英
PETER THE HERMIT: B. at Amiens in the
middle of the eleventh century; d. in the monas-
teiy of Neumoustier, at Huy (25 m. s.s.w. of Liège),
Belgium, July 7, 1115. In 1093 he went on a pil-
grimage to the Holy Land and brought back a let-
ter from Simeon, patriarch of Jerusalem, to Pope
Urban II. in which an appeal was made to deliver
the Christians from the indignities they suffered at
the hands of the Mohammedans. In delivering this
letter Peter confirmed it by his own experiences
and recited the sufferings of other pilgrims. His
address made a great impression upon the pope.
He also awakened interest as he told his story on
his way back to Amiens. He was present at Cler-
498
Peter the Deacon
Peter LomtMrd
mont in Nov., 1095, when the first crusade was
determined on (see Crusades) and afterward trav-
ersed southern France, and along the Rhine preach-
ing to great crowds the duty of going on the cru-
sade. The time set for the start was Aug. 16, 1096,
but his converts insisted upon his leading them to
Palestine as soon as possible, and in the spring
40,000, among them many knights, the archbishop
of Salzburg, the bishops of Chur and Strasburg,
and other ecclesiastics, made their way through
Hungary. Only 7,000 reached Constantinople,
many having been killed by the Bulgarians, and
most of those who ultimately reached Asia were
massacred by the Turks. Peter himself joined the
regular crusading army and entered Jerusalem with
it (1099). He returned to Europe and foimded the
monastery in which he died. On Jime 29, 1854, a
bronze statue of him was unveiled in Amiens. It
stands back of the cathedral, in the Place Pierre
d'Amiens.
BrBuooRAPHT: The principal literature k that dealing with
the first crusade (see imder Cbusadbs). Consult further:
William of Tyre, Oetia Dei per Francos, i. 11-17. The
biography by D. A. Goodsell, Cincinnati, 1006; P.
d'Oultreman, 2 parts, Valenciennes, 1632; J. F. Sohachert,
Peter van Amiena und OoU fried von Bouillon^ Berlin, 1819;
M. Vion, Pierre VHermite et lee croieadee, Amiens, 1853;
L. Paulet, Dieeertation eitr la naieeanee de Pierre VHer-
mite^ Namur, 1854; A. Ingerslef, Ptier fra Amiene og det
fdrate Koretog, Copenhacen, 1859; Gibbon, Decline and
FaUt chap. xxxiiL; Milman, LaHn ChrieUaniiyt iv. 25 sqq.;
Sehaff, Chriatian Churcht v. 1, pp. 230 sqq.
PETER THE IBERIAN. See Monofhtbitbs,
§{ 2 sqq.
PETER LOMBARD.
Life (I 1).
Theological Position (| 2).
Method (I 3).
Analysis of the '* Sentences *' (| 4).
Attacks on the " Sentences "; Other Works (| 6).
Peter, commonly known as " the Lombard "
from his birthplace, and distinguished as " the Mas-
ter of the Sentences " from his principal work, was
one of the most important scholastic theologians
of the twelfth century. He was bom
z. Life, probably at Novara, then in Lom-
bardy, scarcely earlier than 1105-10;
d. in Paris c. 1160 (1164). Wb family was poor, but
he early foimd powerful patrons, so that he was
able to gain a good education, first at Bologna, then
in France, at Reims, to which he came with a letter
of recommendation from St. Bernard, and in Paris,
at that time the headquarters of learning. Here he
remained, in close relations with the school of St.
Victor, to whose head Gilduin St. Bernard had
again commended him in a letter still extant. He
taught theology in the cathedral school of Notre-
Dame, and found time to produce the works dis-
cussed below. Their dates can be only approxi-
mately fixed. The most famous of them, the Libri
qiMhujT aententiarum, was probably composed be-
tween 1147 and 1150, although it may be placed as
late as 1155. Nothing is certainly known of his
later life except that be became bishop of Paris in
1159. According to Walter of St. Victor, a hostile
witness, he obtained the office by simony; the more
usual story is that Philip, younger brother of Louis
Vn. and archdeacon of Paris, was elected but de-
clined in favor of Peter, his teacher. The date of
his death can not be determined with certainty.
The ancient epitaph in the church of St. Marcel at
Paris assigns it to 1164, but the figures seem to be
a later addition; and the demonstrable fact that
Maurice of Sully was bishop before the end of 1160
seems conclusive against it, although it is possible
that in that year he resigned his see and lived three
or four years longer. His personal character, as
far as it can be determined from the scanty indicar
tions, seems to have been deserving of respect, and
even the opponent just mentioned, a former pupil
of his, speaks of him with personal affection.
The historic importance of Peter Lombard rests
on his ** Sentences " and the position taken by them
in medieval theology (see Scholasticism). The
earlier dogmatic theologians, such as Isidore of
Seville, Alcuin, and Paschasius Rad-
2. Theo- bert, had attempted to establish the
logical doctrine of the Church from Bible
Position, texts and quotations from the Fathers.
In the eleventh century this method
gave place to dialectical and speculative working
over of the traditional dogmas. Peter Lombard
came into the field at a time when the new methods
and their dialectical artifices were still exposed to
wide-spread objection, but when the thirst for knowl-
edge was exceedingly keen. One text-book after
another was being published, the majority of them
either issuing from the school of Abelard, or in some
degree inspired by him. Of these works the great-
est influence was attained by that of Peter, which
was, for the time, an admirable compendium of
theological knowledge. It is written under the in-
fluence preeminently of Abelard, Hugo of St. Vic-
tor, and the Decretum of Gratian. Whether Peter
had himself seen the early writers whom he cites is
frequently uncertain; he was a man of wide read-
ing, but the works of the Fathers had been used
again and again in long catense of *^ sentences "
which rendered it unnecessary to go to the original
treatises. As to his contemporaries, whom he knew
thoroughly, he shows the influence of Abelard in
his whole method and in countless details, while
preserving a critical attitude toward his most pro-
nounced peculiarities. On the other hand, he fol-
lows Hugo veiy closely and often textually, though
here also with a tendency to avoid the purely spec-
ulative elements. For his sacramental doctrine,
Gratian is very useful, especially through the quo-
tations adduced by him and his legal attitude
toward these questions.
The most marked characteristic of Peter's method
is the cautious and reserved discretion of his treat-
ment of dogmatic problems. He shows a strong
disinclination to laimch out into speculation, at-
tempting simply to set forth clearly the Church's
received doctrine. He does not touch disputes be-
tween Scripture and reason, authority and philos-
ophy. He was unable to keep clear altogetlier of
the technical terms of the philosophical schools; the
authorities, both earlier and later,
3. Method, whom he followed had worked with
these terms. But his explanations of
them are rather non-committal and eclectic, thus
rendering his worii; of the broadest utility. Assum-
Peter I^ombard
Peter of Poitiers
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
4a
ing as the grounds of his decisions the Scriptures,
the Fathers, and the ancient councils with their
creeds, he proceeds first of all to propound a ques-
tion, offering next a solution by means of one or
more patristic passages. Authorities which seem
to contradict this conclusion are next adduced;
and the opposition is met by one of two methods,
both AbeLard's — either by the hypothesis that the
words may be taken in two different senses in the
two authorities, or by the weighing of authorities, in
which case the Bible is assumed to be infallible, and
Augustine has the greatest weight among the
Fathers. Another way of posing the question is to
cite some contemporary statement and confirm or
refute it. Reason takes a secondaiy place. The
natural reason is indeed a reflection of the presence
of God, yet it needs to be helped and completed
by revelation. He admits that the creation of the
world by God was known to the heathen " by a
course of philosophical reasoning," as well as the law
of nature " by which man understands and is con-
scious what is meant by good and evil "; and he
here anticipates the later scholastic attitude. Theol-
ogy is bound to set forth the positive doctrine of
the Church, but in its fimdamentals it agrees with
the natural and rational results arrived at by the
himian mind. The Lombard, however, does not
reach the scientific clearness of his successors in
relation to these questions, while, on the other hand,
he usually resists the tendency to hair-splitting so
characteristic of many of them.
The first book of the " Sentences " deals, prin-
cipally from a cosmological standpoint, with the
evidences for the existence of God. For the doc-
trine of the Trinity he appeals to the analogies used
since Augustine, while denjring that a
4. Analysis real knowledge of the doctrine can be
of the obtained from them without positive
"Sen- revelation and faith, and emphasizing
tences." the fact that no human speech can
give a satisfactory account of the na-
ture of God. Joachim of Flore asserted that Peter
changed the Trinity into a quatemity, and the
chaige was investigated at the Lateran Council of
1215. The basis of this charge was the manner in
which he distinguished the divine substance from
the three persons, asserting, as a realist, the sub-
stantive reality of this common substance. Joachim
accused him of adding this substance to the three
persons; but Innocent III. and the council decided
that he was perfectly orthodox. The relation be-
tween the prescience of God and events is conceived
in such a way that neither that which happens is
the actual groimd of the foreknowledge nor the
latter of the former, but each is to the other a
causa sine qua non. Predestination is thus, as a
divine election, the preparation of grace, the fore-
knowledge and preparation of the blessings of God,
through which man is justified. There is no such
thing as merit antecedent to grace, not even in the
sense that man can merit not to be cast away. The
omnipotence of God consists in this, that he does
what he wills and suffers nothing. A distinction is
made between the absolute uncaused will of God,
which is always accomplished, and what may be
called his wiU in a loose sense. To the signa beru
placiti, the signs of the latter, including command!
prohibitions, counsels, operations, permissions, re
suits do not always correspond — " for God com
manded Abraham to sacrifice his son, yet did nc
will it to be done." The second book deals wit!
creation and the doctrine of the angels, usually fd
lowing Hugo. Peter considers the ** image " am
** likeness " of God as distinct, but does not decid
for any of the three explanations of this distinctioi
which he quotes. He rejects the traducianist the
oiy of the origin of the human soul. He calls th
will free, inasmuch as it '' has power to desire an(
choose, without coercion or necessity, what it ha
decreed on grounds of reason," but he denies Abe
lard's theory that the moral character of an act de
pends on the will of the doer. Of some importanc
is the strong emphasis laid upon the actually sinfii
character of the nature derived from Adam, in cod
junction with the condemnation of Abelard's prop
osition that " we inherit from Adam not guilt bu
penalty." In regard to grace he shows some inde
pendent thought, which had its influence on late
teaching. Grace (gratia operans) is a power (rtr
tus) which frees and heals the will, enabling it t
perform good and meritorious works; of the twi
coefficients to the production of these, grace and tb
will, grace is the more important. The third bod
deals with Christology, reproducing the traditiona
orthodox conceptions, but showing some influeno
from Abelard. One portion of this diacussioi
brought him into suspicion of Nihilianism, of whid
he was accused by John of Cornwall and Walter o
St. Victor, and more than one council took up tb
question, though without deciding it. The chai^
of Nestorianism, which Gerhoh of Reichersbei]
brought against the Christology of his time, wa
made also against the Lombard. In regard to th
atonement, he endeavored both to follow out tb
accepted system of his day and to make use o
suggestions from Abelard. Christ merited glorifi
cation by his life, and by his death man's entranc
into Paradise, his liberation from sin and its penalt;
and from the power of the devil. Christ as man b
perfect and sufficient sacrifice to achieve reconcilis
tion, through the revelation of God's love made i
his death; " the death of Christ then justifies uj
when by it love is awakened in our hearts." Fui
ther, Christ sets man free from eternal punishmeii
rdaxando debilum; but to set man free from th
temporal punishment, which is remitted in baptist
and mitigated by penance, " the (>enances laid upo
those who repent by the Church would not suffic
unless the penalty borne by Christ were added t
release us." There is a lack of clearness about thi
whole subject; the ideas of Abelard (Anselm is no
noticed) diow themselves now and again througl
all the effort to preserve the objective notion of th
work of redemption. The fourth book deals wit!
the sacraments. Here Peter follows Hugo and th
Decretum of Gratian; and his teaching was of grea
significance for the later development. He wa
probably the first to make a distinct classificatioi
of seven and only seven sacraments; he laid dowi
the dogmatic questions to be discussed under th
495
Peter Lombard
Peter of Poitiers
head of each, and he introduced matter from church
law into hit discussion of the sacramental dogma.
In regard to the Eucharist, he speaks of the '' con-
version " of one substance into the other, without
defining any further, and denies both the symbolic
view and the consubstantiation taught by some
followers of Berengar. In his doctrine of penance
he follows Abelard in seeking theoretical justifica-
tion for the change which by this time had taken
place in the practise.
In spite of the cautious objectivity of the whole
treatment, some of the propositions laid down in
the " Sentences '* were considered erroneous in
after years. Mention has been made above of the
attacks on Peter's doctrine of the
5. Attacks Trinity and his Christology. Walter of
on the " Sen- St. Victor asserts that at the Lateran
tences"; Council of 1179 it was proposed to
Other condemn the ** Sentences," but other
Works, matters prevented a discussion of the
proposal. From the middle of the
thirteenth century the University of Paris refused
its assent to eight propositions, of a highly tech-
nical character, it is true, and Bonaventura declined
to press them. Others were afterward added; but
these objections did not interfere with the general
popularity of the work, which had increased to such
an extent by Roger Bacon's time that he could
complain (c. 1267) that lectures on it had forced
those on Scriptural subjects into the background.
Besides the " Sentences," other extant works of
Peter Lombard are Cammentarius in paalmoa
Davidicoa (first printed Nuremberg, 1478; in MPL,
cxci. 31-1296) and CoUectanea in omnes D, Paxdi
epistoUu (first printed Paris, 1535; in MPL, cxci.,
cxcii.) — ^both collections, in the manner of medievtd
Catense (q.v.), of quotations from patristic and early
medieval theologians, with occasional independent
remarks. A few unpublished manuscripts, some
of them of doubtful authenticity, remain in various
places. Of these the most important for a complete
knowledge of the author are two manuscripts, one
early thirteenth century, the other fourteenth, in
the Bibliothdque Nationale at Paris, containing
twenty-five festival sermons representing a moder-
ate type of medieval mystical theology, dominated
by allegorical exegesis, but making some excellent
practical points. Extracts from them are given
by F. Protois (P. Lombard, son 6p6que, sa vie, sea
Merits el eon influence, pp. 126-147, Paris, 1881).
(R. Seeberg.)
BiBLioaRAPHT: The Opera are collected in MPL^ cxci.-
cxdi. The " Sentences " were iasued in the original in
many editions in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
On Peter Lombard consult, besides the work of Protois,
ut sup.; P. J. Haurdau, De la phUotophie aeoUutiqttef i.
332 sqq., Paris, 1850; I. A. Domer, Lehre von der Person
Christi, ii. 374 sqq., Stuttgart, 1863, Eng. transl., 5 vols.,
Edinburgh, 1861-63; J. Bresch, EMsai surlea*' Sentences "
de Pierre Lombard, Strasburg, 1857; A. Stdckl. Geaehichte
der PhUoaophie dee MiUdaUera, i. 390-411. Mains, 1861;
H. Denifle, CharltUarium univereitatia Parieienaia, vol. i.,
Paris, 1889; J. KOgel, Petrtu Lombardua in aeiner SteUung
Mur PhUoaophie dea Mittelaltera, Leipsic, 1897; J. N. Espen-
berger, in BeiirOge zur Oeachichte dea MittdaUerat iii. 5
(1901); O. Baltser, in Studien zur GeachichU der Theolof/ie
vnd Kirehe, vol. viii., 1902; Schaff, Christian Church, v.
1, pp. 631-636; Neander, Chrialian Church, iv. 409-411
et passim; Hamack, Dogma, vol. vi. passim; and the
works on the histoiy of philosophy and of dogma.
PETER MARTTR (PETER OF VERONA):
Italian Dominican; b. at Verona 1205 or 1206;
assassinated near Bariassina (14 m. n. of Milan)
Apr. 6, 1252. Though his parents were probably
Cathari, he seems to have become a Roman Catho-
lic while a student at Bologna. In 1221, the year
of Dominic's death, he entered the Dominican
order, and soon gained wide reputation as an in-
quisitor and converter of Italian heretics. For
twenty years he worked in the service of the In-
quisition at Florence, Cremona, Como, etc., and
especially at Milan. It was here that he finally fell
a victim to a conspiracy originated by the Cathari,
who had him assassinated while returning from
Como. The next year he was canonized by Inno-
cent IV., and by the close of the fifteenth centuiy
had become a chief patron saint of the Holy Office.
His martyrdom is frequently depicted in the art of
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The whole
scene of his death was represented by Titian in a
painting in the Venetian church of SS. Giovanni e
Paolo; and he also frequently appears with a sword
in his back, a knife thrust into his neck, or with a
palm and sword. His day is Apr. 29.
(O. ZOCKLERf.)
Bibliography: The Vita, by Thoma Agni (Agnello de
Lentlno), with commentary, is in ASB, At>r., iii. 67S-719.
The proceedings of the inquiry into his death are printed
in Archivio atorico Lombardico, iv (1877), 701-794, and ed.
O. Waits, in MGH, Script., xxv (1880), 320 sqq.; of. H.
C. Lea, Hist, of the Inquiaition, I 383, 417, 479, 511, ii.
276, New York, 1906. Consult further: R. de Visiani,
Vita e martirio dd S. Pietro, Verona, 1862; O. Mira, Bib-
liografia SicQiana, i., ii., Palermo, 1876; F. T. Perrens, in
Revue histarique, ii (1876), 337-366; Bibliotheca hagio-
graphiea LaHna, ii. 977 sqq., Brussels, 1001 ; KL, iz. 1925.
