp. 3 v*i. S viil.H.. Homo. lsr»2-71; KabhciuA-IIarioM, Hiblio- MrtM <?nnM. vii. 747-740, Humhurx. ISOl; P. Mo>*er, in J}*T, lSS(i, pp. ;tS6 »qq.; KruraKirhcr. GrMrhichtf, pp. Irt7. 070 ct pikwim: ByzafUinuche Znt^Krift, 1000, pp.

NICETAS PECTORATUS: Greek mystic and polemic author of the eleventh century*. He was a monk at Studium and a pupil of Simeon the youngiT. friMu wliom he rectnvt^l his mystical trend. Here belong a series of his wri lings. espxH^ially the three hundred *' Chapters " \,k\\. Nicodemus Hagi- oritos. in his rhihkalui, Vonioe. 1TS2. and in MPlt, c\\. Sr>2 llHh^V Nicetas likewise wrote a biog- raphy of Simeon. (\littHl in Romaic, by Oionysii^s /ag\iniii>s ill his tnlition of SinuxMi the younger Vl7*.H); 1SS(»^. and also collixM«>tl his teacher's works. He |H»loini/e«l both against the Roman Catholics in his " i>n rnleaveiusl Bread and Sabbath F:isiing and the Marriap* of the rierg>- *' ^t\l. .\. K. IVmetr.i- copuKw, in his lUNu^hrt\% rvrUfujstuM, pp. IS SiH|.. lA«i|vtio^ IStkt^. and against the Armenians and Roman Catholics in " On Leavened and Unleavened Bread " (ed. J. HergenrOther, in his 3fonum^nto Grtrca adrerms Photium, pp. 139 s<iq., Regensburg, 1 869) . Nicetas was the author of many other works, twenty-seven of which are enumerated by Deme- tracopulos (ut sup. pp. 5 sciq.). (Philipp Meyer.) Bibliography: K. Holl, Enthusiatmtu und BunofvaMhnm griechiachen Mtnichtum^ pp. 3 Miq., Leipcuc, 189S, c£. P. Meyer, in GGA, 1808, No. 11, pp. 946 sqq.; Fabridus- Hariea, Bibliotheca Gratea, vii. 753 sqq.. Hnmbune. 1801; A. Mai, Patrum nova bihliotheca, vi. 2, pp. 10-13. 8 vok, Rome, 1852-71; Ceillier. Auieun wacrU, xiiL 210, 217- 22U, 249.

NICETAS OF REMESIANA: Missionary bishop of that city (the modern Turkish Ak and the Servian Bela Palanka, 180 m. n. of Saloniki), where he was born about 345; d. there about 420. The only direct sources concerning him are Gennadius's Dt rir. iU., xxii. and the twenty-ninth epistle and seventeenth and twenty-seventh carmen of Paulinus of Nola, whom Niceta visited in 398 and 402. The objects of his missionary activity were the Bessi, Scyths, Geti, and Dacians, and his diocese accordingly extended to the Don in the north, Pontus in the east, the Ægean in the south, and the boundaries of Dal- matia and Illyria in the west. Despite the vast extent of this diocese, the Gospel struck deep root there; monasteries and nunneries arose, the ba^ barians learned to praise Christ in Latin, and to live in peace and purity. The importance of Niceta as a missionary thus rests upon the fact that he seems to have been the first to devote his life to i systematic and successful evangelization of the mountain tribes of the Ho'mus. He derives hs significance as an author, on the other hand, from his practical defense of the consubstantiality of the Son and the Holy Ghost, and from his zealous em- phasis upon the creed that he might protect the souls conmiitted to him from all peril of herey- As an adherent of the Nicene Creed, therefore, he opposed both Arians and Macedonians. Gennadius ascribes to Nicetas six tractates ft*" the instruction of candidates for baptism. The fifth of these, De symholo, is identical with the ex- tant Explanatio symboli (ed. C. P. Caspari, Kirt^ hi9iori*che AnecHoUi, pp. 341^360, Christiania, 1883); while the third. De fifie unica majeMatis (alsofflrt- tioned by Cassioilonis) corresponds to the tto treat L*«es De raiione juiei and De SpirUus 50** potent ia (etl., with the De dU^erng appellation^ ihmino nostra Jesu Christo conrenientihu*, by .V. Mai, .VoiYi collectio, \'ii. 314-332). The remaining tractates mentioned by Gennadius are lost^ ^ Exiilanatio gymboti is remarkable as containing for the first time the article of the communion of saints which, though doubtless existing far earlier, is here introduceii apparently to lead his diocese to cling to the Catholic Chureh and to reject Arianism. It has also been suppose<i, but without suffident reason, that Nicetas was the author of the Tc Deum and the two treatises De vigiliui aerrorum Dei and De pMihnoftiir bona. (E. HrMPEL.) Birliosraphy: E. HOmpri. Xicela, BwrAo/nm Rmmoac. Bonn. lSi>5 (cf. F. Kattrabusch. in TLZ, 1896. pp, 2>7- ;>iV» • : J. Sickenbencer. in Rnmuiche QuarlaUekrift, xii (18891, 55-ivl : .\. E. Bum, Xtctta o/Remetianth Ait Lift and Wada, 161 Nioetas Aoominatns NiohoUui I. Cambridse, 1905; Braids, in MPO, lii. 875-1134; F. Kattenbusoh, ia Gieumur UntvernUUaprogrwnmt 1892, pp. 34-52; T. Zahn, Dtu apogUdiache Symbolum, pp. 107- 130, Leipsio, 1893; idem, in NKZ, 1890, pp. 93 sqq.; G. Morin, in AevtM MnSdicUne, xi (1894). part 2; DCB, iv. 37.

NICHOLAS: The name of five popes. Nicholas I.: Pope 858-867. He was a Roman by birth, son of the defensor Theodore, and was connected with the Lateran basilica as a subdeacon from the time of Sergius II. (844-47), as a deacon from that of Leo IV. (847-55). His wisdom and eloquence had long been noted, and under Benedict III. he had exercised a great influence on the policy of the Church. When Benedict died (Apr. 7, 858), the Emperor Louis II. hastened to Rome to secure the election of a candidate to his liking, and it is possible that he was responsible for the choice of Nicholas. Consecrated on Apr. 24, he soon won the affection of the people, maintaining a monastic sim- plicity in his life and devoting himself to works of charity, to well-considered government, and to the erection of new churches. His historical impor- tance, however, lies in the facts that he established a wholly new conception of the dignity and power of the papacy and that he made this theory practically felt throughout the West. Gelasius I., indeed, had given a standard expression to the papal claims, as they had developed in course of time, in the famous decretal Duo quippe, asserting that the pope, di- vinely chosen ruler of the Church, was as such equal in rank to the emperor and independent of him, though in temporal matters his subject, as the em- peror was of the Church in spiritual things. But these claims had been of no effect in practise; it was Nicholas who made them effective, and drew their logical consequences. The pope, he asserted, was the absolute ruler of the universal Church, the bishops were his officers, and synods but in- struments to express and register the papal will; church law is not law except when approved by the pope, who is the supreme judge, the personal repre- sentative of Christ. These far-reaching claims would probably not have found acceptance if the most powerfi^ western church, that of the Frankish em- pire, had not been prepared for them by the Pseudo- Isidorian Decretals (q.v.). But these were not the source from which Nicholas derived them; it was not until after 864 that he even used this support for them. And he goes even beyond the assertions of the forged decretals, assuming not merely a prece- dence of etiquette over all secular princes but the power of commanding them as seems good to him. It is not, then, surprising that he regards the em- peror as the vassal of St. Peter, and the papal unction, coronation, and confirmation as at least equally essential with the validity of royal descent. In a word, it is not too much to say that Nicholas created the medieval papacy. He was particularly fortunate in being able to gratify his hierarchical ambition at the same time that he took the part of a champion of oppressed innocence. The first case in which this opportunity was offered him occurred in 860; the innocent victim was the patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople (q.v.), the unjust oppressors were the eastern Emperor vin.— 11 Bardas and his intruding candidate Photius (q.v.). Nicholas answered their appeal for support not by confirming the new patriarch but by sending an embassy to investigate the circumstances of his election, at the same time taking occasion tp enforce a number of Roman claims in the East. The party of Photius won over the papal legates; with their assent a great council in Constantinople (May, 861) declared for Photius. Ignatius appealed directly to the pope, and thus gave him a new occasion to inter- fere in Eastern affairs. In a solemn encyclical to the Eastern patriarchs (May 8, 862) he warned them not to acknowledge Photius, and when this method proved ineffective, at a Roman synod in April, 863, " by virtue of the judgment of the Holy Ghost speak- ing through him," he deposed and excommunicated Photius. A similar conflict on behalf of oppressed innocence and at the same time of the claims of Rome was that with John, archbishop of Ravenna. Leo IV. had already threatened this violent man and his brother with severe penalties for their ill-treatment of papal subjects; and now the bishops of the .Emil- ia complained of illegal exactions and other mis- deeds on his part. Nicholas saw an opportunity to dispose forever of Ravenna's pretensions to inde- pendence; he summoned John three times to appear before him, and excommunicated him in default. John sought help in vain from the emperor, and was finally forced to make submission at a Lateran synod (Nov. 18, 861), renouncing the special preroga- tives of his see. Nicholas won a similar victory over the most powerful West-Frankish metropolitan, Hincmar (q.v.) of Reims, and thus succeeded in making effective against the Greeks the support of the Frankish church, which now obeyed him as it had obeyed Charlemagne. In the matter of the matrimonial relations of Lothair he once more mas- terfully asserted his personality and his principles. The conflict here [which concerned the power to divorce a queen (on false charges) and to marry another woman] was complicated by the fact that it was not only between the Frankish and the Roman conceptions of the power of the papacy but between Frankish and Roman marriage laws; but Nich- olas had public opinion on his side, as contending for a sacred principle of morals. All his plans were on a large and impressive scale. He conducted the work of .the Roman mission among the Bul- garians with such wisdom, as shown in the famous Responaa ad conauUa Bvlgarorum, that he deserves a place as a missionary organizer by the side of Gregory the Great (see Bulgarians, Conversion OF the). In Moravia he did not give the first im- pulse to the mission, but by winning the support of Cyril and Methodius he secured the dominance of Roman instead of Greek Christianity. On the whole, he reached the goal at which he aimed. When he died (Nov. 13, 867) the pope, not the emperor, was recognized in the West as the head of Christendom. It should also be mentioned that Nicholas was an exception among the early popes for intellectual culture; he was not only a diligent student of the decretals of his predecessors but he knew the code of Justinian and had a respectable acquaintance with the Fathers. This wide reading NiohoUui n. — ^V. THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 169 gave him a high idea of the influence of literature on church life; he was the first prince of the Church who took up seriously the ([uestion of establishing a clericiil censorship of books. (H. B^hmer.) BinuouKAPHr: The EpxMola aro to be found io MPL, cxix. 709 iiqq., cxxix. 1011-16. Coruiult: E. DOmmler, GetchichU drt^ otifr^nkiachm Reiches. ii. .')2-217, Leipsic, 1K87; Ii. Ldmmnr, i*ap«t Sirholan I. und die 6yzanlint- ache Staatakirche seiner Zeil, Berlin, 1857; J. M. F. Fran- tin. Le Papr Nirolait I. et le jeune roi IMhaire^ Dijon. 1K62: F. Rocqunin, La Pajtaute au moyen dge^ Paris. 1H81; J. LanKtm, (learhirhtr d*'r rt'tniaehen Kirehet iii. 1- 113. Bonn. 1892; J. Roy, in £tudcs tThiMoire du moyen Age drdi^s a Gtibrid Manod, pp. 95-1U5. Paris. 1896; idem, JSaifU S'ichotas /., Tiondon. 1901; F. GreRorovius. Hitt. of the City of Home. iii. 120-155, London. 1895; Creichton. Popen. i. 14-15. ii. HM); Bower. Popeti, ii. 229-267; Mil- man. Luiin ChriMianity, iii. 21-56. 119; Platina. Popes, i. 227-2.H0: Mann. Popra, iii. 1-148; Hauck. KD, ii. 533-557. Nicholas II.: Pope 1058-61. Immediately after the death of Pope Stephen X. (Mar. 29, 1058) the aristocnitic party at Rome proceeded to secure the 8ucces8ion in the person of a candidate of their choice; and on April 5 Bishop Giovanni of Velletri was officially enthrone<i as Benetiict \. Realizing that this promotion might reproduce the conditions which hud formerly necessitated the interference of Henry III.. IliUlebrand effected an understanding with Duke Cioilfrey, whereby Bishop Gerard of Florence was to supplant Benedict X., contrived to alienate a faction of the Romans from Beneilict and win them for Geranl, and obtained the assent of the empre.**s of Germany to the proposed election of liishop Gonird. Acconlingly, the cardin:ds, who had flcii from Rome, were convened at Siena, and Bi.<hop Gerard was elected pope in Dec.. 1058. In, Ian.. 1051). Bene<iict X. was expelleil from Rome, and on Jan. 24 Bishop (lerard was enthroned a8 Nicholiis II. Kvents luiving shown that the Normans were not to be tlriven fnim southern Italy by force, Nicholas 1 1, came to tenns with them jx»aceably in Aug., 1050. lie investeil Duke Robert Guiscard with Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily: Prince Richard with Capua, nnviving in turn their t>;iths of allegiance. Robert pn>niisiMi to observe loyalty to the jx)pe, to support the Roman Church in the maintenance of its sov- enMjrn pn*n>patives and possessions, to assist Pope Nicholas in .-^t^cun^ly and honorably ssifeguarding the Romnn papacy, and la.stly, in the event of the cleat h t>f Nicholas II. or of his successors, to give IumhI to the ailmonition of the cardinals and render due aid in electing anil installing a po|>e in keeping with the honor of St. Peter. In the terms of a sec- ond oath, and in ortier to empliasize the relationship of vassal and lord. Roln^rt pnMuiseil to dischaige an aimual tribute of twelve thmirii to the pope for evrry yoke of oxen. Thus the Normans obtained riM'ognition of the fruits of their pt^^lioy of conquest* and the right of exjHx^taney to further territori:d enlargements, while the pojv gaineil jiuch militan* support as made him ii\de|HMulent alike of the West- ern and of the Ma stern l\inpirt\ Thanks to the j Nonnans* asMstanee Po|h» Beiunlict X. w:is iwluceil ' X\i capitulation at iialera \\\ the autumn, and thus : the factional mobility's papacy was annulled. This ' lUlianer ^\^th the Normans had its complement in an umicratanding with the Paterenes (q.v.^ in north- em Italy, the immediate result of which was the subjection of Milan to the papal see. The effects of these alliances with the Normans and the Paterenes were manifest at the Lateran synod of Nicholas II. in April, 1059. The synod could not profess to represent the Church at large, seeing that hardly any but Italian ecclesiastics were present. Its most important enactment was the adoption of the celebrated law vdXh reference to the papal election which instituted new canons of procedure regarding the occupancy of the papal see (cf. Mirbt, QtifUen, 2d ed., no. 181, pp. 97 sqq.). This law contains the following pn^-isos: (J 1) That after a pope's de- cease, and first in order, the cardinal bishops shall assemble for the sake of advising in regard to who shall be the papal successor. In the next {daoe, that when they have reached an agreement they sh:dl convene the cardinal clerics and, conjomt^ with these, complete the election, whereupon xht rest of the clei^gy and the people of Rome shall voice their assent in the way of conclusion. ((2) Cardinal bishops and cxirdinal clerics take the lead, in course of the election, being followed by the other participants. (S 3) The candidate for the papal dignity is to be sought, first of all, among the Roman clerg>'; but if no suitable choice is here to be found, a candidate may then be selected elsewhere. (S 5) Rome holds the first rank for place of election. In the supposable contingency that owing to the de- pravity of evil men, a pure and unadulterated election were out of the question there, the cardinal bishops shall have the right, in conjunction i^ith the cardinsd clerics and devout la>'mcn, even though but few in number, to elect the pope at what place they deem proper. (J 6) In the contingency that, after due election, some stress of war, or any ma- levolent onset whatsoever, prevents the elected pontiff from being enthroned in the apostolic see in accord with the traditional usage, nevertheless^ being once elected, he shall possess plenaxy eocles- iistical authority as pope. This clause is corrob- orated by the paragraph on royalty (§ 4) : " Withal shall bounden honor and respect be obsenr'ed to- ward our beloved son Henry, who is presently ]dq& and of whom the hope is entertained that with Godj help he may one day become emperor; even as le have already so granted him approbation as likewise to his successors, who have gained this right (in- perial dignity) from this apostolic see." This law aimed first of all to legalize, by canonical proee^ the course pursued at the elevation of Nicholas IL It was at once the means, however, of pennaneotly committing the papal elections to the sti-ay of anf set of factors; and inasmuch as this purpose ** also achieved, it marks a turning-point in tbehistoiT of pontifical elections. At the synod of 1059 measures were enacted reganling celibacy, and a law was passed prohibiting lay investiture. At the same time Birenpr « Tours retracte<l his doctrines on the Eucharist .Vt a new synod in the spring of 1060 a decree wai f rameil against simonists, Benedict X. was solemnly divested of his dignities, and the new election la' was ratified. Soon after this synod the caidinil priest Stephen went as papal legate to the Gennaa court to allay the disfavor prevalent in that quarter, REUGIODS ENCYCLOPEDIA Niohote* n . — V. but, after waiting five days io vain for an audience, he wa« obliged to return to Rome without having delivered the pope's message. This abrupt rejection was followed, perhaps not before the early part of 1061, by the German episcopate's adverse declara- tion respecting the Curia. The exact time and place of thia transaction are unknown. Those German prelates then resolved not only to quash the pope's ruhngs altogether, but even to depose him ; but neither political nor ecclesiustical consequences ensued. Nicholas II. died at Florence on July IS or 27, 1061 (on the former date, of. Muratori, Serip- toreg, p. 944; for the alternative date, cf. MOH, Srript., V [1844], 427), He wae not an eminent pope, but his brief pontificate is distinguished by important and fruitful events. Cari, Mirst, BlaiioaKAPaT. Tbv Diptamata, episioitg, dtcrtta srv in UPL. cilui. 1301-06: J&ffe. R^iMa. i. SGT-SM. ii. TfiO. Cooault J. H. Wsllcricb. PoJitificam Romanarum vita. i. 2Ue »qq.. 738-739. Leip.ie. iWi\ V. Scheffei-Boiibonl. Dw Nettordnw der FapatvjiM dtath Nikaiaua II., UtraAburg,

Nicholas III.: Pope 1277-80. Giovanni Gaetnni Oraini was a bod of the Roman Senator MatlAo Rubens. Aa early as 1244 he was promoted by Innocent IV. to the rank of cardinal deacon of St. Nicholas in cnrccre Tidliano. In 1262 Urban IV. appointed him inquisitor general, and in 1263 pro- tector of the Franciscan Order. He was elected pope Nov. 25, 1277, after the death of John XXI. He compelled Rudolph of Hapsburg to cede the pentapolis and the ejiarchate of Ravenna to the papal see, and Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily, to renounce tie regency of Tuscany and the dignity of a Roman senator; and he promulgated the con- stitution Fundamenia militanlis, dated July 18, 1278, which thenceforth reserved the Bcnatorial authority and other municipal offices to the citizens of Rome. Thereupon he waa himself elected senator for life. He next sought to initiate an understanding between Charles of Anjou and Rudolph of Haps- burg; and be succeeded in bringing a peace to pass, whereby Charles obtained Provence and Forcalquier in fee from the German Empire, Nicholan ia sup- posed to have pursued even sfiU more extensive projects; and Ptolemieus of Lucca relates that he designed to cut up the German Empire into four Btafes: Germany, Arelule or Aries, Tuscany, and Lombardy. On the other hand, he did not succeed in Ms efforts to restore union with the Greeks, or in his attempts to set a new crusade afoot. His manner of directing the internal aSairs of the Church gave occasion for sharp reproaches. Dant^ con- signed him to hell, and accused him, not without warrant, of both nepotism and avarice, and tho diversion of church funds lo profane objects. Ho made no decisive ruling in the cont«Ht between strict and lax forces within the Franciscan Order; al~ though, in the decretal Eziit qui wminat (1279) he considered tlie main issue as to how far the Minor- ites might use the things of this world, Nicholaa III. died suddenly in his summer residence at Sori- ano, on Aug, 22, 1280. Cahl Miubt. Bibuoqrapht: Sourcea aw; The ReeitCru. ed. J. Gay, put i., Paria. 18S8; MiUheHuaoen aiu dent vilitonuctoi Ardtiv, ed. F. KaJMnbrunner, vols, i.-ii., Vienoa. 1839- 1894: J. F. Dabmer, Rtgata imperii vi.. lB73-t3)S. Inna- bruolc, 1898: A. Pptthul. RveMa pontificmn Roma- norum, vol. ii., Bailin, 1879. Consult: J. Picker, Forieli- vaoet '"•' Rricha- und RiciitegeKhiiMe Italimt, vola. ■ ii.-iv., Innsbnioli. 1889-74: F. Hellor. DevlicMand und FrankreicJi in ihrm jiolUitchen Beticlianoen bii nan Tod* Radol/i von HapibUTv. pp. 72 sqq., Lubock. 1974; F. Wsrtech, Die SaisAungfn Rudallt van Hapinim lur rilni- Khen Kurir. Bocbum. 18S0: F. Gngoniviiu. Hi^. of Ike Cilp of Rome, v. 478-491, London, 1897; A. Huyskens, Kardinal Napoleon Oriini, Munich. 1902; A. Danskj, Fapit Nttolaiu III., ib. 190,1: Der Kardinal J. O. Orrini IPapil Nikolau* III.}, ISii-T7. Berlin. 1905: Bower, Papa, iii. 2S-2S: Mllouui. Lalin CHriitianiti/. vi. 130- 142, lfi2: Flatina. Papri, ii. lOS-lIl.

NICHOLAS OF METHONE: Bishop of that city (the modern Modon) in Messenia during the reign of Emperor Manuel L Comnenus (1143-80). There are no trustworthy data concerning his life, and he seems to have died before the synod of 1166. He developed a very extensive literary activity, but only one of bis writings was printed before the nine- teenth century, and some still await publication. They furnish an insight into the Greek theology of the twelfth century, chiefly polemic writings against the Latins, or dealing with subtle theological questions and apologetics. To the latter he devoted his Anaptixis against Proclus, which, in spite of Drftseke's objection, is almost certainly genuine. Polemical works against the Latins deal largely with the procession of the Holy Spirit. Of treatises against the Latins still unpublished are to be men- mentioned those on the wafer, the Sabbath fasta, and the primacy of the pope. One treatise, addressed to the Emperor Manuel, treats of the defense of the deposition of Patriaroh Kosmas. During the last years of his life Nicholas diseuaaes whether the Trinity or the Son only is the object to whom the sacrifice of the Eucharist is made. He also wrote against the Bogomiles (see New Manicheans) and on the problem of predestination. His theology is not original, leani:;g principally upon Gregory Naii- anzeo and Pseudo-Dionysius, God is for him the absolute and unconditioned cause, and in his doc- trine of the Trinity and his Christology he follows closely the church doctrine, as be does in bis tieat- ment of salvation, not transgressing the limitations of Greek theology. A thoroughgoing investigation of the theology of Nicholas is yet to be undertaken. {N. BoNwrracH,) inted io n the prt> Bibliography: His traol on tbe Eut^harist . MPt, omv, 50B-fiH: two otbet Iracla. ed. . were issued at Fnuik/ort. ia26-!iei anotbeT cmvinii of Uie HoJy .Spint appeared Londi Demetralmpuloa odit«d two tfMls, Ldpaic. 18fl5-M: aiid BlilJ BuoUier. ed. V. VasitievekiJ. Bppearnl St. Peterabuit, 1886. Consult: Ullmana, in TSK. 1S33. pp. 701-743} J. DrOselLB, in ZKG. ii (1S88). 40&-t31. MS-GOO, xvUI (1897), Ha-571: idem, ia TSK. btviii (1895). 689-610; ■ ■ er. (larhicMi. pp. 85-87, 126 (where furtbtr litent jven).

NICHOLAS OF STRASBURG: The name of two German ecclesiastics. 1. A Dominican; d. after 1329. For a time he was lector in the Dominican monastery at Cologne {ALKG, iv. 318). In 1325 he was commissioned by Pope John XXII., to visit the Dominican mon- asteries in the province of Teutonia and thus became involved in the case against Eckhart (q.v.). But he seems to have retained the favor of the pope, for after Eckhart's condemnation he is still called vicar (ALKG, iv. 317, note). He left in manuscript a work De adventu Christi; but since Denifle has shown that the first and third parts are almost ver- batim reproductions of two treatises of the Domin- ican John of Paris, it is hardly possible to use the work for a characterization of Nicholas. There remain only the thirteen sermons published by Pfeiffer (pp. 261-305), which were delivered in part before Dominican nuns at Freiburg and the neigh- boring Adelhausen; the hearers therefore were like those of Eckhart. But there is a great difference in the sermons. Nicholas has not the deeply mysti- csil thoughts in which Eckhart moves as in his element; but he insists upon spirituality and inner truth of the religious life in general. He empha- sizes true repentance and conversion which appro- priates the merit of Christ — a merit so exceeding great that by it alone is the forgiveness of all guilt given. Like Eckhart, he lays greater stress upon the performance of duty and upon patient bearing of the sufferings sent from God than upon specific works of piety and penances. In the form of ques- tion and answer, by examples and parables, in a simple, clear style, he makes his ideas easily intel- ligible. In popularity he surpasses Eckhart, though he falls short of him in beauty of language. 2. A Carthusian (Nicolaus Kemph de Argentina) ; b. at Strasburg 1397; d. at Gaming (65 m. w.s.w. of Vienna), Lower Austria, 1497. He studied the- ology at Vienna under Dinkelsbilhl and had also Henry of Langenstein (q.v.) as teacher. In 1440 he entered the monastery at Gaming and joined the Carthusians. For many years he was prior in differ- ent monasteries, but retired in 1490 to Gaming. Of his writings, of which Pez mentions thirty-six, the few which have been printed include a Dialogus de recto ttudiarum fine ac ordine (in Pes, iv. 257-492; for the most part translated into German by Rdsler, pp. 280-348) , a Tradatue de diacretiane (Pes, ix. 379- 532), and an ExpoeiUo mysHca in caniicum canti- corum (xi.-xii.). Nicholas belongs to the mystic theologians of the fifteenth century. He speaks very highly of Jean Gerson, and like him exhorts to earnest study of the Bible (with a recommenda- tion of Nicholas of Lyra). On the whole he follows the tendencies of the more famous and learned Dion3r8ius (see Diontsius the Carthusian), who was endowed also with a wider and freer penetration. 8. M. DEUTSCHf. Bibliography: On 1 consult: K. Schmidt, Johannsa TauUr, pp. 5-6, Hamburg, 1841; F. Pfeiffer, Detdaeke Myetiker dee viereehnten JaJirhunderU, L pp. xxiL-zxv., Leipsic, 1845; W. Preger, Oeeehic/Ue der deuteehen Myetik im Mit- telaUer, ii. 67-09, Leipeic, 1881; Denifle, in Zeiteehrift fur deuteehee AUerthum, xzix (1885), 250 sqq.; idem, Dfr Plagiator Nikolaue wm Straatburg, in Archie far Litteratur und Kirehenoeechiehie dee MiUdaJUere, iv (1888), 312-329. On 2 consult: The biocn4;>luc«l notices in B. Pes, Bib- Kotheca aeeetieot preface to vob. iv. and xi., 12 vols., Re- gensbuis, 1723-40; N. Paulus. Der KarihAueer Nikolaue von Straedfurg und eeine Schrift De redo etudiorum fine ae ordine, in Der Kaiholik, ii (1891), 346 sqq.; A. Rosier, Der KarthAtuer Nikolaue Kemph, pp. 261 sqq., Freibuis, 1894.