Schaff-Herzog Religious Encyclopaedia

COLLYRIDIANS: A sect of women, mentioned by Epiphanius (Hær., lxxviii.-lxxix. ), who came from Thrace to Arabia, and seem to have espoused a peculiar form of devotion to the Virgin, offering to Mary, on appointed days, a cake or loaf (Gk. kol- lyris). While there are not wanting religious and historic analogies to this custom, they neverthe- less come short of certain application. Accord- ing to Jer. xliv. 19, the Jewish women in Egypt prepared cakes for the queen of heaven (cf. R68ch, Astarte und Maria, in TSK, Ixi. 265 sqq.). Ceremonial pastry was likewise a feature of the Thesmophoric rites in Athens (cf. Mommsen, Faste der Stadt Athen im AUerium, Leipsic, 1898). There is possible, also, some misconception of a Christmas custom (cf. Mdller, Kirchengeschichte, L 535, Frei- burg, 1889). Indeed, to this day in modern Greece the word koUoura is used for a kind of cake, and in certain of the Ionian Islands such a koUaura is consecrated and consumed on Christmas eve in the family circle with all sorts of ceremonies (cf. B. Schmidt, Das Volksleben der Neugriechen und das heUenische AUertum, i. 62 sqq., Leipsic, 1871). G. KrCqer. Bibliography: C. W. F. Waleh, H%§tor%e der Ketzereien, iii. 625-^4. Leipsic, 1766; J. L. von Mosbeim, InttUutet of Ecd. HiaL, ed. W. Stubbs. i. 317, London. 1863; Neander, Ckritlian Church, ii. 376. COLMAN, SAINT: Third abbot and bishop of lindisfame; d. on the island of Inishbofin, off the coast of County Galway, Ireland, Aug. 8, 676. He was a monk of lona, and succeeded Finan (q.v.) at Lindisfame in 661. The dispute between the Roman and Irish parties in England came to a crisis shortly thereafter. Colman was the leader of the latter at the Synod of Whitby (q.v.) in 664, and when he was defeated, with the Irish monks and about thirty of the English, he left the country, taking with him the bones of Aidan (q.v.). They went first to lona, and, after four years there, to Inishbofin. Dissensions arising between the Irish and English, Colman founded a new monasteiy for the latter on the mainland, but himself re- mained on the island. Bibliography: Bede. Hi»L eed., iii. 25-27, iv. 1, 4. 24; W. Bright. Early ETigliA Church HUtory, pp. 221-232, Oxford. 1897.

COLOGNE, ARCHBISHOPRIC OF: The rise of the city of Cologne is connected with the trans- plantation by Augustus of the Germanic tribe of the Ubii to the left bank of the Rhine. Their capital was Oppidum Ubiorum, in the year 50 made a Roman veterans' colony (Colonia Agrip- pina). It became the political and military head- quarters of the province of Lower Germany, and soon the most populous town on the lower Rhine. If the remark of Irenæus (I. x. 2) about Christian communities in the Germanic provinces is to be taken literally, it would indicate an antiquity for the church of Cologne extending into the second century. The first certain datum is reached with the participation of Bishop Matemus in the Synod of Aries (mentioned by Eusebius and Optatus), and with some fourth-century inscriptions given by Kraus. The small number of the latter shows that Cologne was a less important Christian center than the neighboring Treves, with which agrees the mention of the church there as a conventiculum by the pagan writer Ammianus Marcellinus in 355. The list of bishops goes no farther back than Mater- nus, and the attribution of the same name to the legendary founder indicates that tradition knew of no earlier bishop. His successor, Euphrates, is mentioned as a participant in the Synod of Sbt- dica by Athanasius; his name does not occur in the lists, and was probably erased in consequence of a later (Frankish) legend which stigmatiiEed him as an Arian, and asserted that he was deposed by a synod at Cologne in 346. The mention by Venan- tius Fortunatus of Carentius, who does not occur in the lists, shows that they are not to be depended on; and the same conclusion follows from the fact that only four names are given for the first three centuries. It is probable, though not certain, that the church of Cologne lasted through the downfall of the Roman power and the Frankish conquest, in the first years of which it is possible that the bishops gained or claimed metropolitan rank; but the metropolitan system soon lost its importance in the Frankish kingdom, and the occupants of the see appear as simple bishops in the eighth century. The elevation of Cologne to a metropolitan see did not take place until the consecration of Hildebold about 795; the suffragan sees were at first the Frankish Li^ge, the Friesian Utrecht, and later the Saxon Munster, Osnabriick, Minden, and Bremen. The actual diocese of Cologne was a very large one. Under the rule of Philip of Heinsberg (1168-91) its previous possessions were enlarg^ and con- solidated by purchase and exchange, and after the downfall of Henry the Lion the duchy of West- phalia and Engem {Angraria) was added (1180). From this time on the archbishops were the most powerful princep in northwestern Germany. (A. Hauck.) The archbishops of Cologne were prominent in the conflicts of the Hohenstaufens with their enemies, and Engelbert I., coimt of Beig (1216-25), was the 163 Collyer Colors in the Bibld kftding magnate of Germany and the administra^ tor of the empire during the absence of Frederick II. in Sicily. A position of equal importance was held by Conrad of Hostaden (123^-61) for a. time titer Frederick's deposition, when he was papal le^te for Germany, anointed William of Holland at Aachen, and, according to the traditional preroga- tive of his see, crowned Richard of Cornwall as his successor. The history of the next two centuries is largely a record of strife arising out of contested imperial, papal, and archiepiscopal elections, until the rule of the sixty-sixth incumbent of the see, Herman IV. of Hesse, called the Peacemaker (1480- 1508), brought about many reforms. Herman V., count of Wied (see Herman ofWied), became a favoxer of the Reformation in the last five years of his rule, and was deposed and excommunicated in 1546, and the same was the case with Gebhard II., Truchsess of Waldburg (1577-83; see Gebhard II.), while the yoxmg Ernest, prince of Bavaria (1583- 1612), set no very creditable example to his Hock. His nephew Ferdinand (1612-50) followed him, and did much to repair the damage already wrought to the Roman Catholic cause; and his nephew, again, Maximilian Henry ruled the great arch- diocese from 1650 to 1688 with such a lack of political wisdom that it was laid waste by contend- ing armies, and French influence became prer dominant. Under another Bavarian prince, Joseph Clement (1688-1723), the external history of Cologne was bound up with that of the general European conflicts. His secular interests so pre- occupied him in the earlier part of his reign that he did not even take up his spiritual functions until 1707, when he was consecrated at Lille by F^nelon, and thereafter devoted himself zealously to the promotion of religion. The last archbishop of the Bavarian house was Clement August I. (1723-61), brother of the Elector Max Emmanuel; but the house of Austria supplied an archduke, brother of the Emperor Joseph II., Maximilian Francis (1784- 1801), who was driven out by the French and spent his last days in Vienna. The diocese was divided by Napoleon, and the ecclesiastical conditions were full of confusion until 1821, when the archbishop- ric was reconstituted with a diminished territory, and with Treves, Münster, and Paderborn for suf- fragans. The most notable of the nineteenth-century archbishops was Clement August II., Baron Droste- Vischering (1835-45), whose episcopate was marked by a vigorous conflict with Hermesianism and with the Prussian government over the question of mixed marriages (see Drobtb-Vischsrino). Bibliography: Souroes an: T. J. Laoomblet, Urkunden- ^uch far die OeachichU dM Niederrhein*^ 4 vols., DQssel- dorf. 1840-68; MGU, SeripL, ziii (1881). 282 sqq.. xvii (1861). 723 Bqq., zxiv (1879). 332 sqq. Ck>n8ult: E. Podledi, GttdiiehU der End%6ceu Kdln, Mains. 1879; C. A. Ley. Kdlniache Kirehen(/e9ehiehle, Cologne. 1882; F. Lau, DiB enbiaehdflidien Beamien in der Stadt Koln, Labeck. 1891; A. J. Binterim and J. H. Moovern. Die Endioeeee K6ln, DOsaeldorf, 1892; Rettberg. KD, vol. L; Friedrich, KD; Hauck. KD, vols, i.-iii.

COLOMBIA: A republic of northwestern South America, bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea and Venezuela, on the east by Venezuela and Brazil, on the south by Brazil and Ecuador, on the west by the Pacific Ocean. No exact figures are available for either the area or the population, but an estimate of the former is 473,000 square miles and of the latter 4,000,000 souls, including 500,000 whites and 1,500,000 or more half-breeds. The constitution of 1886 declares the Roman Catholic religion the religion of the nation, but that the Catholic Church shall not be a State Church, and grants religious toleration. Ecclesiastics are excluded from public office, though Catholic priests may be employed in public instruction and charity. The buildings of the Catholic worship and clergy are exempt from taxation. A concordat was made between Pope Leo XIII. and the republic, Dec. 31, 1887 (see Concordats and Delimiting Bulls, VI., 6). The church organization is as follows: Archdiocese of Bogota (founded 1563), with the suffragan dioceses of Ibagu^ (1900), Nueva Pam- plona (1835), Socorro (1895), and Tunja (1880); archdiocese of Cartagena in the Indies (diocese, 1534; archdiocese, 1900), with the suffragan dio- ceses of Santa Marta (1534) and Panama (1534); archdiocese of Medellin (diocese, 1868; archdiocese, 1902), with the suffragan dioceses of Antioquia (1873) and Manizales (1900); archdiocese of Popayan (diocese, 1546; archdiocese, 1900), with the suffragan dioceses of Garz6n (1900) and Pasto (1859). There are also two vicariates apostolic, Casanare (1893) and Goajira (1905), and three pre- fectures apostolic, Caquet^ (1904), the East (1903), and San Biartin (1904), all dependent on the " Con- gregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs." A del^ate apostolic and envoy extraordinaiy of the pope resides in Bogotd. Protestants are represented by the few foreigners resident in the country. There is a Presbyterian mission in Bogotd. Elementary education is free, but not compulsory. According to the constitu- tion, " public education shall be organized and administered in harmony with the Roman Catholic religion," and both the lower and higher education are largely in the hands of congregations. WiLHELM GOETZ. Biblioorapst: R. S. Peieira. Lee £tat§-Unie de CoUnnbie, Paris. 1883; R. Nuflei and H. Jalbay. La Ripubliqiue de Cohmirie, ib. 1808; W. L. Scruggs, Colombian and Venee- udan BepubUee, Boston, 1006. COLONNA, EGIDIO. See Maimva db Colubcna. COLORS m THE BIBLE. I. Ck>lor-Peroeption and Color-Nomenelaturs. II. Coloring-Materials. Purple (S 1). Scarlet (S 2). III. Symbolical Significance. White (S 1). Scarlet, Purple, and Blue (S 2). L Color-Perception and Color-Nomenclature: A Midrash story {Bamidhbar Rabbah xii.) indicates that red, blue, purple, and white fire were collect- ively a symbolic representation of the being of God. In the old Semitic scale of colors green and blue were not distinguished, so that sea, grass, and sky appeared of the same tint. The Semite has as yet no distinct word for the blue of heaven. People remaining in primitive conditions paint themselves either red or yellow. But among the Ctolora in the Bible Oolnmba THE NEW SCHAPF-HERZOG 164 Semites there is no word for "yellow," and that color plays no part in the cultus. The same word in the Old Testament applies to the green of the leaf, the yellow of the grain, and the paleness of the coun- tenance; another word is used for the blood-red or brown skin-color of men, the brown of the horse or the cow, and the yellow-brown of the lentil ; still another stands for the raven-blackness of the hair, for the color of the skin [when tanned by exposure], and for the gray of the morning twilight. n. Coloring-Materials: At theheaidof coloring- material in the Bible stands purple. For this the Old Testament had no appellative; it had only special words for the purple-red, to which as a dye it gave a name, and for purple-violet, to which it applied the name of the shell-fish. The Septuagint and Latin translations render the latter by hyacin^ thus and use the word for both the blue stone and a blue flower. Purple was an early monopoly of the artistic Phenicians of the Mediterranean coast. The mussel which produced it was X. Purple, afterward found on other coasts (Ezek. xxvii. 7, where " Elisha " probably means the Lacedsemonian coast). Thya- tira was later celebrated for its purple (cf. Acts xvi. 14), though Tyre was the place where it was first made. The mounds near the latter place prove what the shell-fish was from which the dye was obtained. There are a number of varieties of fish which furnish a red or violet liquid, but their product fades on exposure to light and air. The varieties which furnished the old puiple dye were the Murez trunculua and the Murex brandaris. The dye is not the blood, but a slimy secretion. At first this is not purple or red, but whitish, changing through yellowish and greenish tints to purple and making an unfading dye. Pliny says {Hist, not,, ix. 62) that the purple of Tyre was best when it was like coagulated blood and when looked at from above ran into black while from the side it reflected the light. Of the purple-blue he said that it was a cold color, like the angiy sea. Scarlet is a red which has more of yellow or brown in it than has the purple. It was obtained from an insect (coccus ilicis) which fed on oaks and shrubs, supposed to be a product of the tree, hence called coccus, ** berry," and the oak on which it was found was called the " berry-bearing oak." The Penta- teuch recognizes the insect and names it the ** shi- ning worm." The Persian name kirm found its way mto late Hebrew (II Chron. ii. 6, 13; ill. 14); and the word scarlet, since the Middle Ages the name of the coloring obtained from this insect, is a loan- word from the Turkish. This was a. Scarlet among Greeks and Romans the color of the outer garments of soldiers, hence according to Matt, xxvii. 28 the soldiers put a scarlet cloak on Jesus (Mark xv. 17; John xix. 2 makes it purple). The coccus ilicis is still a source for this coloring-matter, though less extensively used than the coccus cacti of Mexico and Peru. Another red coloring-matter, " vermilion," is men- tioned as a material for painting walls and images (Jer. xxii. 14; Ezek. xxiii. 14). This is a mineral red, in the Septuagint miUos, elsewhere meaning " crayon," also ** oxid of lead " and '' minium." These four mineral reds were used by the ancients, who did not always discriminate in their employ- ment of the names. The henna used in the East as a means of beautifying the person is not mentioned in the Old Testament. The Talmud and Tai^gum wrongly find in Isa. iii. 16 a hint at painting the eyes with a red or yellow-red powder, though kohl, xised to darken eyelids and eyebrows, was a favorite cosmetic among the Hebrews (Ezek. xxiii. 40; II Kings ix. 30). When it is said that the Lord will make the foundations of the New Jerusalena of sapphires, the pinnacles of rubies, and the gates with carbuncles the question arises why sapphire-blue is appropriated to the foundation and fiery-red to the battlements and walls, and it also leads to the problem of the symbolism of Biblical representa- tions and to that of the cultus founded upon the Pentateuch. The Babylonians divided the various colors among the " seven lights of earth," and (Herodotus, i. 98) the seven concentric walls of Ecbatana had each its own color. HL Symbolical Significance: Purple, blue, scar- let, and white are the four colors of the Mosaic cul- tus. Philo and Josephus associate these colors with the four elements, the sea (purple), the fire (scar- let), the air (blue), the earth (white), combinations which are purely arbitrary. The four colors were uped in the outer curtains, the veil, the entrance- curtain, and the gate of the court, sa also in the ephod, girdle, and breastplate of the high priest. The first three were used in the pomegranates about the hem of the robe of the high priest. Ex- clusively blue were the robe of the high priest, the lace of the high priest's breastplate, the lace on his miter, and the fifty loops of the curtains. Ex- clusively white were the breeches and miter of the high priest. The cloths for wrapping the sacred vessels were blue, scarlet, or purple. White were also the clothes of the lower priests. Add to this the blue ribbon and the fringe of the Hebrew dress, and there is seen at once the use and appli- cation of the colons employed in the Hebrew serv- ice. The red is used only once (Ex. xxvi. 14); the sealskins which covered the tabernacle were dyed that color. Black is excluded everywhere, as well as yellow and green. That purple, blue, scarlet, and white only were used is not accidental, but the outgrowth of the consciousness of their significance. The reason for the use of the white to the total exclusion of the black is easy to per- ceive. Black, as it absorbs all colors and thus buries the light, is the symbol of death. But activity, life, light, holiness, and joy, on the one hand, and cessation, death, darkness, malice, and sorrow, on the other hand, are Biblical contrasts, of which white and black are the representatives of this twofold series of opposites. White, however, * reflects the light; hence it symbolizes purity and victory. While the third rider of the Apocalypse sits on a black horse, bringing with him famine and death (Rev. vi. 5), the Persian horses in the eighth vision of Zechariah are white, be- I. White, cause no worldly power had ever shown a more noble disposition toward Israel than the dynasty of the Achemenids, which set ^ the exiles free and promoted the building of the 166 Oolon in the Bible Oolamba temple. The first of the four apocalyptic riders has a white horse (Rev. vi. 2); for he went forth to conquer. The " Ancient of Days," i.e., the Ever-living (Dan. vii. 9), appears in a garment white as snow; even the hair of his head is like the pure wool. And thus, likewise, the glorified Christ (Rev. i. 14). Even the throne of God which Ezekiel saw was white. White denotes the victory of the light ; hence it is clear why the garments of the priests were white. Even the high priest wore the so-called golden robes over the white ones; and in the temple which Ezekiel saw in his vision the priests wore white garments only. The robes of the priests are, according to their natural color, white, as the angels and blessed appeared to the seers, and as the garments of Jesus became white ** like the light " on the mount of transfiguration. God is light, and gives light, or he is holy, i.e., holy love. The colors in the garments of the priests have reference to their office; viz., to act as the medium between God and his congregation, it is their duty to go before the people in holiness and purity. The three other colors are not inherently sym- bolic as is white. Strictly speaking, white is not a color. No color is inherently symbolic, but gains symbolic value by its associations. It is true that the colors produce psychological effects, and that in proportion to their relation to the yellow-red; bright-red is disquieting, while blue is soothing. But this does not create symbolism. Thus green is the color of hope because associated with plant- growth, with the period to which people look for- ward in winter. Connected with white is its oppo- site, scarlet, as the emblem of fire. The dark-red horses in the first vision of Zechariah bring about bloody war; and the yellow-red, a consuming fire. But light and fire are opposites according to the ethical idea of Holy Writ; viz., the light is the symbol of <M>mmunicating love, the fire, that of consuming anger. When Isaiah describes the sins of his people he speaks of them as being red like scarlet, not like purple. The scarlet along with the white in the high priest's garment means, there- fore, to say that he is not only the servant of the God of love, but also of the God of anger (Ex. xx. 5). As to the purple and blue, which are always con- nected, be it along with white and scarlet, or between, as they are only two kinds of one and 3. Scarlet, the same purple color, which agam is Purple, not a natural but an artificial color, and Blue, consisting of red and violet, they refer to a twofold attribute of the royal King — ^the piu*ple to the majesty of God in his glory, and the blue to God's majesty in his conde- scension. The purple of the garments of the high priest denotes, therefore, that he is a servant of that God of whom the song at the Red Sea says, " The Lord will reign forever and ever" (Ex. xv. 18); and the song of Moses, " And he was king in Jeshu- nin " (Deut. xxxiii. 5). The red color of the red heifer, whose ashes, mixed with water, were to be used in purification of the unclean, had also a symbolical signification. Red is the color of blood, which, again, is the life. The animal in- tended as antidote against uncleanness through contact with a dead body was to be without blem- ish, and upon which never came yoke, and thus represented in its color a picture of fresh and vig- orous life. It may be that the colors of the twelve precious stones which were on the breastplate of the high priest had a symbolical significance as to their relation to the twelve tribes whose names were engraved on them (Ex. xxviii. 17-21). This at least may be derived from Jewish tradition. (W. LoTZ.) Biblioorapht: F. Delitssch, IrU. Farhenatudien und Blumen9tack0, Leiprio, 1888; G. Perrot and C. Chipiei, Hitt. of Art in Sardinia, Judaa^ Syria and Ana Minor, i. 109-370, London, 1800; Bensinger, ArcfMologie, pp. 26^270; Nowaok, ArchOaloaie, pp. 263 sqq.; E. C. A. Riehm, HandwSrterbuch dn hibliaiehen AUertumM^ pp. 436 Bqq., Bielefeld, 1803-94; EB, i. 869-877; DB, i. 467- 468; JE, iv. 174-178. COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO THE. See Paul THE Apostle. COLUMBA, SAINT (in Ireland and the western isles known as Colum-ciUe, ** Columba of the church ''): The apostle of the Picts; b. at Gartan (25 m. w. of Londonderry), County Donegal, Ire- land, Dec. 7, most probably in the year 521; d. on the island of lona June 9, 597. He was of royal blood on both his father's and his mother's side and akin to many powerful families. His studies were begun under Finnian of Moville and continued with Gemman, an aged bard In Ireland, of Leinster, with Finnian of Clonard, and with Mobhi, the head of a monas- tery at the present Glasnevin, near Dublin. About 546 he founded his first monastery, at Deny (Londonderry), and during the next fifteen years added about forty others, the most famous being at Durrow (about 50 m. w. of Dublin), his most important establishment in Ireland, founded in 553, and at Kells (35 m. n.w. of Dublin), founded at an uncertain date. In 563 he left his native land, actuated doubtless by the love of wandering, and, possibly, other motives. A bloody battle took place in 561 be- tween Columba's clansmen and the followers of the king, and the Irish accounts state that Columba instigated it because the king had violated the right of sanctuary at one of his monasteries, and had also given what he considered an unjust decision against him concerning the ownership of a book (see Finnian, Saint, of Moville). Adamnan tells of an attempt to excommunicate him at a synod at Teltown in Meath; it is not known when it was held or what was the charge, but presu- mably it was an effort of the king to retaliate. Ac- cording to an Irish legend Columba's conscience troubled him for his part in inciting strife and bloodshed, and, on the advice of a friend, he decided to go into exile as penance, to win as many souls for Christ as lives had been lost in the battle, and never to look upon his native land again. If this be true he modified his determination, for he returned to Ireland more than once In Scotland, and continued prominent in Irish af- fairs. Missionary zeal is indicated by his choice of a refuge. With twelve associates he established himself on the island of lona (q.v.), ofiF Columba OomeniuB 166 the west coast of Scotland, on the border between the territories of the Picts and the Scots (Irish) of British Dalriada, whose king, Conall, was his kins- man. It was an admirable center for missionary work. At first he labored chiefly among his coun- trymen, whose Christian faith was sorely .tried by their heathen neighbors. Then he proceeded through Pictland to the court of King Brude, near Inver- ness. He converted the king (565), and the people followed as a matter of course. During the follow- ing years he visited in person nearly all of modem Scotland. Everywhere he founded churches and monasteries, adding their charge to those already under his rule in Ireland. When Conall died (574) his successor, Aidan, sought and obtained inau- guration at Columba's hand. In 575 he attended a convention at Drumceatt in northern Ireland. It was proposed there to abolish the order of bards; but Columba, who not improbably belonged to the order himself, succeeded in having measures adopted looking toward reformation rather than annihilation. He also secured a more independent position for Aidan and his kingdom. Columba was fond of fine manuscripts, and during his last years spent much time in transcribing. On the day before his death he was at work upon the Psalter and reached the end of a page with the words: '' They that seek the Lord shall not want any good thing " (Ps. xxxiv. 10). " Here," he said, " I must stop; let Baithene [his cousin and suc- cessor as abbot] do the rest.'' When the monks entered the church for matins the next morning they found him lying before the altar, and, with a feeble effort to give his blessing, he passed away. Colimiba was impulsive and at times, perhaps, failed to curb an imperious temper. But his faults were those of his race, and were lightly regarded in his time. He was emphatically a His man of action, bom to lead and also Character, to win. Adamnan describes him as '' like an angel in countenance, of polished speech, holy in work, of most excellent disposition, great in counsel, through thirty-four years living as an island soldier [of Christ]. Not a single hour would he allow to pass without devoting himself to prayer, or reading, or writing, or at least to some manual labor. Day and night, without any intermission, he was so occupied in unwearied exercises of fasts and vigils that the special burden of any one labor might seem beyond human pos- sibility. And meanwhile he was dear to all, always showing a cheerful, holy face, and was gladdened in his inmost heart by the joy of the Holy Spirit." Three Latin hymns are attributed to Columba and several Irish poems of more or less doubtful gen- uineness. The Rule of St. Columba is a collection of maxims for a solitary living near a monastery rather than a monastic rule properly so called. BtBUOORAPHT: For the hymna oonsult J. H. Todd, The Book of Hymna of the Ancient Church of Ireland, ii. 201- 283. Dublin. 1869; The Altua of SL Columba, ed. by the IfArqueas of Bute. Edinburgh. 1882; Bernard and Atkin- ion. Ths Iriah Liber Hymnorum, for the Henry Bradshaw Sodety. xiii (1898), i. 62-^9, ii. 23-28. 140-172; for the Iriah poems, W. Reeves, Life of St Columba, pp. Ixxviii.- Ixxix., 264-277, 286-289, Dublin, 1857; for the rule, Haddan and Stubbs, Couneile, ii. 119-121; W. F. Skene, CeUie SeoOand, iL 608-609, Edinburgh, 1877. The stand- ard life is by Adamnan [679-704], edited with notes and dissertations by W. Reeves, Dublin, 1857. new ed.. with Eng. transl. and an unfortunate rearrangement of the notes by W. F. Skene, Edinburgh, 1874. A useful edition of Adamnan 's work is by J. T. Fowler, Oxford. 1894. transl. 1895; it is newly translated by W. Huysshe. Lon- don, 1906, and is in MPL, Ixxxviii. For other lives, ete.. consult ASB, June, ii. 180-236; J. Colgan, Triaa thaumaturga, pp. 317-514, Louvain, 1647; Lanigan. Bed. Hiet, ii. 106-181, 236-259; C. F. R. de Montalembert. Lee Moinee d'ocddevU, iii. 99-331, Paris, 1866, Eng. transl. printed separately as SL Columba, Apoetle of Caie- donia, London, 1868; W. D. Killen, EccUnatHeal Hia- tory of Ireland, i. 30-39, London. 1875; W. F. Skene, CeUie Scotland, ii. 62-66, 79-84, 85 sqq., 467-607. Edin- burgh. 1877; A. Bellesheim. Oeachiehte der ka0u)li9chen Kirche in SchotOand, i. 27-66. Mains, 1883; J. Healy, InnJa eanctorum, pp. 291-331, Dublin, 1890; G. F. Mao- lear, Apoetlee of Medioeval Europe, pp. 41-56, London, 1888; E. A. Cooke. St, Columba, hie Life and Work, Edin- burgh, 1893. COLUMBAN, SAINT (called also the " Younger Columba"): Abbot of Luxeuil and of Bobbio; b. in Leinster, Ireland, c. 550; d. in Bobbio (37 m. n.e. of Genoa) Nov. 23, 615. Like his older namesake and so many of his countrymen, impelled by the love of wandering and the longing for the ascetic life, influenced also by the admonition of an aged female recluse, he left parents and home. For many years he was a member of Comgall's monastery at Bangor on Belfast Lough. Then with twelve companions he went by way of Britain to Gaul (c. 590). Christian life on the Continent was then suffering from the irruption of the bar- barians, which had destroyed the old civilization and settled lai^ bodies of heathen in many places. Columban and his company were well received at the court of Guntram, king of Burgundy (d. 593), and established themselves in the wilderness of the Vosges, at the site of a ruined fortress, Anagrates ( Anegray ), in the present department of Haute-Saone (590-691). As the number of monks increased he j founded another monastery eight miles distant, amid the ruins of Luxuvium (Luxeiiil, 72 m. n. e. of Dijon), once famous for its warm baths. The little band brought with them their Irish teachings and cus- toms and comported themselves to a large extent independent of the diocesan bishop. Nevertheless, they suffered little interference. Their date for Easter gave most offense, and Columban saw fit to send letters defending his practises to Pope Gregory the Great, to a synod of Gallican bishops (603), and to a later pope, probably Sabinian. In 610 all Irish monks were expelled from Burgundy, not, however, because of religious differences, but in consequence of the boldness with which Columban rebuked the vices of the king, Theodoric, and of the court. It was intended to send them back to Ireland, but at Nantes they were allowed to go at will. After spending some time with Clothair IL, king of Neustria, at Soissons, Columban went to Theodebert, king of Austrasia, at Metz, and at the king's request undertook missionary work among the heathen Alemanni and Suevi. He settled at Bregenz, at the east end of Lake Constance, but in 612 his old enemy, Theodoric, defeated Theodebert and seized his dominions. Columban then crossed the Alps, tarried for a while at Milan with Agilulf, the Lombard king, and wrote there a treatise against the Arians, which is not preserved. In 614 167 Ooluniba Oomenixis he established himself at Bobbio, restoring an old basilica for a monastery and building a new church to the Virgin. For many years this monastery remained a center of learning and study, while Loxeuil became the most famous house in Gaul with afiBliated foundations extending from Lake Geneva to the North Sea. Columban was a man of strong convictions, unwavering, and courageous, but also headstrong and stubborn. His writings in many passages breathe the true spirit of the Gospel, but in others show a tendency to formalism and legality. He counseled moderation in ascetic practises, but was himself overrigorous. He ad- dressed the pope with all respect and acknowl- edged Rome as the metropolis of the Church. His learning was genuine and he is eminent among the writers of the Merovingian time. He shows an acquaintance with Vergil, Horace, and Seneca, perhaps also with Ovid and Juvenal; he had some knowledge of Greek, and was well read in Christian Latin Uterature. The most important of his extant works are his letters and his monastic rule, which consisted originally of two parts, the first commonly known as the Reguia S. Coluwbani, containing ten chapters giving general rules for the monastic life in a spirit of moderation and Chris- tian freedom ; the second, the so-called Reguia cob- nobialiM fratrum Hibemensium, gives pimishments for offenses of monks and imposes rigorous penal- ties for trivial faults. In its existing form it has been added to from old Irish sources, which doubt- less were also used originally by Columban. There are frequent indications that he used the Basilian rule, as well as reminiscences of Cassian and Pa- chomiuB (of. O. Seebass, Ueher Columban von Lu- xemU Klo9terregel und Buasbuchf Dresden, 1883). Otto Seebabb. Bibliography: Columban'0 worka, excepting a eommen- ftaiT on the PBalme (found in II codice irlantUM dM'Am- hrotiana, ed. G. I. Aaooli, 2 vols.. Rome, 1878-79), are in MPL, Ixzx. The letters, ed. W. Qrundlaoh. are in MGH, BpiaL, iii (1891), 154-190. All the other works ba^ been published by O. Seebass in ZKO, ziv (1894). 76-^2, 430-448, xr (1895). 366-386, zvii (1897). 215-234. CSolumban's life by Jonas, a contemporary monk of Bob- bio, is in MPL, Ixzxvii., Eng. transl. by D. C. Munro in TrandaUonB and ftsprinte published by the Univ. of Pa., it 7, Philadelphia, 1895; also. ed. Knisoh, in Mitteilungen dt» inttUuU far 6Mt0rneichueh€ Q€9chichUfor§diunQ, xiv. 885 sqq., Innsbruek, 1893. Consult Lanlgan, Bed. HiaL, iL 280-209, lY. 348 sqq.; G. F. Maclear. ApovtUa of Medi- •vol Europe, pp. 57-76, London. 1888; J. Healy, /n- • sttla saiKlorum. pp. 370-381. Dublin. 1890; T. Olden, The Chuteh cf Ireland, pp. 91-98. London, 1892; Hauck. KD, 1240-270.

COMBA, EMILIO: Waldensian; b. at San Ger- mane, Waldensian Valleys, Italy, Aug. 31 , 1839; d. at Guttannen, 9 m. s.e. of Meiringen, Switzerland, Sept. 3, 1904. He studied atTorre-Pellice and at Geneva (under Merle d'Aubign^, was ordained in 1863, and until 1872 was an evangelist,chiefly in Venice. In Sept., 1872, he became professor of historical the- ology and homiletics in the Waldensian college, Florence. He was also for many years pastor of a Waldensian church in Florence, and after 1873 the editor of the monthly Rivista Cristiana which he had founded. He defended with learning and suc- ests the proposition that the original Waldensians date from Peter Waldo in the twelfth century and not from the days of the apostles, also that they had much to learn from the Protestant Reformers of the sixteenth century. His publications are very numerous. Besides reprinting in his Biblioteea della Riforma Italiana Sec. X VI. works of Vergerio (1883), Vermigli (1883), Vaides (1884), Ochino (1884), Parravicino (1886), and Virginio (1886), he wrote Francesco Spiera (Florence, 1872), En- rico Amaud (1889, also in French, HenK Amaud, La Tour, 1889), and / nostri protestanti, 2 vols., Flor- ence, 1895-97; but his life-work was upon the his- tory of his own people, drawn from the sources, which he told best in the Histoire dea Vaudoia (Paris, 1901); unfortunately he brought out only the first part, De Valdo d la r^forme. The English reader has these researches in their earlier form in the History of the Waldenses of Italy, from Thnr Origin to the Reformation (London, 1889). COMBEFIS, c«n"be''fl', FRAN9OIS: Patristio scholar; b. at Marmande (30 m. s.e. of Bordeaux), France, ^crv., 1605; d. in Paris Mar. 23, 1679. He studied with the Jesuits in Bordeaux, and joined the Dominicans in 1624; taught philosophy and theology in various houses of his order, and in 1640 was sent to Paris; here he soon retired from teach- ing and devoted himself to the preparation of texts, translations, etc., of the works of the Fathers. His publications include Novum audarium Graeo^ latincB bibliotheccB patrum (2 vols., Paris, 1648), a work which was not well received at Rome because of certain statements about the Monothelite con- troversy; Bibliotheca patrum concionatoria (8 vols., 1662; reprinted 1747); a complete edition of the works of Basil the Great (2 vols., 1679); the works and fragments of Amphilochus, Methodius, Andrew of Crete, Maximus, and others.

COMBER, THOMAS JAMES: Baptist pioneer missionary to the Kongo; b. in Clarendon street, Camberwell, London, Nov. 7, 1862; d. at Loango, French Kongoland, June 27, 1887. He studied at Regent's Park College, was sent in 1876 by the Baptist Missionary Society to western Africa, labored in Victoria and the Kamerun, and the next year was sent into the Kongo. After a brief visit to England in 1878-79 he returned to his post. In 1882 he reached Stanley Pool and conducted missionary operations. In 1885 he paid another visit to England, but before that year closed was again at work in the Upper Kongo. There sickness overtook him and he hastened to the coast, only to die. His work was in new fields of difficulty and danger. Bibliography: J. B. Myers, T. J. Comber, Mieeionary Pioneer to the Congo, London, 1888. COMENIUS,co-m6'n!-us, JOHANNES AMOS (Lat- inized from Komenski,ko-men'ski): Moravian bish- op; b. at Niwnitz (near Ungarisch-Brod,48 m.e.of Brilnn), in Moravia, July 28, 1592; d. at Amsterdam Nov. 1 5, 1670. In his sixteenth year he entered the Latin school, and in 1611 was able to enter Herbom University, where he came under the influence of the encyclopedist Alsted. After an educational journey as far as Holland, he completed his studies in Heidelberg imder the care of Parens. Return- ing to his home in 1614, he took charge of the high ComeniuB Commendatory Letters I6d school at Prerau. He was, in 1616, ordained in the church of the United Brethren, becoming pastor at Fulnek, 1618. The misfortunes which, during the Thirty Years' War, came upon the Evangelicals in Bohemia and Moravia visited him. In 1621 the Spaniards burned Fulnek, and the plague robbed Comenius of wife and child. From 1624, when the Evangelical ministers were driven from their pul- pits, until 1627, when all Evangelicals were ban- ished, he traveled among his scattered conuudes and lived in the mountain castles of the nobility, ministering to his brethren in the faith. He then accompanied some of them to Poland, where others had preceded them, and in the border city Lissa, under the protection of Ck)unt Leszczynsld, there ■prang up a flourishing Protestant population whose gymnasium under Comenius grew into great fame. His text-books, practical works, and reform of educational methods brought him into contact with other states. In 1641 he went to England and Sweden, and in 1650 to Transylvania. From 1632 he had been senior bishop, and from 1648 the only bishop of the Brethren's Church. Returning to Lissa shortly before the Swedish-PoUsh War, he and the Protestants were banished by the Poles in revenge for the victory of Charles X. He fled to Amsterdam, where he lived in high honor and busied himself in literary labor, in the care of his scattered brethren^ and in the training of youth. He was a man of varied talents. To his church he gave in 1626 the Psalter in ancient verse-form and in 1659 a new edition of the hymnal; he was also its foremost preacher; his two books '' The Labyrinth of the World and the Paradise of the Heart " (1623) and " One Thing Necessary " (in the latter of which the man of seventy-seven years gives the harvest of a rich and tireless life) will live among the classics of Christian teaching. He was no less great in his activity as bishop. But the different forms of government, and the current confessionalism with its emphasis on " central dogmas," seemed to him only to confuse the com- mon man. Peaceful by nature, he tried to combine excellences and develop good qualities wherever he found them. His claim to world-fame rests upon his work as pedagogue. Here he owed much to his church and its catechetical system. The " Door to Language Opened," translated within a few years into fifteen languages, and the "World Por- trayed " (Eng. transl. , by C. Hoole, reprint, Syracuse, N. Y., 1887) were the most famous of his works. In this labor also it was his religious nature which controlled him. Here he developed what later made the names of Rousseau and Pestalozzi famous. The child should grow into knowledge by assimi- lation, should not be forced but should be assisted to know, to think, and to speak. But the object should ever be to understand all that ia worth knowing of God, the world, and oneself. The end of his pedagogical labor is " universal knowledge," the striving for universal education, the founding of scientific academies, the translation of the Bible into all languages, the creation of a universal language, and the establishment of congresses of rel^on. When he had been almost foigotten Herder rediscovered him by bringing to light one of the most beautiful of his works. In 1890, at the third centenary of his birth, the Comenius Society was founded to perpetuate his name and labor. (P. Kleinert.) Bibuoorapht: The important literature is found in the ComeniuB-Studien, 6 parts, Znaim, 1892-d3. and in the publications of the Comenius-Geeellschaft, Berlin, 1892 sqq. Consult: H. F. von Criesern, J. A. ComeniuM aU Theoiog, Leipsic, 1881; J. Beeger and E. Zoubek, Came- fiittS fuuh •einem Leben und Sehriflen, ib. 1883; L. W. Seyffarth, Comeniu9 nadi, aeinem LAen und pddoffogiMeher BedeutunQ, ib. 1883; R. H. Quick, in Earnifa on Educa- tUmal Reforment privately printed, 1887; J. Kvacsala, J. A. ComeniuB; 9ein Leben und aeine Schriften, Leipsic. 1892; S. 8. Laurie, J. A. Comeniue, . . . hie Life and Educational Worke, Cambridge, 1885. Syracuse, 1893. Consult also J. A. Comenius. 77ie Greof DtdacHc, now far the First Time Englitked, vaith Introduction by ilf . W. Keat- inge, London, 1896 (gives a bibliography). COMES. See Pericope. COMGALL, SAINT» OF BANGOR: Founder of a famous Irish monastery at Bangor on the southern shore of Belfast Lough. He flourished in the latter half of the sixth century and was a friend and asso- ciate of Columba, Brendan, and other monastic founders. He established many monasteries, that at Bangor in 554 or 558, and is said at one time to have had 3,000 monks under him there and in affil- iated houses. A so-called rule of Comgall is ex- tant, consisting of thirty-six quatrains written in Irish; it is of great age and may possibly have formed the basis of Columban's discipline at Lux- euil and Bobbio, and of that at St. Gall. The " Antiphonary of Bangor," a book of anthems compiled for the congregation at Bangor, written, it is supposed, soon fJter 680, preserved at Milan, contains an alphabetical hymn in Comgall's honor. Bibugobapht: ASB, May, ii. 677-587; Lanigan, Eed. UieL, ii. 61-69; W. Reeves, Ecdeeiaetical AntiquUiee of Doton, Connor, and Dromore, pp. 93 et passim, Dublin, 1847; J. O'Hanlon, Livee of the Irish Saints, y. 152-185. DubUn, n.d.; J. Healy, Insula sanctorum, pp. 364 sqq.. Dublin, 1890; The Antiphonary of Banoor, ed. F. E. Warren for the Henry Bradshaw Society, 2 vols., London, 1893-95. COMMAlfDMENTS OF THE CHURCH (proBcepta or mandata ecclesia): The title of a section of the catechism of the Roman Catholic Church. The Church of the Middle Ages was not familiar with it. The Council of Trent (session vi., canon xxii.; session xxii., passim) uses the phrase for regula- tions which the Church sets forth authoritatively for the guidance of the faithful, especially in the province of devout morality; such commandments complement the commands of God {prcecepta Dei), as learned from the Bible. The Jesuit Petrus Canisius (q.v.) made the doctrine of these com- mandments a part of the catechism. He pre- pared a brief summary of those devotional precepts of the Church which he regarded as the most im- portant for the life of the people, five in number, and since his time it has been usual in the Roman Church to speak of '* Ten Commandments of God and five chief commandments of the Church/' The latter conunandments, as Canisius selected them, are as follows: (1) Thou shalt observe the appointed feasts of the Church. (2 ) Thou shalt hear mass and the sermon every Sunday. (3) Thou shalt observe the fasting seasons. (4) Thou shalt 16d ComenluB Commendatory Lettara confess thy sins at least once every year, and this to thy rej^ar parish priest. (5) Thou shalt seek the communion at least every year at Easter. These commandments were adopted in almost all catechisms after Canisius. In countries where the Roman Church is not supported by the State, an additional sixth commandment has been widely in- troduced into the catechism: Thou shalt provide a4%ording to thy means toward the support of the Church and the priests. Pius X. formidates these commandments more strictly and detailed as fol- lows: (1) Thou shalt attend holy mass on all Sun- days and festivals of obligation. (2) Thou shalt observe the lenten fast, the four embeiHiays, and the vigils of obligation; thou shalt eat no meat on prohibited days. (3) Thou shalt confess at least once every year, and at Easter communicate in the parish church proper. (4) Thou shalt pay the bounden or customary dues to the Church. (5) Thou shalt not wed in forbidden seasons; namely, from the first Advent Sunday till Epiphany and from the first Sunday in Lent until the octave after Easter. In the Greek Church the following command- ments are in force: (1) Every one shall be present at the principal hours and the liturgy on sJl Sun- days and festivals. (2) Observe the four great fasts. (3) Reverence the clergy, and especially the father confessor. (4) Confess regularly four times a year, in particular at Easter. (5) Beware of heretical books and intercourse with heretics. (6) Make intercessions for every estate, especially the clei^, the government, and benefactors of the Church. (7) Keep not aloof from any specially prescribed fasts and processions. (8) See to it that the Church does not suffer in her incomes. (9) Take no part in stage performances and adopt no strange manners. It is probable that Petrus Mogilas was indirectly influenced by Canisius in the matter of minutely specifying the chief commandments set forth by the Church beside the commandments of God. F. KATTi»IBUSCH. Bibuoobapst: Roman Catholic: P. CaniaiuB, Summa doe- trina tkriaHana in three editions, the " larger," 1555; "snallest/' 1656; "small." 1558; Compendio ddla doi- trina ekrittiana (the catechism of Pius IX.), Rome, 1005 (also in three forms); O. Bramisberger, EnUtAung und enU EfUwiekdung d€r KcUechUmen deM ... P. Caniaiut, FreibuTK. 1803; F. Loofs, Symbolik, I 307 sqq.. Freiburg, 1902; KL, v. 161 sqq., vu. 288 sqq. Greek: Confeuio orthodoxa dea PetrM Moo%ia», part 1, questions 87-05, in Monumenta fidei ecdeaia orienialit, ed. E. J. Kimmel, vol. i., Jena. 1850; W. Gass, Symbolik dcr grUehiaehen Kircke, pp. 370 sqq., Berlin, 1872; F. Kattenbuseh, ConfeaaiimakuiuU, i. 510 sqq., Freiburg. 1891; F. Loofs. ut sup., i. 162 sqq.

COMMENDA: A technical term for the admin- istration of an ecclesiastical office, especially of the temporalities connected with it, committed to a person who has no actual right to the office. Nor- mally, according to canon law, commendce are granted only in order to provide for the adminis- tration of the office in the case of a vacancy or of the incapacity of the holder; only to a qualified person who already holds an ecclesiastical office; and to him merely as administrator. The custom gave rise, however, to great abuses. The Avignon popes especially used this means to bestow the incomes of benefices upon persons whom the pro- hibition of pluralities prevented from holding the benefices themselves; they were granted for life, and without any obligation to the discharge of the duties of the office. Thus abbeys were frequently granted in commendam to secular clergy. This latter practise was so deeply rooted that the Council of Trent, which attempted to extend to the whole system of irregular commendce the law against pluralities, was not able to do more than regulate it. Temporal rulers often in like manner '' com- mended " monasteries and churches, with their property, to laymen, in order to reward their serv- ices by the enjoyment of the temporalities, on a pretext of protection. (C. T. G. v. ScHEURLf.) Biblioorapht: L. Thomassin, Vetu§ et nova eccUHa dia- eiplina, P. I. 1, iii.. chaps. 10-21. Lucca. 1728; Richter, Kird^enndU, p. 1323; Friedberg, Kirchenreeht, p. 325. COMMENDATORY LETTERS (LITERiE FOR- MATiE): Letters of introduction and recommen- dation (called also liter a canonica) given in the early Church to Christians traveling from one place to another. The use of such letters is extremely ancient, dating from the time of the New Testament (Acts acviii. 27; Rom. xvi. 1, 2; II Cot, iii. 1), and is readily explicable from the close mutual relations of the conmiunities and their generous hospitality. On the other hand, II John 10 forbade the reception of one who was unsound in doctrine, and it accord- ingly became necessary for a traveler to be able to prove his orthodoxy (cf. Didache xii. 1), this usu- ally being done by a letter of commendation written by the head of the congregation. These letters must be distinguished from the official communi- cations of the congregations with each other, of which an entire series antedating Irenseus is either extant or known by title. Another category, which may be traced to the third century, is formed by the " letters of peace " readmitting excommmiicated members of the Church. I^ater, however, " let- ters of peace " connoted the certificates given those who intended to visit the emperor or high digni- taries of the Church and showing that the recipient of the letter was making his journey with the ap- proval of the writer. After the fourth century these letters were distinguished, in their turn, from the " letters of introduction," which were given only to persons of rank. As early as the end of the second or the beginning of the third century the bishops seem to have announced their elections by letters and to have exchanged letters of recommendation, while in the same manner they reported their cele- bration of festivals, especially of Easter. There were also general encyclicals, and special regula- tions have been preserved regarding all problems connected with letters of commendation and intro- duction^ Letters of both these types were forged at a very early date, as is clear from the complaint of Dio- nysius of Corinth during the reign of Marcus Aure- lius, and by the time of the great councils from the fourth to the seventh century these forgeries had increased to such an extent that letters were re- quired to have a definite prescribed form, and were accordingly termed formcUcB or canonica. It is un- certain whether the designation fomuUa refers to OommentarleB OommoduB 170 the fact that they were modeled on public docu- ments, or whether it is derived from forma in the sense of " seal," or whether the rigid phraseology gave rise to the epithet. (A. Harnack.) Biblioorapht: Bingham, Orioinea, XVII. iii. 6-8, cf. II. iv. 5. and references given there to earlier literature; DC A, i. 407-408. COMMENTARIES. See Exegesis or Her- MENEuncs, IV., § 2, and bibliography; see also the articles on the different books of the Bible for commentaries on particular books. COMMERCE AMONG THE ANCIENT ISRAELITES. Trade Routes Through Palestine (f 1). The Beginnings of Hebrew Ck>inmeroe (f 2). Solomon (f 3). The Two Kingdoms (f 4). After the Exile (f 6). Palestine lay on the chief commercial high- ways of the ancient world, being traversed by the roads which connected Babylon and Egypt, and by the routes which united the more distant East with the Mediterranean. From Egypt the great military road ran along the coast to Beirut and then inland to Assyria, while south of Mount Carmel a branch traversed the plain of Jezreel, and crossed the Jordan on its way to Damascus and the Euphrates. Gaza was the terminus of the road connecting Akabah and southern Arabia with the I. Trade Mediterranean, while the second great Routes road out of Arabia ran along the east- Through em edge of the east-Jordan district Palestine, northward to Damascus. Active com- merce early developed along these routes. As early as 3000 B.C. Sargon I. and Gudea of lAgash obtained cedars from the Amanus as well as stone and timber from Phenicia. The Egyptian trade with Syria developed but little later. This interchange became important even at this early period inasmuch as each region lacked some of the products of the other. Egypt obtained its silver from Asia, while Babylon needed gold from Nubia; Amanus and the Lebanon were the sources of timber; Arabia produced perfumes and spices. The middlemen were, in the main, in the oldest time the Phenicians, who by virtue of their geo- graphical position were well qualified to perform such a function. By 1500 B.C. Phenicia controlled trade with Egypt, while for the East the Arameans, somewhat later, assumed a similar position. In the South the trade with Arabia and India passed through the hands of the Minseans, who had centers for trade with Damascus in their North Arabian province of Mu^ri, as well as on the coast, their warehouses being at Gaza. Through their settlement in Canaan the Israel- ites became interested in this system of conmierce, although it was not until they had assimilated the culture of the region that they could take part in trade. Nor did they, at first, need a. The Be- commerce, since the native productions ginnings of were sufficient for them. Trade ac- Hebrew cordingly pursued its old course un- Commerce. disturbed, and Canaanite and Pheni- cian retailers traversed the land with their wares, so that " Canaanite " long, remained a synonym for ''merchant" (Jobzli. 6; Isa. xxiii. 8; Hos. xii. 7). Within Palestine salt was an ar- ticle which could be obtained only by trade from the Dead Sea. When, however, in the reign of Solomon, Israel was secure against foreign aggres- sion and had assimilated the Canaanites, it sought its share in international conmierce. Trade with Phenicia increased as the development of culture created needs not met by native products and workmanship. Solomon imported from T^re tim- ber and artisans (II Sam. v. 11; I Kings v. 13-18). The establishment of the northern kingdom by the house of Omri had a powerful influence on trade and the development of Phenician industries. Purple, products of the loom, and works of art in brass, silver, gold, and the like found ready pur- chasers among the Israelites, who gave in return the surplus of their oil, wheat, honey, and similar exports (I Kings v. 11; Ezek. xxviL 16 sqq.). There was also an active trade in slaves (Amos i. 9), and the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar, settled near the Phenicians and along the trade routes through the plain of Jezreel, were the chief middlemen (Deut. xxxiii. 18-19). Solomon cooperated with the Phenicians in voyages from Ezion-geber on the Red Sea to Ophir, the land of gold, which apparently lay on the south- em coast of Arabia (see Ophir). In their '' ships of Tarshish," as the vessels were later called when Tarshish became their port of destination, the crews of Hiram of Tyre sailed with the officials of Solomon, returning with gold, silver, ivory, apes, and peacocks (I Kings ix. 26-28; cf. x. 22 and 3. Solomon. Benzinger's conmientary ad loc.). The accoimt of the queen of Sheba seems to show that trade was carried on with the Minseans, who were succeeded by the Sabeans, and Minffian Midianites are described as merchants and leaders of caravans (Gen. xxxviL 28, 36). At a later time Ezion-geber and the road leading to it came under the sway of the Edomites, but the attempt of Jehoshaphat to resume control of the Red Sea ended in failure (I Kings xxiL 48-49), and there is no record of further really successful undertakings of a similar character. It is obvious that trade with Egypt was active in the reign of Solomon, especially as he was con- nected by marriage with the Pharaoh. After the division of the kingdoms, Israel tra- 4. The Two ded with Phenicia and Syria rather Kingdoms, than with Egypt, while Judah dealt with its southern neighbor, although in all other respects it was cut off from international commerce, since the trade routes ran through the northern kingdom. Commerce was likewise carried on in the north with the Arameans. Solomon obtained horses from Mu^ri in northern Syria and from Kue (Cilicia) through the Arameans and Hittites (I Kings x. 2^29, according to the conwt reading). Later, when Israel came under the polit- ical domination of the Arameans, conmieroe in- creased correspondingly, and Israelitic merchants in Damascus had at one time their bazaars in the markets just as Damascus tradera had theirs in Sa- maria (1 Kings XX. 34), although what the artideB of conmaerce were is unknown. Previous to the exile, however, Israel was not a 171 OommentarlMi Oommodua commercial people, nor was trade the occupation of a large portion of the population. Neither the earlier legislation nor the Deuter- 5. After onomist took commerce into con- the Exile, sideration or regulated it. The cap- tivity, on the contrary, altered the entire condition of affairs. In Babylonia com- merce was highly developed, and many of the exiles had no alternative but to take part in it. In Palestine, on the other hand, the Israelites were at first too poor to engage in trade, which was still in the hands of Phenicians, Eklomites, and other foreigners (cf. Neh. x. 31, xiii. 15-22). Not until the Greek period did the Jews again become mer- chants; but during this epoch there were colonies of Jews engaged in traffic in Alexandria, Antioch, Asia Minor, and Greece, and even in Rome. For the means of transportation see Ass; Camel; Horse; Mule. I. Benzinoer. Bibliography: L. Hersfeld, Handelge^diiehte der Juden de» AUeriym*, Bninswiek, 1879 (the one book); F. Buhl. Dis aodttUn Vtrhattni9M der larasliien, pp. 76-83, Berlin, 1890; SehOrer, OeBchiehte, Index. 8.r. " Handel." Eng. tnuud.. Index. 8.v. " Trade "; DB, iv. 802-806; JE, iv. 166-188; BB, iv. 6145-09 (exhaiutive).

COMMINATION SERVICE: An addition to the usual service on Ash Wednesday in the Prayer- book of the Church of England, designed by the Reformers to take the place of the ceremony of sprinkling ashes on the congregation in token of penitence. It consists of the recitation of the curses pronounced by God against impenitent sinners in the Old Testament (whence its name, commination — " threatening ")f and of Ps. 11. and other penitential prayers. In the revised Prayer-book of the American Episcopal Church is a modified form called "A Penitential office for Ash- Wednesday." COMMODIANUS, cem-mo-di-^'nos: Early Chris- tian poet of the middle of the third century. His birthplace is unknown, but his dose contact with Cyprian makes it likely that he spent at least his manhood in North Africa. By birth a heathen, after groping from one superstition to another, he was converted by becoming acquainted with the Scriptures. A manuscript calls him bishop. He is the oldest known Christian poet writing in Latin, and seems to have written for the common people. His form of verse, though externally hexameter, deviates from the strict principle of quantity in favor of accent, and his verse must have been pain- ful to the educated. For that reason, no doubt, be is Ignored by the Fathers, though heretical views might have had much influence, for he was a Patripaasian and a Chiliast. Hence his writings are designated in the decree of Gelasius as ** apoc- ryphal" {MPL, lix. 163); nevertheless, this very disapproval shows that he still had his readers. The Instmctiones and the Carmen Apologeticum are all that have survived. The former (of 1,259 lines, divided into two books of forty-one and thirty-nine [thirty-eight] separate poems, mostly acrostic in form) treats in book i. of the heathen, contrasting their religion with the Christian faith; at the same time Christians are reprimanded for being too intimate with their heathen neighbors; the con- clusion is a polemic against the Jews. The second book hss sober exhortations for all classes of Chris- tians. Between the two parts are instructions which treat of Antichrist, of the resurrection, and the final judgment. The Carmen Apologeticum (of about 1,060 lines) begins likewise with the heathen and continues with a dogmatic-historical review of the Christian faith; in the second part is a description of the end of the world, containing among other things references to the invasion of the Goths (240 A.D.7) and the appearance of two Anti- christs among the heathen and the Jews (though the Instructumea knew only of one). From his .writings Commodianus appears to have been a Christian of strong principles and robust nature; he is never extreme and does not commend the aspiration for a bloody martyrdom; his diction is faulty, but his thoughts often border on the sub- lime, and at times he is successful in satire. Sur- prising are his aversion to the Roman government (cf. Carmen, line 887) and his leaning toward the Goths, as though he were aware of the coming union of Christianity and the German world. (B. DOMBARTT.) Bxblxoorapht: The works are in MPL, v., and (best) ed. Dombart in CSEL, xv., 1887. Eng. tranal. is in ANF, iv. 203-218. Conmilt: W. 8. Teuffel. 0t9diiehte der rdmt- echen Litteratur, p. 972, Leipeio. 1800; Harnack. LiUera- fur. i. 731. ii. 2. pp. 433-i4Q; KrOger. Hieiorv, pp. 317-320; KL, iii. 701-704; DCB, L 610-611. COM'MO.DnS (MARCUS AURELIUS COMMO- DUSANTONINnS): Roman emperor 180-192. The son of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina, he inherited far more his mother's than his father's character, and spent his time in games and dissipation, leaving the government in the hands of his favorites. Utterly indifferent to religious questions, he left his Christian subjects in peace. At the beginning of his reign the effects of his father's polii^^ were still felt; but before long persecution ceased through- out the empire, to which Eusebius (Hist, ecd., V. xxi. 1) attributes the accession of lai^ numbers of converts. According to Irensus (IV. xxx. 1) some of these were found even in the imperial household. Among these was Marcia Aurelia Cejonia Demetrias, who seems to have been responsible for the tolerant attitude of the government. She was the daughter of a freedman, but brought up by Hyacinthus, a Christian. Hippolytus, her contemporary, calls her {Philos,, ix. 12) " the pious concubine (n-aAAaic^) of Commodus," and mentions important services rendered by her to Christian exiles in Sardinia. Dio Cassius also speaks of her benevolence toward the Christians and her intercession for them with Commodus, '' with whom she could do anything " (Ixxii. 4). In these days she was probably a catechumen; neither Christian nor pagan authors speak of her absolutely as a Christian. The diffi- culty of understanding her relations to the Roman Church in connection with that in which she stood to the dissolute emperor are lessened by recalling the fact that the regular concubinage in which she lived with Conunodus at this time was not forbidden by either secular or ecclesiastical law, and that there is no evidence of her taking any personal part in the corrupt practises by which she was surrounded. After the assassination of Commodus, she married Oommon Lift 172 the f reedman Eclectus and remained at the court of Pertinax. When he in turn, together with Eclectus, had been murdered by the pretorian guards, the new Emperor Didius Juiianus, yielding to their demands, ordered Marcia's execution. Victor Schultzb. BiBUOORiiPHT: B. Aube, Let Chritiens daiu Vemjrire Re- main, pp. 1 sqq., Paria, 1881; T. Keim, Rom und dtu Chriatenium, pp. 634 sqq.. Berlin. 1881; H. Schiller. Ge- BchidUe der r&mi»ehen KaiUeneit, I. ii. 660 sqq., QothA, 1883; Neander. ChrUHan Church, rol. i. paasixn; Moeller. ChriBHan Church, i. 166; Schaff, ChruHan Church, ii. 66; DCB, i. 611. COMMON LIFE, BRETHREN OF THE. Geert Qroote. The First Community (f 1). Buach's Account Inaccurate (f 2). The Life of the Brethren an Active One (§ 8). Prejudice and Opposition (f 4). Characteristic Features (f 6). The Various Houses (f 6). The Houses for Women (§ 7). Different Names (| 8). Dress (f 9). Oisanixation and Discipline (| 10). The " Modem Devotion " (f 11). Daily Life (| 12). Tendency to Asceticism (f 13). The Copying of Manuscripts (f 14). Their Influence and Importance (f 15). Their Limitations (f 16). Their Influence on Education, Literature, and Art (§ 17). The Brethren of the Common Life (Fratrea communis vUcb) were a religious association of a semimonastic nature which flourished in the transition period between the Middle Ages and the Reformation. It dates from the second half of the fourteenth century, when the northern Netherlands were the scene of constant conflicts of the nobility among themselves, with their vassals, and with the towns, which had notably increased in wealth and power since the Crusades. This increase in power had given rise to a lively interest in political, social, and ecclesiastical ques- tions, and the growing love of liberty had shown itself in a wide-spread antagonism to the clergy, which was fostered by the development of scientific study, and still more by the mysticism which was then so popular, in contrast with the hard and un- bending scholasticism of an earlier period. Two men especially represented this warmer and more earnest religious feeling — Jan van Ruysbroeck (q.v.), a priest of Brabant, and Geert Groote (q.v.), a citizen of Deventer, who was the founder not only of the influential congregation of Windesheim (q.v.) and the monastic reform that proceeded from it, but also of the Brethren of the Common Life. Groote makes his appearance in the time of the great Western Schism (see Schism) and of the *' Babylonish exile " of the popes (see Avignon). By the counsel of Ruysbroeck, then eighty-four years old, and with the bishop's license, he began to preach repentance throughout the I. Geert diocese of Utrecht. Crowds flocked to Groote. The hear him from all classes, at Deven- First Com- ter, Zwolle, Leyden, Delft, Gouda, and mtmity. Amsterdam. But when he attacked the sins of the clergy and the lazy beggary of the monks the bishop forbade his preaching after four years, and he retired to his native town of Deventer. Here he matured his plan, already conceived, for enabling those who had been converted to a pious Christian life to carry out practically their desire for perfection. He gathered a few friends around him, who regarded him as their head until his death, after which the leadership was taken up by Florentius Radewyns (q.v.). It was not originally a quasimonastic community separated from the world, with a definite system of common life and work. This is evident from the fact that several of Groote's friends, such as Jan Brinckerinck (q.v.), belonged to the circle without deserting their own monastic associations. It was only after the foimder's death that the com- munity was shaped by Florentius in a direction that promised greater stability and growth. This view, as put forth and justified by (jeiretflen in his biography of Florentius (Nymwegen, 1891), differs in not a few important particulars from that previously held by such writers as Acquoy, Hirsche, and Grube. According to their view, which rests mainly on the Liber de origine devotionis modemas by Jan Busch (q.v.), Groote sought to create a better type of clergy by educational influence upon the young, and supported many poor students at the . cathedral school of Deventer by giving them manu- scripts to copy for his library. After a while he handed over the care, both temporal and spiritual, of these youths to his younger friend Florentius, who took them into his own house and had them work under his direction. Then one day, accord- ing to Busch's aocount, Florentius suggested that it would be more economical, as times were hard, if they should all combine their resources and live in common. Groote at first feared that the jealousy of the mendicant orders would be aroused, but finally bade him go on in the name of the Lord. Busch, however, reads into the earliest history the practise of later times, which even then was casual and not of primary importance. It 2. Busch's is true that Groote, and still more Account In- Florentius, cared for poor scholars; accurate, but these were not a part of the brother- hood, and left when their education was completed. There are other inaccuracies in Busch's account. Relating that Groote on his death-bed answered the question of his adherents by saying that Florentius should be their head, he understands this of the Deventer house and brothers, while it is clear that Groote meant the movement as a whole. The final choice of a head for the Deventer house was long delayed; the deed for its purchase in 1391 indicates a joint rule by Floren- tius, Brinckerinck, and Gronde, and Florentius was not made sole head imtil later — probably between 1391 and 1396, by which time a more definite organization had been rendered necessary not only by the growth of the brotherhood and the foimdation of new houses, but as a means of pro- tection against external attacks. As long as Groote lived his influence was a sufficient shield for his converts; but soon after his death so great hos- tility showed itself among the citizens that the Brethren scarcely dared to appear in the streets, and a municipal official converted by Groote was obliged to interpose. Yet Florentius succeeded in canying on the work — at first in his own presby- 173 Cknnmon Ufl» tery, and when that grew too small in a rented house near-by, exchanged in 1391 for another which had been inhabited by a community of pious women. But even after the organization had crystallized still further there remained a fundamental differ- ence between it and the Windesheim congregation. Both institutions sprang from the same spirit of " modem devotion"; but while some thought they could preserve this spirit only in the monasteries where they knew it to prevail, the Brethren of the Common Life felt called to help on the spread of that spirit by preaching to the people, by caring for the education of the young and 3. The Life especially those who were to be priests, of the and by the mighty influence of a godly Brethren an life lived in the world. The asso- Active One. ciations of serious pious men which thus began to spring up in various places, followed by the foundation of houses for the community life of women, had features of novelty which excited attention and not infre- quently disapproval. As a loose and informal association, the Brethren were classed by many with the Beghards and Beguines (see Beohards), and thus fell under suspicion of heresy; 4. Prejudice as conmiunities somewhat resembling and Oppo- the monastic orders, they incurred the sition. jealousy of the latter, especially of the mendicants by the very difference that they did not beg but worked for their living; as conmiunities of workingmen, again, they were regarded as competitors by the ordinary working- men and women. It was some time, therefore, before they could secure general permission for the formation of their communities and the acquisition of land. Formal opinions as to the lawfulness of their position were frequently sought from the authorities, both by their friends and by their enemies. The most important of these opinions is the unprejudiced and favorable one pronounced in 1393 by Abbot Arnold of the Benedictine abbey of Dickeninge, in the province of Drenthe (Holland), and now extant in the Royal Library of The Hague. With this may be classed another procured by the Brethren from the law faculty of the new Univer- sity of Cologne, when the first waa not accepted by their opponent Matthias Grabow, who had asked for it. According to both the following seem to have been regarded as the characteristic features of the new organization: (1) They wished to live a common life extra religionem; that is, without ta- king the ordinary monastic vows. (2) 5. Charac- They lived by their work, rejecting teristic mendicancy. (3) They lived in com- Features, muni, men and women separately and thus without marriage, sharing freely with each other, so as to gain the advantage of mutual influence and brotherly exhortations. (4) They rendered voluntary obedience, not con- ditioned by a vow, to a leader chosen from their brotherhood. (5) They edified each other and people outside by the reading of the Scriptures in the vernacular. Of these points, what principally struck people in general was their living in common, whence their name; but their living thus without monaatic vows was what seemed to the older relig- ious conununities dangerous, and was the chief ground of the attacks upon them up to the Council of Constance. But if they differed from the monks in feeling it unnecessary to leave the world and bind themselves by solenm vows, they had many of the characteristics of the monastic life — obe- dience, absolute while it lasted though not irrev- ocable, celibacy, poverty in the sense of conunon ownership; and they ozdy seemed to stand in con- trast with it because so many monasteries had fallen away from their original principles. Nor had either founders or followers any idea of departing from the teaching of the Church. What they strove for was an ever-increasing refor- mation in life — ^the life of the Church and the life of the world. The statutes of their houses show plainly enough what was the main thing in their minds. Those of the commimity at Herford may be quoted: " For the promotion of oiu* souls' salva- tion, as well as for the edification of our neighbor in the purity of the true Christian faith and the unity of oiu* Mother the holy Christian Church, we will and intend to live a pure life, in harmony and conmiunity, by the work of our own hands, in true Christian religion and the service of God. We purpose to live a life of moderation, without beg- gary; to render obedience with reverence to our superiors; to wear a humble and simple habit; diligently to observe the canons of the holy Fathers, in so far as they are of profit; diligently to apply ourselves to the virtues and other holy exercises and studies; and not alone to live a bhuneless life, but to give a good pattern and example to other men." The mother house of Deventer has an interesting history, extending to 1574; here Erasmus was a student for several years, and learned Greek from the distinguished scholar Synthis (Sinder). The next in age and importance, that of ZwoUe, also founded by Groote himself, was governed with wisdom and eneigy from 1407 to 1456 by Diderik van Herxen, a writer of note, who made it a center of colonization. It held together 6. The until 1590. Thomas k Kempis and Various Jan Busch both probably taught in Houses, the school here, and were certainly inmates of the house, as was Wessel, the most significant precursor of the Reformation. Hoom (1385) and Ammersfoort (1395) were the only other foundations in the lifetime of Florentius. Of importance for the history of the movement in the northern provinces where it originated are Delft (1403), Hulsbergen (1407), Gouda, Hertogen- bosch, and Doesbuig (1425), Utrecht (1474), and Nymwegen (1592). In the southern Netherlands U^ was the first town to receive a colony of the Brethren, and was followed by Louvain, Ghent, Brussels, probably Antwerp, Mechlin, and Cam- brai. The earliest settlements in Germany were due to the labors of Heinrich von Ahaus (q.v.), who founded the three most famous German houses, those of Miinster, Cologne, and Wesel, of which the second lasted on until its secularization by the French in 1802, and has an interesting connection with the early history of printing. Others were early founded at OsnabrUck, Enunerich, Treves, Ckunxnon I«if6 174 Herford, Hildeflheim, Cassel, Butzbach, Marburg, KOnigstein, Rostock, and Culm (1473, the farthest point reached to the eastward). The Herford community, which (sec below, § 16) went over bodily to the Reformation, remained in existence as a Lutheran brotherhood until 1841. Even before the foundation of the first house for the brothers, Groote had presented (1374) to the burgomaster of Deventer a dwelling owned by him, to serve as a home for poor women, either unmarried or widows and without any monastic ties. The house did not seem at first to prosper, either under Groote or under his successor Jan van Gronde, who was an able preacher, but lacked the special gifts required. The sixteen women lived much as they pleased, and did little work, so that poverty pressed them and the outlook. was dis- couraging, when in 1393 Brinckerinck took charge of the house and put new life into it, 7. The with constant spiritual care and strict Houses for discipline. As in the case of the Women, brothers, new houses were soon founded, which offered a striking con- trast to many of the nunneries, in the degenerate condition in which the latter too often were. The rapid spread of these houses affords a proof of the strength which the spirit of free devotion pos- sessed in its earliest days. In the first half of the fifteenth century, at least eighty-seven of these communities sprang up, nearly all in the Nether- lands. Usually there was only one in a town, though Zutphen had three, Deventer five, and ZwoUe six. Many of them, however, transferred themselves before long to the Third Order of Saint Francis or adopted the rule of the Windesheim nuns, though such a change does not seem to have involved the total severance of relations with the brothers and sisters of Groote's society. The sisters were very commonly known, not only in Deventer but elsewhere, as Beguines — ^the name frequently given in those days to the tertiarics of the mendi- cant orders and other non-cloistered associations of women. The rule which governed them is known from the extant statutes of more than one house; it does not differ essentially from that of the ter- tiaries imder the charge of the Utrecht chapter. Their dress was gray in color, rather old-fashioned in cut, so that they were frequently objects of ridicule. Their food was as simple as their dress. There seems to have been no definite age-limit for reception; at Deventer girls of nine and women of fifty were admitted. Each house was ruled by a mistress, and had other officials corresponding, mvtatis mutandiSf to those of the brothers. They occupied themselves in all kinds of women's work, as it was then understood; occasionally in nursing, teaching girls, and copying manuscripts. Outside of the Netherlands their extension was greatest in Germany, where they seem to have reached a con- siderable number in the middle of the fifteenth century. Besides the names most usually employed by them- selves (Jraires vUce communis or boncB voluntatis), the Brethren had a variety of popular appellations in different places. Thus they were called, from their manner of delivering not formal sermons but plain talks, fratres coUationum or coUationcnrii ; because they imitated the apostles in their manner of living, ''apostolic brothers"; from 8. Different their diligence in copying manuscripts, Names. " brothers of the pen "; where they had schools, " school brothers " ; " cowled brothers " or " blue brothers," from their habit; and various other names taken from the saints to whom they were specially devoted as patrons or examples, Gregory, Jerome, Michael, George, Martin, and Mark. The names of " Lol- lards " or " Nollards " seem also to have been applied to them by their enemies. Since they made no vows on entrance, each brother could leave at any time without incurring ecclesiastical penalty. For this reason, as well as because they considered it possible to combine the interior life with mingling in the world, the title of religiosi was frequently denied to them. 9. Dress. Their clothing consisted in a uniform, simple, but dignified outer garment of black or gray linen, confined at the waist by a black woolen girdle; for clerics it reached to the feet, for novices and lay brothers only to the knees. Bieneath this was worn a rough shirt, to be washed once a month in summer, every other month in winter, and drawers of the same material. The cloak was a bluish-gray, and a black hood or cowl covered the head. The inmates of the houses were divided into three classes — priests and clerics, laymen, and proba- tionary candidates. The first class performed ail spiritual and ecclesiastical functions, the second the domestic tasks of house and garden; but all were brothers. The time of probation ranged from two or three months to a year. Each new brother was free to dispose of his property as he chose; but if he gave it to the house he could not reclaim it on leaving. Every house had a head called the rector, not as among the Windesheim commimities, the prior; there was an effort to avoid imitating monastic usage in such detaib. Id 10. Organ- the sisters' houses the confessor was izationand also called rector. The rector was Discipline, chosen with the greatest care; later, the choice was not left wholly to the individual house, and if no suitable person were among the community, one was sent from another house. All the members were pledged to obey him; without his permission none could leave the house or go anywhere except to church. In the rector's absence one of the clerical brothers in his place decided all questions that did not admit of post- ponement. If there were any complaints against the rector, it was the duty of the priests to consider them. Next to the rector's, the office of procurator was of importance; he had charge of the external relations of the house, of the buildings, of receipts and purchases. In the larger houses a cellarer was also required. One of the most important officials was always the librarian, who not only was custo- dian of the books, but supervised the copying in- dustry and provided the materials for it. Other officials mentioned are a novice-master, a precentor, a sacristan, an infirmarian, a cook, a gardener, etc. For purposes of discipline a chapter of faults (as 175 Common Lite di8tiDg;uished from the occasional particular chap- ter for the discussion of the affairs of the com- munity) was to be held at least once a week. First the youngest brother was to kneel in the midst and accuse himself of any breaches of the statutes or customs of the house; but (with the sober com- mon sense which characterized all the regulations) he was not to presume to go beyond two. Having asked pardon for his faults, accepted the penalty imposed by the rector, and promised amendment, he returned to his place and the next in order followed. If the penalty of expulsion were in- flicted, in case of a grave offense, such as heresy, immondity, or theft, the rector decided how much the offender might take with him in addition to his clothes, which were always allowed. Besides these domestic gatherings, there were yearly meet- ings of representatives of a group of related houses. These, with the visitations, formed a means of keeping up an essentially united spirit in the ever- increasing circle of conmumities; they were insti- tuted soon after the death of Florentius, and took place on Low Sunday, first at Zwolle and then in different places, such as Groningen, Hertogenbosch, and flmmerich. At the very foundati6n of the whole life lay the modema devotio^ daily progress in communion with God, out of a spirit of love and a pure heart. The means to this were the knowledge of self, the con- tinual struggle to conquer the baser desires, to abase pride, to despise temporal things, to break down self-will. To this end were directed all their spiritual exercises, their early rising II. The and their hard work, their speech and "Modem their silence, their submissive obedi- Devotion." ence. The man who asked to be received into the brotherhood could not but know that he " desired a good work." That was the purpose of the care shown in admitting new members, the time of probation, the oversight of the novice-majster, before they could be added to the list of the " perpetual " or " canonical " brothers. The life of each day was strictly organized. The bell rang at three each morning, and at half-past three all must be ready to rise and offer the first- fruits of the day to God in prayer and meditation. From that hour until nine at night, when the brothers went to bed, every hour (with the excep- tbn of the periods for mc»ls and recreation) was divided between work and spiritual exercises. The work was varied; the educated clerics spent a good deal of time in copying manuscripts, and many of the laymen learned the art from them, but there were all kinds of other tasks. Humil- 12. Daily ity was especially insisted upon; it life. was common for the Brethren to con- fess their sins not only to a priest but to each other, a custom which gave rise among outsiders to a suspicion of their orthodoxy. The spirit of submission in which they were taught to accept reproof and chastisement from superiors was shown also in the patient bearing of sickness or suffering. A regular feature of the life was the a^latumes or conferences — edifying discourses, fre- quently diversified by question and answer, or taking the form of a dialogue for a longer time. These were of two classes, one destined for outsiders to whom on Sundays and holidays the doors of the house were open, and always in the vernacular, the other taking place daily among the inmates of the house at the time of their midday or evening meal (the name probably coming from the use of the word coUaJtio in the sense of a common meal). The life of the Brethren could never, as has been seen, have been a luxurious one; but its ordinary limitations did not suffice the devotion of some, who attempted to strengthen themselves still fur- ther against temptation and increase their power of despising temporal things by accustoming them- selves to specially poor and distasteful food, or by wearing a torturing hair-shirt. If they found their health was being injured by these austerities, they thought of some other way to practise mortifica- tion and abandoned what had proved excessive — though this exercise of conmion sense, in the spirit of the time and especially of the rehg^ 13. Tend- ious life of the time, was frequently ency to As- justified by an appeal to some vision ceticism. or revelation. The spiritual life of the Brethren was largely nourished on Holy Scripture, to the study of which a special section is devoted both in the Herford statutes and in the Reformatarium vUcd clericorum. The quiet morning hours were consecrated to this, and all unnecessary running about was accordingly for- bidden. Systematic meditation on spiritual things was another feature; each day had its special sub- ject— Sunday the kingdom of heaven, Monday death, Tuesday the mercies of God, Wednesday the last judgment, Thursday the pains of hell, Friday the sufferings of Christ (which they were also to contemplate during mass), and Saturday their sins. From this practise arose many little books of written meditations, some of which, like the various SpeciUa (monachorum, Bemardi, pec- catorum), enjoyed wide popularity. Among the great variety of trades and occupa- tions by which the Brethren sought to provide for their own subsistence, and at the same time to have enough left over for works of charity, that of copy- ing manuscripts held an important place. Floren- tius had specially commended it to his immediate associates, who were principally clerics, as the most becoming for them; and the increasing practise of it became a permanent blessing to the Christian world, A large number of manuscripts are still extant, in private and public collections 14. The of Holland and Belgium especially, Copying of which were written in the houses of Manu- the Brethren. Those most frequently scripts, selected were liturgical books, the Vulgate, the Fathers, and works of spiritual edification. They had the custom also of compiling collections of the most striking passages from the books they read or copied, sometimes with the addition of reflections by the compiler. These anthologies (rapiaria) are not always written throughout by the same hand. Perhaps the work was taken up by another after the death of the first compiler, or several small collections were fused into one. The most diverse authors are met with Common JAA Oonunon Prayer 176 in them: some classical, especially Seneca; some patristic, most frequently Augustine, Bernard, and Johannes Climacus, to whom Gerson may be added; and some from their own circle, like Thomas k Kempis or David of Augsburg, the author of the Speculum monachorum particularly cherished and commended by Florentius. Such a life as has been described was the best defense of the Brethren against all attacks which could be made upon them. Even if there are some things in their system which seem to our minds exaggerated or objectionable, it is impossible to deny their importance to the Church's history. In attempting to siun up this importance, it is neces- sary to say at once that, with our fuller knowledge, they can no longer be described, in the way once customary, as precursors of the Reformation. None the less, their influence, both personal and corporate, was an inspiring and a purif3ring one. They took different ground from the already exist- ing " religious " communities when they showed that free-will offerings made in a spirit of devotion might serve God and ope's neighbor 15. Their In- acceptably, from both the ethical and fluence and the social standpoints; that a life of Importance, piety waa possible in the midst of daily labor and intercourse with the world in its lower and earthly as well as its higher spiritual tasks. Such separation from the world as they practised was not a flight in the false and one-sided conception of devotion and the service of God, but was intended to render positive service to human society. Their ideal of true inner piety, springing from the love of the heart, had a powerful influence on many who were merely externally members of the Church, especially such priests and monks as were performing their service in a mere formal spirit. To say nothing of their direct influ- ence on the clergy by education of young candi- dates for orders, they stirred up many a secular priest to a more faithful care of souls, a greater diligence in imparting spiritual gifts by preaching and teaching. The " conferences," offering relig- ious instruction to the plain man in his mother tongue, had an effect that extended far beyond the walls of the houses; and the same is true of the close adherence to Scripture and its application to the practical details of every-day life. But the best preaching is that of example; and this spoke so eloquently to the people that every- where, except where hostility was stirred up against them by the jealousy of bad priests or monks, their life was revered. Municipal authorities, private citizens, parochial clergy were forward to help them in their work. After the Church had pro- nounced a formal approval of their work at the Coxmcil of Constance, bishops, cardinals, and popes were desirous to assist it in every way, as by the granting of many privileges, even including special indulgences. The " modem devotion " which has been de- scribed, with its insistence on conversion and real sanctification, has been compared not altogether unjustly by Acquoy with Methodism, and by Ritschl with Pietism; but both comparisons are only true up to a certain point. The eystem of the Brethren was far more ecclesiastical than either of the others; the Word by which alone new Ufe can be planted and nourished takes a less prominent place with them. Instead of it, they have their self-chosen exercises and meditations. This is only natural, in view of the traditional church teaching which, with their Semi-Pelagian scheme of salvation requiring absolutely their own cooperation, they fvdly shared. In their meditations 16. Their the life and sufferings of Christ counted Limitations, more as an example and encourage- ment for their own trials than as the sacrifice for their sins and the sins of the whole world. Justifying faith, as the source of the new life called into existence by the grace of God, as the synthesis of religion and ethics, meant less to them than the process of sanctification. They lacked both the deep consciousness of sin and the cer- tainty of faith in the healing grace that blots out sin. Thus they emphasized, indeed, the freedom of the will, but not that which makes it free, the opera- tion of the Holy Ghost through the Word; they stood out as a free association compared with the monasteries, but not free with the perfect liberty of the children of God. Attempts at reformation of Christian life in those days, whether of individuals, monastic communities, or the whole Church, thus remained restricted to the region of externals; they did not touch the heart of the matter. The long- desired reformation could not be brought about in the way offered by the Brethren of the Common Life. When Luther's call to repentance and his preaching of faith penetrated into their houses some of them thought they had all that was re- quired in the inward reality of their devotion, not knowing the true freedom; others closed their ears to the proposal of what seemed innovations; others, again, were influenced by the intellectual power of the humanist forces that took the side of the Ref- ormation; and some few, like the brothers of Her- ford, gave themselves up to the gospel of free grace, winning Luther's word of praise that he could gladly suffer such houses, and wished there were more of them. But nearly all the communities began to decay from this time; and as the old ones were dissolved new ones did not arise to take their place. Their organization had not, on the one hand (as the Windesheim monks had always said), the security of vows and complete renunciation of the world; nor, on the other, was it adapted to ful- filling the high demands of the spiritual life, on the plane on which the Reformation, following the Word of God, had set it; the old bottles could not be filled with the new wine. A word remains to be said of their more specif- ically educational and intellectual influence, which was considerable and excellent, although it has been often misunderstood. The old view, represented by Cramer, Von Raumer, and K&mmel, ascribed to them a very far-reaching effect upon the school system and upon the improvement of the curricu- lum and the methods of teaching. But careful recent investigation shows that this was much exag- gerated. There were not many places where the schools belonged to the Brethren or were under their direction. Most of the houses educated only 177 Oommon I«ife Common Prayer young candidates for orders; they seldom supplied teachers to the public schools except in special cases. Nor did they possess a particular educa- tional method of their own, outside of 17. Their In- the general principles followed in their fluence on houses. Their influence, in fact, was Education, mainly that of their sincere Christian literature, piety, which had its effect on all>who and Art came within their sphere. In this way, beginning with Groote himself and his relation with Petrarch, as well as his own humanistic studies, a friendship sprang up between them and the leading German humanists which had notable results. Men like Cela, Hegius, Sinthis, and Arsenius at Rostock imbibed from the Brethren a simple Christian piety which was one of the great causes of the difference between the tendency of German and Italian humanism. In this sense both the Reformation and the liberation of the sciences which proceeded from it were indebted to the Brethren. They were not hostile to art; their churches were adorned to the best of their power, and in miniature-painting they have left some creditable results. From the literary standpoint, their own productions, whether original or com- piled, are mainly in the department of ascetics. Poetry occasionally found a home among them; and Heinrich of Alkmar, the author of Reineke Vos, came from the Zwolle house. Of special importance to popular culture is the fact that they showed a strong tendency to write in the vernacular or to make translations into it. Besides the Scriptures and other spiritual works (e.g., a German verse translation of the " Imitation " made at Cologne), they circulated numerous books in the vernacular of a historical or otherwise educational nature; in the earlier period they engaged not only in the cop3ring of manuscripts, but also in the work of adorning them with miniatures and illustrations, and even of preparing the parchment for them, and of arranging libraries; and with the invention of typography, not a few houses set up presses and sold printed books, thus contributing in a new way to the general spread of learning. L. SCHULZE. BiBUOomAPHT: For th« founders the souroes are in the " Life " by Thomas k Kempis in his Chronicon moruuterii 8. AffiuiiB, ed. Rosweyde, Antwerp, 1615, 1622, Eng. trmnsl. by J. C. Arthur, London, 1005. Consult: O. Bonet-Maury, Oerard de OrooU d'apria dea document inSdiU, Paris, 1878; K. Gnibe, Oerard Orooi und §eine SUftafHfen, Cologne, 1883; KL, v. 1286. For the brotherhood the sources, besides Thomas k Kempis, are Scriptum Rudolphi Diet de Muden de Magi*' iro O. Orote. in G. Dumbar, AnaUda, pp. 88-244, Deren- ter. 1719-22; J. Buschius, Chronicon VFindesAsmeiMS, ed. K. Onibe. pp. 1-375, Halle. 1886. Consult: C. H. M. Delprat. Over de Broederechap van OeertOroot, Amhem, 1856; J. G. R. Aoquoy, Met Klooaier ie Windeeheim en sija invhed, 3 vols., Leyden, 1875-80; 8. Kettlewell, TKomaa h KempU and the Brothara of the Common Life, 2 vols.. London, 1882-84; E. Mfibius, Charaderiatik der BrQder dee gemeinaamen Lebena, 1887; G. Bonet-Maury, De opera ackohutiea fratrum eommunia vita, Paris, 1880; G. Hdning. Die BrQder dee gemeinaamen L^bena und ihre Bedeutung fUr ihre ZeU, Gatersloh, 1804; Ddbner, BrQder dee gemeinaamen Lehena %n HUdeaheim, Leipsic, 1003; S. H. Gem, Hidden Sainta, a Stvdy of the BrotKere of the Com- wton Life, New York, 1007; Heimbucher, Orden und Kon- gregationen, 1. 306, 403, 400-410, u. 320 sqq., 336; Pas- tor, Popee, 1. 147-148. 160; KL, iy. 1924 sqq. 111.-12 COMMON FRA7BR, BOOK OF. Early Forms (| 1). First Prayer-book of Edward VL (| 2). Second Prayer-book of Edward VI. (| 3). Liturgy of EUsabeth (§ 4). Last Revision (f 5). Irish and Scotch Ptmyer-books (| 6). American Prayer-book (| 7). The Book of Common Prayer is the only ofBcial servioe-book used in the Church of EIngland and its aflUiated bodies. Although the service-books of the English Church before the Reformation were mostly in Latin, English primers, original ting, probably, in still simpler manuals of great an- tiquity, were in use at the beginning of the fifteenth century. The Poriiforium secundum U8um Sarum, or " Primer of the Salisbury Use " (c. 1400), is clearly the basis of the Book of Common Prayer, and contains in English: (1) Matins and Hours of our Lady; (2) Evensong and Compline; (3) The seven penitential psalms; (4) The fifteen gradual psalms; (5) The Litany; (6) Placebo; (7) Dirige; (8) The psalms of commendation; (9) Pater noster; (10) Ave Maria; (11) Creed; (12) The ten com- mandments; (13) The seven deadly sins. Marshall's Prymer (ante 1630 and 1636) and Hilsey's Prymer (1639), set forth at the command of I. Eaily Cromwell, led the way, with others. Forms, for The Prymer Set Forth by the King/' a Majesty (1646), which omits Nos. 4, 6, 10, and 13 of the aforesaid contents, but makes several additions as of the Calendar and "certain godly prayers." The Litany contains petitions re- questing the prayers of angels, saints, and mar- tyrs, and to be delivered from the tyranny of the Church of Rome; and the Dirige has prayers for the dead. The former was compiled by Cranmer from the old litanies and the litany prepared by Me- lanchthon and Butzer in 1643 for Herman (q.v.) of Wied, archbishop of CV>logne. Before the Prymer of 1646, convocation had authorized, in 1637, The Godly and Pious Institution of a Chrysten Man, con- taining the Lord's Prayer, Hail Maiy, Creed, dec- alogue, the seven sacraments, etc., and in 1643 the same, corrected and altered, entitled A Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for any Chrysten Man. The former was called '' The Bishops' Book "; the latter, ''The King's Book"; and both, with theiirtic^M of 1636, contain the authoritative opinions of the Church of England during Henry VIII.'s reign, and exhibit, on the whole, a retrogression in matters of doctrine. A commission, appointed in 1647 to revise the church-service, published March 8, 1648, as a first instalment. The Order of the Communion, framed in its new portions on Herman's ConsuUor turn, from which the Exhortation, the Confession, and the Comfortable Words are derived. It was a tremendous step in the direction of reform; for it ordered the communion to be solemnised in English, and restored the cup to the laity. The First Prayer-book of Edward VL, pub- lished June 9, 1649, differed from the Prayer-book now in use as follows: Matins and Evensong began with the Lord's Prayer, and omitted all prayers after the third collect. The Litany contained a petition for delivertmce from the tyranny of th« Oommon Prayer Oommnnioatio Zdlomatnm 178 bishop of Rome, while it omitted the invocatioxiB fonnerly addressed to the Virgin and other saints. The Communion Office began with an introit, and omitted the Decalogue; the Virgin was mentioned by name in the praise given for the saints; the sign of the cross was used twice in the consecration «f the elements, and the formula of administration contained only the first clause of that 2. First now in use; water was mixed with Prayer- the wine. In the Baptismal Office book of forms for exorcism, anointing, and Edward VL trine immersion were provided. In the offices for Confirmation, Matri- mony, and the Visitation of the Sick the sign of the cross was retained; in the first, the candidate made no promise, in the second, money was given to the bride, and, in the third, the sick might be anointed; the Burial-Service contained a prayer for the per- son deceased and a special service for communion. The Collects, Epistles, and Gospels were almost identical with those in the Sarum Missal; much of the new matter introduced was taken from Her- man's Consultation. The ordinal, entitled The Forme and Manner of Makyng and Consecrating of Archbishoppes, Bishoppes, Priestes, and Deacons (1549), was published separately, and differed from the present office in requiring the chalice and paten, as well as the Bible, to be placed in the priests' hands, and the pastoral staff to be committed to bishops before the words, " Be to the flock of Christ a shepherd." The Second Prayer-book of Edward VI., pub- lished in 1552, went much farther in the Protes- tant direction. It introduced: (1) the sentences, exhortation, confession, and absolution at the opening of the service; (2) the Decalogue in the communion office; (3) the use of the Litany on Sundays. It omitted: (1) in the Communion- Service: the Introit, the name of the Virgin in the thanksgiving for the Saints, the sign of the cross in consecration, the invocation of the 3. Second Word and the Holy Spirit, the admix- Prayer- ture of water with wine, and the first book of clause of the present form at the Edward VL delivery of the elements; (2) in Bap- tism, the form of exorcism, the anoint- ing, and the trine immersion; (3) in Confirmation, the sign of the cross; (4) in Matrimony, the sign of the cross and the giving of money; (5) in the Visita- tion of the Sick, the allusion to Tobias and Sarah, the anointing, and the directions about private confession; (6) in the Burial-Service, the prayers for the dead and the Eucharist. The most impor- tant change referred to the presence of Christ in the consecrated elements as not differing from his pres- ence to the prayers of believers. As the influence of Luther's Service of 1533 colored the first Liturgy of 1549, so that of Butzer, Peter Martyr, Valerandus PoUanus, and John k Lasco may be traced in the second Liturgy of 1552. The Liturgy of Elizabeth (1560) agreed substan- tially with the book of 1652, except " with one alteration, or addition of certain Lessons to be used on every Sunday in the year, and the form of the Litany altered and corrected, and two sentences only added in the delivery of the Scu;rament to the communicants, and none other or otherwise"; and ** that such ornaments of the Church and of the ministers thereof ^hall be retained and 4. Liturgy be in use as was in this Church of Elng- of Elizabeth, land, by authority of Parliament, in the second year of King Edward VI., untn other order shall be therein taken, etc." (1 Ehz. c. 2, April 28, 1559). The prayers for the queen, and for the clergy and people, and the collect, " O God, whose nature," etc., were intro- duced, but placed at the end of the litany; and one of two collects for the time of death was omitted. Some further changes were made early in the reign of James I., including the addition of forms of thanksgiving on various occasions and of questions and answers on the sacraments in the catechism (see Hampton Court Conference). In 1645 (Jan. 3) Parliament took away the Book of CV>mmon Prayer, and established the Directory, which rejected the Apocrypha, discontinued private baptism, sponsors, the sign of the cross, the wedding- ring, and private conmiunion, removed the com- munion-table into the body of the church, abolished saints' days and vestments, the burial-service, and the pubUc recitation of the Decalogue and of the creeds, though the Decalogue and the Apostles' Creed were subsequently supplied. The last revision of the En^h Prayer-book was made in 1662. Among the important changes were, (1) the extracts from the Bible — except the Psalter (which is Coverdale's text of 1539), the Decalogue, and the sentences in the conmiunion-service — give the text of the Authorized Version; (2) the separate printing of the Order for Morning and Evening Prayer, with the introduction of the last five prayers from the Litany, and of the Oc- casional Prayers, augmented by a 5. Last second prayer for fair weather, the Revision, two prayers for the ember weeks, the prayers for Parliament and All Condi- tions of Men, as well as the Greneral Thanksgiving, and a thanksgiving for restoring public peace at home; (3) some new collects, epistles, and gospels were supplied, and verbal changes made, such as " church " for " congregation," and " bishops, priests, and deacons," for " bishops, pastors, and ministers"; (4) the exhortations in the conmiu- nion-service were altered; the rubrics relating to the offertory, the placing of the bread and wine on the table, and their disposition, directing the form of consecrating additional bread and wine, and the covering of the elements, were added; the last clause respecting departed saints was added to the Prayer for the Church Militant; and in the Order in Council (1552), at the end of the office, the phrase " corporal presence " was substituted for "real and essential presence"; (5) among the more important additions in the rest of the book are the Office for the Baptism of those of Riper Years, the Form of Prayer to be used at Sea, new psalms in the Churching Service, and the last five prayers in the Visitation of the Sick. The Prayer-book of 1549 was used first in Ireland on Easter-day, 1551; and the Irish Act of Unifor- mity authorized a Latin version. The book of 1552 not having been ordered for observance, the Irish 179 Oommon Prayer Ooxnxnanicatio Idiomatum Parliament, in January, 1560, passed an Act of Uniformity, authorizing the Prayer-book set forth in England, and the Latin version 6. IriBh and (made by Haddon) for the benefit of Scotch ministers unable to use English, and Prayer- because there was no Irish printing- books, press, and few could read Irish. The use of the Book of 1662, approved by the Irish Convocation (August-November, 1562), was enjoined by the Irish Parliament in 1666. Since the disestablishment of the Irish Church in 1870, a revision of the Prayer-book has been made, strongly " evangelical " in tendency. In Scotland the Prayer-book had been in general use in the time of Elizabeth (between 1557 and 1564); but the Scottish bishops being averse to the adoption of the English Book, urged by James I., in the next reign framed a book of their own on the English model, with certain variations, which, though sanctioned by royal authority and printed, never came into general use. The English Book, except the Conununion Office (framed upon the Book of 1549), is now used by most of the ministers of the Episcopal Church in Scotland; but the Scottish Communion Office is still preferred in many places. The American Prayer-book is framed closely upon the model of the English book, and was the work of three successive General Conventions (1785, 1786, 1789). It was adopted substantially in its present form by the General Convention of 1789, with many variations from the English book, of which the following are the most 7. American important: it entirely omits the Atha- Prayer- nasian Creed, the Absolution in the book. Visitation Office, the Magnificat and the Nunc dimittis, the Commination, and the versicles after the Creed; it leaves optional the use of the cross in baptism, of the words " He descended into hell " in the Creed, of the Gloria Patri between the Psalms, and altogether con- siderably enlaiges the discretionary power of the minister. It adds to the number of the Occasional Prayers also a form of prayers for the Visitation of Prisoners, a form of prayer, etc., for the Fruits of the Earth, a form of Family Prayers. A form for Consecrating Churches (resembling that published by Bishop Andrewes) was provided in 1795, and an Office of Institution in 1804. The change of "Absolution" into "Declaration of Absolution," of " verily and indeed taken " into " spiritually taken " (Catechism), and the permission of using an alternative formula instead of " Receive the Holy Ghost," etc. (Ordinal), are as significant as the introduction of the prayers of invocation and oblation in the Communion Office, which was in- sisted on, as rendering the liturgy more in accord- ance with primitive models, by the Scottish bishops in the Concordat drawn up prior to their conse- cration of Bishop Seabury. The changes rendered necessary by political and local causes need not be mentioned: in the Thirty-nine Articles, the eighth does not mention the Athanasian Creed, the twenty- first is omitted, and the thirty-fifth printed with a proviso. A strong desire arose in the latter part of the nineteenth century for a revision in the direction of liturgical enrichment and increased flexibility, which resulted, after careful consideration at three General Conventions, in the final adoption in 1892 of a considerable number of changes, many of which, as the restoration of the Magnificat and Nunc DimiUis jhrought the book into closer harmony both with the English and with the earlier models. See LiTURGics; LrruRQicAL Formulas; and Thirty- NiNB Articles. J. I. MOMBERT. BiBuoaBAPHT: Reprints or faosimile reproductions which are noteworthy are: Book of Common Prayer from the oriifinal MS. aUaehed to the Act of Uniformity of 166$, London, 1892; Book of Common Prayer of 1649^ facaunile, ib. 1896; Prayer Book of Queen Elizabeth, . . . from OriginaU, ib. 1898; Fir9t Prayer Book of Edumd VI., ib. 1903. 1905; Second Prayer Book of King Edumd VI., ib. 1905. Consult: J. H. Blunt. Annotated Book of Com- mon Prayer, ib. 1890; E. Cardwell. The Two Book* of Common Prayer aet forth , . , in Vie Reign of Edioard VI., ib. 1852; C. E. Hammond, Litwrgiee Eaatem and Weetem, ib. 1878; W. M. Campion and W. J. Beaumont. Prayer Book Interleaved, ib. 1880; W. Maskell, Ancient Liturgy of the Church of England, ib. 1882; A. T. Wirg- mann. The English Reformation and the Book of Common Prayer, 1631-1669, Milwaukee. 1887; F. A. Gasquet. Eward VI. and the Book of Common Prayer, London. 1891; J. Cornford, Book of Common Prayer uith Explanatory Notee, ib. 1897; J. C. Jones, Concordance to the Book of Common Prayer, Philadelphia, 1898; J. Dowden, Work- manehip of the Prayer Book, London, 1899; L. Pullan, Hiet. of the Book of Common Prayer, ib. 1900; £. Daniel, Prayer-Book; ite Hietory, Language and Contente, ib. 1901; H. Qee. Elizabethan Prayer Book and Omamente, ib. 1902; F. Procter and W. H. Frere. New Hiet. of the Book of Common Prayer, ib. 1905; A. R. Fausset, Guide to the Study of the Book of Common Prayer, ib. 1904; M. McCoU. The Royal Commieeion and the Omamente Rvbrie, ib. 1906. On the American Prayer-book consult: C. M. Butler, Hiet. of Book of Common Prayer, New York, 1880; J. H. Garrison, The American Prayer Book, ite Prindj^ and the Law of ite Use, PhUadelphia. 1887; C. E. Stevens, Oeneeie of the American Prayer Book, New York, 1893; W. R. Huntington, Short Hietory of the Book of Common Prayer, ib. 1898. COBOfUNICATIO IDIOMATUM. Doctrine before the Reformation (| 1). Luther (f 2). Brens. Chemnitz, and their Followers (| 3). The Formula of Concord (f 4). Later Lutheran Theology (| 5). In Lutheran dogmatics Communicatio Idioma- tum C* communication of the attributes or prop- erties ") is a term referring to the relation between the divine and the human nature as united in the one person of Christ. The thought which it ex- presses aims to establish the connection between the unio personalis and the communio naturarum. Having for its purpose to illustrate the undivided personal life and work of the God-man on the basis of the twofold nature united in him, it stands in the closest connection with the historical appearance of Jesus, since it undertakes to give the final dog- matic declaration concerning the person of Christ. The doctrine starts with the assertion that by virtue of the incarnation of the Son of God as the second person of the Divine Trinity there exists an undivided subject of the God-man by virtue of the initiative of the Logos assuming the human nature so that both natures, the divine and the human, are indissolubly and perfectly connected with one another in personal unity. The dogmatic formu- Oommunlcatio Idiomatoin Oommimion of Saints THE NEW SGHAFF-HERZOG 180 lation of the ancient Church limited itself to fixing the fact of the incarnation — one divine-human person (Gk. hen proaiypon or mia hypostasis) of perfect and like essence with God X« Doctrine according to the divine nature, of per- before feet and like essence with man accord- the Ref- ing to the human nature, vindicating ormation. the integrity of both natures in the union and within the personal unity and retaining its plainly indissoluble conhection (Chalcedonian Statement of 451). When the question as to the natures of the God-man turned into that concerning the will and volition in the Monothelitic controversy, it was natural that the statement of the integrity and absolute connection already made concerning the natures should also be extended to the theUmata and energeia, as ad- hering to the natures, constituting their essence (Constantinopolitan Creed of 680-681; cf. R. See- berg, Dogmengeschichte, i., Leipsic, 1895, pp. 221- 222, 230). John of Damascus tried to define more clearly the communication of the properties. By virtue of the " penetration " (Gk. perichSresis) of both natures in the personal unity each commu- nicates to the other of its own, and it may therefore be said: " the Lord of gloiy was crucified," and on the other hand: '' this man is uncreated " (Da fide orihodoxa, iiL 3-4). The penetration proceeds indeed from the deity (iii. 7, end), but after the divine nature has once penetrated the flesh it allows also the flesh to penetrate it. The pene- tration is so far mutual; the human, without abro- gating its essence, becomes divine, the hiunan knowledge of Christ is enriched with all wisdom, the human will becomes almighty by means of the permeating divine will, the flesh making alive. An advance in this direction in medieval scholasticism was the less possible as the notion of God became more and more opposed to eveiything changeable, creature-like, human, and as the disinclination grew to revise the foundations on which rests the doctrine of the communicaiio idtomatum. It was with no theological scientific interest, but to help faith, that Luther from the very start em- phasized the fact that the Son of God had assiuned so much of our flesh and blood that we have now become one flesh with him. To this end he em- phasized the truly human being and human devel- opment of Christy without limiting thereby the divine essence of the Logos; eveiy- a. Luther, thing that Christ does or suffers he refers back as being done and suffered by God, but without an equal extension to both natures. Starting with the unity of the God-man, he went so far in the assertion of the union of natures and the communication of the properties that he supposed that the divine nature gives its property to the human, and again the humanity also to the divine nature. Influenced especially by the controversy over the Lord's Supper, he gave the human nature of Christ a share in the illocal existence of the Logos, and this since the unity of persons on which this communication rests exists from the moment of the incarnation. The Wurttemberg theologians, headed by Johann Brenz, took up Luther's conception most decidedly and carried it to its logical conclusion, viz., that by means of the personal union of both natures in the incarnation the humanity of Christ is also every- where where the divinity is, so that all communi- cation of the natiu'es and their properties actually existed with this accomplished imity; and that for the subsequent exaltation of Christ there re- mained only the emeiging and mani- 3. Brenz, festation of what actually existed. Chemnitz, Hereby the truth of the human nature and their and development was the less ob- FoUowers. scured, since they retained not only the statement " God has suffered and died," but also advanced to the assertion that even the divine nature has in its way taken part in the suffering of Christ. " The properties and acts of these natures have their condition, that one com- municates its properties or acts to the other, which is called the ' communicatto idionuUum ' '* (Brenz, De libello BuUingeri, p. 105). The Lower Saxon theologians, headed by Martin Chemnitz, shrank from this logical canying out of the unity of person with reference to the communion of the natures and their properties, and endeavored to maint^iTi in spite of the unity of the person the lasting dif- ference of the natures as well as that of the two states of Christ. But this does not mean that an essential difference existed between the Saxon and Swabian doctrine with reference to the supposi- tions and foundations themselves. For Chemnits himself expressly denied that the hypostatic union or the personal indwelling of the entire fulness of the deity in the assumed human nature had become " in the course of years, progressively greater, closer, fuller, and more perfect," and rather asserted this indwelling " from the flrst moment of the hypostatic union " (De duabtis naturiSf p. 216), and most decidedly declared against the assumption that God can be placed somewhere without placing there also the hiunanity assumed by him (p. 203). The statement of the doctrine of the communv- catio tdiomatum as developed in the Formula of Concord is thus plainly imintelligible in all points, if detached from the immediate interest of faith. Starting therefore with the so-called proposUionea pereonales (God is man, man is God) concerning which, according to the statement, no difference existed between the Fhilippistic and the Swiss theo- logians, they proceeded to the statement of the communicatto idiomatum based upon the generally acknowledged personal imion of the natures and to be interpreted by it. They asserted first the genus idiomaticumf that kind of communi- 4. The cation of properties whereby the Formula common properties are to be ascribed of Concord, to the person of the God-man with distinction of the natures. For ex- ample, the son of God was bom according to the human nature, the son of man is almighty according to the divine nature. Here, too, there was agree- ment with their opponents, but the difference of the meaning which was discerned in the expression results from this, that on the part of the Reformed this communicatio was only considered as a dicdec- tica proBdicatiOf not as a realis communicaHo. It is evident that in the confession of the Lutheran 181 Oommonioatlo Xdlomatam Oommimioxi of Saints Church the question was not decided, whether and in what respect all divine attributes of the divine nature were conununicated to the human, but that the attempt was made merely to point out those pro()ertie8 whose communication was immediately connected with the reality of the work of redemption and the functions of Christ based thereon {Solida Declaration viii. 66). Concerning the manner of the communication they were satisfied to assert that it really took place, but without fusion and equalization of the natures, after the manner of personal union (viii. 63-64). The immediate in- terests of faith at the time, according to which the statement must be interpreted, were thus satisfied, and they were satisfied also by knowing that the divine omnipotence, power, majesty, and glory showed themselves in, with, and through the assumed human nature, "when and how it seemed good to Christ," namely where his office " as me- diator, head, king, and high priest " required it (cf. viiL 78). And this irrespective of the general statement that wherever the person of Christ is it is as God and man (viii. S2); for this statement also is not meant to be conceived of as an ab- stract one, but as one of Christian faith, for which the God-man is just this, since otherwise it would not consider him as being able to save (cf. F. H. R. Frank, Die Theologie der Konkordienfarmel, iii., Erlangen, 1862). The Lutheran theology which followed the Formula of Concord has contributed little toward advancing the doctrine of the communicatio vdio- malum (cf. H. Schmid, Die Dogmatik der evange- lischen hUheriscken Kirche, GOtersloh, 1893, pp. 226 sqq., 234 sqq.). Wherever in modem theology the original position of the Church has been abol- ished— which necessarily led to the question per- taining to the communicatio idiomatum 5. Later — ^that the second person of the Trinity, Lutheran hypostatically conceived of, in the Theology, act of incarnation assumed the human nature for a personal, from that time lasting and existing union, the question can be no more of further advancing that doctrine of the com- munication of the properties in the old ecclesias- tical sense. Modem Lutheran theology which par- ticipates in that old ecclesiastical suggestion has abided mostly either by the statement of the con- fession and the corresponding doctrine of the the- ology of the seventeenth century, or has endeavored to bring about the dogmatically necessary advance by revising and recasting more minutely the foun- dations on which rests the doctrine of the com- munication of the properties, especially by assu- ming a self-limitation, a kenosis of the Ix)go8 at the incarnation, without, however, a general agreement or adoption within the Lutheran Church. See CHRISTOLOGY, VIII. R. Seebero. Bibliography: Consult besides the works eited under CBBxarroXiOOT by Baur, Domer. Thomasius, Liebner, y^hnJM, Frank, Nitssoh, Lipeius, Qess, Brens, Dansus, Ueppe, Sohneckenburger, and Hodge: J. Wigand, De eommunieaiume idi<muUum, Basel. 1668; H. E. Jacobs, Book of Concord, i. 619. 030. 632-633. 641. PhiladelphU. 1803; H. Sohmid. Doctrinal TheoLogy of the Evanoeiieal Lulhemn Church, Eng. transl.. ib. 1880; Neander. Chris- tian Church, ii. 489. 601-^2. iii. 169-162. 183. iiL 340. COMMUNION. See Lord's Supper.

COMMUNION OF THE DEAD: In the ancient church the custom existed of putting a piece of the eucharistic bread as viaticum into the mouth of Christians who by sudden death had been prevented from communing. The practise was prohibited by the synods of Hippo (393), third of Carthage (397), Auxerre (578), and the second Trullan (692). Balsamon states that bishops were given the Eucha- rist after their death, to protect them from demons while on their way to heaven. This idea was at the bottom of the custom. Later, a piece of the consecrated bread, instead of being put in the mouth of the corpse, was simply laid upon the breast, and buried with it. Gregory the Great tells {Dialogic book ii.) how Benedict of Nursia did this in the case of a young monk who had left his monastery and gone home without permission, lest the earth should refuse to harbor his dead body. The monk Yso relates in the ninth century that when the body of Othnutr, abbot of St. Gall, was moved, under his head and upon his breast were found round pieces of bread. Yso was ignorant of the object of the bread — showing how entirely the early custom had vanished even from memory. Bibliography: F. X. Kraus. RoalSneyklopOdie der chriMi- lichen AUerthUmer, ii. 886. Freiburg. 1886; Bingham. Ori4/in«a, book xv.; Hefele, ConeUienoeechiehtet ii. 66; H. M. Luckook. EtuharisHc Sacrifice and Interoeteion for the DeparUd, London. 1907; DCA. i. 636.

COMMUNION OF SAINTS: A dogmatic term, found in the Apostles' Creed, though not in the doctrinal formulas of the Eastern Church. The time and motive of its insertion in the ancient baptismal symbol and the meaning originally at- tached to it are still matters of controversy among theologians. The earliest certain evidence for the inclusion of the words sanctorum communionem in the creed is furnished by Faustus, bishop of Riez in the south of France, in the second half of the fifth century, from whose use it may be inferred that the clause was received as of unquestioned antiquity in the wide region repre- Early Tes- sented by Faustus, and that he knew timonies to no form of the creed without it. He the understands it specifically in the Formula, catholic sense of the word " saint," already pretty definitely established in his time, and refers it to the saints in their state of perfection in the other world. Not much later are the pseudo-Augustinian sermons ccxli. and ecxlii., which quote the words as part of the creed, and interpret them as meaning communion " with the saints who have died in the faith which we have received." A still older, though not so well authenticated witness is that of the Explanatio symbolif composed, according to Gennadius, by Bishop Nicetas — probably not Nicetas of Aquileia, but one who lived at Remesiana in Dalmatia as a missionary bishop about 400, and was a friend of Paulinus of Nola. His words have evident ref- erence to the baptismal formula, and are important as showing a wider reception of the clause than could have been argued from Faustus alone. Here it seems to adopt the same interpretation as that borne by the words of Faustus. This amounts 18S to saying that in the earlier period at which we know of the clause the only meaning assigned to it is a different one from that which it bears in modem Protestant theology — ^though this is not to say that it was introduced for the purpose of sanctioning the cultus of the saints and defend- Meaning. ing it against attack. The question is whether this meaning was borne by it at the time of its origin, which must have preceded the date already mentioned by a suffi- cient interval to aUow it to attain the wide rec- ognition already seen. The words were certainly not used, before they became part of the creed, with reference only to the perfected saints in heaven, but rather to the fellowship here below of those who are sanctified in Christ, just as the Church on earth is called holy. The controversy between Augustine and the Donatists turned on the question whether the existence of the ecclesia aancta depended on the expulsion of all those whose character gave them no right to belong to it. And so Nicetas calls the existing Church, whose members are only later to attain the fulness of the communio aandorum, a congregatio sanctorum. It is at least a plausible theoiy that the clause was originally put into the creed to express in the widest sense the fellowship of all the saints, existing already here and to be perfected hereafter; and that the narrower inter- pretation came in under the influence of the in- creasing cultus of those whom we now caU the saints. This view would bring the clause into connection with the Donatist controversy; while the sectaries boasted of their '' commimion of saints," the catho- lic Church desired solemnly to testify to its belief in that same blessing, and its confidence of possess- ing it. But the theoiy is weakened by the fact that the North African Church recited the creed without this clause. The theoiy that communio sanctorum is a rendering of the Greek koin&nia ten hagiOn, " holy things " in the neuter sense, as in the versicle of the liturgy ta hagia tois hagiois, may be dismissed. It is worth remarking that the Roman Catholic Church, strongly as it presses the veneration of the saints in the narrower sense, has never confined itself to this meaning in its interpretation of the clause, but is rather inclined (as in the Catechismua Romanus) to expound it as an expansion or com- plement of the preceding " Holy Catholic Church." To this communion belong the members of the Church on earth (the Church militant), those in purgatory (the Church patient), and Roman the saints in heaven (the Church Tri- Catholic In- umphant). The communion is em- teipretation. phasized by the prayers which the last-named offer for their brethren on earth and in puigatory, and by the doctrine of the treasure of the merits both of Christ and the saints which are available for the Church on earth. In a somewhat similar manner Luther explains the clause under discussion as an alternative expression for " Holy Catholic Church," translating it rather as " the fellowship of the saints "; he understands, however, different terms for the sharing of the blessings, and knows nothing of saints in the narrow sense. The older Lutheran theologians followed this view; and the Calvinist confessions do not differ widely from it, explaining that those who are sanctified in Christ's fellowship are bound to a mutual sharing of all the benefits they receive from God. (J. KasruNf.) Bibuoorapht: H. B. WiJaon, Ths Communion of SatiUt, Oxford. 1861; W. Rede, The Commiunion of SainU, Lon- don, 1893. DisouasioiiB will generally be found in trea- tisee on the oreeda, such as: C. P. CasfMri, QuelUn tut QttekichU de9 TaufaymboU, Leipsic, 1866-75; H. Cramer. Zum Kampf urn dtu ApoatoUcum, Berlin, 1803; T. Zaho, Dew apo^oliach€ Symbol, Nuremberg, 1893; O. Zdckler, Zum Apottolikwnalrnt, Munich, 1893; F. KattenbuMh, Da§ apo9toU9ch€ Symbol, Leipae, 1804-1000; A. Hahn, SymboU und Olaubontrtgeln dor aUon ITtrdkc, Bnslatt, 1807; A. Hamaek, The AjnmOm' Crwrf, London, 1901; A. C. MoGiflFert. ApotOn Creed, New York, 1902; KL, t. 1621-22. COMMUNION OF THE SICK. PER, v., i 2. See Lord's Sup- I. Theory, History, and CritidBn. The Communist Theory (f 1). History (| 2). Historical Examples (| 3). Criticism (| 4). II. Communism in America. Type and Character of American Communism (f 1). 1. The Adonai Shomo. 2. The Altruist Commtmity. L Theoiy, Histoiy, and CriticiBm: The words commmiism and socialism are often used s3mon- ymously; but this usage leads to confusion. As the opposite of individualism, socialism is merely the general view that, in the organization of soci- ety, the welfare of the whole shall take prece- dence of the rights of individuals. It 1. The 18 not sometfaJng absolute, but ad- OommuniBt mits of degrees, according to the ex- Theory, tent to which it recognizes individual- ism. Communism, or coDectivism, on the other hand, is a definite system. It is a theory as to the distribution of property in the interest COHHTJNISM. 8. The Amana Society. 4. The Church Triumphant, Kore- shanity. ft. The Ephrata Community. John Conrad Beissel. The Build- ings (§ 1). Oisaniaation and Doctrines (| 2). Growth and Decline (f 3). 6. The Harmony Society. 7. Icaria and New Icaria. t. The Perfectionists or Oneida Com- munity. 9. The Separatists. 10. The Shakers or the ifnunnial Church. Orisin and Early History (f 1). Doctrines (f 2). Organisation and Government (| 3)< Heligious Services. Preaent Statu (§4). of humanity and morality, and forms a definite social and economic system. It demands the abol- ishment of private property and the ownership of all industries and utilities by the State. Property is divided into two classes: one of things intended for consumption — ^food, clothing, and the like; the other of things serving for production — ^land, machines, factories, etc. According to commu- nism, the interests of society are best served ^en all productive property belongs to the commu- nity. The individual then is an employee of the State, and h&s a right only to those commodities that are apportioned out to him <rom the oonunoQ 188 Oommanion of Saints Oommunlfliii fltorehouse in remuneration for his contribution to the common work. The communist maintains that many of the existing economic evils would be removed by such a system. Production, he be- lieves, would regulate itself automatically; there would be no more crises caused by overproduction; and there would be no more strikes. Besides, by concentrating the industries the work-day would be shortened, thereby allowing more time for in- tellectual enjoyments. Poverty would disappear, and also the Idndred evil, wealth. The source of all evil passions and crime, private property, would be removed. Jealousy, selfishness, egoism would be meaningless. The whole social and economic world would be unified; there would be only one government, and that by the people. The whole of humanity would form one happy family. Since the basis of this system is the equal enjoyment of this world's goods, it is evident that the kind of communism here described is thoroughly material- istic. It is to be distinguished from ascetic com- munism, in which it is contempt for things earthly that leads to renunciation of private property. History shows that the higher the civilization of a country the more highly developed have been the forms of private property. Among 2. History. Slavic peoples the land surrounding the village is still held in common. The Germanic peoples early divided the arable land; but in modem Germany forests have re- mained common property to a great extent, and likewise pasture-land till near the end of the nine- teenth century. Communism as a theoretical sys- tem first appeared among the Greeks, the most famous example being furnished by Plato's " Re- public." Aristotle recognized its impracticability, but believed that the use of private property ought to be regulated by law in the interest of the public. Similar reactions against the division of society into rich and poor are found in the Orient, where disdain of riches leads to renunciation of property; the Buddhist monks are particularly noteworthy. Christianity pointed a new way. True, Christ taught that earthly treasures are unimportant com- pared with things eternal (Matt. xvL 26); but for this very reason both poverty and riches are of like import to the Christian. Both were consid- ered oiUy from the standpoint of the moral dan- gers tbey bring with them. So far from commend- ing renunciation of earthly goods, Paul declared work and remunerative work fundamental for every Christian (Eph. iv. 28; II Thess. iii. 10); and Jesus emphasized the duty of faithfulness where private possessions are concerned (Luke xvi. 11). The New Testament teaches complete self-denial, but not communism; and to conceive of the first con- gregation in Jerusalem as communistic is to mis- understand both the passage describing it (Acts ii.~ v.) and Christianity (cf. O. Holtzmann, in ZKG, xiv., 1893, p. 327; Nathusius, Mitarbeii, p. 402; W. Roscher, Orundlagen der NaiumalOkonamie, Stuttgart, 1892, p. 199). The later communistic interpretation of Christianity was due to two causes: the taking up into Christian thought of the heathen contempt for matter as such, and the sub- ■titutloD «if the Law for the Gospel. In its Chris- tian garb communism has been based upon asceti- cism, or upon greed disguised as asceticism, as with the CHrcumcelliones (q.v.) of the Donatist con- troversy (see Donatism). The idea that communism is ethically a higher form of possession than indi- vidualism was common in the Church throughout the Middle Ages. This made it easy for the Church to move the people to surrender their property. [Strong communistic tendencies appeared among the medieval Waldenses, Apostolic Brethren, Beg- hards, and Lollards. But the most important medieval commimistic experiment was that of the Taborites (q.v.), the radical Bohemian 8. Histor- party in the Hussite wars. Among ioal Ex- the articles set forth by them in 1420 amples. were the following: " In these days there shall be no king, ruler, or sub- ject on the earth, and all imposts and taxes shall cease; no one shall force another to do anything, for all shall be equal brethren and sisters. Aa in the town of Tabor there is no mine or thine, but all is held in common, so shall everything be common to all, and no one own anything for himself alone. Whoever does so commits a deadly sin." All were required to deposit their possessions in a conunon treasury. Later each carried on his own industry, but brought all the surplus product for common use. The more radical of the Taborites insisted upon community even in wives (see Adamites, 3; and Nioolaitanb). At first the Bohemian Breth- ren (q.v.) required all who would enter their fellowship to renounce property and rank, and schism occurred (1491) when the dominant ele- ments decided to relax the conditions of member- ship in the body, in favor of nobles and gentry. In the early Reformation time Thomas Mtlnzer (q.v.), influenced by Nicholas Storch (see Zwickau Prophigtb), made a determined and enthusiastic effort to overthrow the existing order with its in- justice and oppression, and to establish a kingdom of Christ on earth, conceived of as communistic or semicommunistic. The revolutionary peasants (see Peasants' War) did not demand absolute community of goods; but the forests for timber, fuel, and game, the streams for fish, exemption from oppressive taxes, rents, and imposts, and a free enjoyment of the products of labor by the laborer were earnestly insisted upon. All of thp Anabaptists recognized the obligation of contribu- ting freely of their means for the supplying of the needs of brethren, and many of them tau^t and practised a thoroughgoing communism. This is true especially of the Moravian Anabaptists, who established larger households, in which thousands lived in a communistic way imder a general super- intendent. (Consult on medieval and sixteenth century communism: K. Kautsky, Cammuniam in Central Europe in the Time of the Reformatum, London, 1897, and J. Loserth, Der Commttniemua der Mahriechen Wiedertdufer, Vienna, 1894.) A. H. N.] In the sixteenth century the propaganda for communism assumed the form cK fiction. The most important work of this character was the Utopia (1516) of Sir Thomas More (q.v.). Com- mimism in its present form may be said to havs ^7OOU0Ci^EL&XflD& 164 begun in the party of the Mountain in the French Revolution, when Marat maintained that equality of rights leads to equality in enjoyment. Thus communism was robbed of its religious guise and placed upon its present materialistic basis. How- ever, the real father of modem communism was 8aint-Simon (q.v.). His ideas were taken up by Fourier (d. 1837); Enfantin (d. 1864), who advo- cated community of women; and others, including Cabet (d. 1856), who founded communistic col- onies in America (see below, II., 6). Later Karl Marx (d. 1883) attempted to reduce the more or less obscure and idealistic thoughts 9f Saint-Simon to a cold logical Gfystem by deducing common owners ship from the nature of property. The position of the radical social party in Germany to-day is founded upon the theories of Marx. A product of the latter-day communistic thought was Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward (1888). The philan- thropic aims of the later communism have at- tracted certain of the clergy, as they did earlier the contemporary of Saint-Simon, Robert Owen (q.v.); but the resiilt is a new mixture of the ideas of Christian asceticism, based on a misunderstanding of the Gospel, with the materialistic desires of the multitude. A like tendency, with the same con- fusion of thought and result, appears in the Roman Catholic Church in Lamennais (q.v.) and other Frenchmen. The theories of Henry Geoige (d. 1896) differ from communism in essential points and are only allied to the latter. Idke many other things, commimism is beautiful in theory; but it does not work in practise. The successful control by the government 4. Ozitlcinii. of isolated utilities forms no argimient for the eonmion ownership of every- thing. Granting that the entire industrial world eould be organized under a single management, on what principle would the fruits of the common work be divided among the individual members of society? According to the needs of the individual, or the amount of his production? according to the number of hours employed, or according to the quality of his work, physical or intellectual? Such practical considerations show that thoroughgoing communism is only a theory. We are neither ma- chines nor slaves; yet such a system would, in .effect, condemn the wholp of humanity to penal servitude. There would be no longer any indi- vidual endeavor; for all articles of use, whether pig iron, potted ham, or poetiy, would be forth- coming at the command of some general commit- tee. Even a philosopher would be prohibited from spending his leisure hoiurs in pleasant medi- tation; for in a communistic society all philosoph- ical problems would have been solved, and further speculation must be considered dangerous to the existing social organization. Such an offense would constitute a sort of lese-majesty. Arguments for communism are superficial and can be met by a simple appeal to the nature of man as a fvdl moral agent. Commimism based upon an equal enjoy- ment of this world's goods is imchristian and is not supported by revelation. God makes men to differ from one another, and this fact is recog- nized in the Bible. The institution of private property is supported by every passage in the Bible where property is mentioned; and, in fact, it Ls a postulate of Christian ethics. Is it not through accumulating that the Christian is to make himself a useful member of society ? (M. VON NATHUsrosf.) n. Communism in America: [Almost from its discovery America seemed marked out as the home of communistic experiments. The Jamestown charter (1606) included a provision Type and for a common storehouse, and the Character Pilgrims for a time maintained some of Ameri- features of communism. More direct can Com- and systematic attempts to embody munisnL the idea in practise were the Labadist community in Maryland (1680; see Labadis, Jean de, Labadists) and the community of the " Woman in the Wilderness " in Pennsyl- vania (1604). It is significant of the hopes which were entertained concerning America that such communistic bodies as the Shakers, Harmonists, Separatists, Amana Society, and Icarians (see be- low) were growths transplanted from other lands. The teachings of Owenism, Fourierism, and Cabet- ism were tested hei;p, as well as in later times those of Marx and his school. In many of these the re- ligious principle was central. Other efforts disre- garded the religious basis and were either purely social or a mingling of the social and economic. Some of those which started as religious move* ments became purely economic. Of early founda- tions only the Oneida Conununity, the Amana So- ciety, and the Shakers are now in existence. Where the basis was the thought of a single mind empha- sizing personal idiosjmcrasy, and where the essay was made in ignorance of vital and economic laws success could be only temporary. Division and dissension soon wrought the ruin of the experiment. Some of these essays at a communal life left their impress upon both life and literature. Such a one was Brook Farm, which figures in the works of Hawthorne, Alcott, and the New England writers of their time. The tendency of the last two dec- ades has been away from a strictly communistic and toward a cooperative type of society. The life of these experiments is not yet sufficiently ex- tended to afford basis for judgment as to the pei^ manence they will attain. The more important of them are the following.] 1. The Adonal Shomo ('< the Lord is there *')'. A religious society holding the doctrines of the Second Advent, which existed in Massachusetts 1861-96. Its founder, Frederick I. Howland, s Quaker of New Bedford, was converted to the Sec- ond Advent doctrine under the preaching of Will- iam Miller (q.v.) in 1843. Believing that he had received the gift of inspiration in 1855« he formed an association in 1861 with other like-minded per- sons, who settled in Athol and afterward in Peters- ham, Mass. The fundamental principles of the society as given by one of its presidents were: "The Jesus, the Mystery of Christ, and belief in times of restitution of all things, of which Qodhath spoken by the mouth of all his holy prophets since the world began; and that the elect, by grace through eaid I faith, will attain to the Melchisidek priesthood, which 185 ffftwnWMiwlMm is after the power of an endless life." All possessions were held in common; the seventh day was ob- served aa the Sabbath, and the Lord's Prayer was presented bs the offering of the morning and eve- ning sacrifice. Rowland held also that the true fol- lowers of Christ had already begun the eternal life. The Adonai Shomo never had more than twenty- five or thirty members. It possessed 840 acres of land and a dwelling. It was chartered in 1876. In 1896, only one of its members surviving, the charter was annulled by the State Supreme Court; and in the following year the property was sold. W. H. Larrabee. Bibuograpbt: H. F. Hacer, in Amaiean Soeialitt, 1877; W. A. Hinds. American CommunUiea, pp. 403~407, Chi- ci«o. 1008. 8. The Altruist Oommunity: A society occupy- ing a small estate at Sulphur Springs, on the Mia- sissippi River, 23 m. s. by w. of St. Louis, Mo. It waa fotmded by Alcander Longley, who had been a member of the North American Phalanx (one of the most successful of the American com- munities based upon Fourieristic principles) and of the Icaria Community (see below, 7) and also a member and director in several cooperative stores and colonies. It allows equal rights and privileges to all its members, both men and women, in all the business affairs; and it makes no interference with the marriage or family affairs of its mem- bers, or with their religious, political, or other opin- ions. It carries on a poultry and gardening busi- ness. It has few members, but additional ones will be received as fast as they can be profitably em- ployed. The society has also headquarters at St. Louis, with a printing establishment where its monthly journal, books, and tracts are published. W. H. Larrabee. Bzbuoobapht: W. A. Hinds, American Communitiee, pp. 486. 487. Chicaco, 1906; The AUruiit, St. Louis (a monthly); A. Longley, What w Communiemf St. Louis. 8. The Amana Society: Located at Amana, Iowa. The origins of the society go back to the revived communities of the " inspired " in Germany in the first quarter of the eight- eenth century (see Inspired, The). The an- noyances which the members of these revivi- fied congregations suffered at home because they separated from the State Church, refused to send their children to the public schools, declined to bear arms, serve in war, take oaths, and the like, led to their emigration to America. Under the lead of Christian Metz, Barbara Heine- mann(see Inspired, The), Councilor G. A. Weber of lich, and a manufacturer of Ronneburg named Morechel, they bought a tract of land near Buffalo, N. Y., where they built six villages, besides two in Canada. About 800 persons came during the years 1843-^. They gave their settlement the name Ebenezer, and engaged in agriculture and cloth manufacture. In 1854 a tract was bought on the Iowa River, on which seven villages were laid out, and the colony removed thither during the ensuing ten years. The community wsa in- corporated in 1859 BS the Amana Society, under a constitution providing that all property should be held in common, that agriculture, manufacturing, and trade should furnish the means of sustenance, and that the surplus should be applied to com- munal improvements and educationad and benevo- lent purposes. Metz was the head till his death in 1867, when he was succeeded by Barbara Heine- mann (who had married Georg Landmann). Since her death (1884) no member has received the gift of prophecy. The fundamental doctrine of the Amana Society is that " God can now as well as of old inspire men to declare his word and will, and thus act as mes- sengers of divine teaching to the world." This gift is not continuous, but is supposed to fall upon special persons. The utterances of all the society's prophets have been recorded and are read at the meetings along with the Scriptures. The doctrines of the Trinity, justification by faith, the resurrec- tion of the dead, and the final judgment are incul- cated in the catechism. The Lord's Supper is cel- ebrated whenever inspired direction is given to do so, and then with peculiar observances; baptism is not practised. The basis pf the communistic system is wholly religious. Persons joining the society surrender all their property and all claim to wages, and are promised in return board and dwelling, support in old age, sickness, and infirmity, and an annual allowance for clothing and other expenses. If they withdraw, they receive back what they originally contributed to the common fund. Marriage is permitted; but those who marry lose their stand- ing for a time. Membership is of three orders, of which the first includes the youth and probation- ers. A thorough inquisitorial examination of the spiritual condition of the whole community is held every year. The temporal government of the so- ciety is vested in a board of thirteen trustees, who are chosen annually by the male members. A suit brought for the dissolution of the Amana Corpo- ration on the ground of its carrying on a secular business was decided by the District Court in Iowa in 1905 in favor of the society. The society re- ports (1906) a membership of 1,770, and property aggregating in value $1,750,000. W. H. La^rrabeb. Bibuoorapbt: The society haa iasued A Brief Hietory cf ihe Amana Society (Amana. la.. 1900). Conault W. A. HindB, American CommuniHe; pp. 301-326, Chicago, 1908; C. NordhoflF. CommunvtHc Societiee of the United Statee, New York, 1875; A. Shaw. Life in the Amana Colony, in The Chautauqudn, viii (1888), pp. 300 eqq.; K. Knorti, Die xoahre Inepirationegemeinde in loum, Leipeio, 1896; R. Ely, Amana; A Study of Retiffioue Communiem, in Harper' 9 Maoaeine, er (1902), pp. 669 oqq. See the bibliography of Inbpibkd, The. 4. The Ohuroh Triumphant, Koreahanity: A religious society at Estero, Lee County, Fla., whither its headquarters were removed from Chicago in 1903. It was founded in Chicago in 1886 by Dr. Cyrus R. Teed, who claimed to have experienced a spiritual illummation in 1870, with a revelation of the system which he denominated Koreshanity (from Koreah, the He- brew equivalent of his own name, Cyrus), while a practising physician of Utica, N. Y. The system is based on the Koreshan Cosmogony, which holds that the universe is a hollow sphere, whose phys- ical body is the earth, and that men live in the in- side of the cell. The sun, moon, planets, and stars OoillBllUllfll& 186 are all within the globe. The earth is supposed to be eternal, a great battery continually renewing itself. Alchemy, rather than chemistry, is held to be true, matter and spirit to be interchangeable and interdependent. God is a personal being, in- vested with a trinity of specific attributes; Jesus Christ was God Almighty, and the Holy Spirit was the product of his transmutation or of the burning of his body. The coming of the Messiah is the fruition of an evolution through a succession of reincarna- tions. The divine seed was sown 1 ,800 years ago, and the first fruit is another Messianic personality, who is afiirmed to be now in the world, declaim- ing his scientific gospel. Reincarnation is the central law of life and identical with resurrection, which is reached through a succession of reem- bodiments. The origin and destiny of man are found in God. The standard of Koreshan purity is the virgin life of Jesus. The Bible is accepted as the best written expression of the divine mind, and its truth is demonstrated by Koreshanity. The Koreshan government has as its principal di- visions the Church Triumphant, the College of Life, and the Society Arch-Triumphant. There are also three general orders: the investigative court, the marital order, and the communistic and celibate order, the last being the highest and most central of the three. The following of Koreshanity is estimated at about 5,000, and the property at $250,000. The town of Estero includes an area of 110 square miles. W. H. Larrabee. Bibuoorapht: The literature of the oociety oompriaes: C. R. Teed's Koresh. The Imntortal Manhood; L. Page Borden, The Logoe or Word Book; G. R. Teed and U. G. Morrow, The CeUtUar Coemology/t a aeries of pamphlets explaining the principles of the society, all published at Estero, and The Flaming Svoord, the periodical of the oommunity. Consult also W. A. Hinds, American Comr munUiee, pp. 471-185. Chicago, 1908. 6. TheEphrata Oommunity: A society founded in Lancaster County, Pa,, in 1732 by John Conrad Beissel (b. at Eberbach, 12 m. e. of Heidelberg, Germany, 1690; d. at Ephrata July 6, 1768). He is said to have been converted in 1715, to have come under Pietistic influence, 1. John and especially to have been affected Sui^ by the ideas of Gottfried Arnold The ' (QV-)- In 1720 he emigrated to Bnildinffs. America, intending to join the com- munity of the " Woman in the Wilder- ness," on the banks of the Wissahickon; but finding that society no longer in existence, he joined the Dunkers (q.v.) in 1724. Later he became convinced of the duty of celebrating the seventh day as Sabbath and published Das Biichlein vom Sabbath (Philadelphia, 1 728). He then withdrew from the Dunkers and adopted a soli- tary life in a cabin on the Cocalico Creek, where he was joined by three men and two women. About this nucleus a community was formed, com- posed mainly of Dunkers, and in 1733 a conven- tual mode of life was formally adopted; buildings for the accommodation of the members were erected, of which those constructed in 1746-47 are still standing (near the borough limits of the pres- ent town of Ephrata, 19 m, s.w. of Reading). They were made entirely of wood, and the use of iron was long avoided in the entire life of the commu- nity. The sister house shows the method of con- struction, being divided into some fifty cells, each about six feet long by five wide, containing a win- dow eighteen inches by fourteen and a door sixty inches by twenty, while under the window was a bench about eighteen inches wide upon which the occupant slept with a block for a pillow. The halls were so narrow that they permitted the pas- sage of only one person at a time. The walls of the Saal, another early building, are still hung with charts, illustrated texts, and drawings made by the inmates in the early days, all done with the quill pen; and in the library are preserved numuscript hymn- and tune-books done not later than 1750. The community was organized upon a basis of voluntary celibacy, those who were married living apart. In the neighborhood gradually gathered a number of persons who accepted the 2. Organ- religious principles of the oommunity ization and except those of celibacy and commu- Bootilnes. nism. Within the community the members assumed monastic names, and the founder was known as Friedsam and Gott- recht. A small tract of land was acquired, all the work on which was done by the members. In 1740 the holding of property by individual mem- bers was declared sinful, and all who joined the community were required to surrender all they had to the common fund; in 1786 this regulation was abolished. The religious mysticism which underlay the society assumed that true Christian- ity could be attained only by overcoming the bonds of the flesh, and true wisdom was to be sought by union with the celestial Sophia. Man originally combined in one perfect being the male and the female elements, which condition, lost at the Fall, is to be regained in the body of Christ. To the attainment of perfect happiness there is necessaiy right living, purity of life, renunciation of self and of himian love and marriage, meditation, and praise of Christ, all of which lead to the mental state where the celestial male and female elements shall be united. The New Testament was ac- cepted as the bond of faith, trine baptism was practised with the laying on of hands while the candidate knelt in the water, the Lord's Supper was celebrated on the evening of the Sabbath to- gether with washing of feet, and love-feasts and night services were held as occasion demanded. The conmiunity was opposed to the taking of oaths and to bearing arms, though the buildings were opened as a refuge after fights on the frontier, and after the battle of Brandywine the place served as a hospital with the members of the community as nurses. Compensation from the British govern- ment and from the State of Pennsylvania for these services was refused on the ground that it would be a temptation to worldliness. By 1740 thirty-six men and thirty-five women had united with the society. Its largest mem- bership is given as 300. While the society regarded agriculture as its principal business, it possessed the second printing-press set up in the State, had a paper mill, and also saw mills, grist mills, and other like enterprises. It furnished the 187 Oomniiuilsiii paper, and is believed to have printed and bound a part of the edition of Christopher Sower's Bible, published at GermantoWn, 1743 (see 8. Growth Sower, Christopher). The school and maintained by the brethren enjoyed a I>ecUno. high reputation, and drew students from Philadelphia and Baltimore. The community was celebrated also as a musical center, and the founder was a prolific writer of hymns and music. His GdUliche Liebe and Lobesgetdne, printed liy Benjamin Franklin in 1730, are believed to be the earliest books of German poetry printed as na- tive productions in America. After the death of Beissel in 1768 the society de- clined; and in 1814 the remaining members be- came incorporated as the Seventh-day Baptists, German, receiving authority to hold the land and buildings in trust for religious and educational pur- poses. Their principles and practises are substan- tially those of the Ephrata Community, with the elimination of the communistic and celibate prin- ciples. They have congregations in the counties of Bedford, Franklin, Lancaster, and Somerset, Pennsylvania, a bishop emeritus, six active and two retired ministers, and about 250 members. They possess an estate of 110 acres, and the total value of all property is about $100,000. The num- bers are not increasing, and in 1907 one of the churches united with the Seventh-day Baptist Gen- eral Conference. W. H. Larrabee. Bibuoohapht: Chronieon Ephratenae: a HUL of Vis Com' munity of StverUh Day BaptUta at Ephrata, finished in 1786, translated by J. M. Hark, Lancaster. Pa.. 1880 (carries the reader to the death of the founder); C. Nord- hoft, Communiatie Societies, pp. 133-134. New York. 1876; O. Setdeneticker, in The Century Magazine, vol. i., no. 1, 1881; S. G. Fisher. The Making of Pennaylvania, Phila- delphia. 1806; J. F. Sachse. The German Sectariana of Pennaylvania. CriHeal and Legendary Hiat, of the Ephrata Cloiater and Oie Dunkera, Philadelphia, 1000; W. A. Hinds. American CommuniOea, pp. 16-24. Chicago. 1008; A. H. Lewis, in The Sabbaih Recorder, Plainfield. N. J.. May and June, 1006. 6. The Harmony Society: Founded in Penn- sylvania and Indiana by Georg Rapp (q.v.), who came to America with a number of followers from Warttembei^ in 1803. Five thousand acres of land were bought in Butler County, Pa., as a site for a settlement, to which the name Harmony was given. Other followers of Rapp came the next year and the organization of the community was completed in 1805. The members placed their property in a conmion fund, covenanted to labor for the good of the community, and promised to make no demand, in case of withdrawal from the society, for compensation for their labor or that of their children. In 1807 they gave up marriage; in 1818 they renounced the right of receiving back their original contributions in case of withdrawal, and the records of these contributions were burned. The site of the colony proving unsuitable in some respects, 30,000 acres of land were bought in Poeey County, Ind., in 1814 and a new settle- ment was founded. Agricultural and manufactur- ing enterprises were undertaken on a liberal scale, and a considerable trade was built up. But un- pleasant conditions developed, and the property was sold in 1824 to Robert Owen (q.v.), who es- tablished another conmiunity upon it. Rapp and his associates returned to Pennsylvania, and set- tled at Economy, on the Ohio River (17 m. n.w. of Pittsburg), which remained the home of the com- munity during the rest of its existence. In 1832 the society suffered severe loss by the withdrawal of 250 members following a disaffected leader, whose claims it was deemed expedient to satisfy by the payment of upward of $100,000. While they were without any religious organiza- tion separate from their community and had no written creed except the Bible, the Harmonists made the salvation of their souls their supreme object. They believed that Adam was created in the likeness of God, androgynous; that he be- came discontented when God separated the female part from him, and this was the fall of man; that the celibate state is the more pleasing to God; that in the renewed world man will be restored to the dual Godlike and Adamic condition; that Jesus was bom in the likeness of the Father, a dual be- ing, and taught and commanded a community of goods. A cardinal point of their doctrine was that the coming of Christ and the regeneration of the world were near at hand; and one of their aims was to be in readiness for the event. All who sought admission to the society were required to make a complete confession of sins to one of the elders. The society declined rapidly during the later years of the nineteenth century. In 1890 the United States Census gave the number of members as 250; in 1900 there were nine. After a period of financial strain, of lawsuits brought by seceding members, which were decided in the society's favor in the Supreme Court of the United States, their property was sold in Apr., 1903. W. H. Larrabeb. BiBUOoaAPHT: W. A. Hinda, American Communitiea, pp. 6(M», Chicago, 1906; A. Williams, The Harmony Soei^ ety at Economy, Pa., Pittoburg, 1866; C. NordhoflF. Com^ muniatic Societiaa, New York. 1875; G. B. Lockwood. New Harmony Communiiiea, Marion, Ind., 1902; W. O. Davis. The Paaaing of the Rappiata, in Ounion'a Magaaine, XXV (1003), 20 sqq.; J. A. Bole. Thci Harmony Society, Philadelphia, 1904; F. Podmore, Robert Oven; a Bi- ography, 2 vols.. New York, 1907. 7. Icarla and New Icazla: A society formed in 1848 by French immigrants who settled in Texas under the leadership of £tienne Cabet, a French revolutionary agitator connected with the society of the Carbonari, author of several historical and socialistic works, and a member of the French As- sembly of 1831. His radical utterance against the French king and ministry led to his expulsion from France, but, in 1840, he returned and gained many thousand adherents to his socialistic theories through his fanciful descriptions in Le Voyage en Icarie (Paris, 1842) of an ideal society in which all class distinctions were abolished and equality pre- vailed, and through their promulgation in the journal Le Populaire. In 1848 he purchased land in Texas for the purposes of a colony. The coun- try being wild and practically inaccessible, it proved unfit for the purpose. Homes were procured for the baffled and disappointed immigrants, several hundred in niunber, who had suffered great hardships ll'l^^^ia^ntlMWft 188 in fruitless efforts to establish themselves on this site, in Nauvoo, 111., then recently abandoned by the Mormons (q.v.). The society was afflicted with dissensions that resulted in several secessions and the founding of new colonies, which had only short lives. The conmiunity at Nauvoo removed to Iowa in 1860, and was again involved in a controversy in which legal measures were employed. By a set- tlement in 1879, one of the parties remained on the site and retained the name, Icaria; while the other formed a new settlement, named New Icaria, on the Nodaway River. The older colony lived only a short time; while the community of New Icaria existed till 1895, when it wsa dissolved by the unan- imous vote of the twenty-three remaining mem- bers. The Icarian Community was organised without any religious basis. Complete tolerance was given to individual opinion in matters of religion so long as its expression did not provoke dissension. The society was a pure democracy, in which a com- plete community of goods was contemplated. Di- rection wa£ vested in a general assembly of all the members, whose decisions were carried into effect through officers elected annually. Transgressions of the principles, laws, and regulations of the com- mimity were punished by public censure, depriva- tion of civil rights, or exclusion of the transgressor, according to the gravity of the offense. W. H. Larrabsb. BtBLiooBAFHT: W. A. HincU, Ameriean CommuniHeM, pp. 361-306. Chicago. 1906; C. Nordhoff. CommunitUe Sa- cieiiM, New York, 1875; A. Shaw, Icaria. A CAapfar in i)u Hiat. of Commuftiam, ib. 1884; J. Pnidhommeaux, loarit €i ton fondateiw Btienns Cabet, Paris, 1907 (a large Tolume of more than 700 pages). 8. The Porfeotlonists or Oneida Oommiinity: Founded in 1846 by John Humphrey Noyes (b. at Brattleboro, Vt., Sept. 6, 1811; d. at Niagara flails, Canada, Apr. 13, 1886). He was graduated at Dartmouth College in 1830, studied theology at Andover and Yale, and was licensed as a Congre- gationalist minister about 1833. Avowing a belief that the second coming of Christ had occurred with- in a generation and professing the doctrine of Per- fectionism (q.v.), he withdrew from the ministry and retired to his home in Putney, Vt. There he established a Bible class, which grew into an asso- ciation of Perfectionists and was organised in 1845 into the Putney Corporation. Adverse public opinion gradually developed especially against its views respecting marriage. In Nov., 1847, Noyes and other members withdrew and with new re- cruits settled in Central New York, where, in Sept., 1848, a new community was formed, " for the es- tablishment of the kingdom on the principles of heavenly association," of which the renunciation of any claim to private property was one. The remainder of the Putney community joined them in June, 1849. Besides the main community at Oneida, N. Y., six branch societies were main- tained for a time, but all these were eventually given up except one at Wallingford, Conn. Agri- cultural and small manufacturing industries were carried on, and the products of the community acquired a wide reputation for excellence. The Perfectionists had a peculiar theory of the sexual relations which they called complex mar- riage, and the marriage contract was regarded as i an affair of the community. Couples were united temporarily according to their preferences under the supervision of the society, but a permanent exclusive attachment of one person to another was regarded as wrong. Children who had reached an age to bear separation from the mother were put into the children's house to be cared for by nurses during the day and returned to their mothers at night; later they were passed to a second depart- ment, and the mother resumed her place in the household. A unique feature of the society was a system of mutual^criticism to which all were sub- ject, and in which all might take part. This con- stituted the principal means of discipline and gov- ernment. The pressure of public opinion against the doc- trines and practises of the Oneida Community be- came so strong that the community yielded and gave up the system of complex marriage in 1880. Finally, Jan. 1, 1881, the community organization was dissolved and the society was converted into a joint stock company. The Oneida Community was exceptionally well managed and enjoyed a prosperity and harmony seldom found in such en- terprises. At the time of dissolution there were 306 members at Oneida and Wallingford and the new company started with a paid up capital of $600,000. The present capital stock is $1,200,000 held by about 250 stockholders, of whom not far from 120 are connected with the factories or offices of the company. Employment is given to some 800 people in addition to the resident stockholders. W. H. Labbabee. Bibuooraprt: For history oonault W. A. Hinds, Ameriean CommuniHea, pp. 181-231. Chicago, 1906; C. Nordboff. CommunitHe Sociefiet, New York. 1875; J. H. Nor«s. HiML of American Soeialieme, Philadelphia, 1870; A. Est- lake. The Oneida Community, London, 1000; H. Dixon. New America, London. 1867 (a criticism to which Mr. Noyes replied in Dixon and hie Copyiete, Oneida, 1871); J. H. Noyes, Handbook of the Oneida Community, Ondda. 1871. The doctrines of the community appear in the writings of Noyes— 7%« Perf«*ioniei, Putney, Vt., 1843- 1846; The Berean, ib. 1847; Religioue Bxperieneea, 1850: On SdenUfie Propagation, 1873. From 1854 to 1874 the organ of the community was The Ciradar. 9. The Separatists: A society of German origin, which settled in Zoar, Tuscarawas County, 0., 1817-19. The movement gathered first in Wurt- temberg around Barbara Grubermann, a Swiss refugee to Germany, whom those who seiiarated from the German State Church (whence the name) accepted as their leader. On her death Joseph Baumeler (Bimeler; d. 1853) became the head of the movement, and, securing the aid of some Eng- lish Quakers in the persecution which followed, led the emigration of his followers to the United States. The first intention was not to adopt the commu- nistic principles, but the diversity of station among the members and the great inequality of meims seemed to make this necessary. Marriage was dis- couraged in the beginning, but was adopted a few years later. The society reached its largest mem- bership about 1832 through immigration from Ger- many, when it numbered about 500 persons. The 189 Oommunlsm original enthusiasm continually declined and the society was finally dissolved. On Sept. 13, 1898, the property was allotted to the remaining mem- bers, 222 in number. The articles of faith of the Separatists embraced belief in the Trinity, the fall of man, return through Christ to God the Father, and recognition of the Holy Scriptures as the ultimate authority. All ceremonies were rejected, all ecclesiastical con- nections and constitutions were repudiated, and such signs of respect as uncovering the head, bend- ing the knee, and the distinctions of courtesy in forms of address were refused as according to mor- tals honors which were due to God. Members were of two classes. Minors and those who had not signed the covenant constituted the first class, and were eligible to full membership on coming of age or after a year's delay following application. The candidate for the second class or full membership signed a covenant giving up all his property, his present and prospective rights, titles, and posses- sions, to the society forever, and obligated himself to give obedience to the trustees. In the early period of the society the children were under the care of the trustees; but later they were left with their parents. The government of the conununity was vested in a standing committee of five members, under whom a board of three trustees directed business affairs. W. H. Larrabee. BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. O. R*ndall, Hitt. of the Zoar Society, Columbus, Om 1809; C. Nordhoff, Communietic Societiea, New York, 1875; W. A. Hinds, American CommuniHeat pp. 90-131, Chicago, 1008. The society issued Baumeler's Works in three voiumes, regarded as inspired, and also collections of hymns by Barbara Grubermann and Baumeler. 10. The Shakers or the Killennial Ohurch: A body of believers living in communistic celibacy, who hold their founder, Ann Lee (q.v.), to have been a prophetess inspired by God, and the doc- trines which she taught to be divine revelations. Their origin is connected with a revival that fol- lowed the demonstrations of the so-called French Prophets in England (see French Prophets), who exhibited under religious excitement marked phys- ical manifestations. Some members of the Society of Friends in Manchester, England, of whom James and Jane Wardley were the most 1. Origin prominent, came under the influence and Barly of the revival, and were joined by History. Ann Lee and her parents. From their movements under religious excitement these people were called " Shaking Quakers '' or " Shakers." They were subjected to persecution, and the leader and some of the members were imprisoned. On Jan. 5, 1762, Ann Lee married Abraham Standerin, a blacksmith, and became the mother of four children who died in infancy. She then learned that celibacy was the holy state, for proclaiming which doctrine she was sent to jail, where, in 1770, she experienced a vision of Jesus Christ, in which she claimed to have TH^ived a revelation " of Christ's kingdom and glory, of man's loss, and the way of redemp- tion/' From that time she was acknowledged as a mother in Christ and called ''Mother Ann." In obedience to one of these revelations, she came to America in 1774, with a few other mem- bers of the society. The band supported them- selves by labor for two years, and then settled in Niskeyima, now Watervliet, N. Y. They at- tracted much attention, and prejudices were aroused against them, under the influence of which they were imprisoned, but were released by Governor George Clinton. A revival in the Baptist Churches of the vicinity brought additions to their number. Through numerous visitors from New York and the New England States to the settlement knowl- edge of Shaker doctrine was widely spread. Mother Ann, with five other members of the society, made a journey through New England of more than two years' duration, preaching and prophesying, but not without many trials and sufferings. After her death in 1784 she was succeeded by James Whit- taker, under whom the first Shaker meeting-house was built, at Mt. Lebanon, N. Y.; and he in 1787 by Joseph Meacham, followed by Lucy Wright (d. 1821), who were all active in founding other soci- eties in New England, New York, and the West. These new communities were generally the fruits of revivals, upon which the Shakers laid great stress. They were actively interested in the great revival in Kentucky at the beginning of the nine- teenth century. James Meacham with two com- panions set out on a missionary journey from Mt. Lebanon Jan. 8, 1805, and traveled on foot to Leb- anon, O.; thence into Indiana and Kentucky, where several societies were formed. According to one of its books, the Shaker Church rests upon the principles of virginal purity, Chris- tian communism, and separation from the world. It holds that God is a duality, male and female; that Adam was dual, having been created in God's image; that all spirits are also dualities, male and female; and that Christ is the highest 8. Doctrines, of spirits, appearing first in the per- son of Jesus, representing the male, and later in the person of Ann Lee, representing the female element of God. It teaches that the religious history of mankind is divided into four cycles, which are also represented in the spirit- world, each of which has its appropriate heaven and hell. The first cycle included the antedilu- vians; the second, the Jews up to the coming of Jesus; the third, those who lived up to the appear- ance of Ann Lee; and the fourth and last is the present dispensation, the heaven of which is in process of formation and will supersede all other heavens. The Shaker Church is, therefore, the Church of the last dispensation; and its establish- ment marks the dawn of the day of judgment, or the beginning of Christ's kingdom on earth. It is held, further, that the Pentecostal Church was es- tablished on right principles, that the Christian Chiutshes rapidly and fatally fell away from it, and that the Shakers have returned to this perfect doc- trine and practise. The Shakers reject the doc- trines of the Trinity, of the resurrection of the body, and of the atonement. They consider Jesus and Ann Lee elders of the Church, to be respected and loved, but not objects of worship. They are spir- itualists, believing fully in the reality of spiritual- istic communications. CornxDJUiiMBi OomparatiTe Belifflon 190 There are three orders of membership. The first, the novitiate or outer order, consists of those who receive the faith, but choose to live in their own families. The second or junior 3. Oryan- order is composed of those who, being ixation and under no charges or bonds to prevent OoTam- their living in community, choose to la^sit- enjoy the benefits of that situation without entering into full membei^ ■hip. They retain the title to their property, though they may give the use of it for the time to the family. The third order is made up of those who become full members and dedicate themselves permanently to the society. Should such mem- bers afterward withdraw, they take nothing away as a matter of right, but in practise " no person who withdraws peaceably is sent away empty." The government of the community is vested in a ministry composed of four elders, two of each sex. Of the several ministries, that of Mt. Lebanon, N. Y., is recognized as the central executive of all the societies. Subordinate to the ministry are two male and two female elders in every fully organized eommimity or family in each society, having charge of its spiritual affairs, and two deacons and two deaconesses subordinate to the elders and having charge of the temporal concerns. A Shaker village usually includes two or more families of thirty or forty persons each, living in unitary houses, hav- ing their own households, and being A Tt^Uffi^n^ independent in domestic affairs. Servloas. The religious service includes ad- Freaent dresses, singing of hynms and an- Btatus. thems, and a characteristic rhjrth- mical marching, accompanied by other movements, in which all take part. These ex- ercises are supposed to be a survival of move- ments characteristic of the founders of the society. The Shakers had at one time eighteen societies. The present number is fifteen, with about twenty- five families and about 1,000 members. No exact evaluation of their property has ever been made, but it is believed to be worth between $3,000,000 and $5,000,000. W. H. Lareiabeel Biblxooeapht: For list of Shaker literature consult J. P. MacLean, A BihUograjihy of Shaker LUeralure, Columbufi, O.. 1005. For the history consult: H. Elkins, Fifteen YeoTB in th* Senior Order of Shaker; Hanover, N. H., 1853; F. W. Evana. Compendium of the Oriffin^ Hietary, Frindflu, . , . of the United Society of Believere in Chritl^e Second Appearing, New York. 1853; C. E. Robin- eon, Coneiee Hi$t. of the . . . Shakere, E. Canterbury'. N. H.. 1803; W. A. Hinds, American Commwniiiee, pp. 32-68. Chicaco, 1008; Anna White and Leila 8. Taylor. ^iokeriem^ He Meaning and Meeeage, Columbus. O.. 1004. For the doctrines and practises consult: F. W. Evans, ut sup.; idem, Second Appearing of Chriet, Bos- ton, 1853; idem. Teste of Divine IneptraHon^ New Lebanon, 1853; idem, Cetibacy from the Shaker Standpoint, New Lebanon, 1866; idem. Shaker Communiem, London, 1871; Testimony of ChrieVe Second Appearing, 4th ed., Albany. 1856; H. L. Eads, Shaker Sermone [Lebanon. N. Y.]. 1870. BiBUOORAPHT of the general subject: Besides the works of Nordhoff, J. H. Noyes. and W. A. Hinds, mentioned under the societies above, sll of which deal more or less with general features, consult: H. A. James, Com$nuniem in America, New York, 1870; V. Steocanella, Del Comunie- mo, Rome, 1882; L. Felix. Bntwiekelunoeo^thiehte dee Eigentume, Leipsic, 1883; M. Kaufmann, Sodaliem and Communism, London, 1883; E. de Laveleye, Le Soda- lisme ooniemporain, Paris, 1888; D. Boigstrdm, Kom- muniam och Sodaliem, Stockholm. 1800; A.Hauck, DerKomk- muniamue im chritaidien Oevoande, Leipsic, 1801; B- Malon, Le Socialieme integral, Paris, 1803; R. Pohlmann, Geediichte dee antiken Kommuniemue und Socialiemu*, 2 vols.. Munich, 1803-1001; K. Kautsky, Communism in Central Europe at Oie Time of A« Reformation, London, 1807; M. von Nathusius, Die Mitarbeit der Kirche an der Ldeung der sosialen Frage, Leipsic, 1807. Phases of the subject are treated under Chbibtzan SodAUSM and Socialism. I. Definition and Names. U. History of the Discipline. Reasons for Its Recent Origin (| 1 ). Prejudice Peculiarly Potent (| 2). Preparatory Work (| 3). Max Mailer and Recent Develop- ments (I 4). III. Aim and Scope. IV. The Methods Employed. V. The Auxiliary Sciences. The Method of History (| 1). The Facts of History (| 2). Comparative Mythology and Folk- lore (I 3). Other Allies (| 4). VI. The Results. 1. In Primitive Religion, a. Primitive Religion in the Psycho- logical Sphere. 1 Defined (| 1). COMPARATIVE RELIGION. Idea of Soul, how Obtained (| 2). Anthropomorphic Conception of Causation (| 3). Incipient Dualism (| 4). Magic — Natural, Mimetic, Sympa- thetic (I 5). Metempsychosis (| 6). Myth Defined (| 7). Explanations of Myth (| 8). b. Primitive Religion in the Social Sphere. Kinship (| 1). Totemism Defined (| 2). Marks of Totemism (| 3). Its Supposed Origin (| 4). Its Ritual; the Mysteries (| 6). Blood-Brotherhood (| 6). o. Primitive Religion in the Ethical Sphere. Things Taboo (| 1). Charaetariaties of Taboo (| 2). Penalties of Breaoh of Taboo (13). d. Primitive Religion in the Sphere of Cult. Communal Sacrifice (| 1). Honorific Sacrifice (| 2). Piacular Sacrifice (| 3). Human Sacrifice (| 4). 2. In National and Universal Relig- ions. a. Dependence on Tribal ReligioiL b. Common Features. Psychological (| I). Social (I 2). Ethical (I 3). Cultic (I 4). o. Modifications Due to Ethnic or Local Differences, d. Parallel Lines of Developmeni. I. Definition and Names: Scientifically con- sidered, " Comparative Religion " is the second of three stages of study — the History, Comparison, and Philosophy of Religion; but because of the newness of the discipline and because the collec- tion of data is still in progress, the term as popu- larly employed includes all three stages, and this usage is, for the time at least, justified by the state of the science. Other phrases have indeed been proposed as substitutes, among which the most fitting is "The Science of Religion" — a name against which three objections are urged: (1) the other term is now in possession, and popular usage in language is conservative; (2) rigid scientists affirm that for the present stage the term " science " is too ambitious; (3) religionists shrink from ad- mitting that the rigorous methods of investigation implied by " science " may be applied in the sacred sphere of religion. To these objections the reply may be made that "science" does not imply 191 Oommunlsm OoxnpcuratlTe Beliglon knowledge completed, but only knowledge verified and systematized so far as the state of learning permits. To the third objection it must be op- posed that science admits no bar to its investiga- tion. It claims all spheres as rightly its own and is not deterred by the charge of irreverence: in- deed, its only reverence is for verified fact, before which alone it bows. Hence the time is near when the expression " Science of Religion '' may be ad- mitted, and when the entry of the scientific method into religious inquiry will be not only permitted, but privileged. The term " Comparative Re- ligion " is employed in this article as best express- ing the conmion conception of what is here to be discussed. n. History of the Discipline : This discipline is comparatively new. Max MUller remarked just before his death that within his own recollection the " Histoiy of Religion " (Religionsgeschichte) em- braced only Christianity and Judaism (LiUelVa Living Age, Dec. 31, 1898). The religions of Greece and Rome were classed as " superstition " or "mythology," and other religions were practically unknown. For centuries, up to the I. Reasons Elizabethan era, the only other faith for its within the ken of Christians was Mo- Recent hanmiedanism, and candid or sym- Origin. pathetic examination of the faith of the other by the adherents of either was precluded by the antagonism engendered by centuries of wsurfare. Before Comparative Re- ligion could come into being, two things were neces- sary: the existence of many faiths had to become known, and recognized as religion. For the first, the age of travel and discovery begun by the fifteenth centiuy was necessary; for the second, a process of education in candor and a grounding in the his- torical method were essential. Lack of informa- tion and prejudice were the two barriers against the new science, and the second was the more diffi- cult to surmount. Three centuries were occupied in the collection of data the importance of which was of course at the time unrecognized; even the direction in which it bore was unnoted. For the discovery of the pertinence of this body of facts to religious inquiry further illumination was needed which came only in the nineteenth century in the discovery of some of the ethnic sacred books and in the growth of the science of anthropology. To discern the nature and difficulty of the ob- stacle interx)06ed by prejudice is not easy in this more tolerant age. It is easy to forget that the native attitude of religion is exclusive and intoler- ant. When some Christians could declare of others that the latter were " unregenerate " and could do no good thing, and that, if they could, it could not be pleasing to deity, other faiths could scarcely be judged on their merits. This attitude of Chris- tianity toward other religions may 2. Preju- be illustrated by two examples: (1) by dice Pecul- the naive explanation given by Ro- iariy man Catholic missionaries of monas- Potent. ticism, the mass, the rosary, and like parallels of Catholic practise found in non-Christian lands — ^they were the mocking de- vices of the devil; (2) by the curt censure admin- istered by Franke to the pioneer missionary Zie- genbalg, who had sent home a book on the Hindu faiths: " You were not sent to India to study Hin- duism, but to preach the Gospel." Further, this attitude of contempt and scorn was changed into something like hate when it was discovered that many of the claims put forward for Christianity were duplicated by " blasphemous " claims for the other faiths. Thus each of the " book religions " claims inspiration for its scriptures. It then seemed that such claims must either be unqualifiedly de- nied or the inspiration of the Christian Bible be given up. The unscriptural dogma that the voice of God was heard for only a few centuries and only in a limited area closed the ear and the eye of Chris- tianity to testimony that he had spoken to others than the chosen people in lands other than the " Holy Land." Hence the view concerning other religions entertained by Christians is well expressed in the title of more than one book or chapter on religion — " The True Religion and the False Re- ligions." Comparative Religion in its original phase is an outcome of Comparative Linguistics. Two events precipitated the formation of the discipline: first, the opening of India with the learning of Sanskrit and the discovery of the Vedas and other literature of the country; second, the (somewhat earlier) finding of the Zend-Avesta, resulting in the dis- covery that Hindus, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Teutons, Slavs, and Celts spoke languages which were akin. This led to the knowledge that these peoples had gods who were related and had inspired faiths which were not unlike. Comparative Lin- guistics led to Comparative Mythology, and the step to Comparative Religion then became easy and short. The man to whom more than to any other the praise is due for leading the way to this result is the famous Oxford professor already mentioned, F. Max MtiUer. In thus giving the chief meed of praise to the celebrated Sanskritist, no injustice is intended or done to those who preceded him. All great dis- coveries have their adumbrations. The gestation of the science of religion was a long one. The Re- ligions of the World (London, 1653), by Alexander Ross, was a prophecy of coming interest in the non- Christian faiths, though to the author they were still " false " religions. B. Picart and J. F. Ber- nard {C&^monies et cotUumes de tous les peuplea du monde, 9 vols., Amsterdam, 1723^3, partly translated in Ceremonies and Religious Customs of the . , . World, 6 vols., London, 1733-^34) dis- covered in other religions the degenerate descend- ants of a pure primitive faith — the comparative method began here. J. G. von Hei^ 3. Prepara- der {Ideen zur Philosophie der Ge- tory Work, schichte, 4 parts, Leipsic, 1784-91) laid a broader basis in a sort of an- thropology which was to concatenate mankind and his faiths. C. Meiners (Grundriss der Geschichte oiler Religionen, Lemgo, 1785, and AUgemeine kri- tische Geschichte der Religionen, 2 vols., Hanover, 1806-07) proved that the historical spirit as against the dogmatic had entered the sphere of re- ligious investigation. Charles Dupuis {Origine de CtomparatlTa Selisrlon 192 tou8 les euUe8, Paris, 1795) anticipated Herbert Spencer and Mr. Tylor in attempting to derive all religion from some one root, in his case the wor- ship of the great powers of nature. G. W. von Hegel {Philosophie der Religion^ Berlin, 1832) an- ticipated still another line of modem research, iavestigation of savage or primitive belief and practise. But undue emphasis has often been laid upon the work of these and other forerunners, such as the Deists in England. They were prophets rather than achievers, their methods speculative rather than historical. The real start was made by Max Mailer. Despite the criticism by Mr. Jordan (Comparative Rdigum, pp. 150 sqq., 521 sqq., New York, 1905), no one did so much as Professor MUller to establish the new science. No series of works, hardly any collection of other vol- 4. Max umes which could be made, has so Muller and stimulated the study as the Sacred Recent De- Booke of the East, Since Max Mailer's yelopments. first approach to the study in the Rig Veda Sanhita (6 vols., London, 1849- 1874) the development has been rapid. To mention only the great names, C. P. Tiele and C. de la Saus- saye in Holland, R^ville, father and son, in France, Herbert Spencer, E. B. I^lor, J. G. Fraz/cr, §. Hartland, and Andrew Lang in England, D. G. Brinton and James Freeman Clarke in America, have uncovered a wealth of material long buried and have shown how it is to be intelligently em- ployed. In this development two schools have grown up. The first, of which the Oxford pro- fessor was the leader, was the linguistic school, which sought by investigating purely linguistic material, the roots and changes of words and the structure of language, to determine the develop- ment of religious ideas. The result wsa often a forced method of explanation which was ob- viously inadequate. A school developed in the second half of the nineteenth century to which the name of the anthropological school has been given, the fundamental method of which is histor- ical, which examines data gathered from all re- gions and times, and upon the basis of compara- tive psychology and anthropology explains the resemblances and differences in religious beliefs and practises and their origins. In the hands of this second class, which of course does not discard lin- guistic data, the science has rapidly taken form, materials fall easily into their appropriate setting, and the law of evolution is revealed as operating in the field of religion with a distinctness which is almost beauty. nL Aim and Scope: The aim of the study in- cludes the collection, collation, and explanation of religious phenomena in order to discover the na- ture, genesis, development, and laws of religion. From what has already been said of the precon- ceptions with which early investigations were con- ducted, it is evident that so comprehensive a purpose was not originally in view. Early studies were polemic as against ethnic faith and practise, apologetic as con- cerned Christian faith and practise. But the prog- ress of the study has already compelled a modifi- cation of earlier estimates of other religions and an increasing gentleness in discussing them. The statement can no longer be made without chal- lenge even from Christians that the world out- i side Christendom is an " inmiense welter of errors '' (Calvin). In living non-Christian religions (Mo- hammedanism Buddhism, Confucianism, Parsee- ism), aa in those that have fallen (the religions of "Egypt and Babylonia), are recognised mighty truths, and the claim to the exclusive possession of these by Christian dogmatists is no longer made, or if made is disallowed. There results (1) an in- i creasing appreciation of the discovery that relig- ion is one, in different stages of growth, and (2) a growing willingness to grant to eSi religious faiths impartial examination and candid recognition of whatever excellencies they may possess. The en- deavor is made to discover whether there be a common basis for all forms of religion, and if so, what it is, and to set forth the nature, origin, growth, and laws of religion in generaL The scope of the science b involved in the fore- going. No place, time, or people from which evi- dence or testimony can be gathered is exempted from its examination. Evidence from neolithic graves in the shape of vessels or implements (which bespeak belief in the continued existence of the defunct), or from modem savage life, involving belief in obligations to powers superhuman, is no less pertinent than are the injunctions of Zoroas- ter, Confucius, the Buddha, or the Christ. Neither the religion of Jesus nor the mysteries of the Australian Bushman may be excluded from the inquiry. Moreover, facts and practises once thought purely social or merely utilitarian are now seen to be informed with the religious spirit. The area of religion has been immensely widened dui^ ing the progress of the investigation. It has been no uncommon thing for a book to assert of some tribe that it had no religion, though the volume con- tained accounts of whole series of acts which were only and all religious. Such mistakes arose in the author's too narrow conception of what religion is. A further discovery is that the very compre- hensiveness of the influence of the supernatural in the life of the savage makes it necessary to ask of his every act whether or not it be religious or at least have religion as an element. Hence the ex- amination covers not only the '' great " religions, but also primitive faith and all the gradations which lie between. IV. The Methods Employed: Comparative Re- ligion is an inductive science. Its operation is threefold: (1) collection and verification of facts (the historical method); (2) collocation of these verified data to ascertain their relations and in- terrelations (the comparative method); (3) ex- planation of the results reached by the other two methods upon a psychological baais, referring local features to ascertained mental habits of the tribes, groups, or peoples where those features are mani- fested, and universal features to general charac- teristics of the human mind (the psychological method). A fair illustration of the combined operation of these methods, uniting the extreme past with the present and with world-wide belief, is presented in the following case, which is but on^ 198 OomparatiTe Beliffion out of many which might be chosen. The skulls of neolithic man sometimes bear unmistakable traces of trepanning during life — an operation which must have been excruciating torture in times when the only instruments were flints and there were probably no anesthetics, and an explanation was long sought in vain. It has recently been dis- covered, however, that in cases of epilepsy modem Kabyles trepan the patient and then conjure forth the obsessing spirit which they believe to be seated in the brain, causing the affection. Alongside these two facts is put a third, viz., wide induction has proved that primitive peoples of diverse race and habitat attribute diseases, especially mental affections, to obsession by spirits. The neolithic fact receives a most probable explanation from the modem Kabyle practise, while the psychological habit is made clear from a wide circle of induction. V. The Auxiliary Sciences: Comparative Re- ligion IS necessarily dependent upon a number of auxiliary sciences. Its most intimate associations are with the science of history in its modem form. To this a twofold debt is due, first for the historico- critical method. The phenomena under investi- gation are by nature elusive, and the observer is liable to error because his point of view z. The differs from that of the people whose Method of actions and beliefs he studies. The History, motives a Christian imputes to wor- shipers belonging to another religion may be quite other than the real motives. More- over, the phenomena lie in a realm where volun- tary testimony is seldom given, because primitive peoples believe that between them and their dei- ties exists a confidential relation which would be endangered by reporting to a stranger in what that relationship consists. So there is necessitated in this kind of investigation relentless criticism of alleged facts, which have to be pursued to their very lair and dragged out naked of falsehood and stripped of misconstruction. A second debt is incurred by the access given to the great body of facts presented by history. This storehouse, new treasures from which are constantly ' coming into use, is being worked over and over as more accurate knowledge illumines both the items and the tout ensemble. An example of the way in which this is being accomplished is furnished by the history of Greek religion. A'half century ago Greek religion was regarded as thoroughly known. It had been for two millenniums the source of liter- ary allusion and flavor; nearly all Western litera- ture is seasoned with Attic salt. Yet in the light of phenomena, some of which had been on record all the time (as in Pausanias and Herodotus), and others which have been gained by modem research like the investigations at Mycens and in Crete and Cyprus, the entire history of Greek religion is be- ing rewritten, the Olympic pantheon is traced to its elements, and the constmction and growth of a national faith is revealed to the mod- 2. The Facts em observer. Still another depart- of History, ment, that of travel, is proving rich treasure trove. Sailors and mer- chants, travelers, and trained observers whose business it is to discover what is done and thought m.-i3 by other peoples, officers in government service who by long residence have come to know thoroughly the tribes among which they lived, and faithfiii missionaries furnish material which only the trained investigator can appreciate. The very de- tachment from each other of the reports made by these observers proves of the greatest value; for example the use of the swastika as a symbol with religious significance is proved for practically all quarters of the world in remote antiquity and in the living present, and the " bull-roarer '* is dis- covered to be nearly ubiquitous as a sign of the performance of the mysteries of primitive tribes. Other departments of history, such as art and architecture, have their pregnant lessons and in- dispensable use. The subdepartment of ceramics has contributed to the history of Greek religion some of its most convincing material. On the value of the history of architecture there is no need to dilate; the mere mention of it suggests rever- ence and worshipful toil as represented in struc- tures from the reed booth of the fetish-worshiper to the peerless Parthenon. Newer and younger offshoots of the historic spirit are Comparative Mythology and Folk-lore. The key to appreciation is understanding, and the world had largely forgotten its infancy. Upon the re- covery of his memory depended man's 3. Com- imderstanding of nearly the whole of parative primitive religion. When the prac- Myth(4ogy tises of modem primitive tribes stand and Folk- out as the parallels of the practises of lore. the Greeks and Romans, what once seemed foolish or inexplicable in the latter and " curious " in the former received ex- planation as performances of the childhood of the race. How could human beings trace their de- scent from animals or plants on the one side, or from deities on the other? These things were done and were accepted as facts. As the doings of the childhood of humanity they have their perfect explanation. Thus Comparative Mjrthology and Folk-lore by recovering the methods of thought of the race in its childhood have contributed much to the understanding of such " oddities." No slight debt also is due to the mental sciences, particularly to psychology, though in this depart- ment a part of the obligation is repaid by return contributions. Psychology has exposed the method of operation of the mind of savage and epileptic, of individuals and of the crowd. In tum, epidem- ics like that of the dancing mania of the Middle Ages, communication of prophetic frenasy like that of Saul, the mental operations of an Elisha and a Mohammed, and the working of re- 4. Other vivals are explained upon sound Allies. principles and reveal the methods by which religious acts began, became customary and authoritative. It may seem out of place to claim as an ally of Comparative Religion the sciences of geology and paleontology. Yet a moment's consideration of the example of the neo- lithic trepanning referred to above will show that the dating of the early subject of the operation must depend upon the pronouncements of geology upon the environment in which the relics were CknnpATatlva Baliffion 194 found. Similarly, paleontology has no little to say as to the relative height of man in the scale of be- ing in the age to which the trepanned is referred. Many other facts, all significant in settling the question of the age of man on the earth — an im- portant factor for the evolution of religion — might be adduced to show the dependence of Comparar tive Religion on the one side, and the helpfulness of geology and paleontology on the other in the quest for the origin and authority of religious ideas. VL The Results: What are the accomplish- ments of a branch of study thus defined, thus born and developed, with such an aim and scope, using such materials, and with such auxiliaries? It has discovered and oriented the whole realm of primi- tive religion, has discovered the conditions under which were originated what may be called the or- ganized religions and has established their part and value in the uplift of the race, and has dis- covered a genetic relationship between the two varieties; it shows that all religion is one in vari- ous stages of development, that religion is a de- velopment, and that man is one in acknowledging by action in all times and places of which there is record an impulse to worship a being or beings whom he deems greater than himself. 1. In PrimitlYe Religion: The distinction be- tween " primitive " and *' organized " religions is difficult to make. Mr. Frazer (polden Bough, i. 348, ed. of 1890) gives as the marks of primitive religion the following: (1) no special class is set apart to perform rites; (2) no special place is des- ignated for this purpose — there are no temples; (3) spirits, not gods, are recognized; (4) the rites are magical, rather than propitiatory. But no one of these marks can be held everywhere to delimit the two spheres. The shaman shades into the priest. A temple is not necessarily a structure, and in primitive religion localities are the resi- dence of spirits where they are worshiped. More- over, gods have been found among some of the tribes lowest in the scale of being, and magic versus prayer is an insecure test. It is proved in some cases that primitive religion passed by degrees from this stage to that of organized religion, no- tably so in the cases of Greece and India. While then Mr. Frazer's tests individually break down, it may yet be held that the total effect of his dis- tinctions make a practical line of demarcation. a. Primitive Beliffion in the Fsyohologlcal Sphere: Animism is usually but loosely defined as " the doctrine of souls and spirits.'' A more lucid statement is that animism means that stage in hu- man development in which man be- z. Animism lieves in the parity of all existences Defined* so far as their possession of sentient life is concerned. Men in that stage may hold that a stone, a tree, a mountain, a stream, a wild animal, a heavenly body, a wind, indeed any object within the realm of real or fancied ex- perience, possesses just such a " soul " as he con- ceives himself to have, and that it is animated by desires and moved by emotions parallel to those he perceives in himself. The question how man came to possess the idea of soul has been answered in two ways, both of which reproduce reasons given under primitive con- ditions for asserting the existence of a non-cor- poreal yet intracorporeal entity. The phenomena leading to such a conception are (1) those of dream life, (2) the difiference between the waking and the sleeping state, or between life and death. If in a company of primitive hunters one 2. Idea of sleeps in his companions' presence and Soul, how in that sleep has a dream which upon Obtained, waking he relates, stating that he has been upon the chase, he and his com- panions make and accept the explanation that some part of him not his body has been away, and no reasoning could convince him that the dream experience was unreal. In this way in part the conception that man is a duality manifested itself. But the fact that nothing had been seen to go and return invested the fugitive part with a character expressed in many languages by the equivalent of "spirit" (Lat. apiritus, "breath"), and this spirit was regarded as an intangible but very real entity. The second line of experience corroborated and strengthened this impression. The superficial difference between a living and a dead body is the absence from the latter of the breathing function. The last act observable in the dying is the expul- sion of the final breath. It is no wonder then that man in his primitive philosophy began the habit of speaking of his second part as the " spirit " or breath. And that the phenomenon of sleep is also explained by absence of the spirit from the body, is proved by the fact that existent tribes do not permit a sleeper to be waked suddenly lest his spirit have not time to return and he die. To these two lines of what had the force of convincing evidence to early man a third must be added, viz.: the appearance in dreams of those who had died Such visions were accepted as realities in advanced stages of civilization (cf . Augustine, De civUate dei^ xviii. 18), confirmed the belief already accepted of a dual existence of man, and had other momen- tous results. They opened up the entire region of a future existence, as well as other beliefs which still survive as " superstitions." A fact which had great influence on man's eaiiy conceptions was that many of the events which he witnessed were traceable to visible causes. In the infancy of the race death was probably in a large proportion of cases due to external causes. Death was not always " the inevitable." * And since man himself caused death and knew himself the agent of that change, when death resulted from visible causes he attributed to the material agent con- scious and determined action. Even when death came from what are now termed natural causes, he would seek and find causes of the same sort So that both disease and death were regarded as consciously brought about, if not by visible means, * For cases where death is even yet regarded as an ab- normal event, consult: £. Crawley, MytUe Roae, pp. 2&- 27, 60, 67, 68, 69, 85, 95, New York, 1902; L. Decle, Thm YearB in Africa, pp. 75. 512, London, 1898; C. B. KIobs, /» the Andamana, p. 123. London, 1903; B. Spenoer and F. J- Gillen, Native TribeM of Central Aiutndia, p. 476, London, 1899; J. Maodonald. in Folklore, m. 344. 195 Oomjiaratlva Selisrlon then by beings mysterious in their nature and mode of working. Thus to practically all objects he at- tributed life, power, emotions, and de- 3. Anthro- terminative acts such as those he felt pomorphic or committed. So he came to apply Conception his experience (supposed or real) to of Causa- all existence; all events were effects, tion. though he could not detect the causes. If the spirit could go unperceived from the sleeping or moribund and participate in the hunt or leave the forsaken one dead, if the dead could reappear in the dream, were there not other spirits which interfered with human action, helped or thwarted human effort, inflicted disease and death? Thus man was furnished with a primi- tive philosophy which answered his queries in. a way that seemed conclusive and satisfied his de- sire for explanation. With this may be compared the habit of calling a pestilence a ** visitation of God " instead of considering it the inevitable con- sequence either of ignorance or of disregard of natural law. Objects which to modem man are inanimate to early man had both life and soul; they had power which they employed determi- natively. Into animal, plant, and inorganic substance were read the nature and qualities of humanity. In accord with this belief modem sav- ages talk to the beasts they slay, smoke the pipe of peace with the dead bear, and attempt to deceive the trapped tiger so that its kin or its ghost may not exact vengeance. And beside these tangible things there were imagined innumerable spirits until the world swarmed with them, and forest and field, glen, hill, and stream were peopled with spirits having power and purpose to work weal or wo to humans. But it would not be long before man came to the conclusion that the results of his own efforts were not always conunensurate with what he seemed to have the right to expect. That the spirits about him interfered either for good or ill was a natural conclusion. Spirits were roughly di- 4- Incipient vided into the well-disposed and the Dualism, spiteful and malicious. This is the belief constantly encountered among primitive peoples, some of whom dare not move during the night, so great is their fear of the ghosts which lie in wait. And when such belief is estab- lished, a demonology is created out of which de- velops the whole hierarchy of evil; while out of the conception of good spirits come angelology and theism of various sorts (see Demon). But man would carry this process further. He knew himself subject to menace and blandishment, to tricky bluff or actual force, he was conciliated by gift or persuasion and made hostile by assault or trespass. To the spirits he attributed the same qualities. So that threats and bluffs were used against the spirits (even against the gods), magic was employed to overpower them, gifts and per- suasion were tried to render them complaisant. Out of this developed the cults and the practise of magic and witchcraft in all their varieties. In magic particularly lies a result of this reason- ing- Magic may for convenience be divided into natural and sympathetic. The former is the use of anthropomorphic devices to gain one's end from the spirits. Chinese sailors carry paper junks to throw overboard in a hurricane so that when the mimic bark sinks in the waves the storm spirits may suppose that the real ship has sunk and be satisfied. Gongs are beaten to frighten away un- welcome spirits. A herb which is supposed to have qualities obnoxious to a spirit is burned that the smoke may keep off the undesired. In these and other ways natural magic works. 5. Magic — Sympathetic magic in one of its va- Natural, rieties depends upon the supposed Mimetic, fact that like affects like, any effect Sympa- may be produced by an imitation of thetic. it. Hain may be caused by scatter- ing of water, a thunder-storm by imi- tation of the sound and by scattering sparks to imitate the lightning, a yam field may be made fruitful by burying in it a stone shaped like a yam, or the yield of a palm is increased by hanging on the tmnk or laying at the root a stone or other natural object which looks like the date or the coconut. An enemy is made to suffer by per- forming operations upon a wax image which rep- resents him. Another variety depends upon the supposed sympathy between a man and his be- longings. His hair, nail-parings, any article of clothing, even his shadow or his name, may be used against him. His footprint on the sand is sufficient, if one knows how, to work him ill. And that some men claimed, perhaps honestly, to be expert in these practises and that the claim was allowed is a matter of history. Thus the witch and shaman and medicine man had their careers prepared, ready to practise on spirits and men, and with all the terrible consequences known to history. An interesting group of results from the con- ceptions of the animistic stage is that which centers about metempsychosis in its various forms. Meta- morphosis, transmigration, lycanthropy, are but variant shapes of the same idea. If man, animals, and plants (and eventually spirits and gods) are on the same plane of existence, exchange of form and being might be brought about either purposely or by accident. So in the 550 births of the Buddha he passed through every grade of being — vegetable, animal, human, and divine. That a man should be transformed into an animal seemed not strange, and Circe's miracles were not only credible but reasonable to Homer's hearers. Fur- 6. Metemp- ther, these exchanges were not con- sychosis. fined to the lower order of beings. Why should not a spirit take posses- sion of a human body, or why should not a god become incarnate? With spirits good and bad all about, eager to exercise their power, the virgin birth of a god (a common thesis in religion) and obsession of a human by evil spirits are but oppo- site consequences of the theory of equality of be- ing. Moreover, if the soul is so loosely attached to its tenement that in sleep it goes forth to ad- ventures, the idea of a wandering soul consciously put forth in the interest of its owner or of some one who has power over him becomes possible and ap- parently actual. The lineage of the mahatma idea of modem theosophy is thus revealed. But ComparatlTe Balislon 196 if the soul or life could be thus isolated, it might perhaps be laid aside or deposited in some safe place, thus rendering its possessor immune in the midst of some deadly encounter. This motif rules in many folk-lore cycles and even invaded the Old Testament. A final psychological effect is discovered in Mythology (Gk. myihos, "narrative ")• In modem usage the word has two meanings: (1) the branch of investigation which deals with the narratives about gods and demigods, heroes, creation, origins, and the like; (2) the narratives themselves. A myth is a story, on a subject kindred 7. Myth to those just mentioned, now admitted Defined, to be untrue and often irrational, but to its first hearers and' their immedi- ate descendants self-evident. It shows primitive reason working according to primitive logic, seek- ing to explain a real or a supposed fact.* Magic is primitive science, myth is primitive phfiosophy. Thus the sacred stone at Delphi, a fact, was ac- counted for by the myth that it was the stone by which Chronos was deceived when Zeus was bom, which he disgorged some time later. The Cray- fish Clan of the Choctaws explained their name and origin by the myth that the first of the clan were crayfish which were coaxed from their shells, taught to stand up and use their claws, finally becoming ancestors of the Crayfish Clan. Gen. vi. 1-4 is a myth accounting for the reputed giants as the product of a union between spirits and women. When larger experience and growing mentality discredited these tales, various attempts were made to account for them. Xenophanes (sixth century b.c.) and Porphyry (d. 303 a.d.) regarded them as inventions to inculcate moral truth. The- agenes (c. 520 b.c.) and Empedocles (c. 444 B.C.) regarded them as allegorical expressions of physical philosophy. Aristotle looked on them 8. Ezpla- as intended to incxilcate respect for nations of legal and social institutions ("Meta- Myth. physics," XI. viiL 19). Euhemerus (c. 300 B.C.) accounted them the im- aginative-rendering of history — e.g., the gods were deified men. Of modem theories Herbert Spencer's revives Euhemerism. Max Mailer and the philo- logical school attributed myth to a '' disease of language " by which events narrated of one object were attributed to another bearing the same or a similar namb. The anthropological school ac- counts for myth by making it a " disease of thought " taking its rise in animism. Thus later Egyptians were perplexed by the animal forms of their deities and accounted for the supposed fact by the story that the gods took refuge from their enemies in the animal bodies. To modem man both the sup- posed fact and the explanation are irrational; to the Egyptians the fact was real and the explana- tion all-sufficient under the hypothetical parity of being. The distinction between myth, religion, and * Prof. N. S. Shaler has, without intending it, given a good description of the mythological process: " The com- monest misuse of the reason and the imagination is to sup- port an irrational motive which is strong enough to be mastering, yet is felt to need ezplanation ** (T%« Neiahbor, p. 268, Boston, 1904). theology should be clearly made. Theology is man's belief about the gods, mjrth is the tale he teUs to account for his belief in them, religion ex- presses his practical attitude toward them (cf. A. Lang, Custom and Myth, pp. 45 sqq.. New York, 1885) b. Primitive Beliarion in the Social Sphere: The institution of totemism can be understood only by recognising that kinship as reckoned by civ- ilized society is very different from kinship under primitive conditions. To the civ- z. Kinship, ilized, kinship is a matter of degree. Under the totemistic regime it is ab- solute and reckoned not by family but by the clan or totem gens. It is not even solely a matter of birth, but may be acquired (see below, Blood- Brotherhood). The absoluteness of this tie is shown by W. R. Smith, Rel, of Sem,, pp. 272-273, 277: '^ In a case of homicide Arabian tribesmen do not say * the blood of M or N has been spilt/ they say, ' our blood has been spilt.' " The clan- brethren are all of one blood, no others are of their blood. And the contrariety of this form of rela- tionship to that current in civilized conununities is sharply expressed by the statement that under it husband and wife are not kin, that in most cases father and children are not kin, but that mother and children are. Totemism is then an affair of the community. But since all community matters are under primitive conditions religious, the in- terest of comparative religion in the subject be- comes evident. Totemism " is the name for the custom by which a stock (scattered through many tribes) claims descent from and kindred with some plant, animal, or other natural object. It 1 2. Totem- is a state of society and cult ... in ism De- which sets of persons, believing them- fined. selves to be akin by blood, call each | other by the name of some plant, beast, or other object in nature " (A. Lang, Custom and idyth, p. 260). Jevons shows another phase when he says that it is " the alliance of a clan with an animal (or plant or other natural object) spe- cies " {Introduction to Hist, of Rdigion, p. 120). W. R. Smith makes the proofs of the existence of totemism in any one place to depend upon " (1) the existence of stocks named after plants and animals; (2) the . . . conception that the members of the stock are of the blood of the eponym animal or are sprung from a plant of the species chosen as totem; (3) the ascription to the totem of a sacred charac- ter " (Kinship, p. 188). Because the matter has been confused (e.g., by Mr. Frazer, Encydopcsdia Britannica, " Totemism," and in his Totemism, London, 1885, and others), it must be noted (1) that totemism is a community affair, and individual only as the in- 3. Marks of dividual is a part of the community; Totemism. (2) the totem is always a species, never an individual, except m the (rare) case of the heavenly bodies; (3) it involves both sexes, never one alone; (4) the solidarity of the human clan is treated as absolute, as is that of the animal species. Thus is to be corrected Mr. Frazer's statement that there are three kinds of 197 OomparatiTe Balicrion totems, "the sex-, individual-, and clan-totem." There is but one, the clan-totem; the "sex- and mdividual-totem " belong in a totally different realm, do not affect kinship or descent or society, and have but one thing in common with clan- totem, vi2. : that neither is eaten. The totem tie is like the family name: a man becomes a Brown, Jones, or Robinson by being bom into the family; similarly, a man is bom into the wolf, bear, or beaver clan. But whether a particular Brown shall be named William or Clarence or some other " Christian " name is fortuitous; similarly whether the " individual-totem " shall be wolf or oak de- pends on what the individual sees in his puberty watch or chooses under advice. The two things are discrete. With these fundamental character- istics go certain vital accompaniments. First, re- lationship is usually traced through the mother; second, marriage is prohibited between members of the same totem gens. Husband and wife are of different blood and are not made kin by mar- riage. The totem bond overrides what is now blood-relationship; half-brother and sister not of uterine relationship may marry, they are of differ- ent gens (cf. II Sam. xiii. 13 and Gen. xii. 13, xx. 2, Abraham and Sarah were probably half-brother and sister). And, finally, to all members of any totem gens the corresponding animal species is sacrosanct. Totemism is a himian institution, subject there- fore to the changes of advancing civilization. In one place it may appear in its bloom, in another only the vestiges may remain. Thus in North America and in Australia it appears complete, only its vestiges are discernible among the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Hindus. It passes through several stages, each of which re- veals a relationship to the institution in its prime. The salient evidences of the former existence of totemism in any place are: (1) the tradition of the sacredness of an animal species, (2) a clan name the same as that of an animal or plant species, (3) a place name derived from a clan name, (4) an animal epithet given locally to a deity, (5) images of an animal associated with a deity, (6) an animal used as a badge or mark, (7) myths accounting for the place of the animal in the cult. The origin of totemism can be only conjectured; but granted the tmth of the hypothesis put for- ward to explain the origin, every subsequent stage can be fully accoxmted for on the basis of known laws. The accepted explanation is 4. Iti Sup- that the institution arose under ani- poMd mistic conceptions of existence. In Origin, the struggle for life man sought allies. The supposedly superior quality of Bome ftnitnula or plants made them seem desirable m that relationship and the pact was made. In later stages the notion of kinship and then of de- scent entered as explanations of the fact once im- agined as real. Meanwhile the living and the dead animal were treated as was the living or dead hu- man; in £!gypt corpses of both were munmiified, in Greece they were buried or bumed. But from sacredness to godship was but a stage, the individ- ual became deity — so with the cat, bull, crocodile, etc., in Egypt, and in Greece the horse, mouse. snake, ram, even the lobster. But thought grew more anthropomorphic, and the animal head was placed on a human body (so in Greece and Egypt). Next the animal came to represent deity, and finally was simply sacred to Imn. The relationship of totemism to religion is thus in part revealed, though there are other connections. That out of this came in part zoolatzy, idolatzy, and even poly- theism is demonstrable. Totemism had a ritual which affected the crises of life. As an infant bom a Christian must be baptized, perhaps confirmed, before the fulness of his birthright is his, and as at marriage and death the Chiireh has its functions, so with totemism. At birth the totem mark is tattooed 5. Its Rit- or painted on the infant or the totem ual; the formula is repeated. Before being Mysteries, admitted to rank as a brave the neo- phyte undergoes ordeals, while even at marriage appropriate rites occur and at death the member may be laid in a grave shaped like the totem. Of all these ceremonies the most impor- tant is the initiation in the " mysteries " of the tribe, a fact only recently discovered. Evident in many cases is the connection of these mysteries with the power of reproduction, in itself no less a mystery to civilized man than to the savage. The use of the phallic emblems is proved in many cases. The initiation takes place at puberty. Each sex has its ceremonial from which the other is barred. The initiations take place in secluded spots, often at night, and a well-understood signal is displayed or the " buU-roarer " is employed to wam away the profane. The neophyte is instructed in the privileges and duties of adulthood and submits to severe ordeals. The dance, having religious pur- port, is among the accompaniments, and not sel- dom there is a mimic death, burial, and resurrec- tion, implying ethical or eschatological reference. The usual method of entrance into a totem clan is then by birth and initiation. But since the con- ception of the tie was that of a common blood flowing in the veins of the clan, it was conceived that this fact could be artificially pro- 6. Blood- duced. To make a man not a brother Brother- take that relationship it was neces- hood. sary that the blood of each should flow in the other's veins. Accord- ingly, if an individual wished to become a member of another clan, blood was drawn from his veins and transferred to the body of one or more of the clan, while he absorbed blood from some member of the same. This was done by making incisions, often in the arms, and putting the bleeding parts together; transfusion was supposed to take place. Or each sucked blood from the other's wound, or the blood of both was mingled with a medium and both partook of the mixture; or a sacrificial ani- mal was slain and both partook of the blood, a common fluid thus flowing in the veins of both. o. Primitive Beliffion in the Bthloal Sphere: Taboo (Polynesian, " strongly marked ") denotes whatever is prohibited under severe (supernatural) penalties. In primitive life it controls the entire life of the adult. It governs " his food and drink, his marriage and social relations, the disposition OompAratlTe Beliglon 198 of property and the choice of his wives. An in- fraction of its laws . . . means exile or death " (D. G. Brinton, Religioru of Primitive Peoplea, p. 38, New York, 1897). " In the earliest phases of religion the law is essentially prohibitory. It is in the form of the negative ' thou shalt not.' . . . The taboo extends its veto into every department of primitive life. It forbids the use of certain arti- cles of food or raiment; it hallows the sacred areas; it lays restrictions on nmrriage; ... it denounces various actions, often the most trivial and inno- cent, and thus lays the foundation for the cere- monial law " (idem, p. 108). The character of the institution is seen in the things it prohibits. (1) The sanctuary, with all its furnishings, vestments and the like, is taboo. Intrusion renders the intruder, man z. Things or beast, the property of the god. Taboo. (2) Persons are taboo. A chief may not be touched nor any of his posses- sions, whOe what he touches becomes his — ^he rep- resents or is deity. Similarly, priests, shamans, attendants are sacred persons. The sick are often taboo and are removed that they may not ** in- fect ** the house. Especially taboo is the woman in childbirth (see Defilement and Pubification, Ceremonial). A corpse is taboo, and infects all who come into contact with it. (3) Blood is of all things taboo. Sacrificial blood was caught in ves- sels that it might not infect the ground. Its sacredness in covenants is a matter of history and survives in Christian theology. It was not eaten bysacrificers, but was sacred to deity. By associa- tion of ideas things red are taboo. In Africa red earth may not be trodden or red berries eaten. In Japan entrances to holy places and bridges re- served for the Mikado's use are red. (4) A name may be taboo, that of God or of the chief or of the dead. Even the syllables which composed a name may not be used, and new ones have to be employed in their place. Thus the quadriliteral name of God was not used by the later Jews, and out of a device to avoid it arose the name Jehovah (see Yahweh), (6) The hair and the beard may be taboo. The Naziritic vow of the Hebrews (see Nazirite) is in point, and the sacrifice of the hair is a frequent fact. (6) The totem animal species is taboo to all of the clan. (7) Time may be taboo. This is the origin of the Sabbath, derived from pre- Semitic Babylonians. (8) Whole groups of things may be taboo, as food, or the use of food for a period may be taboo. (9) The paraphernalia of the mys- teries are taboo. A characteristic of taboo is its transmissibility. An article which has become taboo communicates this quality to whatever comes into contact with it, thiis second to a third, and so on. The same is true of persons (cf. Isa. Ixv. 5, which should read " which say, keep by thyself, come not near to me; for else shall I sanctify thee/' i.e., 2. Charac- make thee taboo). Contact of a pei^ teristicB son ceremonially unclean with sacred of Taboo, vessels was forbidden (cf. Vergil, ^ne- id, iL 717-720 for a fine illustration). Taboo might be communicated in several ways — by touch, as in the preceding cases; or by a look. as when the African king may not look at a river; or through the ear, as when a man who hears of a death in his family becomes unclean; or through speech, as when a man pronounces the name d a chief. The duration of a taboo varies. It may be perpetual, as of a sanctuary and its appurtenances; or of a chief or other sacred person, during his life- time. Or it may be temporary, depending upon purgation by ceremonial, or by expiration after a conventional period (as in mourning). Similariy, a taboo may be natural (after a fashion), like that of the sanctuary or chief; or arbitrary, like the taboo of food for a day by Saul (I SaoL xiv. 24 sqq.). The explanation of taboo is that it was connected with the supernatural. Fear of offense of the po- tent powers which were supposed to exist and of consequent evil to self or kin or possessions seems to be the bottom fact. That a tree in a sacred domain is taboo is easily explained. But it has not been so clear why a newborn babe, a woman in childbirth, a corpse should be taboo. The rea- son is that under primitive conditions whatever deals with the mysteries of the beginning or end of life has the aspect of awe. Man stands in awe of the mystery of life and death. Taboo involves therefore (1) caution against things holy (for the things' sake) and things unclean (for the person's sake); (2) purification from the contact with holy things so as not mediately to convey holiness to other things (as when the priest washed after ex- ercising his office before putting on his ordinary apparel); (3) purification from contact with the unclean to restore a lost condition of purity. Some taboos are from their nature fatal. The murder of a clansman or the killing of a totem ani- mal involved either the execution of the culprit or (which amounted to the same thing) his exile from the clan. In the latter case he was in the position of the masterless man of feudal times, whosoever found him could kill him without fear 3. Penalties of the blood feud (cf. Gen. iv. 14). of Breach An absolute taboo, breach of which of Taboo, was death, is given I Sam. xiv. 24, 44. The basis of this was a rude so- cial utilitarian ethics. Were the offender not pun- ished, the offended spirit might avenge himself on the tribe (cf. I Sam. xxi. 1). But all breaches were not so serious; even primitive man has a sense of proportion. Means of purification were hit upon in accordance with primitive philosophy. The principal agents were water and fire, often accompanied by gifts. In Madagascar a babe is kept in the presence of fire and lifted over or through it when first taken from the house. Many tribes use water or a decoction, some applying it by aspersion. Christian baptism, whether by as- persion or immersion, has a long ancestry. Other means were the touch of a sacred person, as of a chief, a priest, or a child. The effect of taboo on ethics is profoimd and far- reaching, beyond what has been adduced. So with totemism, especially in inducing fidelity and educing gratitude. On the other hand, sugges- tion (a subject only just becoming understood) had tremendous power ethically, working along all the lines ah:eady suggested The thought that the 190 Ck>mparatlve Belicrion supernatural interferes to secure justice and right, always powerful in the primitive reahn, still works in civilised society, as may be seen in the oath and the otherwise meaningless ceremony of kissing the Bible in court, which is the last vestige of the primitive^ ancient, and medieval ordeal. The in- fluence of the transmigration upon ethics may be seen in the written records of religious peoples, and heard in the naive explanations of tribes yet with- out writing, as they tell why this one became a sziake and that one a noble animal. Distinctions between modes of existence are made by savages and attributed to ethical or non-ethical behavior in this Hfe. To this contributed belief in the re- turn of the dead. A crude heaven and hell is found among savages as a cardinal doctrine of belief, in which existence hereafter is conditioned by con- duct in this life; reward and retribution are the salient ideas. d. Primitive BeUffion in the Sphere of Cult: The most cluu-acteristic and illuminative facts in this region are connected with sacrifice (Lat. aacrifi" eium, Gk, hierourgia, " action within the sphere of things sacred ")• In modem usage the word implies painful or costly self-denial. In this it follows the later developments of the institution, in the earlier phases such a sense was entirely lack- ing. The motive of sacrifice is to initiate or main- tain friendly relationship with the supernatural, or to recover it if lost, the end being the blessing of mankind. That it had its origin as far back as the animistic stage is clear both from the forms and the conceptions attached to the rite and from the anthropopathic views of the supematiu^ pow- ers with which sacrificial communion was had. Sacrifice as seen in history may be treated as com- munal, honorific, and piacular. A full definition of communal sacrifice embraces the following. It is in its primitive form a festal meal, with the god and his worshipers as partici- pants, a meal equally necessary to both parties to it, the essential part of which was a slain victim; the title to participation was vested X. Commu- in kinship as then conceived; the meal nal Sacri- was both a pledge of the tie of kinship fice. and a means of its continuance; the celebration was a community affair, and the entire consimiption of the victim was a neces- sity. The unfolding of the definition requires the remark that sacrifice antedated the idea of prop- erty (cf. Jevons, pp. 385, 390, and the authorities cited there). The leading idea was not a gift to the god, but a meal in which god and 'worshipers partook in common of a victim (Smith, Rel. of Sem,, p. 226). The notion of the kinship of gods and men is an old one of which the " Our Father " of the Lord's Prayer and the line of Aratus quoted by Paul (Acts xvii. 28) are late expressions. It is animistic in origin, arising in the conceived parity of all existence. The god was of the same stock as his worshipers, and commensality implied all that these mutual relations involved. The meal was festal. Observers have often remarked that the eariier stages of religion seem less afflicted with awe than the later. Instances as wide apart as the Vedic religion compared with the Brahmanic, and the celebrations of the period of the Judges and the Priestly sacrifice of the Hebrews confirm this. The normal spirit was that of music, dancing, and mirth. Of this meal the god was a partaker, not the only recipient. That the deity should eat was a notion not at all abnormal, and is illustrated by the fact that the dead were supposed to need nourishment and were supplied, often by channels opening into the grave. Advancing culture modi- fied this idea, and to gods was given the blood or the fat or both, and later the food was suited to the spiritual nature of deity, being etherealized by fire. But for long the gods were supposed to re- quire nourishment. In Egypt records exist of the threat that were not the gods complacent the magic word of power would be uttered which would blot out the worlds and starve the gods out of exist- ence. Anthropopathism was carried to its logical limits (cf. Judges ix. 13). Inasmuch as kinship was a matter of blood, as a part of the feast a slain victim was required; without blood there was no sacrifice (Smith, Rel. of Sem,, pp. 280, 376). The mystic sacrifice of totemism and the camel sacri- fice cited from Nilus when a camel was torn in pieces alive and eaten on the spot (cf. G. Allen, Idea of God, pp. 323-324, London, 1897; J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena, p. 482, ib. 1903; J. M. Robinson, Pagan Christs, pp. 110 sqq., ib. 1903; J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough, iii. 134 sqq., ib. 1900; R^ville, " Hibbert Lectures," pp. 89 sqq., ib. 1884) may as a survival point to the time when the vic- tim was eaten raw and in the blood. The totem as a mystic sacrifice appears as the only case in which the animal was eaten by its human kin, ex- cept in case of dire necessity. The explanation of this mystic rite is that it was an actual eating of the god to renew the kinship and to obtain some share of his qualities, as a savage devours the heart of his slain enemy that he may absorb the courage and skill of that enemy. The explanation of the law of consuming the entire animal is not easy. It may have been that nothing might be left to cause a breach of taboo, or it might have been a desire to obtain as much of the feast as possible. The Jewish Passover is but one case out of many that may be adduced for the custom. The origin of honorific sacrifice was likewise an- thropopathic. Man's conception of deity led him to attribute to the gods the same 2. Honor- pleasure in gifts as he himself felt, so ific Sacri- that honorific sacrifice in perhaps flee. three varieties developed out of vary- ing experience, viz.: emergential, im- plying special communion when a favor was de- sired; periodical (a form which the communal came to take), having the idea of tribute; and pi- acular, which became the general type when the idea of sin (by no means a primitive idea) came into experience. Honorific sacrifice was the e£Fect of transferring to deity the position, attributes, and qualities of a ruler. As the chief was pleased with gifts and kindly disposed to those who made them, and in emergencies would grant his favor to a donor, and as he demanded them as tribute, deity was regarded as governed by the same mo- tives. Out of this grew the gifts and libations at Oomparati^e BeUfflon 200 the beginning of an enterprise of whatever sort, the thank-o£Ferings for the like when successfully ac- complished, the periodical precative offerings at seed-time and the thank-offerings of harvest. That piacular sacrifice in its earliest phases in- volved no more than that the deity was tempora- rily estranged is the conclusion of W. R. Smith and most anthropologists. But the seriousness of the estrangement grew in the mind and came to dom- inate the whole conception of sacrifice. 3. PiacuUr It became necessary for oonununity Sacrifice, and individual to take note of actual and putative transgression which re- quired purgation at stated intervals, that the rela- tionship of god and people might be reestablished. While honorific sacrifice continued and the old feast-sacrifice tried to hold its own, the type which expressed atonement came to be regarded as sacri- fice proper. The idea of an angry god to be pro- pitiated became regnant in theology, the atoning sacrifice, devoted to the deity, became dominant in cult. The question of hxmian sacrifice is difficult. That it was primeval is improbable, that it was primi- tive is certain. The cases of foundation sacrifice, of human victims offered to rivers, and particu- larly the redemption of the first-bom are decisive. That after savagery was left behind it was an ex- treme measure appears from II Kings iii. 27. In times of famine the German tribes offered sacrifices of increasing worth, the last and noblest the life of the chief, if the gods did not take pity. 4. Human Yet that at an earlier period the sac- Sacrifice, rifioe of a guilty tribesman was re- quired is proved not only by such narratives as Josh. vii. 25, but by the primitive law of blood-revenge, a life for a life. Substitution came in time in both spheres, divine and human; but the redemption of the first-bom, man and beast, common to many nations, speaks for the absolute surrender of that first-bom in the primi- tive age. Substitution in divine affairs is anthro- popathic. An offended clan with a blood-feud would compound for a lesser victim or a money consideration, so would the deity. This was car- ried so far that among some peoples, as in Mexico, the mimicry of sacrifice of the human was per- formed upon a puppet of dough, or, as in Egypt, the maiden sacrificed to Father Nile was an image of mud formed on the bank of the river. But this mimicry is no less decisive of the former fact of himian sacrifice than is the play of the rape of the virgin of the eariier marriage by capture. 2. In National and Universal Religions.—*. De- pendence on Tribal Belifflon: It is but assert- ing the evolution of religion to declare that the ver- dict of historical investigation is that the great religions developed out of preexisting religion. This is true both of the " personal " religions which owed their origin in each case to a great teacher and of those faiths which can be traced to no single founder. The indebtedness of Zoroaster to the Indo-Persian " Urreligion " is made out; the rise of Brahmanism out of Vedism and the evidences of animistic and fetishistic belief in the hymns of the Rik carry the ancestry of the great religions of In- dia back to its roots in primitive faith and prac- tise; recent study in the religions of Greece and Rome (Harrison's Prolegomena and Granger's Wor- ship of the Romans) is leading to similar aniimstic paternity in the faiths of Homer and Vergil; Moses built on old Semitic foundations and Jesus on Mo- saism; Mohammed combined elements from Juda- ism, Christianity, and the earlier Arabic religion. In the Chinese Book of Rites there is embedded evidence of the old magical regime against the re- peated assertion of an original monotheism against which every detail of history cries out. An ele- ment of proof in this direction consists of sur- vivab or " superstitions." This last word et3rmo- logically expkdns itself and the argument. It tells of something auperstans, " remaining over " (from a former condition of things). And it is the dis- covery by modem investigators of the fact of survivals in religion and of the other fact that psychological law is constant in the mass which has brought the roots of religion, to light. The one example of the " harvest-maiden " may be ad- duced, a practise still followed in many parts of Europe which leads in direct recession back to the worship of Core or the earth-maiden, and thence to the corn-spirit of each plot of land, and thence into sheer animism (Frazer, Golden Bough). b. Common Features: The great religions all show two conflicting methods in their psycholog- ical operations. One is the enunciation of crystal- lised dogma, the formulation of regulations which, once expressed, are expected to govern perma- nently the life of man. This mode of thought de- fines God, man, the relations of each z. Psycho- to the other and to the universe, and logical, endeavors so to express duty that that expression shall wholly ensphere man's entire life of thought and act. It creates an or- thodoxy to repudiate which involves the charge of heterodoxy, not seldom of atheism. The other method notes the freedom of thought, the elusive- ness of the idea of the supematural, the indefinable- ness of the spiritual, and claims the right of the individual soul to achieve in its own way right re- lationship with God, man, and the imiverse. These two roads to right relationship, the dogmatic and the mystic, opposed in the main though they are, show often a curious effort to come together. The dogmatician loses himself in metaphysical vague- ness, while the mystic, turning aside to lonely con- templation, finds himself at the head of a com- munity and formulates rules of guidance for his followers. A second psychological tendency is that which envelops as with a halo the founder of the religion, if a founder there be, and conceives him as in a special sense divine. Even Mohammed, who dis- claimed miracle, was by his own generation re- ported to have performed miraculous deeds. The habit of forming legend concerning a religious leader is the operation in the religious sphere of that which works in all spheres. iGsculapius be- came a god, Lycurgus was thought impeccable, Frederick the Great and Washington might have been as religiously sinless as they are politically, had their activities been in the religious sphere. doi OomparatiTO Beligion The extent to wliich use of religious legend runs is governed largely by the need created by dogmatic assertion, by the necessities of the system de- veloped. Operating in another region, each re- ligion sees in its own scriptures the very word of God, and from this word the dogmatician draws his proof texts for his closely cut definitions, while the mystic seeks from the same source justification for his wildest imaginings and even for his anti- nomian practise. Common psychological action is observable in the religions which perceive in the physical something by nature so opposed to good that conquest over the body, even to its destruc- tion, becomes a religious necessity. And this con- quest is sought by the same two methods; either by an asceticism which starves and so vanquishes the material, or gives it free rein and destroys it by extreme license. The development in so many regions, in India, China, Arabia, Greece, Rome, Peru, and Mexico, with features which repeat or caricature Christian monasticism, is one of the facts of history. Socially, it is rarely that religion becomes the controlling factor in advanced stages of civiliza- tion. Mohanunedanism was unique in that it welded together the Arab tribes into a whole in which intense tribalism was merged into fanatical religious fervor. Society and religion interact. Re- ligion responds to the change made 2. SocUl. by the transformation of pastoral into agricultural and commercial life, and modifies its idea of God and of the service due him. Yet there is always a conservative element opposed to these transformations in life of which the Rech- abites (q.v.) in Israel are fairly representative. The factors which are influential in the develop- ment of society and of culture are, however, in early stages the care of religion. The first tribunals, are the sanctuaries, where the god pronounces judg- ment. Physical ills are first treated by the priests learned both in simples and in the magic spells which condition their correct use. Astronomy de- velops in the priestly schools; mythology gives way to philosophy in priestly speculation; music is often the development of the service at the abrine; architecture and art make their noblest flights in the erection and adornment of the sanc- tuary. Yet these arts and sciences emancipate thenaselves from the thraldom of the priesthood, become independent and even opposing forces, and the interaction of these forces, no longer one but many, contribute to the diversity and so to the devdopment of society. It is the natural result of the early dominance of religion in the life of man that religion sought to control ethics. Yet the moral sense and the re- ligious have interacted throughout history. Ethics itself has a history, a development. No absolute standard of ethics is yet attained, nor is it likely that the highest standard of conduct 3. EthicaL now ideally possible will not have to give way to one still higher. That is the law of history. It is asserted, and with rea- son, that religion has offended against the ethics of a later age, sometimes of its own age. Samuel hewed Agag in pieces " before the Lord "; Serve- tus was burned as a heretic; the Quakers were per- secuted for righteousness' sake in godly Massachu- setts; and it was the moral sense which did away with that religious but immoral institution, the Inquisition. Religion, in primitive stages the ar- biter of conduct, in the organized religions has had to submit to the dicta of moral consciousness. The relations of the family and the intercourse of man in society have had much to do with the advance- ment of morals; but religion gives its sanction to the development and elevates the standard by in- troducing consideration of the divine. And it is memorable that in most regions the most powerful incentive to right living has come through the re- ligious teaching upon eschatology. The concept that happiness in the future life is contingent upon right conduct in this life constitutes an appeal to that powerful and ever-present motive, desire for one's welfare. A powerful adjunct to the forces developing morality are the codes put forth from the heart of the sanctuary. When the organized religions came into existence the sense of the holiness of God and of the sinful- ness of man produced the idea of a chasm between deity and humanity. The bridge of that chasm was the cultic institution of the sacrifice, the medi- ator between god and man being the sacrifioer. So sacrifice, which in the earlier stages 4. Cultic. of religion had been the sign of the conmiunity of god and man, became an at-one-ment, the means of reintroducing a hai^ mony which had been lost. But the right method of offering this appeasing gift had come to be al- most as important as the gift itself, so that a rit- ual developed which fell into the hands of a class claiming the knowledge and therefore the right ex- clusively to perform the sacred office. Hence the universal factors in religion in the cultic sphere are the sacrifice and the priest. Worship may be multi- form and diverse, but these factors remain, though disguised more or less skilfully. Originally as accompaniments of the sacrifice, later in part di- vorced from them, prayer and praise became so universal that the Psalms of the Hebrew temple have their analogues in all the worship of man. c. Uodlfioations Due to Ethnic or Local BilTer- ences: Why different religions exist can no more be answered than why races are brown, yellow, white, or black. Each people has its favorite no- tions, in religion as elsewhere. Hence each de- veloped religion has something of its own upon which it places emphasis. Egypt was dominated by the idea of the effect of conduct here upon the life beyond; China taught the apotheosis of the family and emphasized the fifth commandment; India laid special stress upon the immanence of God in his world; Persia was concerned with the absolute holiness of God; Mohammedanism is ab- sorbed with the oneness of deity; Greece laid stress on the divine in the human; Rome emphasized the supremacy of law and the fixity of ritual. That these separate specialties were the expression of national peculiarities is as far as one may go, the wherefore is inexplicable. d. Parallel Lines of Development: The organ- ized religions often follow parallel lines of de- Oomparatlve Kelifflon Oomte 202 velopment. (1) In the primitive sta^ spirits are innumerable, ** they swarm." No Umits can be placed on the number of objects possessed by them as their home, and countless hordes besides roam homeless in earth and sea and air. But as man's mentality grows, he compares and generalizes and groups. To take one example: whereas each plot of ground once had its corn-spirit whose gift the crop of that field was, comparison gave rise to the idea of an earth-goddess, a Deme- ter or Ceres or Core, by whose beneficence came all the gifts earth made to man in growing crops. The corn-spirits of a district coalesced and then became a national deity to whom finally all in- crease of the earth was attributed. The history of Zeus among the Greeks also illustrates this prin- ciple. Nearly 200 names are known for this deity, only about one-third of which are poetic or de- scriptive. Nearly all the rest are referred to local or elemental deities whom he absorbed or dis- placed, assuming their functions and their cults, the latter of which are in several cases discordant with his normal worship and alien to his nature as a sky-god. The explanation is that as Zeus be- came the great national deity through the leader- ship of the tribes whose principal god he was, he took over the being, attributes, offices, shrines, and worship of older gods whose memory lingered solely in the names added to his as expressive of some special phase. So was it everywhere. The num- bier of the gods was ever diminishing. Pantheons replaced the hordes of worshipful spirits, and in these the principal god obscured the lesser who tended to vanish from cult and recognition. Thus in Assyria Asshur became almost the only god aside from Ishtar, and in Israel, where according to the first commandment the gods of the nations were recognized as real existences, by the time of the exile Yahweh had come to be regarded as the only god of all the earth. Sometimes in this proc- ess gods were associated in triads or trinities, as in Egypt, Babylonia, and India, in the last case paral- leling every phase of the Christian doctrine of the Trinity. Thus the tendency is toward monothe- ism, a result achieved only in Judaism, Christian- ity, Mohammedanism, and possibly in Zoroastrian- ism. (2) Another general tendency is that toward crystallization in ritual and creed. At the rise of a religion observances and conceptions are sponta- neous, free, individualistic. But as the community grows exhortation hardens into doctrine, confes- sion into creed, observance into ritual, acceptance of which and conformity to which mark the true believer. Thus orthodoxy and heterodoxy take their rise and become integral parts of religious thinking and terminology. (3) There is also a general tendency toward sectarianism. Against the disposition to define correct modes of teaching, of belief, and of worship arises the individualistic and diversified mentality of man- kind, protesting against the limitations placed upon conceptions of God and on ways of serv- ing him. Groups of individuals find themselves agreeing together in disagreeing with the stand- ards erected. The result is that sect arises wherever attempt is made at uniformity. As an example, what is perhaps the most rigid and im- yielding religious platform yet made, the teaching of Mohammed, is obliged to accommodate Sunni and Shiah with their almost untellable variety of subdivisions. Judging from the universal tend- ency of religion to develop sect, if history fore- casts the future, oneness of belief will never be at- tained. And if the apparent demands of human nature be taken into the reckoning, such a result is not desirable. The Calvinistic mind must be left to its adoration of the mathematical precision of definite and exact foreordination, while the Ar- minian mind rejoices in the absolute responsibility of the individual for his own salvation or destruc- tion. Geo. W. Gilmore. Biblioqrapht: I.-V.: The indispenaable book here is H. Jaatrow. The Study of Rsliifian, New York, 1901 (thor- ough, profound, and sound). Consult alao: J. E. Car- penter, Place of Hiet. of Relioion in ThedooiaU Study. London, 1891; Chabin, La Science de la Rdiffion, Paris, 1898; L. H. Jordan, Comparative Reliffion, Its Oeneaia and Growth, New York, 1905 (very useful for bibliography, but uneven and not always sound in judinnent); P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Ldtrhudi der Reiigianao^ Bdiichte, i. 1-16. TQbingen, 1905; £. CJrawley, The Tree of Life. A Study of Reliffion, London, 1905 (rationalistic but suggestive); 8. von Csobel. Die EntuHckelung der Be- ligionabegriffe, 2 vols.. Leipsic, 1907; O. Pfleiderer. Re- ligion and Hietoric Faithe, New York, 1907; C. Schasr- Bchmidt, Die Religion. EinfiJurung in ihre EntmddMinge- geeehichie, Leipsic, 1907. yi.: On primitive religion the literature is imm^niift. On the whole field the following four books are indispen- sable and supplement each other: E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, London, 1903 (the classic on Animism); D. G. Brinton, Religione of Primitive PeopUe, New York, 1807 (by the highest American authority); J. G. Eraser, Geiden Bough, 3 vols., London, 1900 (primarily oonoemed with Magic, it covers the whole field of primitive religious conceptions); F. B. Jevons, Introduction to HieL of Re- ligion, London, 1896 (valuable, but handicapped by pxe- suppositions; cf. the keen criticism in J. 11. Robertson, Pagan ChriaU, ib. 1903). For Animism and primitive psychology consult: W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feld-KuUe, 2 vols., Ber- lin, 1876-77; F. Granger, Worship of the Romans, Lon- don, 1895; Marian R. (3ox, Introduction to Folklore, ib. 1897 (valuable as a " first book "); Mrs. J. H. Philpot. The Sacred Tree, ib. 1897; A. S. Geden, Studies in Com^ parative Religion, ib. 1898 (clear, excellent); A. Bor- chart, Der Animismus, Freiburg, 1900; F. Schultse. Psychologie der NatwrvOiker, book iii., Leipsic, 1000; A E. Oawley, Mystic Rose, New York, 1902 (suggestive, though erratic); F. H. Cushing. Zuni Tales, New York. 1902 (should be read by all students of primitive no- tions); R. H. Nassau. Fetichism in Weut Africa, ib. 10O4 (" Fetichism " is equivalent here to " religion "); E- Clodd, Animism, London, 1905 (low-priced, should be in every library); Anthropological Essays Presented to E. B. Tylor in Honour of his 76th Birthday, Oxford, 1007 (treats many of the more recondite matters touched on in the text). On Magic, besides the general works mentioned above, consult: A. C. Haddon, Magic and Feti^ism, London, 1906 (one of the " good little books "); F. I.«norznant, Chaldcean Magic, London, 1877; L. W. King, Babylonian Magic, ib. 1896; T. W. Davies, Magic, Divination, and Demonology, ib. 1898: E. A. T. Budge, Egyptian Magic ib. 1899; W. W. Skeat. Malay Magic, ib. 1900; A. Lang. Magic and Religion, ib. 1901. On Mythology consult: F. Max Mailer, Contribuiioni to the Science of Mythology, 2 vols., London, 1807 (his completed statement, cf. his Natural Religion, heel. xri.. 1889, and Science of Language, Lect. ix., 1880); A. Lang. Ciistom and Myth, London, 1884; idem, My^, Ritual and R^igion, ib. 1899 (Mr. Lang is the leading exponent of the anthropological school): J. Fiske, MyOts and Mv^ makers, Boston, 1872; D. G. Brinton. Myths of Ae Se» World, Philadelphia, 1896; Jevons, ut sup., chap. six. 203 Oompajrati^e Keli^on Oomte On Totemism consult: A. Lang, Secret of the Totem, London. 1905 (with which may be compared his Cuatom and Myth and his Myth, Ritual and Religion); J. McLen- nan, Studiee in Ancient Hietory, 2 series, ib. 1876-96; W. R. Smith, in Journal of PhUoloffy, ix (1880). 79 sqq.. and in his Rd, of Sem. and Kinahip (Smith and McLen- nan are the highest authorities); J. K5hler, Zur Urge- achichte der Ehe, Totemiemue .... Stuttgart, 1897; Mrs. K. Langloh Parker. The Euahlayi Tribe, ib. 1905 (with Mrs. Parker's books should be read B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen. Native Tribee of Central AuetnUia, ib. 1899. and Northern Tribee of Central Auetralia, ib. 1904); H. Webster. PrimiHve Secret SocieOea, New York. 1908. The subject ia illustrated also by H. C. Trumbull. Blood Cove- nant, New York. 1885; idem. Threahold Covenant, ib. 1896. On Taboo consult: Smith. Rel. of Sem., 151 sqq.. 446 sqq., 479 sqq.; idem, Kinahip, passim; A. Lang, Cuatom and Myth, pp. 64-86; Granger, ut sup., pp. 200-219; S. Hartland. Legend of Peraeua, ii., chaps, ix.-xiii.. London. 1897; Crawley, Mystic Rose, pp. 10-80. On Sacrifice consult: A. Lang. Cuatom and Myth, pp. 105-120; idem. Modem Mythology, pp. 70-91; H. Spen- cer. Rrinciplea of Sociology, part i.. chap, xix., London, 1889; G. Allen. Evolution of Idea of Ood, chaps, v.-vii.. xyi.. ib. 1897; F. B. Jevons, ut sup., chaps, xi.-xii.; W. R. Smith. ReL of Sem., pp. 213-end; idem, Kinahip, pp. 306 sqq.; Fraser. ut sup., chap, iii.; S. Hartland. ut sup., dbap. xviii Consult further: J. F. C. Hecker, Dancing Mania of the Middle Agea, New York. 1888; B. Sidis. Paychology of Suggeation, ib. 1898; R. N. Cust. Common Featurea which ' in all Rdigiona, London. 1895.

COMPLINE: The concluding part of the day's office in the breviary (q.v.), normally recited just before bedtime and corresponding in some ways to prime, though even more than the latter office it has a general and invariable character all through the year. It begins with a short lesson (I Pet. v. 8), followed by the confession and absolution, four psalms, the hymn, another short lesson with re- sponsory, the Nunc dimittis or Song of Simeon (Luke ii. 29-^2), and certain prayers. See Vespers.

COMPOSTELLA: Properly Santiago de Com- postella, a city of Galicia, northwestern Spain (33 m. 8. by w. of Corunna), reputed burial-place of the apostle James the Greater and for several cen- turies the most frequented place of pilgrimage in Western Europe. Although the book of Acts (xii. 2) states that James was put to death in Jerusalem (44 A.D.), Spanish tradition declares that he went to Spain and suffered martyrdom there. For a long time his burial-place was unknown, but it was miraculously discovered early in the ninth century. A chapel — ^which in time gave way to a cathedral —was built on the spot, and a town grew up there, called Ad sanctum Jacobum apostolum or Giacamo Vostolo, whence Compostella (?). The story is first found in the ninth century (Walafried Strabo, Poema de xii. aposiolis, and others), and is gener- ally rejected by Protestants. Most Roman Catho- lic scholars also do not accept the alleged visit of James to Spain, but incline to believe the tra- dition concerning his burial-place. Santiago is now a town of about 25,000 inhabitants, the seat of an archbishop and of a university. For the Order of Compostella see James, Saint, of Com- POSTELLA, Order of. (O. ZOCKLERf.) Bibliography: H. Floras. Bapafla aagrada, iii., app. x., pp. 414-435. Madrid. 1754; Natalis Alexander. Hiatoria ecde- 9iaaUoa, aeo. i.. diawrt., prop. i.. vol. iii. 161 eqq.. Venioe. 1778; P. B. Gams. Die Kirchengeachidite Spaniena, ii. 1, PP. 285-299, iL 2. pp. 361-396. Rcgenaburg, 1864; KL, iii. 774-777.

COMPSTON, HERBERT FULLER BRIGHT: Church of England; b. at Barnsley (21 m. n. of Sheffield), Yorkshire, England, Oct. 17, 1866. He studied at Exeter College, Oxford (B.A., 1891), and was curate of Totnes (1893-94), Holy Trinity, Bournemouth (1895-97), and St. Saviour's, Brix- ton Hill (1898-1903). In 1900 he was appointed lecturer in Latin at King's College, London, and lecturer in Hebrew three years later. He is also a member of the faculty of theology in the Uni- versity of London and has been curate of St. Mark's, North Audley Street, London, W., since 1903. In theology he is a liberal Churchman.

COMPTON, HENRY: Bishop of London; b. at Compton Wynyates (25 m. n.n.w. of Oxford), War- wickshire, 1632, youngest son of the Earl of North- ampton; d. at Fulham, near London, July 7, 1713. He studied at Queen's College, Oxford, 1649-52, went abroad and did not return to England until the Restoration, when he received a commission in the army; decided to enter the Church and was admitted M.A. at Cambridge 1661; entered Christ Church, Oxford, 1666 (B.D. and D.D., 1669); was consecrated bishop of Oxford 1674, translated to London 1675. He was privy councilor, and was entrusted with the religious education of the king's nieces, Mary and Anne, each of whom afterward became queen of England. In 1686, under James II., he was suspended from his bishopric for hav- ing refused to suspend at the king's command Dr. John Sharp, dean of Norwich, who had preached against popery. He actively espoused the cause of William and Mary, crowned them king and queen in 1689, and was reinstated in his old positions and given new honors and responsibilities. The close of his life was embittered by disappointment at not receiving the primacy. He was concilia- tory toward dissenters, but his efforts to unite them to the Church met with little appreciation from either churchmen or non-conformists. He gave liberally to all in need and for building churches and hospitals, and died poor in consequence. He was a good botanist and in his grounds at Fulham had '' a greater variety of curious exotic plants and trees than had at the time been collected in any garden in England." Besides episcopal let- ters (republished as Episcapalia with Memoir by S. W. Cornish, Oxford, 1842) and charges, he pub- lished The Life of Donna Olimpia Maldachini (1667), translated from the Italian; The Jeauils' Intrigues (1669) and A Treatise of the Holy Comr munion (1677), translated from the French. COMTE, cent, ISIDORE AUGUSTE MARIE FRA59OIS XAVIER (usuaUy simply AUGUSTE): The founder of the positive school of philosophy (see PosrrnnsM); b. at MontpeUier (76 m. w.n.w. of Marseilles) Jan. 19, 1798; d. in Paris Sept. 5, 1857. He was educated mainly at the £cole Polyteoh- nique in Paris. In 1817 he came under the in- fluence of Saint-Simon, who helped to determine the future course of his mental activity. In 1826 he began a course of lectures covering the whole range of science as conceived by him, which was terminated by an attack of brain fever, resulting in such cerebral disturbance as to necessitate his Oomta Ooncordaaoea 204 confinement in an asylum and to cause several attempts at suicide. In 1828 he took up the course again, and the next year definitely began the con- struction of his Cours de philoaophie poHtive (6 vols., 1830-42). Some minor educational appoint- ments assured him a modest income, until in 1842, when he lost the post of examiner for admission to the ficole Polytechnique, and with it the half of his revenue. Through the efforts of John Stuart Mill, some of his English admirers made up the de- ficiency for a time, and from 1848 Littr6 and other French friends did the same. After the comple- tion of the PhiloMphie poaiHve, he proceeded to apply its principles to the reconstruction of society in the Systhne de politique positive (4 vols,, 1851- 1 854). He gave practical expression to his views by founding in 1848 the " Positive Society," and by giving courses of free lectures, which were sup- pressed by the government in 1861. The Politique positive is much less coldly intellectual than his first great work, and is marked by an enthusiasm for the welfare of humanity which he exalted into a religion. The book, however, with certain small later works, the Cat^hisme positiviste (1853), Ap- pel aux conservateurs (1855), and SynMse nibjec- live (1856), did not meet with the approval of a section of his followers, of whom Littr6 was the most important. In his later years Comte was less the founder of a philosophiciJ system than the high priest of a new religion of humanity. Biblioorapht: Amonc the many translations of Comte's works the following may be mentioned: The Phiiotophy of MathmuUica, by W. M. Gillespie, New York. 1861; The Poeitive Philoaophy, by Harriet Martineau, 4 vols.. London. 1853, 2 vols., 1875, republished by Bohn. 3 vols., ib. 1896; The Catechiem of PoeUive Religion, ib. 1858; A Oeneral View of Poeiiiviem, ib. 1805; Syetem of PoaiUve Polity, by J. H. Bridges, F. Harrison, and others, 4 vols., ib. 1875-79; The Eight Cireulare, by S. Lobb and others, ib. 1882; Religion of Humanity, by R. Congreve, ib. 1891. For discussion of the philosophy of Comte see PoBxnv- IBM and the literature there. For the life and work con- sult: his Correepondanee inSdite, 2 vols., Paris, 1903; J. 8. Mill, Auguate Comte and Poeitiviam, London, 1865, new ed., 1882 (answered by M. P. £. Littr^. Aun guele Comte et Stuart Mill, Paris, 1866. and J. H. Bridges. The Unity of Comte'a Life and Doctrinee, London, 1866); £. Caird. The Social Philoaophy and Religion of Comte, Glasgow. 1885; H. Gruber. Augi*9U Comte . . . Leben und I^re, Freiburg. 1889 (translated into Fr. and Ital.); J. F. £. Robinet. L'CEuvre etlavie d*Auguate Comte, Paris, 1891; G. Audeffrent, Atiguate Comte , . . aavieetaa doe- trine, ib. 1894; A. Sohaefer, Die Moralphiloaophie A. Comtea, Basel, 1906. CONAlfT, THOMAS JEFFERSON: Baptist; b. at Brandon, Vt., Dec. 13, 1802; d. in Brooklyn Apr. 30, 1891. He was graduated at Middlebury College, Vt., 1823; was professor of languages at Waterviiie College (Colby University), Me., 1827- 1833; professor of languages and Biblical literature Hamilton Theological Institution (Colgate Uni- versity), N. Y., 1835-51, professor of Hebrew and Biblical exegesis Rochester Theological Seminary 1851-67. From 1857 to 1875 he was in the service of the American Bible Union (see Biblb Socie- ties) and edited their revision of the New Testa- ment (1871) and portions of the Old. He also published The Meaning and Use of BapOeein phUo- logically and historically investigated for the Ameri- can Bible Union (New York, 1860), translated the eleventh edition of Gesenius's Hebrew Grammar (Boston, 1839), contributed anew version and phil- ological notes to the volume on the Psalms in the Schaff-Lange commentary (New York, 1872), and with Lyman Abbott edited a Dictionary of Religious Knowledge (1875). He was a member of the Amei^ lean Old Testament Revision Company.

CONATY, THOMAS JAMES: Roman Catholic bishop of Monterey and Los Angeles; b. at Kilna- leck (67 m. n.w. of Dublin), County Cavan, Ire- land, Aug. 1, 1847. He studied at Montreal Col- lege (1863-67), College of the Holy Cross, Worcester, Mass. (B.A., 1869), and Montreal Theo- logical School ( 1872 ). He was assistant rector of St. John's Church, Worcester, Mass. (187^-80), and rector of the Church of the Sacred Heart in the same city (1880-97). On nomination of the Ro- man Catholic bishops of the United States he was appointed rector of the Catholic University of America, Washington, by Pope Leo XIII. in 1896. In 1897 he was designated domestic prelate to the pope with the title of Right Reverend Monsignor, and in 1901 he was appointed titular bishop of Samos. In 1903 he was consecrated bishop of Monterey and Los Angeles. He was founder and editor of the monthly Catholic School and Home Magazine 1892-96, and has written Bible Studies for Schools (New York, 1897). CONCEPTION, THE IMMACULATE. See In- MACULATE (k>NCEFnON.

CONCEPTION OF OUR LADY, NUNS OF THE ORDER OF THE: A religious order founded by Beatrix de Silva, sister of James, first count of Portalegre, Portugal, in 1484; confirmed by Innocent VIII. 1489; given the rule of St. Clare by Cardinal Ximenes, but by Julius II. given a separate rule in 1511. CONCEPTUALISM. See Scholasticism. CONCLAVE. See Pope, Papacy, and Papal System.

CONCOMITANCE: An expression originating with Alexander of Hales and made by Thomas Aquinas a regular part of scholastic theology, sanc- tioned later by the Council of Trent, to designate the doctrine that as the living Christ is received in the Eucharist, and thus his body and blood can not be separated, both, together with his divinity, must inevitably be received under the species either of bread or of wine. It is in accordance with this doctrine that the Roman Catholic Church justifies the giving of communion in one kind, asserting that '* the whole Christ " is thus received, though under the form of bread alone. See Transubstan- CONCORD, BOOK OF; FORMULA OF. See Formula of Concord. 205 Oomte Concordanoea I. Tbe First Coneordanoas. 11. Hebrew Concordances. 1524-1878 (f 1). Mandelkern'e Concordance (f 2). III. Greek Concordances. 1. The Old Testament. 3. The New Teetament. IV. Latin Copcordancee. CONCORDAHCES. Manufloripts (f 1). 1470-1533 (f 2). 1565-1685 (f 3). 1751-1892 (f 4). ^ German Concordancea 1609-50 (f 1). LanckiBoh's Concordance (f 2). 1707-1893 (f 3). VI. Eogliah GonoordaaoM. VII. FrenehConoordanoM. VIII. Duteh Concordancee. IX. Danish Conoordanees. X. Swedish Conoordaaoes. XI. Syriac Concordances. XII. Topical Indexes. The name ooncordanoe is applied to books listing the words of the Bible in alphabetical or other classified order. Eveiy great book needs a table of contents. The lists for the Bible are called concordances, perhaps because of the unison of the one word that stands out in each reference, or perhaps because the chief reason in old times for comparing passages was the attempt to make them agree with each other. Verbal con- cordances are usually arranged according to the single words of the text and either add to each the simple chapter and verse where the word occurs, or give besides the words of the passage. Subject concordances or topical indexes aim rather at the matter than at the words, and often contain a brief explanation of the subject. In this article the verbal concordances are chiefly in view. L The First Concordances: The first concord- ance seems to have been in Latin and to have been made by the Burgundian Hugo of St. Cher (Hugo Carensis, d. 1263 or 1264), the first Dominican cardinal; it is fabled that he set five hundred Dominicans at work on it. He finished it about 1230 in the monastery of St. James at Paris, whence the name ConcordanticB S. Jacobi, also cialled Concordantus brevea because without the wording of the passages. About the year 1250 three Englishmen in the same monas- tery, John of Darlington, Richard of Stavenesby, and Hu^ of Croydon, added the full wording in the ConeordatUicB S. Jacobi, AnglicancB or Maxima, 6o named because of the complete passages. Arlot (Arlotto) of Prato, a Tuscan, in 1285 appointed minister general of the Franciscans, improved Hugo's concordance. Conrad of Deutschland or of Halberstadt (flourished about 1290), rewrought and abbreviated Hugo's book and added, according to Sixtus Senensis, the inde- clinable words (on Hugo, Arlot, and Conrad cf. Sixtus Senensis, Bibliotheca sancta ... a Joanne Hayo . . . iUustrata, pp. 249, 250, 201, 220, the last also falsely printed 201, Lyons, 1593). In con- nection with the Council of Basel in 1433, 1435-40, because of the discussions with the Bohemians about ntst, John vi. 54, and with the Greeks about ex and per, John Stoikowitz (also called John of Ragusa) is said to have been especially distressed at the lack of a concordance of the particles and directed his Scotch chaplain, Walter Jonas, to make one. Jonas began to prepare a volume with the particles arranged according to the books of the Bible, which he nearly finished in three years. Then two others took it up and completed it, and they probably introduced the alphabetical ar- rangement. John of Socubia or Segovia, arch- do;icon of Villaviciesa in the diocese of Oviedo, wrote the preface. Some have thought that the Can- cordantuB maxima were so named not, as stated above, because they gave the full passages instead of merely chapter and verse, but because they con- tained also the indeclinable words. n. Hebrew Concordances: Rabbi Isaac Mor- decai (on the name cf. Buxtorf's preface, leaf 4a) ben Nathan made a Hebrew concordance 1438- 1448: r*^B^Jfcm)pJ)p Knpjn TT\: TKD. He ar- ranged the roots alphabetically, save that the quadrilaterals stood at the end; derivatives stood under the roots. It was published by Daniel Bomberg Venice, 1524, in folio, and again in 1564 under the Doge Amald Ferrer, superintended by Meir ben Jacob Franconi an. published by Lorenzo Bragadini, printed by Maggio Parentini. Ambrose Froben reoublished it in Basel, 1580, under the title: TJD3 jnpjn TfO I^K^ 1DD fiTK^^DJfcm^pJ^p (in the edUio pnma of 1524 this was the second title, after the sheet with the preface, but closing with B^^), in fifty sheets beside the sheet in front (at least in the Leipsic copy); the colimms often agree with the coiimms of 15i24; at the end is Aaron Pesaro's Ust of the passages explained in the z. 1524- Babylonian Tidmud. Anton Reuch- 1878. Hn, professor of Hebrew at Strasburg, published an edition at Basel, 1556, in which Rabbi Nathan's explanation of the words was given in Latin, but badly; Johann Brenz wrote the preface; it appeared again, Basel, 1569. Solomon Mandelkem saw in the royal library at Munich the manuscript of a concordance that Elias Levita Bachur wrote in 1516-21: m^liatn 1DD. Another manuscript revised by Elias Levita and provided with a German translation is in the Na- tional Library at Paris (cf. Mandelkem's preface). Conrad Eircher of Augsburg, pastor at Donau- w6rth, published a Hebrew concordance; unfor- tunately, because he had given the wording of the passages from the Greek text of the Septuagint he called the book incorrectly: Concordantia V, Ti. GroBca, Ebrcns voctlma reapondentes, noXixpv^oi . . . , 2 vols. Frankfort, 1607 (4 leaves), 2,271, 2,310 cols. (1 leaf), 290 pp., quarto. The second volume gives the Greek words with references to the places in which they occur in the first volume and with the passages from the Apocrypha. Le Long mentions (p. 456) a manuscript summary from Eircher made by Arnold Bootius and called it Bibliotheca Segueriana pag. 37 and a manuscript Greek-Danish concordance to the Apocrypha by Frants Michael Vogel. Martin Troost treated the Chaldee sections by themselves: Concordantia Chaldaica et Syriaca ex Danielis et Ewa capUibua Chaldaice scriptis, Wittenberg, 1617, quarto. Marius de Calasio, a Franciscan (d. 1620), made an edition published in Rome, 1621-22, by Michael Angelo of St. Romulus: Concordantife sacrorum bibliorum Hebraicorum ...» published again. Concordances 206 Cologne, 1646; London, 1648; Rome, 1657; and by William Romaine, London, 1747-49, in 4 vols. (15 leaves), 1,366, 1,234, 1,326, 852, 184 cols. (43 leaves), folio. John Buxtorf's concordance was published by his son: Concordantia btbliorum He- braicaf nova et cartifidoaa methodo dispoaita in to- cia innumsrU depravoHs emendaUB. . . . Aooeaae- runt nova concord. Chaldaica . . . per Johannem Buxtorf fU,, Basel, 1632 (10 leaves), and sheets A- Yy3ryy. The preface tells of the earlier concord- ances. Buxtorf left the particles out (cf . Glauch, De uau concordantiarum biblicarum achediaama, Leipsic, 1668, p. 24). In Le Long, Bibliotheca sacra, Paris, 1723, there is found under Christopher Crine- sius: "Cane, Hebr,, Wittenberg, 1627, quarto." J6- cher has pi37 *1DD seu cmalyaia Novi Ti. per IB7 tar bulas. (Is that the same book?) Andreas Sennert published at Wittenberg, 1653, 12 leaves to announce a book that he would like to publish if some one would bear the cost: ppn DIpD i^HT^'Dt etve mor nuale concordantiarum Ebrtso-Btblicarum d. J, Btix- torfii. Christian Raue abbreviated Buxtorf: Cone, Hdtr. et Chald. I, Buxtorfii epitome, Berlin and Frankfort, 1677. Christian Nolde gave the parti- cles: Conoor. poHtcu^orum £&r.-CAaU., ()openhiEigen, 1670; Sim. Bened. Tympe added to it Joh. Micha- elis's and Christian Koerber's particles: Nolde, Cone, partic, . , . S, Gottfr, Tympitia eumma cura recenr Muit . . . inseruit concordantiaa pronominum eepon ratonim Ebr. et Chald, nunc primum congeetaa a SxTneone Benedido Tympio denique appendicia loco eubjynxit lexica particularum Ebraicarum Joh, Michaelia [cum prafatione Aug, Pfeifferi ; cf. Bind- seil, XXXV., note 1] et Chriatiani Koerheri, Jena, 17^. Le Long names William Robertson, Theaaurua ling, aanct, aeu cone, lexicon Ebr,'Lat,'bibl,, London, 1680, and Antony Laymann, ConcordanticB Hebrmo- aaercB iuxta aeriem cuiuaque constnictionia ayntactica, n.p., 1681. (Is that really a concordance?) John Taylor made a very good Hebrew concordance adapted to the English text, 1764, 2 vols. Isaac ben Tsebi from Soldin in Prussia siunmarized Bux- torf: . . . 3^m TKD iDon iwp wm yr* cne^ irVJimipjlp Knpjn, Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1768. Julius Fttrst's great work: BHpnpKO IVIK, Leipsic, 1 840, is still much used; editions by B. Baer, Stettin, 1847 and 1861. G. V. Wigram aided by S. P. Treg- elles and B. Davidson published the Englishman'a Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance, London, 1843, 3d •d., 1866; Davidson, revised by Joseph Hughes, London, 1876. Strack refers to concordances of proper names by Gid. Brecher, Frankfort-on- Main, 1876, and by L. M. Schusslowitz, *1DD WDB^ niVK. Wilna, 1878. In the year 1884 Solomon Mandelkem announced a new concordance: Die neubearbeitete Hebrdisch- chcUddiache Btbel-Concordam . . . nebat GtUachten von Fachgelehrten, and published 15 pp. quarto; later an approving word of H. L. Fleischer's was added on a separate leaf. Finally the book ap- peared: Solomon Mandelkem Veteris Teatamenti concordanticB Hdrraicce et Chaidaicce , . . (and a Hebrew title), 2 vols., Leipsic, 1896, xv., 1,532 pp. folio. Later Mandelkem made a small edition without the wording of the passages, Leipsic, n.d., viiL (1), 1,010 (1) pp. quarto. This work had been long preparing and was published at Leipsic where there are good compositors and good proof-read- ers in every branch; it should therefore have been careful and accurate, but it is not at all well done. Consequently it is desirable that scholars in ttus department should collect their contributions to the correction of the errors and send in the lists of mistakes found, so that the 2. Mandel- publishers can issue a supplement, kern's Con- which they are willing to do. The best cordance. way would be to divide the book up between a large number of men, so that nothing could escape detection. Some of the contributions are already made: Carl Siegfried, Stellenfehler in Mandelkem'a V, T. cone. Hebr., in ZWT, 1897, 465-467; Rudolf Kittel, Ein kurzes Wort aber die beiden Mandelkemachen Concordan- ten, in ZATW, 1898, 165-167; B. Jakob, Georg Beer, Gustaf Dahnan, Bemhard Stade, ZATW, 1898, 348-351; Herman L. Strack, TLZ, 1898, no. 13, 358-359; (Mandelkem, , , . Pro dome, ZATW, 1899, 183-186); A. BUchler, B. Jakob, K Ludwig, E. K6nig, A. von GaU, ZATW, 1899, 187-191, 350; (I. L Kahan, ZATW, 1899. 353-356; Man- delkem, ZATW, 1900, 173-176; Kahan, ZATW, 1900, 338-344); E. Rosenwasser, ZATW, 1902, 320; A. Zillessen, ZATW, 1903, 94r-95; Von Gall. ib. 95-96; Mayer Lambert, ib. 352-354; Von Gall and E. Nestle, ib. 354; Rosenwasser, ZATW, 1904, 146, 326; M. Brann, in Monataackrift fur GeachichU und Wiaaenachaft dea Judentutna, 1898, 529-537; Badt, in Monataackrift fur Geaehichte und Wiaaen- achaft dea Judentuma, 1899, 523, 524; J. Gdttsbeiger, Bibliache Zeitachrift, ii., 1904, 259; Sven Hemer, in ZDMO, Ixi (1907), 7-17. Doubtless other scholars have further corrections. Professor Kautzsch in Halle has given the following: p. 34 D3^Din 'Si read Hob. 2, S, instead of 2, 2. p. 251 read ^nSuni instead of >rhunn, p. 315 read on^>n. but Job 6, 21. on^;n. p. 371 ^^n Ct 3, 4 should be put by itself as stet. eonstr. p. 479 Why has Mandelk. I Chr. 3. 5. ^tSu f Ed. Maat^ Baer, Ginsb. have here also vh^y p. 488 ^Oin Prov. 30, 6 is wanting. p. 503 at least I Ki. 18, 3 does not belong under the per- fect Kn\ but under the adj. verbaU, and probably also I Ki. 1. 61; 18. 12; Prov. 14. 16; Job. 1, 9. p. 729 instead of n^^n ed. Mant.. Baer nj^n. p. 733 read V] ( = T^i) instead of Pi and TM. p. 771 HK^J (infin. absl. Niph.7)II Sam. 19. 43 is wanting. p. 1005 '^r.lOen. 32. a instead of 32, 7. He expressed the wish that some one would make a concordance of the words arranged accord- ing to the end of the words, so that a scholar could work rapidly with fragments of the inscriptions and of manuscripts; cf. Friedrich Zimmer's Greek termination-concordance. in. Greek Concordances: Sixtus Senensis re- lates that about 1300 a Basilian monk, Eutha- lius of Rhodes, made a Greek concordance of the whole Bible, following Hugo of St. Cher's example in the Latin Bible. This is said to have been seen in manuscript at Rome, but is unknown. Another Greek, George Sugdures, who studied at Rome toward the end of the seventeenth century and afterward taught at Constantinople, is said to have worked thirty years on a Greek concordance of the 807 Concordances whole Bible, but not to have published it; cf. Le Long, 456a, and JOcber. I. The Old Testament: Trommius (Abraham van der Trommen), ConcordantuB Gtcbccb veraionia vulgo dicta LXX interpretum . . . Leguntur hie prcUerea voces GraecB pro Hebraida reddUcB ab an- tiquis omnibiis Veteris Testamenti interprelibua . . . AquHa, Symmacho, Theodotione, . . . Amsterdam and Utrecht, 1718, was until lately the only con- cordance for the Greek Old Testament. At the end are ^ven a Hebrew-Chaldee dictionary, a Greek dictionary to Origen's Hexapla from Mont- faucon, prepared by Lambert Bos, and Bos's com- parison of the chapters and verses in the Sixtino- Vatican edition of the Septuagint with those in the Frankfort edition of 1597, which both Kircher and Trommen used. Trommen wrote in 1718 a defense of his book against Gagnier, who defended Kircher. A second edition of Trommen appeared at Amsterdam, 1742. Bagster published: A Handy Concordance of the Septuagint, London, 1887. Now there exists the great work of Edwin Hatch and Henry A. Redpath, A Concordance to the Septuagint . . . , Oxford (1892, 1897, 1900), with a supplonent giving the proper names (all should have been in one list). a. The New Testament: Sixtus Birken of Augs- burg made a concordance for the New Testament: Xystus Betulejus, Xvfi^vla ^ avTike^t^ ry^ diad^iofc ^W Nu TL concord., Basel, 1546. Henri Estienne finished his father's (d. 1559) concordance: Concordantia Or, -Lot. Teetam, novif Paris, 1594; 2d ed., Geneva, 1624. Erasmus Schmid of Wit- tenberg made a concordance, Ni. Ti, . . . TAMEION, Wittenberg, 1638, repeated by Ernst Salomon Qyprian, Gotha and Leipsic, 1717, often reprinted, e.g., by John Williams, London, 1767; without name, 2 vols., Glasgow, 1819; by William Greenfield, London, 1830; in the most conve- nient form by the London publisher Bagster. Ethel- bert W. BuUinger issued A Critical Lexicon and Concordance to the English and Greek New Tester- ment, London, 1877, 5th ed., 1908. The chief work at present is Karl Hermann Bruder's, Leipsic, 1842, 4th ed., 1888, but it will be surpassed by Paul Wilhelm Schmiedel's, now preparing. George V. Wigram (see above) also prepared: The Eng- lithman*s Greek Concordance, London, 1839 and later. Otto Schmeller, TAMEION, London, 1869. In America Hosea L. Hastings had an excellent concordance prepared by Charles F. Hudson and revised by Ezra Abbot: A Critical Greek and Eng- lish Concordance, Boston, 1870, 3d ed., 1875. Es- pecial attention must be called to Friedrich Zimmer's Concordantia suppiUmentarics omnium vocum Novi Testamenti Grcsci et dassibus secundum terminor tvones distributarum et derivatarum cum nativis ver- bis coUocatarum composUa a F, Z,, Gotha, 1882, and to W. F. Moulton and A. S. Geden, A Con- cordance to the Greek Testament according to the Texts of WestcoU and Hart, Tisdiendorf, and the English Remsers, Edinburgh, 1897; 2d ed., 1899. IV. Latin Concordances: The Latin concord- ances were the eariiest and are now very com- plete. They have an interesting history, closely boimd up with the development of academic life in Western Europe. A few manuscripts are noted here as an incitement for one who can give him- self to the history of these books, also a few out of the many printed concordances of the Latin Bible. The Biblioth^ue Nationale at Paris contains ten manuscripts of concordances all of which are dated from the foiurteenth century. These are the MSS. Lat. 513, 514, 515, 516, 517, X. Manu- (all five from Colbert's library); 518 scripts, and 519 (from the Carmelite Monas- tery); 520, 601 (belonged formerly to Baluze: in quinque libros distrtbiUos); 602 (once Tellier's: concordantia ordine alphabetico digesta); 603, 606 scarcely seem to contain concordances. The city library at Bordeaux owns a MS. of the " larger concordance," MS. 15, fourteenth century, parchment, 470 leaves, 3 cols, on a page: biblir orum concordantia maiores ; the beginning is: Cui- libet volenti requirere concordancias in hoc libra, unum est prima aUendendum, and the end is: Ge. XXX, b. sentiens lya qiuxi parere desisset, Zelfam ancUlam marito tradidit, Expliciunt magna con- cordantie, MS. no. 6 in the monastery Heiligen- kreuz (-Neukloster) in Vienna seems to begin and end in the same way. The university library at Leipsic has three manuscripts which seem to be of the same kind as those at Bordeaux and Vienna; they are ascribed to Conrad of Germany; these are MS. Lat. 99, perhaps of the 14th century, MS. Lat. 100, of about the 15th century, and MS. Lat. 101, of about the 15th century. Conrad of Alemannia's Concordantia bibliorum is said to have appeared at Strasburg, 1470. At Leipsic there is one (Hain, 5629, says by J. Men- telin, Strasburg, c. 1475) dated 1474 by the rubri- cator, who probably knew the precise date. It appeared again at Bologna, 1479, 1486; Basel, 1480, studio Joan. Nivicellensis, The first edition of the Concordantia Anglicana is supposed to be Nuremberg, 1485, as Concord, magna ; again 1487. Sebastian Brant published Conrad's 2. concordance as Cone, S, Jacobi, and 1470-1533. John of Segovia's at Froben's in Basel, 1496, in two parts, repeated by Fro- ben 1506; Concordantia maiores biblie tam dictionum dedinabilium quam indeclinabUium de novo summa dUigentia cum textu vise ac secundum veram orthogra- phiam emendalissime excuse, with preface by Con- radus Leontorius Mulbrunnensis, dated May 12, 1506, Ex ArtavaUe ultra Birsam Basileanam; the colophon says that the work was printed opera et impensis Johannini Amerbachii, Petri de Langen- dorff, et Froben de HammeHburg iam denuo in urbe BasiXeorum, The first part contains sheets a-e, A-Z, Aa-Ff, folio; the second part is entitled Con- cordantie partium sive dictionum indedinabilium totius biblie, and the preface of John of Segovia tells something of the way in which preparations for it were made. A further title, over the first word, says that John of Segovia published the book at the Council of Basel in 1430; this is prob- ably intended as a general date for the councU and not for the book, for according to John's preface the book was not done before 1440 at the earliest; repeated Basel, 1516, 1521, 1523, 1525, 1526; Strasburg, 1526, 1530; Lyons, 1526, 1528, 1540, Concordances 208 1545; ed. Johannes Gaste from Breisach, Basel, 1552. In 1533 Joannes Steels, an Antwerp book- seller, published a handy little volume Index utri- usque Testamenti, the first convenient rival of the large concordances. In Paris, 1555, Robert Estienne's improved con- cordance came out: ConcordarUuB hibliorum utrir- usque Testamenti, V. et iVt., navce et integrce, Qtuu revera maiores appellare possis, for which Estienne divided the New Testament into verses. At Basel Joh. Hervage published, 1561 and again 1568, a concordance by his father. Jean Benoit made an edition (Paris?), 1562, George Bullock one in Antwerp, 1572, Leyden, 1586, 1603, 1615. From the Clementine Vulgate of 1592, Antwerp, 1599; (Frankfort), 1600; again 1618 (Hanover?); Cologne, 1611; Geneva, 1611; with 3. notes by Franz Lukas from Bruges, 1555-1^5- Antwerp, 1606, 1612; Venice, 1612; Orleans, 1612; Lyons, 1612, 1615 (con- fused with Leyden, 1615?); Antwerp and Venice, 1618; Geneva, 1620, 1624; Geneva and Frank- fort, 1625; Rome, 1627, by Gaspard de Zamora, S. J.; Paris, 1635, 1638, 1646; O)logne, 1628 (1629?), 1661, 1663; Bamberg, 1721. Hubert Phalesius corrected in 1642 Frams Lukas's edition of 1617, printed Lyons, 1649, 1652, 1667, 1687, 1700; Paris, 1656; CJologne, 1684; Mainz, 1685; and at other times and places, for example, Vienna, 1825. The Benedictine monks in Wessobrunn pub- lished: CancordantiiB nova methodo amatcB, Augs- burg, 1751, with whole verses or at least sentences. F. F. Dutripon's Vvlgatm edUionis bibliarum sacro- rum concordanticBf Paris, 1838, has reached at least a 7th ed., Paris, 1880, Regensburg, 1886. Tonimi revised it, Prado, 1861. H. de Raze, Ed. de Le- chaux, and J. B. Flandrin, all S. J., 4. published a Concordantium s. s. manur X751-X892. ale, Lyons, 1852, 13th ed., Paris, 1895. De Raze's arrangement of words ac- cording to cases or tenses is also used by Peultier, fitienne, Gantois, in their Concordantium . . . the- saurus (in R. Comely, J. Knabenbauer, Fr. von Hummelauer's Cursus sacr. script. Pars, III. Tex- tus V.\ Brussels [1897]. Add here: V. P. Robert, Aurifodina sacra scientiarum divinarum ex fontibus aureis uJtriusque Testamenti^ ordine alphabetico din gesta, Turin, 1873; M. Bechi's Concord, propter al- phab. ordinem in grammaticalem redactoB, Turin, 1887; C. Legrand, Bruges, 1889; V. CJormert, Con- cordanticB for preachers in choosing texts, Paris and Bruges, 1892. V. Gennan Concordances: Several small books appeared with only a selection of passages, first of ah Johannes Schroeter's Konkordantz des Newen Testaments zu teutsch, Strasburg, 1524, according to Luther's translation. Leonhard Brunner, pas- tor in Worms, extended this to the whole Bible, Strasburg, 1546. Michael Milling published a little Conkordam-Bibel. Leipsic, 1602, and finally Lucas Stockle, H. Gotlicher Schrift Schatzkammer : Oder Teutsche Biblische Concordantzen, Herbom in the coimty Nassaw Catzenelnbogen, 1606. The first large work came from the Nuremberg printer Conrad Bawr (Latinized Agricola), with a preface of July 5th, 1609: ConcordantuB hibliorum, d. t. htbl. Concordantz und Verzeichniss der Fur- nembsten Worter . . . auf Mart. Luther's Ao. I64S am letzten revidvrte Bibel qerichtet, Frankfort-on- Main, 1610, 1621, 1632, 1640. In 1612 he added an appendix. Christian Zeise, pastor in Oeltzschau near Leipsic, improved Bawr's work, Frankfort- on-Main (1657), 1658, 1674; a supple- X. ment in 1664. Le Long mentions 1609-50. concordances by Johannes Fischer, Her- bom, 1610; Johannes Faber, Ingol- stadt, 1615; Paul Orell, Frankfort, 1627; Daniel Fessel, Frankfort, 1662; Johannes Janus, Scrip- ture Oder Stella calorum, Frankfort, 1650; Biartin Gumbrecht, Dresden, 1654. Friedrich Lanckisch, a Leipsic bookseller, pre- pared an enormous work, but died in 1669 before he could print it. Volume i. came out in the shape the author had intended: ConcordanticB bibliorum Germanico-Hebraico-GrcBCtBf Leipsic, 1677, new ed., 1688; 3d ed., 1696, 4th ed., 1705, enlarged by Christian Reineccius, 1718, second part, 1742. The Hebrew or the Greek word was placed 2. Lanck- beside each German word. Volumes isch's ii. and iii. were then abbreviated and Concord- published as follows : ConcordatUia ance. bibliorum Hebrcso- et GrcBca-Germanica, duabus partibus absoluicB, quorum prior voces Hebraicas et Chaldaicas V. Ti., posterior txnxs omnes Gracas [N. Ti., Apocr. et LXX. inUrpp.] . . . cum siffnificatibus Germanicis e versions Luiheri ordine alphabet, recenset. Magni concar- dantiarum operis a F. Lanckisch conscripti epitome, 2 parts, Leipsic and Frankfort, 1680. This is a Hebrew-Latin-Oerman and Greek-Latin-Geiman dictionary without any note of the passages. Georg Michaelis's Kleine Concordantz of 1686 appeared in a sixth edition of the first part, Leip- sic, 1707, and in a second edition of the second part, Leipsic and Jena, 1718; with preface by F. A. Hallbauer, Jena, 1733; G. Michaelis voUstdndige Real- und VerbalrConcordanz . . . vermehrel von M. Adam Lebrecht Midler. Mii einer Vorrede Joh. Georg Walchs, Jena, 1767. Wohletnge- richtete Anweisung zur Biblischen Concordanz vermii- telst einem Biblischen Spruch Register ...» Lem- gO (1720?), 1725; BiUisches Spruchregister, 5th ed-. Lemgo, 1736, enlarged, Basel, 1746. Avenarius issued Biblisches SpruckregisteT, Gotha, 171 3. Nieder- werfer's Biblischer Kern und Stem oder Hand-conr cordantz appeared Leipsic, 1814. Johannes Kam- prads made a Biblical Sprachregister, 3. published with preface by Sieg- X707-1893. fried Becker, the Leipsic superin- tendent, Dresden and Leipsic, 1727. Gottfried BQchner inade: Verbal Hand-Concordant oder exegetisch'homiletisches Lexikon, Jena, 1740, 3d enlarged ed., Jena, 1756; 6th ed., enlarged by Heinrich Leonhard Heubner, Halle, 1840, 23d ed., Berlin, 1899; with supplement of 12,000 Bible pas- sages by Lutz and Riehm, Basel, 1890; Pliilip Schaff prepared a reprint of the Heubner ed. by BQchner, Philadelphia, 1871, in which A. Spath added 8,060 passages. BUchner first issued his Grosse Bibl. Real und Verbal-Concordantien, Jena, 1750, 3d ed., 1765. Others are: Jacob Christof Beck, VoOstdndiges Biblisches Wdrterbuch, oder 200 Concordances Real- und VerbalnConcordam, Basel, 1770; Gott- fried Joachim Wichmann, Biblische Handcon- cordanz, Nebst Vorrede von Christian Wilhdm From Walck, Dessau and Leipsic, 1782; 2d ed., thoroughly wrought over, Leipsic, 1796; new unchanged ed., with preface by Eindervater, Leipsic, 1806; Heinrich Schott, Biblische Hand- concordam, Leipsic, 1827; Biblische Hand-Con- cordam, 1841, 2d much enlarged ed., Leipsic, 1S47; Frank Julius Bemhard, pastor at Magde- bom near Leipsic, Biblische Concordam oder drei- laches Register Ober SprUche im AUgemeinen, fiber TextsteUen fOr besondere FdUe und Hber Sachen, Namen und Worte der von Dr. Luther iibersetzten htUigen Schrift, Leipsic, 1850, 1851; 2d thoroughly revised ed., 1857; 7th reprint, Dresden, 1888; Cal- \jper Bibelkonkordam oder voUstdndiges biblisches Wortregister. Nach der revidirten Luther Ud}ersetZ' ung, Calw and Stuttgart, 1893. VL English Concordances (cf. M. C. Hazard, in Walker's Concordance): The Concordance of the New Testament, apparently by John Day helped by the printer Thomas Gybson, came out undated, but before 1540. John Marbeck published: A Concordance for the whole Bible, London, 1550. Walter Lynne translated Conrad Pellican's In- dex Librorum [Zurich, 1537]; A brief and a com- pendious Table, in the Manner of a Concordancef London, 1550. Robert F. Herrey made Two Right Profitable and FruUfvU Concordances^ Lon- don, 1578, and his printer, Christopher Barker, published A Concordance by J, W., London, 1579. Qement Cotton prepared a larger work, London (1618 sqq.?), 1625, from the Geneva New Testa- ment; 1627, from the Old Testament; 1631, from the whole Bible. John Downame made a smn- mary of this at Cotton's wish, London, 1635, again 1689. Richard Bernard made a Thesaurus bibli- C1M, London (?), 1644, and Robert Wickens, A Corn-pleat and Perfect Concordance, Oxford, 1647; 1655. Samuel Newman, who went to New Eng- land in 1636 or 1638, published: A Large and Com- plete Concordance, on the basis of Cotton, London, 1643; 2d ed., 1650; 3d ed., 1658 (in this the Apoc- rypha); then 1662, only with Newman's initials S. N.; and finally as the Cambridge Coricordance, 1720, without Newman's name. Mulbing issued one, London, 1666. John Jackson wrote a short concordance (Cambridge), 1668; John Owen, London, 1673; and Samuel Clark, 1696. Cruden's Concordance came out in 1737 and has often been republished in various forms, for example, by John Butterworth, Philadelphia, 1867; John Brown, London, 1816; C. S. Carey, London, 1867; John Eadie, with preface by David King, New York, 1850; with preface by Joel Hawes, Hartford, 1867; 0>le; Hawker; David King, Boston, 1845; Alfred Jones, London, about 1855; Smith, Youngman, and Thomas Taylor, Brooklyn, 1809. Robert Young's Analytical Concordance, Eklinburgh, 1873, also 1881, added the Hebrew and Greek original words. James Bradford Richmond Walker's Comprehen- five Concordance wUh an Introduction by Marshall Custiss Hazard, leaves unimportant matter out, yet contains 50,000 more passages than Cruden; it appeared Boston and Chicago, 1894; James Strong, lU.— 14 Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible ; also brief dio tionaries of the Hebrew and Greek words of the original, with reference to the English words. New York, 1894 (takes in every word). Vn. French Concordances : Only Protestant ones are given. Concordance de la Bible, Ge- neva, 1566; Marc Wilks, Concordances des Saintes £critures, Paris, 1840; W. B. Mackensie, Concor- dance for the Osterwald translation, Paris, 1867, again 1874; Didionnaire des concordances des Saintes iScrUures d'aprhs la version du Dr, Segond, Lausanne, 1886. Vni. Dutch Concordances: Peder Janz Twisck, a Mennonite, published a concordance to the Flem- ish Luther-Bible, Hoom, 1615; then Sebastian Dranck, Haarlem, 1618, and again 1648. Jan Mar- tin (van Dantzigs? from Danzig?) began a Flem- ish concordance, and Abraham van der Trooomen finished it before his Greek one: NederUmdsche Concordantiedes Bijbels, Groningen, 1685-92; Leeu- warden, 1754. H. Valse issued Kleyne concor- dantie, The Hague, 1704. IX. Danish Concordances : E. Ewald, Copenhagen, 1748, 1749; E. Levinsen, Verbal-Concordans eller BibelrOrdbog til det Nye TestamenU, Copenhagen, 1856. X. Swedish Concordances: According to Le Long, Achaz Rahamb translated a German con- cordance, of which the letter A was published in Stockholm about 1709. Lorenz Holenius (Hale- niusT), Svensk-Hebraisk og Svensk-Grekisk concor- dans over G. og N. Testam,, Stockhohn, 1734, 1742. XL Syriac Concordances: Carl Schaaf, Lexicon Syriaeum concordantiale omnes Ni, Ti. Syriaci voces . . . complectens, Leyden, 1709. Xn. Topical Indexes: Cf. C. Mangenot, in Vi- gouroux's Dictionnaire de la bible, ii. 89^905, Paris, 1899. Many of the concordances named above were at the same time more or less topical, the concordance of the words being the best concord- ance of the subjects. The topical indexes go back to the work of Antony of Padua (1195-1231), whose ConcordantuB morales ss. biblia seem to be contained in the library of the University of Leip- sic, MS. Lat. 102, leaf l-123r, with possibly a frag- ment in MS. Lat. 543 (5). It was often printed, as for example, Venice, 1575; Rome, 1621, again 1623 (?); by De la Haye, Paris, 1641; Cologne, 1647. Franz Lukas Wading (cf. Mangenot) added to Antony a sermon-prompter by an Irish monk of the thirteenth century, and something similar was printed at Paris, 1497. A great many indexes could be added to this book of Antony's, for ex- ample Conrad Pellican's, Zurich, 1537; Peter Patiens, in Landau, Frankfort, 1571; Jan Har- lems, in the Antwerp Polyglotte, viii., Antwerp, 1572; Anton BroidniQr von Koninsteyn, Cologne, 1550; Paris, 1551 and 1554; William Allot, Ant- werp, 1581, 2d ed., 1585; Anton von Balinghem, Douai, 1621; Cologne, 1659; Trevoux, 1705; Lyons, 1711; Eulard, Antwerp, 1625; Philip Paul Merz after Allot, Augsburg, 1731, 1738, 1751, 1791; Venice, 1758, 1818; Paris, 1822, 1825, 1883; Jo- hannes Jakob Ohm, Biblische Spruchconcordanz by Chr. Liebeyott Simon, Leipsic, 1812; Joh. Michael Otto, Biblischee Spruchregister, ed. J. G. R<ibn«r| ConooTdats and DeUmitlnff Bulls 210 Sulzbach, 1823; C. G. Haupt, Bibliache Real' und Verbal'EncyclajfMdie, Quedlinburg, 1823-27; J. G. Haufif, Biblische Realr und Verbtdkankordam, Stutt- gart, 1828-^; Matal^ne, Paris, 1837, again 1864; A. J. James, Paris, 1835; Lueg, Biblische Realcon- eordam, 2d ed. by Heiin, Regensburg, 1855; C. Mazeron, Paris, 1869. Caspar Ren£ Grboort. Bxblxoorapbt: C. Kiroher, De etmoordanHa hikliea . . iMu. Wittenberg. 1622 (a polemic asainat Romvuan); J. Buxtorf. preface to hia ConeordanHcE, Basel 1632: A. Glauch, De concordaniiaruin bibUcanun unt, Leipsie, 1668; W. Frants, Tradaiut theotogicua de inUrpreiatume Man- rum Scrij4uranu.m, pp. 52-70, Wittenbers. 1706; J. Le Long, Biblicum 9acrum, i. 464a-459b, Paris. 1723; H. E. Bind- ■eil, ConcordanUarum . . . tpeeimen .... Halle, 1867; Visouroux, DicUonnavn de la bible, ii. 8112-005, Paris, 1890. CONCORDATS AND DELIMITING BULLS. Legal Theories of Concordats (S 1}. I. Early Concordats. II. Concordats Reeulting from the Council of Constimce. III. Concordats after the Council of Basel. 1. Germany. The Princes' Concordats, 1446 («1). The Concordat of Aschaftenbuxis or of Vienna, 1448 (S 2). 2. iVance. rV. The Seventeenth Century. V. The E^hteenth Century. VI. The Nineteenth Century. 1. France. The Concordat of 1801 (f 1). French Dependencies (S 2). The Concordat of Fontaine- bleau, 1813 (( 3). The Concordat of 1817 (S 4). 2. Germany and Austria. Inconclusive Negotiations of the Napoleonic Era (( 1). Concordat with Bavaria, 1817 (12). Delimiting Bull for Prussia, 1821 (( 3). Delimiting Bull for Hanover, 1824 (S 4). The States of the Eodesiastiesl Province of the Upper Rhioe (85). Concordat with Austria. 1855 (f 6). Agreements with Hesse-Dannstadt, WQrttemberg, and Baden, 1855- 1850 (S 7). Modification and Repeal of the Austrian Concordat, 1867-70 (8 8). 3. Italy. 4. Other European States. 5. Central America. 6. South America. VII. Spanish Concordats. The term concordat was used in a much broader sense in past centuries than to-day. Concordats are now usually understood to be treaties between the sovereign of a state and the pope of Rome, whereby the affairs of the Roman Catholic Church in the country concerned receive general regulation. Agreements between a state sovereign and the pope with respect to particular questions are not desig- nated as concordats; for instance, the so-called biUlcB circumscriptionis, by which the bounds of a diocese are determined. Nor is an understanding between a state sovereign and the bishops of a country so named, or an agreement between the State and a Protestant church. In former cen- turies the conclusion of such agreements was des- patched in very diversified forms; in modem times it has been customary to comprehend the result of the transactions effected by plenipotentiaries of both sides in a document which is duly published as state law upon ratification by the State and as canon law when accepted by the Church. The legal nature of concordats is disputed; but essen- tially three theories obtain: (1) The Privilege Theory: If the State be the servant of the C)hurch, it is obliged to ful- fil the offices undertaken by it in the concordat; hence all concessions of Church to State are privileges. Every con- cordat therefore consists of two elements, which legally are not coordinate; vis., the acknowledgment of obligations on the part of the State which were already incumbent on the State, and the grant of an indult on the part of the Church. The former is permanent; the latter, in the nature of the case, revocable. The evolution of the mod- em State has removed the foundation of a practical realisation of these elementary prin- ciples; but the privilege theory itself has not been surrendered on the Roman side, and Pius IX. in a brief of June 19. 1872. referred to the concordats as pacia seu indulta. (2) The Treaty Theory: Concordats are treaties equally binding on both sides, of the nature of international or public law. The fulfilment of these treaties inheres in the fact that each of the two parties promulgates a law conformably to the text of the treaty, and makes no alteration in the status thus determined without the consent of the other party; it be- ing, however, understood that in the event of changed cir- cumstances each party retains the right of withdrawal. This construction of concordats was prevalent at the be- ginning of the nineteenth century, but it is not satisfactory, since it assumes a coordination of Church and State that can not be reconciled with the State's pretention to eccle- ■iastical supremacy; and since there is wanting a common 1. Legal Theories of Con- cordata. legal basis for Church and State, such as must obtain for the conclusion of legal treaties. There is consequently rea- son to prefer (3) The Legal Theory: The agreement ex- pressed in the concordat is not legally obligatory, but ia merely a preliminary step to the state law that is to be promulgated subsequently, for which the agreement col- lects and arranges the material. The substance of the con- cordat becomes civil and canon law only when the civil and canonical enactments to that efifect have been decreed on the basis of the concordat. The State, however, is not bound by such law any more than by any other law by it enacted; that is to say, it can modify the same by process of new legislation the same as any other act of state legislation. I. Early Concordats: The so-called Concordat of Worms, dated Sept. 23, 1122 (text and bibliog- raphy in Mirbt, QueUen, pp. 115-116; cf. also D. Schftfer, Zur Beurteilung des Wormser Konkcfr- datSy in the Abhandlungen der Berliner Akademie, 1905), and terminating the German investiture dis- pute (see iNVESTiruRE), is usually accounted the oldest concordat. The emperor Henry V. at this time renounced the investiture with ring and staff, as practised by him till then; conceded that in the churches of his realm the election and consecra- tion of bishops should be free; promised the res- toration of all church possessions; and agreed to give temporal aid to the Church whenever it was demanded. Pope Calixtus II., on his part, con- ceded to the emperor that the German elections should be held in his presence; and that the dignitary elect should receive his regalia from the emperor in feudal tenure, in Germany before, in other parts of the empire (Italy and Burgundy) after, his consecration. Besides the Concordat of Worms, the following agree- ments lay claim to the name of concordats during the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries: (1) The treaty be- tween Adrian IV. and King William of Sicily at Benevento in 1156. (2) The treaty between Celestine HI. (1191-M) and King Tancred. (3) Between Innocent III. and Queen Constance of Sicily (1108). (4) Clement IV. and Charlea I. of Anjou (1265), referring entirely to Sicily. (5) Gregory XL and Queen Eleanor of Aragon (1372). (6) The under- standing between the bishops of Portugal and King Dio- nysius, approved by Nicholas IV. (1288-02). n. Concordats Resulting from the Council of Constance: The shattering of the ecclesiastical preponderance which prevailed in the prime of the Middle Ages created new conditions for the tto- 211 Conoordats and Delimitinff BuUs elusion of concordats in the fifteenth century. The councils of Pisa (1409) and Constance (1414-18), contrary to the Curia's intention, divided them- selves into " nations/' each consisting of the bishops, abbots, and prelates of the national Church, the delegates from the princes, and the doctors in theology and canon law, and each constituting an independent college with defined spheres of activity officially recc^nized as representative of the eccle- siastical and civil interests of its respective people. There was thus a German, an English, a French, an Italian, and finally also a Spanish nation (cf. B. Hubler, Die Konstamer ReformcUion und die Kon- kordaU von 14^3, Leipsic, 1867; see Constance, Council op). The German nation did not succeed in pushing through at Constance its demand for the reforma- tion of the Church before the election of a new pope, and, on Nov. 11, 1417, the council elected Cardinal Colonna as Pope Martin V. Little was thereby gained toward solving the council's major task; but in view of the impossibility of bringing about a general reform in the Church, it was still an essen- tial advance that some expedient was found in the way of particular laws for the churches of the sev- eral countries, for removing their most serious dis- tresses. The first impulse along these lines was furnished by the German nation by means of a memorial presented in the opening days of the year 1418 (cf. Hermann von der Hardt, Magnum fxcumenicum Constantiense concilium^ i. 999-1011, Frankfort and Leipsic, 1700). Like steps were also taken by the other nations. As they were unable to agree in regard to the pope's answer, Martin V. proffered separate treaties with each nation; and in this way concordats were concluded, on the basis of the papal proposals, with the German, English, French, Italian, and Spanish nations. The German (Von der Hardt, ut sup., L 1055 sqq.) and the French concordat (Von der Hardt. iv. 1566 eqq.), of nearly equivalent import, were published May 2, 1418. The Engliah concordat (Von der Hardt, i. 1079 eqq.; Wilkene, Conalia Maona Britianice, iii., London, 1737, 391 eqq.) ia dated July 21, 1418. The Spanish concordat is dated May 13. 1418 (Tejada, Coleceion completa de concordaioa eapa- nokM, Madrid. 1862, pp. 9 eqq.; B. Fromme, Die tpaniache Nation und daa Konttamer KoruU, Mtlnater, 1896). Prob- ably a separate Italian concordat was also concluded. With reference to the contents of these concordats, chap. L restricts the number of the cardinals, and defines their qualifications and the manner of their nomination; chap. ii. restricts the papal reservations; chap. iii. treats of the ID-called annates or taxes; chap. iv. explains what griev- ances are to be carried to Rome and what not; chap. v. circumscribes the right in commendam; chap. vi. declares against simony; chap. vii. declares that excommunicated persons need not be avoided before the express publication of the ban; chap. viii. circumscribes the dispensations of the (}uria; chap. ix. treats of the income of the Curia; chap. X. limits the bestowal of indulgences in Germany; chap. XL makes the qualification for (jiermany and France that aU this is merely a provisional status to be binding for five years only; the English agreement was permanent. The concordat was accepted in France notwithstanding opposition on the part of the Parliament of Paris; the his- tory of Its experience in Spain and Italy still continues ob- jure; and the same is true of the English concordat. The (jennan concordat took effect at once, but being of a pro- ▼urional tenor, like the French concordat, it proved of no lasting rignificanoe, and served simply as foundation for ■uhaequent transactions, for which an occasion was fur- nished by the Conndl of Basel. ni. Concordats after the Council of Basel.— 1. a^nnany: The great contest between the Coun- cil of Basel (1431-47) and Pope Eugenius IV. divided Western Christendom into two hostile camps for many years; but when Germany and France reached an understanding with Eugenius the victory of the papacy over " councilism " was decided. In Germany the electors, assembled after the death of Emperor Sigismund for the election of King Albert V., declared themselves against pope and council Mar. 18, 1438, and proclaimed their neutrality. On Mar. 24, 1439, an imperial diet at Mainz adopted the reform decrees of Basel, though with some alterations, and excluding the resolutions which centered upon the contest with Eugenius IV. (cf. C. Koch, Sanctio pragmatica Ger- manorum illustraia, Strasburg, 1789, pp. 105-171). King Albert, too, approved this ** acceptation." In the same year the Council of Basel took the final step, deposing Eugenius IV. on July 25, 1439, and electing for his successor Felix V. Nov. 5. The development of the Church question in Germany was greatly affected by the sudden death of King Al- bert Oct. 27, 1439. He was succeeded on Feb. 2, 1440, by his cousin, Frederick III.; and in the course of a few years the latter sided entirely with Eugenius IV. Decisive understandings ensued in Sept., 1445, at Vienna, Frederick demanding and obtaining large concessions as to the declaration of obedience. Eugenius IV. by this time felt himself strong enough to proceed against his most considerable opponents in Germany with aggressive measures. Through the buU Ad comprimendam quorundam, Jan. 29, 1446, he deposed the archbishops of Cologne and Treves, and forthwith replaced them with new appointments. But those whom he attacked found succor with their peers. The electors of Mainz, Cologne, Treves, and the Palatinate met at Frank- fort, and on Mar. 21, 1446, they concluded a treaty for the common vindication of their 1. The rights; which on Apr. 23 was also Prlnoes' subscribed by Saxony and Branden- dS-ts'" ^"'^* '^^® electors addressed four 1446! demands to the pope and proffered him obedience on condition of their being granted; in the event of refusal, a rapproche- ment with the Council of Basel was contemplated. Eang Frederick III., when besought to intervene, sent his secretary, ^neas Sylvius Piccolomini, to Rome. But the negotiations carried on at Rome in July were without positive result, although an understanding was reached at last in connection with the Imperial Diet convened at Frankfort in Sep- tember of the same year. Still, shortly before his death, Eugenius IV. complied with the desires of the German princes, in the so-called Princes' Concor- dats; and thus brought it about that they and with them the German Empire accorded their submission. There are four principal documents (Koch, ut sup., pp. 181 Bqq.): (1) The brief Adeaex debito, to King Frederick, Feb. 5, 1447. promiaea to convoke a new general council in a German city within fifteen months, and to open the same within eighteen months. (2) The bull Ad trammiUiUMlUm^ Feb. 15, 1447, is concerned with the decrees of Basel ac- cepted at Mainx, and also with the indemnity awarded to the Roman See (3) In the bull Ad ea qua, Feb. 6, 1447, Eugenius promises the reinstatement of the deposed arch- bishops of Mains and Treves. (4) The bull Inter coetera deeideria, Feb. 7, 1447, recognises all the ehangea effected in Concordats and DflllmitlTig Bulla 212 the Qeniuui Churoh during the so-called " neutrality " pe- riod. Eugenius IV. belieyed he had made great oonceasions with all these grants. To guard against going too far he pre- pared a fifth bull, Decet Ramani ponHftcia prudenHam (Ray- naldus, AnnaUt ecelui(utici, no. 7). Feb. 8, 1447, in which he explains that he had not intended to concede anything ** that might be contrary to the doctrine of the Holy Fathers or that should tend to the prejudice of this Holy Apostolic See." After the promulgation of these bulls, the embassy formally accorded him obedience. Eugenius IV. died Feb. 23, 1447. His successor, Nicholas V., forthwith confirmed his predecessor's constitutions. He recognized the assemblage of German princes convoked at Aschaffenburg on July 13, 1447, by King Frederick III. Moreover, the still recalcitrant electors of Cologne, Treves, and the Palatinate acknowledged obe- *• ^*^* dience to Nicholas V.; so that there ? A^^fV ^^ °°^ concluded a treaty between of AjKshaf. f«nlmxv or the emperor in the name of the Ger- ofVi^niT "^^^ nation and the cardinal legates, 1446. ' ^^^' ^^t l^^Sf which is known as the Concordat of Aschaffenburg, though it might be more correctly designated as Concordat of Vienna (Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 165-169). Its import has reference only to the constitution Ad tran- quiUUatem of 1447, mentioned above, whose con- cessions are confirmed while the indemnity pre- viously promised to the See of Rome is fulfilled by surrender of the Basel decrees as accepted at Mainz and provisionally ratified by Eugenius IV.; also by recurring in part almost litertdly to the second and third chapters of the Concordat of Con- stance in 1418. Through the text of the bull Ad taeram Petri tedem, Mar. 19, 1448, Nicholas V. promulgated this Vienna treaty as law of the Church. The concordat was opposed at the start by various territorial sovereigns, but as these were promptly won over by favorable rulings, it soon gained such recognition that the Princes' Concor- dats were quite forgotten. 2. Pranoe: King Charles VII. of France man- aged to secure for his countiy the reformatory decrees published at Basel in 1438 with the modi- fications demanded by French interests, by means of the so-called Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, Jxily 7, 1438 (Ordonnancea dea rots de France de la troiaihne race, vol. xiii., ed. Viievault and Br4- quigny, Paris, 1782, p. 267; Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 160-161; see Pragmatic Sanction). The Ciuia never recognized it, and repeatedly pronounced it null and void (Eugenius IV., 1439; Pius II., 1459; Sixtus IV., 1471). Charles nevertheless remained firm, and appealed in particular against the dec- laration of 1459 to a general council in the year following. His successor, Louis XI. (1461-83), repealed the Pragmatic Sanction in 1461; but when he found that his political ends were not advanced to the degree desired by this means, he did not maintain his decision against the op- position of Parliament. Between this acceptance and non-acceptance of the Pragmatic Sanction there naturally ensued a vacillating practise. At the council convened by Pope Julius II. (1512) and continued as the Fifth Lateran Council by Leo X. the Sanction was again declared null and void (Mirbt^ Qu/dlen, p. 178). Hereupon, after a per- sonal conference at Bologna, Dec. 11, 1515, and after prolonged negotiations extending into Aug., 1516, a concordat was concluded between King Francis I. and Pope Leo X. It was signed by Francis on Aug. 18, 1516, and was adopted by the Lateran Ck>uncil on Dec. 19 of the same year. Notwithstanding opposition of the Parliament and the University of Paris, the king carried this con- cordat through as law of the land. It is mainly identical with the German concordats of 1447 and 1448, including the subsequent concessions to Ger- man territorial sovereigns (Nussi, pp. 20 sqq.). For the concordat of Nicholas V. with Savoy, 1451, ef. Hefele, XofmiieYioMchicAte, yii. 846 sqq. For the agreements of Emperor Charles V. with Popes Adrian VI. and Clement VII., 1523 and 1529, see below, VII. rv. The Seventeenth Century: As belonging to the seventeenth oentury, Nussi (pp. 39-^40) sets forth a treaty between Ferdinand II. and Urban VIII., in 1630, wherein the pope cedes to the emperor as king of Bohemia all eccle- siastical rights that were alienated there in the bygone " heretical times," and any church estates that still rested in private hands, in return for the concession of a tax on salt to be paid to the Church. For the Spanish concordat of 1640 see below. VII. V. The Biffhteenth Century : In the eighteenth oentury not a few concordats were concluded, consistently with the evolution of the absolute State and the alterations thence resulting with respect to the relations of Churoh and State. The contracts thus brought about fell to the several coun- tries as follows: Sardinia: The treaties between Pope Benedict XIII. and King Victor Amadous, Mar. 24 and May 29, 1727 (Nusai. pp. 48 sqq.; 64 sqq.). The treaties between Pope Bene- dict XIV. and King Charles Emmanuel III., 1741 (Nussi, pp. 69 sqq.). 1742 (Nussi, pp. 98 sqq.), 1750 (Nussi, pp. 117 sqq.), and 1770 (Nussi, pp. 132 sqq.). Sicily: Convention between Pope Benedict XIV. and King Charles III., 1741 (Nussi, pp. 72 sqq.; secret articles to this convention, pp. 377 sqq.). Milan: Concordat between Pope Benedict XIV. and Em- press Maria Theresa with reference to the duchy of Milan. 1767 (Nussi, pp. 128 sqq.); between Pope Pius VI. and Emperor Joseph II. as duke of Blilan and Mantua, 1784 (Nussi, pp. 138 sqq.). Poland: Convention between Cardinal Paulutiua, in the name of the Apostolic See, and King Augustus and the Commonwealth of Poland, 1736, confirmed by Pope (Elem- ent XII. (Nusai, pp. 64 sqq.). Portugal: Concordat between Pope Pius VI. and Queen Maria of Portugal, 1778 (Nussi, pp. 136 sqq.). For Spanish concordats of this eighteenth oentury see below, VII. VL The Nineteenth Century. — 1. France: First and foremost among the concordats of the nine- teenth century — ^which is preeminently the time of concordats — ^stands the French concordat of 1801. It evokes peculiar interest both on account of its antecedent history and by reason of its influence upon the conclusion of concordats in Germany during the following decades. Like most of its successors, it was called forth by the perturbations which the French Revolution had occasioned in relation to the Church, and was intended, as far as possible, to surmount them. Napoleon had become First Consul on Dec. 25, 1799. Pius 1. The VII. was chosen pope on Mar. 14, Conoordat 1800, was enthroned on Mar. 24, and of 1801. on July 3 was able to enter Rome. On June 19 Napoleon opened negoti- ations with the pope through Cardinal Martiniana, bishop of Vercelli, with reference to restoring the status of the Church in France. After an ex- 213 Concordats and Delis^tinff BolU plicit answer from Pius VII. on July 10, the ne- gotiations proceeded, and from Nov., 1800, they were conducted in Paris between the papal delegate, Monsignor Spina, and the Abb^ Bemier. Napo- leon demanded a reduction of the number of bishop- rics from 158 to 60; resignation of all existent French bishops; right of episcopal nominations for the First Consul; remuneration of the clergy out of the state exchequer, and express pledge of obedience to the state government; relinquish- ment of claims to church property that had been sold; pardon for the priests who during the Revo- lution had married; and transfer of the police inspection of public worship to the Council of State. Spina in tiun demanded that with the repeal of all adverse laws the Roman Catholic religion should be declared as that of the State, and the consuls be bound to that confession. The proceedings dragged along, and when Napoleon had despatched to Rome a draft elaborated by Spina and Bemier and accepted by Talleyrand, but found it subjected there to procrastinating explanations, he demanded, on May 13, 1801, either an immediate, uncondi- tional acceptance or the rupture of diplomatic relations. Cacault, who shortly before had been Bent to Rome for the resumption of diplomatic intercourse , was, in fact, recalled. At his suggestion, however, the papal secretary of state, Consalvi, went straightway in person with large and full powers to Paris, where he arrived on June 20; and after an arduous conference on July 15, 1801, with the imperial commissioners, Bemier and Joseph Bonaparte, he concluded the concordat, which then was ratified on both sides, though not without demurrings. The oonoorcUt (Blirbt. QiuUen, pp. 334-336) is drawn up in French: it contains seventeen articles, and is entitled, Conx€niion en*^f le tfouvememant franfou et aa SainietS Pie Vll. By way of preamble it declares: " The government of the French Republic reoosnises the fact that the Catho- lic. Apostolic, and Roman religion is the religion of the great majority of French dtisens. His Holiness likewiee recognises the fact that this same religion has derived, and ■till anticipates at this time, the best and greatest advan- tage from the establishment of the Catholic worship in France; and from the particular profession thereof on the part of the consuls of the Republic." Art. i. reads: " The Catholic, Apostolic and Roman religion shall be freely ex- erdaed in France; its acte of worship shall be public, and in accord with such civil regulations as the Government Bhall judge necessary in behalf of public tranquillity." Art. ii. promisea a reduction of the bishoprics. Art. iii. regu- lates Che dismissal of former bishops, and provision is then made in arts, iv.-vi for future episcopal appointments. The Church relinquishes legal claims to ecclesiastical prop- erty sold during the Revolution (art. xiii.), but the State guarantees a competent maintenance for the bishops and parochial clergy (art. xiv.), and allows foundations bene- ficial to the Church (art. xv.). The same rights and pre- rogatives are conceded to the First Consul aa the former Kovemment had enjoyed in relation to the Apostolic See (art. xvi.). The first articles proved the most troublesome, because the Church was unwilling to yield the point that Roman Catholicism was a state religion in France; and the State hesitated to waive the point that the Church must comply with all and sundry state police provisions, instead of simply with those of a general scope. The ratification on the pope's side ensued, aa in the case of preceding concordats, by his embodying the entire Latin text in the bull EceUaia Chriati, dated Aug. 13, 1801. On Sept. 10 (tS Fructidor an IX.) the ratifications were inter- changed at Paris; upon which the publication for France took place as follows. A state law was passed on Apr. 8, 1802 {Jjoi nkJiva & VorQawMtion du euUe du 18 Oerminal an X,), by which the concordat (not the papal bull) was promulgated with statutory force, together with two sepa- rate appertaining " organic articles " (Mirbt, QwdUn, pp. 336-338) relating to Ckttholic and Protestant worship. These " organic articles " aimed to institute an introduo- tory status, but they start from premises about the State's influence in ecclesiaiitical affairs that were not acknowledged by the Church. At the same time the powers of the papal representative at Paris, Cardinal Cktprara, were raoogniied, and on the following day he published the papal bull of rati- fication of Aug. 13; a brief of Nov. 20, 1801, which gave him authority to institute new bishoprics; the promised delimiting bull for France (Qui CkrisH Daminia vteet); and an indult reducing the number of festivals, all of the same date. The government expressed a qualified acquiescence on Apr. 10. The original documents relating to the concordat ara found complete in J. Desenne, Code ghUral fran^aia eonU- nantlM Una at aetaa du ooutfememant jmbliia dapuia U 6 mai^ 1789, iuaqu'au 8 juiUat, 1816, Paris, 1818 eqq., vol. x., pp. 438-403. Material for the history of the concordat was gathered by J. E. M. Portalis in Diaeoura, rappoiia at tny- vaux irUdiia sur la canandat da 1801, lea Artidaa orQanupua ate,, Paris, 184fi, and has been lately augmented by Boulay de la Meurthe, Doeumenta aur la nigoeialion du amoordat ai lea aulrea rapporia da la France avec le SainirSUge an 1800 at 1801, 6 vols.. Paris, 1801-00. Consult also Mimoiraa du Cardinai Conaalvi etc., avee une introdudion ei dee noiaa par J. CrMiMVrJoly, 2 vote., Paris, 18(J4; Comte d'Hausaon- ville, L'Soliae romaine at la premier Empire, 1800-1814, 5 vote., Paris, 1808 sqq.; A. Theiner, Hiatoire dea deux conn cordaia da la ripublique francaiae at da la ripublique eiaalpina etc., 2 vols.. Paris, 1860; O. Mejer, Zur Gesc^tdkis der rO- miadirdmUaclun Fraga, part i., Rostock, 1871, pp. 162-200; L. Sech^, Las Orioinaa du concordat, 2 vols., Paris, 1804; A. Debidour, Hiatoire dea rapporta de l'£oliae et de l'£tat en France de 1789 H 1870, Paris, 1808; Wirts, Daa franed- •Mcfcs Konkordat mm 1801, in AKR, vol. Ixxxv. 85 aqq., 200 sqq. For the concordat in Alsaoe-Lorraine cf. AKR, vol. xxiv., p. 306; vol. xlv., p. 302. This concordat regulated the relations between Church and State in France for more than a hundred years. Tension between France and the Papal See, due to various causes, occasioned the rupture of their diplomatic relations in 1904, and it was then pro- posed, after the fall of Minister Combes and under the ministry of Rouvier, to disestablish the Church. The repeal of the concordat was decreed by the legislative bodies. The law respecting the separa- tion of State and Church came before the Chamber of Deputies on Mar. 21, 1905, and was adopted on July 3 by 341 votes to 233. The Senate began to deliberate the measure on Nov. 9, and on Dec. 6 approved the biD by 179 votes to 103. See Francs. The concordat of 1801 and the new drcumaeription be- came operative within the boundaries of France as deter- mined by the peace negotiations of Luntfville and Amiens; hence they applied also to Belgium, the left bank of the Rhine, and the parts which France had acquired of Switier- land and Savoy. For the Italian Republic, Pius VII. con- eluded a special concordat with Napoleon as 8. Frenoh its president, on Sept. 16, 1803; it was ap- Dependen- proved by the State Council at Milan, Sept oles. 27, and ratified by the pope on Oct. 20, by Napoleon on Nov. 2 of the same year. It is a recasting of the French concordat, whose arts. iv.. vi., vii., X., xiii. it contains literally, while others are of a more favorable construction for the Church. It also contains rulings upon points that were not touched in the Concordat of 1801, but were first agitated on occasion of the strife which even then broke out on account of the " organic arti- cles '* iBuUarium Romanum, ed. Barberi, vol. xii., pp. 60 sqq.). It continued in force also for the Kingdom of Italy that was erected in the year 1805, superseding the Italian Republic. The so-called Concordat of Fontainebleau, or second con- cordat of Napoleon, dated Jan. 25, 1813, which he nego- tiated and oonoluded personally with the pope; which h* Concordats and_ DeUmitlnv BuUs dl4 iNiblished, contrary to the pope's will, aa imperial law on Feb. 13, and on Mar. 26 provided with the neoeasary execu- -> » t»v« proTiaionB for France and the Kingdom 8. The of Italy (of. Desenne. ut aup.. pp. 681. 683: Concordat Debidour, ut sup., pp. 603 aqq.), was never of Fon- recogniied by Piua VII. as a concordat, but talnebleau, ^m always declared to be only a prelimi- 1818. ^9^ outline, and even as such was revoked by him on Mar. 24, 1813. It refers mainly to the official oonfirmation of the bishops. The treaty never actually went into efiFeot, inasmuch as the Napoleonic rule ceased. The concordat of 1817 between Pope Pius VII. and King Louis XVIII. of France never attained to the force of law. An attempt was made after the Restoration to repeal the concordat of 1801 and the ** orsanic articles," and negoti- ate a new concordat, more acceptable to the Curia; exten- sive proceedings to that end took place at Rome between the French envoy. Count Blacas d'Aulps. and the cardinal secretary of state, Consalvi. The result 4. The was the treaty of June 11. 1817. which le- Conoordat stored the concordat of 1616 in place of the of 1817. concordat of 1801 and the " organic arti- cles," and promised to rehabilitate the epis- copal sees abrogated by the bull of Nov. 29, 1801, and coor- dinate them with the existing dioceses by endowing both alike with landed estates and public revenues. Moreover, the king declared in art. x. of his agreement with the pope that he purposed to employ all the means at his command ** to abate as soon as possible the disorders and obstructions which interfere with the weal of religion and the execution of the laws of the Church." As the Protestants likewise would lose their legal protection by repeal of the " organic arti- des," it is obvious that this step contemplated some redress for them also. The French government being too shrewd to mistiJce the dangers of this agreement, submitted the concordat to the legislative chambers in modified form, safe- guarding the State's position; but as it encountered vehe- ment opposition both inside and outside the chambers, it was withdrawn by the government and never again intro- duced {BvUarium Romanum, xv., pp. 366 sqq.; Debidour, ut sup., pp. 606 sqq.; Nussi, pp. 163 sqq.). 2. Oermany and Austria: The status set up by the Princes' Concordats and by the Concordat of Vienna was modified in Germany by the Reforma- tion, the Religious Peace of Augsburg in 1555, and the Peace of OsnabHlck in 1648, but not over- turned. Not until the secularization of church property in the German Empire by the decree of the imperial deputation, Feb. 25, 1803 (Mirbt, Qu«2^, pp. 338-339), did the ancient Roman Catho- lic Church of Germany collapse. At the outset Pius VII. had hoped to be able to recon- 1. Incon- Btruct the Roman Catholic Church in Germany by means of a concordat olual^e Ke- gotlations of the ^^^ ^^® empire, and in this he had Napoleonic counted upon Napoleon's assistance. Era. But when he saw that he was deceived therein, and when furthermore the Peace of Pressburg (Dec. 26, 1805), the conclusion of the Rhenish Confederation (July, 1806), and the abdication of the German imperial crown by Em- peror Francis II. (Aug. 6, 1806) precluded the prospect of an alliance with the empire as such, he entered into negotiations through an extraordinary nuncio, Cardinal della Genga (subsequently Pope Leo XII.), with various individual German states. From Jidy, 1806, till Sept., 1807, he negotiated fruitlessly with Bavaria (cf. H. von Sicherer, Stoat und Kirche in Bayem vom RegierungsantriU dea Kurfursten Max Josephs IV, his zur ErJddrung wm Tegerruee, 179^1821, Munich, 1874, pp. 112-113), and he proceeded with WOrttemberg and Baden from Sept. 8, 1807, till the close of October. Owing to the intervention of Napoleon, however, all nego- tiations came to nothing; and the Roman Church in Germany stilU found itself in the same status is 1813 and 1815 as in 1803. At the time of the Congress of Vienna (Sept., 1814-June, 1815) only five inciunbents of German episcopal sees were still alive; and four of these were past seventy years. The Curia proposed no new arrangement, but as far as possible the restoration of the old. It asked for restitution of the status quo ante heUum, and in Germany especially the relinquishment of eccle- siastical property and revenues that had been lost to the Church since 1801 and 1803; also the re- habilitation of the spiritual principalities, and of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation mth its old legal temporal and ecclesiastical relations with the papacy. When the Curia failed to obtain its demands at the Congress it reserved all of its rights in the form of a solenm protest on the part of the papal legate, on July 14, 1815; and Pius VIL confirmed his action in an allocution of Sept. 4 of the same year. At the same time he expressed the hope of a salutary — in the Roman view — under- standing with the German Confederation, an idea which was entertained at Rome till 1816. Meanwhile, as early as February of the year in question, the Curia made known its disposition to institute separate negotiations, at all events with Bavaria. The Bavarian government had cherished the thought of a separate concordat ever since the Peace of Lun^ville and the decree of the imperial deputation in 1803. It had resinned diplomatic intercourse with the pope in the sum- dat ^h" ™®'' °^ ^®^^' for this purpose, and in- Bavarla ^f^^ted its envoy H&ffelin to further 1817. ' ^^® business. The upshot was the I conclusion of a concordat at the begin- ning of Oct., 1817, though it is dated June 5. King Maximilian ratified it on Oct. 24; the pope, in an allocution of Nov. 15, published the bull which con- firmed the same. The " convention " is worded in Latin, and ita fonn it patterned after the French agreement {BvUarium Romanum, xiv., pp. 314 sqq.; Nuasi, pp. 146 aqq.; Mirbt, <?ueUm, p. 344). A tacit reservation of the State found ezpreasioD when the concordat 'was published as state law. This wm accomplished first by an '* Edict eonoeming the Extemsl Lesal Relations of the Elingdom to Religion and Eodeaiss- tical Organisations " (the so-called " Religious Edict ") of May 26, 1818. Herein the provisions of the concordat were treated not as applying to the kingdom, but merely to the Catholics of the kingdom, and that only with respect to the internal affairs of their communion. These "or- ganic articlM " oouJd not have been a surprise to the Cans, but some appearance was made of regarding them in that light; and in connection with them there arose a dispute similar to the one in France, not even yet quite settled, between the Bavarian government and the papal court sa to the actual signification of the concordat. Not until a declaration of the religious edict was assured by King Max- imilian Joseph of Bavaria did Pius VII. publish the delimit^ ing bull of Apr. 1, 1818, Dei ae damini no§tri Juu Chriati iBvUarium [Romanum, (xv. 17 sqq.), on Sept. 8, 1821. The history of the Bavarian Concordat is thoroughly treated on the basis of the archives in Von Sicherer 's Siaat nni Kirche, mentioned above; cf. also N. von Lerchenfeld, Zur (h- •diidUe dea baifriechen KonkordaU, Ndrdlingen, 1882; H. Brack. OeMdiicfUe der kaiholiaehen Kirche, ii.. Mains, 1889, pp. 12 sqq.; M. von SeydeV BayriaAea Siaatareehi, vL, Freiburg, 1803. With the Protestant states of Gemany the Curia desired to conclude concordate in order to secure in 615 Ooncoid&ta and Delimiting Bulla them the rights d the Roman Church in a legal form that should bind the State as closely as pos- sible. At the outset, too, the Protestant states were disposed to the conclusion of concordats. Prussia, like Bavaria, had entertained ^ in^^sSl" ^^ thought of an understanding with * Rome since the sununer of 1814 — a yy„^^^ matter that seemed indispensable, 1821. indeed, on account of the disoiganiza- tion of the Prussian dioceses. With reference to the kind of stipulation to be concluded, great diCFerences of opinion prevailed in Beriin. The final result of negotiations conducted by Nie- buhr was the bull De saltUe animarum, of July 16, 1821, which, having been sanctioned according to its essential substance and incorporated into the legal code, was published in Priissia by a cabinet order, Atigust 23, albeit with reservation of all sovereign rights. For the bull eonralt the BuUarium Romanum, xv. 403 sqq.; Niiasi. pp. 188 aqq.; Mirbt. QuelUn, pp. 347-349; for the nesotiatioDfl consult Mejer, ut sup., vol. ii., part 2, pp. 3-116. 205 aqq.. 300. vol. iii., part 1. pp. 88-184; R A. T. Laspeyres, Ch$€hidiie und hetUige Verfaaaung der kalKoliBchen Kircka PreuMaena, part i., Halle. 1840; Brack, ut sup., ii. 38 aqq.; C. Uirbt. Dia preitaaiaeKa Otaandtaehaft am Hofa daa Papaiea, Leipeic 1899, pp. 13 eqq. Negotiations for a concordat with Hanover were opened in the summer of 1817, and continued with long intermissions until about the middle of 1820. The Hanoverian government conditioned its con- sent to the concordat upon the concession of four provisos: absolute right of rejecting 4. Delimit- ^^^ clergy that might be appointed; inffBiiU oversight of church property; reser- forKan. vation of certain prerogatives; and over, 1804. the dependence of the legal status of new foundations upon government confirmation. The Curia just as definitely refused these concessions. In Mar., 1822, following the example of Prussia, the Hanoverian government announced through its envoy that, instead of a con- cordat, it likewise desired merely a delimiting bull. A draft of agreement was therefore prepared, which, being substantially accepted by the Hano- verian government, was approved by Pope Pius VII. a few days before his death, in a note dated Aug. 13, 1823. The ratification by Hanover took place early in 1824, and the bull Impensa Romanorum •ponHficum was issued by Pope Leo XII. on Mar. 26, 1824, authorizing the organization of the episco- pal sees of Hildesheim and Osnabrttck (Nussi, pp. 222 sqq.). Their constitution is similar to the Prussian, and their confirmation by King George IV. took effect under date of May 20, 1824 (cf. Mejer, ut sup., vol. ii., part 2, pp. 117-164, 241- 264, vol. iii., part 1, pp. 62-S7; BrQck, ut sup., vol. iL, pp. 75 sqq.). At the initiative of WQrttemberg, delegates of WQittemberg, Baden, both the Hessian states, Nassau, the Saxon duchies, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Oldenburg, Labeck, and Bremen, assembled at Frankfort-on-the-Main, Mar. 24, 1818, to deliberate concerning the conclusion of a common concordat with Rome. Afterward Frankfort, Lippe, Wal- deck, and both HohenzoUems took part in the deliberations. It la true that the interest of all these states in the conference was not the same, and some of them shortly withdrew. The dele- gates finally agreed to formulate a 5. The 8^*tc 1*^ concerning the affairs of the States of Catholic Church in their districts in the Ecde- terms of a declaration and submit the siastical same to the pope. The declaration ^ *Si^" ^*°^® *"^® there were outlined certain per &nine. „ Fundamental Provisions for an Organic Church Law of the State," resembling in the main the French " organic articles" — ^together with instructions for an em- bassy that was to carry the declaration to Rome. The states represented at Frankfort accepted these documents as the basis of transactions with the Curia by a formal agreement, Oct. 7, 1818. In Feb., 1819, Baron von TUrekheim (Protestant) and Schmitz-GroUenburg (Catholic) went to Rome aa envoys of the federated states. After long waiting for enlightenment in regard to the pope's real atti- tude, on Aug. 10, 1819, Consalvi issued the explicit note entitled "Exposition of the Views of His Holiness concerning the Declaration of the United Protestant Princes and States of the German Feder- ation." In this note certain modifications of the declaration are proposed, which would have com- pletely changed its tenor; and finally the proposi- tion was made of merely a new delimitation of the bishoprics. The several governments voted, in Mar., 1821, to accept the delimitation, still expect- ing further negotiations in relation to its details, and they were surprised when the bull {Prowda sollersque ; Nussi, pp. 229 sqq.) actually appeared, dated Aug. 16, 1821, constituting the present eccle- siastical province of the Upper Rhine. The con- ference reassembled at Frankfort in Oct., 182 1, and its acceptance of the buU was communicated to the Roman Court at the close of November. All parts of the declaration of 1818 which were not touched upon in the bull had been meanwhile em- bodied in the contemplated statute, and with the same had been made into a so-called "Church Pragmatic," which it was intended to publish in all the states at the same time with the buU. This evoked energetic opposition from the Roman See, but the federated governments refused to yield and added a new compact, Feb. 8, 1822, to that of Oct. 7, 1818. On June 13, 1823, the pope refused to substantiate propositions in regard to the episcopal appointments, he demanded the total retraction of the " Church Pragmatic," and then issued, on June 16, 1825, an ultimatum which gave occasion to the reopening of the Frankfort Conference (Jan., 1826). The net result of all the negotiations was that on Apr. 11, 1827, Leo XII. issued the bull Ad dominici gregis cuatodiamf which in its first four articles gave directions for the election of the bishops and chapters; but then in articles v. and vL, agreeably to the ultimatum and without regarding the re- joinder of the governments, prescribed that in every diocese there should be a seminary conformably to the decrees of Trent, and that the bishops and archbishops should enjoy free communication with the pope, and all the rights of jurisdiction which accrued to them according to the canon law as Ooncoid&ts and DeUmltinff Bulls die previously in force and consistently with the vital discipline of the Church. Upon the statutory con- firmations and publications of both bulls, which took place at last after the signature, on Oct. 8, 1827, of an amendment to their state compact of 1818 and 1822 (in Nassau, Oct. 9, 1827; in Baden, Oct. 16; in WQrttemberg, Oct. 24; in Electoral Hesse, Aug. 31; in the Grand Duchy of Hesse, Oct. 16, 1820), the bull Ad daminici, with the omis- sion, in part, of its last two articles, and with ex- press insistence upon sovereignty rights of the State, etc., was incorporated into the states' legislative acts. But, besides this, there was issued in all these states, Jan. 30, 1830, a similarly worded regulation with respect to the protection of state sovereignty and supervisory rights over the Roman Catholic Church; the " Church Pragmatic " was literally repeated in all essential points, insomuch that Pius VIII., esteeming this edict contrary to agreement, protested against it in a brief of June 30, 1830, addressed to all the bishops of the Ecclesiastical Province of the Upper Rhine, rejected the regula- tion, and admonished the bishops to guard the rights of the Church. The documents axe in Maneh, ut eup., ii. 309-417; NuMi, pp. 209 sqq., 239 sqq.; for the history consult Mejer, ut ■up., vol. ii., part 2, pp. 16&-240, vol. iii.. part 1, pp. 7-61, 186-229; H. Brtlek, Die oberrhieinueKe KirtJ^enprovinM von ihnr OrUndung bia sur Otgenwart, Mains, 1868; E. Fried- beis. Der Stoat und die Biedhojewdtden in DeuUddani^ Leip- ■ie, 1874, part i., pp. 125 sqq., part ii., pp. 114 sqq.; C. Mirbt, Die kaiholieef^-theoloaieehe FakuWU su Marbwrg, Marburg, 1906, pp. 16-44, 76-130. The governments which had taken part in the Frankfort Conference and were not directly affected by the delimitation of the bull Provida aoUersque attached themselves subsequently in part to the Prussian, in part to the Upper Rhenish diocesan circuits, save that Brunswick joined the circuit of Hanover (cf. Mejer, Die Propaganda, ihre Proviruen und ihr Rechtf ii., GOttingen, 1853, pp. 500 sqq.). In Austria the territorialism of Emperor Joseph II. was abandoned even at the time of the German- Austrian constitution of Apr. 25, 1848, and after- ward in the constitution of Mar. 5, 1849, and in an imperial patent of the same date the social free- dom of the Church was set forth in the formula then in vogue deriving from the Frankfort " Fundamen- tal Rights," to the effect that the e. Ooncor- Church should " independently regu- dat with l&te and administer " its affairs. As Austria, early as 1848, all sorts of memorials 1866. from Austrian bishops relating to particular ecdesiasticid demands had appeared, and in the following year they were sum- moned by the government to a convention at Vienna to formulate their demands. The detailed and extensive petitions which were there drawn up were approved by the pope on July 9 (cf. M. BrUhl, Acta ecdeaiastica, Mainz, 1853). The government answered with the decrees of Apr. 18 and 23, 1850, and the patent of Dec. 31, 1851, wliich, however, were to have only a temporary effect, pending the result of negotiations with Rome for a concordat. The negotiations were yu»g\m in Vienna in 1853, and were completed at Home on Aug. 18, 1855. The concordat was pub- lished as law in the bull Detu kumanm saltdis audor, Nov. 3, 1855, and by the imperial patent of Nov. 5, 1855. See Aubtbia. The concordat begina with the aasuranoe of the Bavarian concordat, namely, that the Roman Catholic religion in Austria shall have " all powers and prerogatives " which belong to it " aooording to divine dispensation and the canonical ordinances "; the restriction which was subjoinM in Bavaria by the religious edict was not appended. In other respects also, the Church in Austeia was eetab lished on a much more favorable basis. In the dosdnx articles (34, 36), all and sundry state laws of Austria whica are contrary to the concordat, or to the doctrine of the Church, or to its present practise as approved by the Holy See, are repealed; in articles 5 sqq., 10 sqq., the Church is charged with education, the surveillance of literature, the regulation of marriage; and, furthermore, it is expressly guaranteed all freedom of action with repeal of placet and the right of appeal. In fact, this concordat concedes to the Church the full sovereignty demanded by the Ultn- montanes, together with the subordination of State to Church, in all essential relationships. For the text of the concordat consult Nussi, pp. 310 aqq.; AKR, i., pp. iv. sqq., xiv., 03 sqq.; xviii. 449 sqq.; ColL Laoeneie, v. 1321 sqq.; secret articles in Mirbt, Qwl- ten, pp. 363-365. Consult further: AKR, i. 180 sqq.. 218 sqq., 365 sqq.; vi. 176 sqq., 100 sqq.; viii. 292 sqq. E. Friedberg, Die Oreneen swiedien Stoat und Kirche^ TQbiogen, 1872, pp. 403 sqq. After the demands for '' church freedom " had repeatedly been expressed in the so-called popular demands of 1848, though the Frankfort national assembly adhered to the practise of describing the churches as societies subordinated to the laws of the State, the German episcopate assembled at Wttrzburg in October of that year for common conference. The bishops here united in a plea to the state governments, which was afterward voiced in a series of memorials issued by all the separate sees, to the end that the governments should recog- nize the independence of the church corporation. By " independence " the bishops understood that in all its affairs which the Church interpreted as church business it should be subjected to no kind of restrictions or surveillance by the 7. Airree- State. As no German government ments with consented to the demands of these ^•■^" petitions, the leaders of the movement ~?!"J*~*' next pursued the contest in Baden, bexw and ^^^"^ * majority of Roman Catholic B^gjj subjects happened to be governed by 1866-50. & Protestant line of princes. They gradually stirred up conditions which led the neighboring governments of Hesse-Dann- stadt and Wilrttemberg, and at last also that of Baden, to seek relief from the Church itself. By means of agreements in the nature of con- cordats, they recognized, much as Austria had done, the non-competency of the State in the domain of canonical legislation, so far as to request of the Curia the institution of the regulations they deemed necessary. On the other hand , they granted " church freedom." Such promises as those of the first article of the Bavarian and the Austrian con- cordats, could not, indeed, be adopted by Protes- tant governments, but at least they guaranteed to protect the full development of the episcopal juris- diction according to canonical definition, without qualification for the Protestants and without ex- press reservation of sovereignty rights over the Church. This was, however, distinctly assumed. di7 Concordats and DelimitizurBuUs It is evident in not a few passages that they also followed the outlines of the Austrian concordat in drawing up the paper. The Hessian agreement of Aug. 23, 1854 (cf. A. Schmidt, KirchenrechlaqueUen des Grossherzogtums Hessen, Giessen, 1891, pp. 57 sqq.), did not satisfy the Curia, and was supple- mented in 1856 by the desired amendments. The Wurttemberg agreement was concluded directly with the Curia on Apr. 8, 1857 (Nussi, pp. 321 sqq.; cf. Friedberg, Gremen, ut sup., pp. 440-471; L. Golther, Der Stoat und die katholische Kirche im Konigreich Wurttemberg, Stuttgart, 1874; AKR, ii. 688 sqq.; iii. 444 sqq., 577 sqq.; iv. 307 sqq.; V. 202; vi. 398 sqq.). It was published by the pope in the bull Cum in sublimit June 22; by King William I., Dec. 21, 1857, subject to the mainte- nance of state sovereignty rights, and with reserva- tion of legislative approval for the points wherein the State's laws were affected. The Baden agree- ment was concluded with the same clauses, June 28, 1859, and published by the pope on Sept. 22 in the bull Mtemi pairis vicaria (Nussi, pp. 330 sqq.; cf. H. MaaA, Geackichte der katholischen Kirche im Grosaherzogtum Baden, Freiburg, 1891, pp. 229 sqq.). The agreement was published by the government on Dec. 5, 1859. In Baden, and then in Wiirttem- berg, the legislative bodies refused their approba- tion. Both governments thus found themselves obliged to announce to the Curia that they were not in a position to carry out their agreements, but must suffer them to lapse; whereupon, first in Baden, under several laws dated Oct. 9, 1860, then also in WQrttemberg, imder laws of Dec. 31, 1861, Jan. 23 and 30, 1862, the relation of the Roman Catholic Church to the State was regulated in a one-sided way. The same thing subsequently took , place in Hesse-Darmstadt. Austria, too, had promptly learned that the con- cessions of the concordat could not be maintained, and consequently made efforts as early as 1860, and again in 1863, to have it modified, but in vain. Owing to the outcome of the Diet of Princes at Frankfort in 1863, and to the result of the war of 1866, Austria's plans in relation to Germany were frustrated, and the government applied 8. Kodifl- itself to the reorganization of internal cation and affairs. In the laws of Dec. 21, 1867, Bepeal of «< Concerning the Common Rights of ^®^^^; atizens " (§ xv.) it declared that ^l " " every legally recognized church and 1867-70. religious association should independ- ently regulate and administer its internal affairs " ; but " every association is to be subordinated to the State's laws as a whole." Herein it diverged from the concordat, and there followed a marriage law, a law respecting schools, and a law touching interconfessional rela- tions, all three dated May 25, 1868; there were several subsequent decrees of like nature (AKR, xix 459 sqq.). The pope forthwith protested against these laws through his Vienna nuncio, FalcineUi, and in an allocution of June 23, 1868, pronounced the entire array of Austrian constitu- tional laws as issued without the requisite compe- tency, and " abhorrent " (leges abominaka ; Mirbt, Que^, p. 371). After the Vatican Council the Austrian government formally retracted the con- cordat, on July 30, 1870 (AKR, xxiv. 284 sqq.), declaring in the accompanying despatch that the government had found itself constrained " to return to its perfect freedom of action, in order to be equipped against the eventual institution of the ecclesiastical power, such as it was to be construed by the terms of the decrees of the Vatican Council." 8. Italy: For the concordat of Sept. 16. 1803. between Napoleon and Pius VII., aee above, VI., 1, \ 3. Other con- cordats with Italian states in the nineteenth century were made as follows: (1) Between Pius VII. and King Victor Emmanuel I. of Sardinia in the bull BeaAi Petrutn apo$to- lorum, July 17, 1817 iBtdlarium Romanum, xiv. 344 sqq.; Nussi, pp. 166 sqq.). (2) Between Gregory XVI. and King Charles Albert of Sardinia, Aug. 23, 1836. and Mar. 27. 1841 (Nussi, pp. 246 sqq., 266 sqq.). (3) Between Pius VII. and King Ferdinand I. of Naples for the king- dom of the two Sicilies, concluded Feb. 16, 1818, published by the bull In ntpremo apoatoliece. Mar. 6, and by law of Mar. 21, 1818 iBtdlarium Romanum, xv. 7 sqq.; Nussi, pp. 178 sqq.). (4) Between Pius VII. and King Ferdinand II. of Naples, Apr. 16, 1834 (Nussi, pp. 264 sqq.). (6) Between Pius IX. and Leopold II., grand duke of Tuscany. Apr. 26, 1861 (Nussi, pp. 278 sqq.). 4. Other European States: For concordats with Spain in the nineteenth century see below, VII. A concordat was concluded between Pedro V., king of Portugal, and Pius IX. in 1857 respecting Indian episcopal appointments (Nuasi, pp. 318 sqq., 390-391). It was su- perseded under Leo XIII. by a concordat of June 23, 1886 \AKR, Iviii. 3 sqq.). Gregory XVI. made a convention with Csar Nicholas I. of Russia, Aug. 3, 1847, with reference to Catholics of the Latin rite (Nussi, pp. 273 sqq.; AKR, vi. 170 sqq.). It was not carried out, and the same is true of a later concordat, Dec. 23, 1882 (AKR, xUx. 323 sqq.; 1. 352 sqq.; liii. 144). A concordat was concluded with Montenegro, Oct. 18, 1886 {AKR, Iviii. 26 sqq.). Leo XII. made a concordat with William I., king of Bel- gium, June 18. 1827 (Nussi. pp. 232 sqq.). TlMre was an understanding of Mar. 26, 1828, between Leo XII. and the Swiss cantons of Bern, Lucerne. Soleure. and Zug concerning the foundation of the bishopric of Basel (Nussi. pp. 242 sqq. for the history; cf. F. Fleiner, Stoat und JBiachofavoahl im Biatum Ba»el, Leipsic, 1897). The under- standing reached between Gregory XVI. and the Council of the canton of Saint Gall with reference to the founding of that diocese is dated Nov. 7, 1846 (Nussi, pp. 269 sqq.; cf. C. Gareis and P. Zom, Stoat und Kirche in der Sdiweia, 2 vols.. Zurich, 1877-78). 6. Central America: The ecclesiastical affairs of the Central American republics were regulated after their eman- cipation from the Spanish dominion by concordats modeled after the Spanish concordat of 1861 (see below, VII.). These concordats are substantially the same in contents (cf. F. Sentis, Die Konkordate dee rOmiedien Stuhlee mit den Republiken Centralamerikae, in AKR, xii. 225-234), and were concluded with Pius IX. as follows: with Costa Rica under President Mora. Oct. 7, 1862, confirmed by the pope May 16. 1863 (Nussi. pp. 297-303); with Guatemala under General Carrera. Oct. 7. 1862, confirmed Aug. 3, 1863 (Nut- si. pp. 303-310); with Nicaragua. Nov. 2, 1861. confirmed May 26. 1862 (Nussi, pp. 361-367); with San Salvador, Apr. 22, 1862, confirmed June 1, 1863 (Nussi. pp. 367-372); with Honduras, Apr. 22, 1862 (Nussi, p. 349). 6. South America: Agreements were made between Pius IX. and the president of Veneiuela. July 26, 1862 (Nussi, pp. 366 sqq.); between the same pope and the president of Ecuador, Sept. 26, 1862. repealed 1878 (Nussi. pp. 349 sqq.; Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 366-366; AKR, xl. 321); between Leo XIII. and Colombia, Dec. 31. 1887 iAKR, Ixii., pp. 113-114). A concordat was concluded between Pius IX. and the president of Haiti. Mar. 28. 1860 (Nuasi. pp. 346 sqq.). Vn. Spanish Concordats: The compact of Pope Adrian VI. with Emperor Charles V., Sept. 6, 1523, accorded the latter a limited right of appointment to the archiepiscopal and episcopal churches of the Ooncordatfl and DeUndtlnv OonoursuB DiTiniui [Bulls 218 realm; by terms of an agreement with Clement VII., Dec. 14, 1529, he was allowed a perfectly free hand. The Concordia Facheneti, of Oct. 8, 1640, named after the nmicio of that time at Madrid, Cesare Facheneti, archbishop of Damiate, endeavored to rectify grievances which King Philip IV. (1621-65) had set forth to the Curia in a memorial of Dec. 18, 1634, on the subject of ecclesiastical diBorders; and especially concerning the nuncio's official conduct. When early in the eighteenth century, on account of the pope's attitude in the war of the Spanbh Succession, things had come to a complete rupture between King Philip V. (1700-^) and aement XL, the difficulties of bringing about a reconcilia- tion proved extraordinarily serious. The concordat concluded on June 17, 1717, continued unfulfilled notwithstanding ratification on both sides; nor did the bull of Innocent XIII., Apostotici ministerii, dated Mar. 13, 1723, prove a satisfactory substitute, though this bull, being acknowledged by royal decree and statutory legblation, and renewed by Benedict XIII., is classed among the Spanish con- cordats. The complete restoration of harmony with Rome did not ensue prior to the concordat of Sept. 26, 1737, which all in all was very favorable to the See of Rome. In sharp contrast herewith stands the concordat concluded between Pope Benedict XIV* and King Ferdinand VI. of Spain, on Jan. 11, 1753 (Nussi, pp. 120 sqq.; P. A. Kirsch, Das durch Papst Benedict XIV. im Jahre 1573 mii Spanien abgeschhssene Konkardat, in AKR, Ixxx. 313-322), whereby the pope was compelled, against an indenmity of 1,300,000 scudi (about 6,500,000 francs), to grant royal patronage in toto, and be satisfied with the fact that he was allowed the be- stowal of fifty-two benefices. This concordat re- mained in force until the conflicts which broke out after the death of Ferdinand VII., Sept. 29, 1833. When with a view to newly ordering the affairs of the Church a compact had been concluded on Apr. 27, 1845, French statecraft brought it about that the royal ratification was withheld. The proceed- ings led to no positive result before 1851. The concordat of Mar. 16, of that year, between Pius IX. and Queen Isabella II. comprises forty-six articles {Ada Pii IX., Rome, 1858, part i., 293-341; Nussi, pp. 281-297; Mirbt, Quellen, p. 361). The good understanding between the papacy and the Spanish kingdom was again disturbed not many years later, but an agreement was concluded at Rome, on Aug. 25, 1859, between Cardinal Antonelli and the Span- ish envoy {AKR, vii. 391-399; Nussi, pp. 341- 345), which assumes the operation of the concordat of 1851, and seeks to supplement it in the matter of the endowment of public worship and the clergy. After the Cortes had approved on Nov. 7, 1859, there followed on the part of the queen and the pope the ratification of the concordat, Nov. 7 and 24 respectively, and its publication as law of the State Apr. 4, 1860. Pope Pius X. concluded a concordat with King Alphonso XIII. concerning the religious orders, on June 19, 1904, which was legally confirmed by the Spanish Cortes June 23, 1904 {AKR, Ixxxv. 319 sqq.). The concordats with Spain are treated comprehensively by HflKSeoi^ther, Spanient Verhandlunffen mil dem ro- miMdtm StuhUMAKR, x. 1-15. 185-214; xL 252-263. 367- 401; xii. 46-60. 38&-430; ziii. 91-106. 393-444; xv. 170- 215. There is an anonymous Colecdon de Im ooneordalo$ y demat convenioa cMbradosdeBpuetdd Coneilio Tridentino entn loB nues de EwpaAa y la Santa Sede, Bfadrid. 1848. CarlHikbt. Bibuoobaprt: References for particular concordats and special points have been siv^n in the article. The work cited as " Nussi ** is Vincentio Nussi. Conventionea de r«- buB eccUnaaUeU inter eandam eedem et eivUem poteetatem variiM formiM initm ex eoUeeHone Romana (i.e.. the BuUor Hum Romanum), Mains, 1870; *' Mirbt, QueUen " ia Carl Mirbt, Qudlen eur Oe$dudUe dee Pap^tums und det r^ miadunt Katholieiemue, Tflbingen. 1901; the edition of the Buttarium Romanum dted is that of A. Barberi. 19 Tola.. Rome. 183&-57; AKR, vol. i.. Innsbruck, 1857, vol. Ixzxvii.. Mains. 1907. An additional collection of con- cordats is R Mflnch. VoUetOndige Sammlung alier diteren und neueren Konkordate, nebat einer OeediidUe ihrer Ent- atehung und ihrer Sehiekaale, 2 parts, Leipsic. 1830-31. For general presentations cf. T. Ealvy, Kirehe und Siaai in ihren Vereinbarunoen auf dem Orunde dee Ktrckenr- redUa, Staaterechia und VoUcemchta, Regensburg. 1881; B. Huebler, Zur Reviaion der Lehre von der redtUidun NaJtur der Konkordate, in ZeUaehrift fOr Kirdtenradii, iii (1864). iv (1864). The subject is treated by: N. P. S. Wiraman, Four Advent Lecturea on Conoordata, London. 1855; R. J. Phillimore, Commentariea on IntemoHontU Law^ 4 vols., ib. 1879-89. Also by J. L. von Mosheim. Inatitutea of Bed. HiaL, ed. W. Stubbs, ii. 225. 331. 376. iii. 536. 545. ib. 1863. Oinsult also Reich, Document*, pp. 162-163, 240, 448-452; the Concordat of hWorma ia translated in Thatcher and McNeal, Doeumenta, pp. 164- 166. COIfCUBINAGE (Lat. concvbincUus): A legal and durable union between two persons of opposite sex, differing from marriage in that it did not in- clude the affedio mairilalis. It resembled marriage de facto, but not de jure, as the woman was not the man's coequal companion for life. It could be entered into only with a freed woman or freebom woman of the lowest class; whereas a honesta femina could become a concubine only by the proc- ess of express testatio, without which the union came under the head of etuprum. Not until the ninth century was concubinage prohibited in the Eastern Empire, by Emperor Leo VI. (cf. P. Meyer, Der rdmieche Koncubinat nock den RechUqudlen und den Insckriften, Leipsic, 1895). The Germanic peoples also admitted, collaterally with marriage, a valid union of distinguished men with free women of inferior estate, or even with bondwomen. Down to the fifth century the state of concu- binage was not contested on the side of the Church. Since that time, however, the Church has disal- lowed concubinage, having qualified marriage as the sole morally justified sexual union, although not forbidding concubinage altogether. Accordingly it persisted, especially in the Roman and the Germanic empires, and even the national council of Mainz in 851 merely repeated certain moderate restrictions of the fifth century. Though concubinage was interdicted in the case of certain of the clergy, ecclesiastical legislation down to the sixteenth cen- tury conveyed no threat of actual penalties against the practise on the part of laymen. In the Evan- gelical Church the moral opprobrium of concubinage has never been doubtful; so little, indeed, that it is liable to church discipline. Concubinage is not recognized by the civil law, being rather treated as other extramarital sexual intercourse, and in particular as touching the claims of concubines on account of illicit pregnancy, and 810 Concordats and IHilimtting Concursus Divinus [Bulli the rights of a concubine's children to support and inheritance against him who maintained her. For concubinage among the Hebrews see Family AND Marriage Relations, Hebrew. E. Sehlino. Bibliography: G. E. Howard, Hiat. of Matrimonial Intti- tuHona, 3 vola.. Chicago. 1904; H. Klee, Die Ehe, eiw doffmaUachrarekaologiBckt Abhandluno, Mains, 1833; J. J. I. DdUiioger, Hippolytua and CaUiHuu, pp. 147 sqq., Edin- burxh, 1876; H. C. Lea, Sacerdotal Celibacy, chap, zii.. New York, 1907; Hefale, ConeUiengeediiehU, v. 380 et pait- ■iin.

CONCURSUS DIVINUS: The divine activity in its relation to the agency of finite creatures and potencies, or in its relation to the development of the world in so far as this is conditioned by finite " efficient causes." This relation to cosmic evo- lution through " final causes " is termed " gov- ernance." Both concursus and " gov- Biblical ernance" accordingly involve the and problem of the relation of the divine Scholastic activity to the free will of man. In Doctrines, the Bible both concepts are represented. The earth brings forth verdure, and man and animals multiply (Gen. i. 11 sqq.), while ** thine hands have made me and fashioned me altogether round about " (Job x. 8); so that, on the one hand, man acts from the impulses of his own heart, and, on the other, in God alone "we live, and move, and have our being " (Acts xvii. 28). The relation of the two theses involves not only dogmatics, but also philosophy. The chief hypotheses on the concursua divinus were developed by the schoolmen, and the view current in Roman Catholic and early Protestant dogmatics was best elaborated by Thomas Aquinas. He teaches {Summa, i., qtusstio 105): " God works in every work," not only as the end of all and as prime mover and preserver of the forms and powers of all things, but also because ** he directs the forms and powers of all things to act"; no creature can " proceed in action unless it is moved by God " (qucBstio 109). This view was opposed by Durand of St. Pourgain (q.v.), who contended that God need not cooperate immediately in that which takes place through finite or intennediate causes, but only mediately; and a third opinion was advanced by Gabriel Biel (q.v.) that creatures themselves do not act, that God himself is the sole factor, though his operations are conditioned by the existence of creatures. The Thomistic conception is also expressed in the Roman catechism, and has become the prevailing view in the Roman Catholic Churoh. Among the Refonners the conviction that only God's pure, free grace can save from the misery of sin was combined from the very beginning with the deepest sense of the iuiiver»Ed dependence of the creatures on their creator, and on Protestant the most vital relation of their creator Doctrine, to them. This consciousness shows itself in the works of the old Lutheran dogmaticians. J. Gerhard (Loci, VII. vii.-viii.) did not advance to the stage of a general definition of the coneursits, since he treated only of the rela- tion of God to the evil acts of the creatures. After him sharply defined metaphysical utterances on this subject are found in A. Calovius (JSyatema locorum theologicorum, iii., De providentia, ii.), A. Quenstedt (Theologia didactico-polemica, xiii.), D. Hollaz {Examen theologicum, I. vi. 14, 16 sqq.), and others who followed Thomas in theory . W here- as Gerhard stated merely that God preserves unto his creatures the power of actual and free activity and assists them in their work, his successors argued that God influences the individual act and activity of the creature so that the act is the work both of God and of the creature, thus postulating a teaching midway between Durand and Biel. Unlike the doctrines of Thomas Aquinas, however, the divine act is regarded by these theologians as excluding an " initial motion " of the creature, and as merely cooperating with the creature. In the main, Lutheran dogmaticians agree with the theories of Roman Catholics. The specifically Protestant doctrine commences only with the question of the limitation of the human will, especially by original sin rather than by the cooperation of God. On account of this limitation an anticipatory as well as a cooperative activity on the part of God becomes necessary to raise man from his sin, and this divine agency is found in the activity of the Holy Spirit. Man being thus morally transfonned, a " coopera- tion " of grace commences, which must be distin- guished from the general cooperation of God with the natural agencies. In Reformed dogmatics the concursris is treated by some as a special part beside the " conservation " (the divine activity considered as a first cause) and governance; by others it is subsumed with the rest (cf. H. L. J. Heppe, Dogmatik der evangelisch-reformirten Kirche, Gotha, 1861, p. 190). Here the concuraiu is re- garded not merely as simultaneous, but as antici- patory (J. H. Heidegger, MeduUa theologicB Ckris- tiance, Zurich, 1697, loc. vii. 14), and it is also taught that God works according to the individ- uality of the creatures. It is likewise held both in the Protestant and the Roman Catholic doctrine that God, who in such orderly manner cooperates with the natural agencies, has nevertheless the power to stop their activity or to work without them, or, in other words, can do miracles. Thus God, by whose concursus the fire bums, can with- draw his concuraits and the fire bums no more, as in the case of the three men in the fiery furnace. The question has been treated by such modems as A. D. G. Twesten, F. A Philippi, K. F. A. Kahnis, J. Mailer, F. A. B. Nitzsch, and R. A. Lipsius. The problem belongs to philosophy, rather than to dogmatics. Divine control of events and things is inconceivable without the assumption that God works in them; his activity can not be referred to an initial point, as if he directed them then, but were now inactive, and it is equally impossible to declare his activity to be merely preservative in character, for in contradistinction to a truly effective activity it would then appear as something negative or not admitting of destruction. On the other hand, the ethico-religious consciousness itself concedes to the world a real existence, just as man is conscious of existing in it as a relatively independent creature, with a sphere and material for his work, and just as the word is perceived to be a true revelation of God and a practical proof of divine love. For these Conder Confession 220 reasons it must always be acknowledged that finite events are produced by the will of a personal God, already above nature and the world, and working in such a way as to preserve the world and lead it to his purposes. The term concursus is awkward, as suggesting that one activity runs parallel with another. (J. KOBTLmt.)

CONDER, CLAUDE REIGNIER: English sol- dier and archeologist; b. at Cheltenham (90 m. w.n.w. of London), Gloucestershire, Dec. 29, 1842. He studied at University College, London, but did not graduate, and was in command of the survey of Western Palestine in 1872-78 and 1881-82. He was in the army till 1906. He has written Tent Work in Palestine (2 vols., London, 1878); Jiuiaa MaccabcBue (1879); Handbook to the Bible (in col- laboration with F. R. Conder, 1879); Memoirs of the Survey of Western Palestine (4 vols., in collab- oration with H. H. Kitchener, 1881-83); Heth and Moab (188S); Primer of Bible Geography (ISSi); Altaic Hieroglyphs and Hittite Inscriptions (1887); The Survey of Eastern Palestine (1889); Palestine (1889); TeU Amarna Tablets (1893); The Bible and the East (1896); The Latin Kingdom of Jerusa- lem (1897); The Hittites and their Language (1898); The Hebrew Tragedy (1900); The First Bible (1903); and The Rise of Man (1908). CONDIQIflTY AND CONGRUITT, or meriium de condigno and meriium de congruo : Terms used by the schoolmen after Thomas Aquinas in their attempts to reduce the doctrines of grace to one harmonious system. In a general way, meriium in the concrete signifies a supernatural work worthy of a recompense. If the work be such that the reward is due ex justitiaf or rather in virtue of the divine promise, it is called de condigno, and chief among the conditions required for its existence is that the agent be in the state of grace. If, however, he be not yet justified, and perform under the influence of actual graces certain good works conducive to justification, such are reckoned as merit only in an imperfect sense, meriium de congruo. The Catholic doctrine of merit is based on those New Testament texts (e.g., II Tim. iv. 7; I Cor. ix. 24-25; Matt. v. 12, etc.) which represent eternal life as a reward, for though it is a gift of divine grace, God has willed to give it the character of a recompense. Protes- tants generally deny the existence of merit, but the controversy is not so much one of principle as of definition of terms. CONDITIONALISM, CONDITIONAL IMMOR- TALITY. See Annihilationism; and Immortality.

CONE, ORELLO: Universalist; b. at Linck- laen, N. Y., Nov. 16, 1835; d. at Canton, N. Y., June 23, 1905. He was educated at Cazenovia Seminary, Cazenovia, N. Y., and after teaching in the public schools for several years was an instructor in St. Paul's College, Palmyra, Mo. (1858-61). He was pastor of the Universalist Church at Little Falls, N. Y., 1863-65; professor of Biblical lan- guage and literature in St. Lawrence University, Canton, N. Y., 1865-80; president of Buchtel Col- lege, Akron, O., 1880-96; resided in Boston and Berlin 1896-98; professor in St. Lawrence Uni- versity, 1899 till his death. He wrote Gospel Criti- cism and Historical Christianity (New York, 1891); The Gospel and Its Earliest Interpretations (1893); Paul, the Man, the Missionary, and the Teacher (1898); and Rich and Poor in the New Testament (1902). He also edited the International Hand- books to the New Testament to which he himself contributed Epistles to the Hebrews, Colossians, Ephesians, Philemon, the Pastoral Epistles, James, Peter, and Jude (1901).

CONFERENCE: A word of various meanings in religious usage. In the Roman Catholic Church it signifies (1) a homiletic address, aiming at instruction, in conversational manner. The so- called " higher conferences " are defined as " in- structive addresses for educated hearers on relig- ious or religio-social truths in freer form than a sermon," and less frequently given in a church. They were employed, especially by the clergy of Paris in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, to refute the alleged attacks of science on religion, and have been given elsewhere to meet local or passing conditions. (2) Conferences of the clergy appear in the ninth century because of the great size of the diocesan synods, which made it impossible for all the clergy to meet together. Accordingly district meetings were summoned by the archpriest, archdeacon, or dean, on the first of each month (hence called Calendce, also CoUa- tiones, Consistoria, Synodi, etc.). The aim was general consultation and mutual edification. They considered cases of conscience and the like, and sometimes investigated crimes and announced the penalties. The last of such conferences recorded is said to have been held in London in 1237. In 1565 Cardinal Carlo Borromeo instituted clerical con- ferences and issued directions for their organiza- tion and guidance with a view to the better in- struction of the clei^. The example was followed widely, but toward the end of the eighteenth cen- tury such conferences fell into disuse. Since then they have been revived in many places. In the Lutheran Churches of Germany there are diocesan clerical conferences, at which the 8upe^ intendents preside. See also Conference, Free Ecclesiastical-Social; and Eisenach Confer- ence. For the Lutheran Synodical Conference in the United States see Lutherans. For the Conferences of the Methodist Episcopal Church see Methodists. The Wesleyans of England and Ireland have annual conferences attended by all the ministers. The Free-will Baptists and other minor bodies call their annual meeting by this term.

CONFERENCE, FREE ECCLESIASTICAL-SOCIAL: An organization in Germany which aims to popularize Christianity by bringing it to bear upon social problems. It was organized at Cassel Apr. 27-28, 1897, as an offshoot of the Evan- gelical-Social Congress (q.v.). A second general conference was held at Barmen the following Novem- ber; and since then conferences have been convened annually, usually in April or May. The membership has grown from 100 in 1897 to 3,251 in 1906. There are seven standing committees for various phases of Christian-social work, viz.: (1) confession, church law, and church policy; (2) popular evangelization; (3) social problems; (4) the press, art, and literature; (o) apologetics; (6) education; (7) the woman- question. The conference seeks particularly to overcome the enmity toward the Church common among the laboring classes, and to Christianize Social Democracy. Its purpose was outlined in resolutions adopted at the third general meeting held in Berlin Apr. 19-20, 1898, and its chief work tias been to organize Evangelical unions among working people, both men and women. There are branches of the organization in most of the German states. Dr. Adolf Stacker, court preacher in Ber- lin, is president. The official organs are: Kirchlichr ^(Kiale Bldtter (Berlin, 1901 sqq.), a weekly, and Ilefte der fre^ien kirchlichrsocialen Konferem (Berlin, 1900 sqq.), in which are printed the papers read at the various conferences. (R. Mumm.) Bibliography: The gist of the proceedings is contained in Hefte der freien kirchlichrsoeialen Konfereru, Berlin, 1890 sqq. Statistical material is contained in the current DeuUch-evang^iachet Jahrbueh, Berlin; and in J. Schnei- der. KircfUidua Jahrhuch, Gtttersloh, 1907.

CONFITEOR: The name applied, from its first word in Latin, to the formula used for public con- fession in the Roman Catholic missal and breviary, and also usually employed to begin a private con- fession. It consists of an acknowledgment of sin primarily to God, and then also to the Virgin Mary and other saints and to the priest or congregation present, as all injured in some degree by the sins acknowledged (I Cor. xii. 26); and of a request addressed to the same persons to pray God for the sinner. The oldest sacramentaries and Ordines Romani do not contain this formula; the first trace of it appears with Egbert, archbishop of York (735), and Chrodegang, bishop of Metz (d. 743), as an introduction to sacramental confession. There- after it appears, in various forms and uses, until the revised missal of Pius V. finally introduced uni- formity.

CONFLICT OF DUTIES: A term which usu- ully covers a larger ground than that strictly and logically falling under it. It actually Origin, means the coincidence of ethical demands which exclude each other and thus excite a conflict in the person whose actions they claim. Under the influence of classical antiquity, especially of Cicero, the doctrine of virtue, combined with the doctrine of duties, became the fundamental basis of ethics, and the conflict of duties became a favorite theme. Where ethics was developed essentially in the form of a doctrine of duties the question became inevitable how various demands could exist side by side and what should 225 Conflrmatloxi Oonfliot of DatiM be done if they should clash with each other. Since Cicero gave the word officium the signification of a universal ethical conception, there originated in actual practise the possibility of a collision between the universal idea of moral obligation and the indi- vidual concrete action. This difficulty finds its illustration in the ethics of Kant and Schleier- macher. With Kant, the conception of duty loses its concrete content by changing itself into the law of free wiU, obedience to the consciousness of duty which is not bound by any moral law. It is evi- dent that no conflict of duties can here be spoken of, " since duty and obligation are conceptions which express the objective practical necessity of a certain action, and two rules that oppose each other can not present themselves at the same time." According to Schleiermacher, " man's highest good is the totality of all actions in conformity with duty. If these were in conflict, some parts of the highest good of man would be in conflict, which is impossible. Thus there can be no conflict between duties." Kant and Schleiermacher were followed by ethical teachers who did nbt share their presup- positions— Reinhard, Baumgarten-Orusius, Daub, Marheineke, Rothe, Schwarz, Heppe, Luthardt, and others. Conflicts of duties may be arranged under three heads. There may be (1) a conflict between duty and personal inclination. In this case, strictly speaking, there is no conflict of duties; Three but still there are cases in which sinful Kinds of habits take on the form of an objective Conflict, claim of duty, as in the conception of honor prevalent among Germans and other peoples. A Christian officer of the army may wish to discard dueling in conformity with the law and his own conviction; but when he has to choose between participation in a duel and relinquishment of his calling, there originates a real oonffict of duties. Moreover, inclination and duty are often hard to distinguish; since the choice of a calling should correspond closely to one's gifts, there may originate a conffict between the inclination to such choice and the duty toward the family. Also many matrimonial unions create not only conflicts, but real collisions. Or, (2) concrete duty may con- flict with the general moral obligation. An officer of the State, in executing his official duty, may be compelled to commit actions the injustice of which he recognizes, and to omit others which according to his moral conviction are just. A judge may be compelled by the laws in force to acqmt in cases where clear insight and moral consciousness con- demn, and to condemn where reason and morality acquit. There are also cases in which the concrete duties of one's official calling or to his family claim his whole attention and activity in such a way that faith in the practise of love toward one's neighbor is considerably impaired. Again (3) a conffict of duties exists when concrete duty is opposed to concrete duty. Thus duty toward the State and duty toward the family may conflict; also duty toward the Church and duty toward the State; duty toward the Church and duty toward the fam- ily. Even specific duties of one sphere may con- flict with each other; duty toward children and III.-15 duty toward wife or husband, duty toward one's calling and duty of obedience to the authorities. Only one whose vision has been obscured by ab- stract theories can think that such conflicts are only apparent and imaginary, or due to defective moral development. On the contrary, moral char- acter intensifies them. The cases of Abraham (Gen. xxii.), Jephthah (Judg. xi. 34-40), David (II Sam. xxiv. 12-14), and others present conflicts of duties in the Old Testament; in the New Testament there are conflicts in Matt. viii. 22, xvii. 24 sqq. In conffict between faithfulness to confession and obedience to the secular authori- Biblical ties (Matt. x. 17 sqq.; John xvi. 2) niustra- the Lord exhorted to a strength which, tions. even in martyrdom, would maintain the freedom of religion (Acts iv. 19, v. 29); but he foresaw that not all would find this strength (cf. Luke xiv. 18 sqq.). Paul also felt the conffict between his duty to attack Judaism and the love for his people (Rom. ix. 1 sqq.). According to the old casuistry, there ought to be a solution of every conflict. The most impor- tant and correct rule that has been Solution, laid down is that the duty of right precedes the duty of love. Apart from such rules, the solution is often expected from the perfect development of Christian character. This view might be correct if conflicts originated inwardly; but their peculiarity consists in the pres- sure of external demands upon the moral con- sciousness, and thus they may be rather intensified by the development of Christian character (Matt. X. 34). There is, however, a deep-rooted con- viction in the consciousness of redemption possessed by God's children that such conflicts can not dis- turb the peace and joy of the state of grace (John xiv. 27, XV. 11, xvii. 13) since the attainment of the highest good is independent of our actions. When a Christian father of a family, for instance, finds himself forced to neglect the duty of educa- ting his children, on account of his duty to support his family, there is after all no solution of the con- flict in the inevitable choice of the latter duty before the former; the conffict rather becomes continuous. In many cases self-renunciation must take the place of an actual solution. Conflicts of duty may be looked upon not only from the per- sonal, but also from the social point of view. Pub- lic reforms and progress often make their way through conflicts of duty. Where consciences sleep there are no conflicts; but where men with living conscience take hold of duties and earnestly desire their fulfilment there will grow from the conflicts of duties energetic efforts for their redress. In all conflicts the believing Christian ought to remember not only the words of Luke xvii. 10, but also of I John iii. 19-21. See Casuistry; Conscience; Duty; and Ethics. (L. LSMME.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. E. Erdmann, Ueber KoUition der Pflieh' ten, Berlin, 1853; G. Sohulie, Ueber den Widereireit der PflidUen, Halle, 1878; H. L. Marteiuen, Chrietian Ethiee, § 139. 6 vols., EdinbuTsh, 1866-82; F. H. R. Frank, Sye- tem der durieUichen SUaiehkeii, i., § 22, pp. 7 sqq., Erlangen, 1884( and in general treatises on ethics and easuistry.

CONGREGATIONAL UNION LECTURES: A lectureship under the auspices of the Congrega- tional Union of Great Britain. It was established in 1831, and the first series was delivered in 1833 by Ralph Wardlaw on Christian ethics (published in London, 1833). The aim is " to illustrate the evidence ... of the great doctrines of Revela- tion, to exhibit the . . . principles of philology in their application to such doctrines, to prove the accordance ... of genuine philosophy with . . . Scripture, to trace to their sources the . . . cor- ruptions which have existed in the Christian Church, and to point out the methods of refutation and counteraction." The lectureship is not endowed, the funds coming from the sales of volumes of lec- tures already delivered; consequently the lectures are given at irregular intervals. The last series was delivered in 1897 by John Brown on Apoftcl- teal Succession in the Light of History and of Fact (London, 1898). A full list of lectures and their subjects is given in L. H. Jordan, ComparaHve Be- ligum, pp. 564-665, New York, 1905.

CONGRESS, EVANGELICAL-SOCIAL: An or- ganization formed in Germany in 1890. The Im- perial government as well as the governments of the single states turned their attention in the eighties to social questions. The empire opened, under Bis- marck's leading, with insurance against illness in 1883, against accident in 1884 (both of these being further developed in 1885, 1886, and 1887), and against permanent debility and age in 1889. It was thought desirable for Christians to do something to bring the educated people and the workingman together, and to prevent the latter from suppo- sing that religion was only a tool to keep the work- men down. At the close of 1889 or at the open- ing of 1890, Adolf Stdcker, then court preacher, Pastor Weber, Prof. Adolf Wagner, and Dr. Kro- patschek issued an invitation to an Evangelical- Social Congress to meet at Whitsuntide in Berlin. Meanwhile Emperor William II. issued two strong social orders on Feb. 4, 1890. On May 27, 1890, a confidential conference took place, in which both Stdcker and Prof. Adolf Harnack took part, and it was agreed that all evangelical groups should be asked to share in the Congress. The first session opened at Berlin, May 29, 1890, and on Oct. 23, 1890, a committee appointed by the Congress met at Berlin and chose an executive committee. M. A. Nobbe, the director of a hail-insurance company, was made chairman of the Congress and continued to fill that position with great acceptance for twelve years, when the pressure of business compeUed him to resign. In 1903 Prof. Adolf Harnack of Berlin became chairman and has shown unusual gifts for the place. The session of 1895 at Erfurt was marked by the first public address by a woman in such meetings, delivered by Mrs. Gnauck; she spoke on the social condition of women, and Stdcker followed her in a second address. In 1896, owing to the fact that Stdcker had become the leader of a political party, it was thought by some that it woiild be better if he should give up his seat as second president of the Congress, although it was desired that he should remain in the committee; finally he left the Con- gress altogether and became one of the founders of the Ecclesiastical-Social Conference (q.v.). The Congress has published the addresses at the yearly meetings in successive volumes of Verhand- lungen and formerly issued " Communications " (MitteUungen) in a little newspaper. This news- paper became at the thirteenth session (1904) a little magazine, imder the title of EvangeLiachSozial. Organized groups in Baden, Sleswick-Holstein, Wiirttemberg, and Saxony are connected with the Congress. Different religious and political circles are to-day, as at the beginning, represented in the Congress. The executive committee consists of Harnack, Adolf Wagner, Prof. Gierke, Prof. Kaftan, Prof. Hans DelbrUck, Pastor Friedrich Naumann, Prof. Von Soden, Pastor Kirmes, Mrs. SchmoUer, Mrs. Broicher, Dr. Ludwig Keller, Pastor Schnee- melcker, and the writer. Caspar Ren£ Greoort. Bibliography: " Transactions " (Verhandlungen), " Re- ports " iBeriehte), or " Communications " are published yearly, Berlin, 18QO-06. Gdttingen. 1897-1901, Berlin, 1^92 sqq. Consult: O. Kraft, Die Harmonie der eedia eraten evangdiedi^^ocialen Kongreeae, Halle, 1896; Bl. A. Noble, Der evangdiadi-aoeiale Kongreaa und adne Oegner, Gdttingen, 1897.

CONON: Pope 686-687. After the death of John V. (Aug. 2, 686) a controversy arose between the clergy and the soldiery over the choice of his successor, the former proposing the archpriest Peter, the latter the priest Theodore. The clergy finally elected Conon, a priest, bom in Thrace and educated in Sicily. He was consecrated Oct. 21, 686, but he was ill at the time and, after a pontifi- cate of eleven months during which he accom- plished nothing, died, and was buried on Sept. 22, 687. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Liber pontifiealie, ed. T. Mommsen, in MOH, OeaL ponL Rom., i (1898). 207-209; Jaff6, Regeeta, i. 243; Bower, Popea, i. 490--491; Mann, Popea, 1. ii 68-76.

CONON OF TARSUS: Bishop of Tarsus in Cilicia at the beginning of the seventh century. He held certain tritheistic views which he had derived from Johannes Philoponos (q.v.; see also Tritheistic Controversy) . These he subsequently abandoned, and differed from his old teacher also by affirming that the substance of the human body survived death and was eternal. The sect of which he was the leader had disappeared by the end of the seventh century. Bibliography: W. Cave, Seriptorum eedeeiaetioorum hia- toria literaria, L 673, London, 1683; DCB, i. 621; KL, iii.948.

CONRAD OF MARBURG: Inquisitor-general of Germany; killed at Marburg July 30, 1233. The year of his birth is not known, and it is not certain whether he was a Dominican or a Franciscan. He was selected by Gregory IX. for the purpose of in- troducing the papal inquisition into Germany (see Inquisition). He first appears probably in con- nection with the great auto da f^ which was held at Strasburg 1212. On June 17, 1227, a bull for the extirpation of heresy (RipoU, Bvilarium ord. prced,, L, Rome, 1729, p. 20) gave him full power in the matter; and his powers were still further increased by Gregory's chief bull against heresy in Germany (Hartzheim, Concilia Germanics, iii. 540). When Frederick II. gave imperial confirmation to the severe papal measures against heretics (Mar^, 1232), then " began the flame to get power over mortals " (Annales Colonienaes maximi, MGH, Script, xvii., 1861, p. 843). Conrad now pro- ceeded, with the assistance of certain colleagues (e.g., the Dominican Droso), to utilize this un- limited power, which even dispensed him from ob- serving ordinary forms of trial; and so led count- less victims to death. The fact is confirmed especially by the report of Bishop Siegfried III. of Mainz to Gregory IX. {MGH, Script, xxiii., 1874, p. 931); and in the face of its evidence, the latter- day Roman Catholic apology for Conrad 0>y the Jesuit Pfalf, in KL, vii. 951) is ineffectuaL In 1233, after he had vainly endeavored to draw the German princes into a more eager persecution of heresy, Conrad brought one of their number, Count von Sayn, before the tribunal, but the count con- trived to vindicate himself before a synod at Mainz. Conrad next assembled a veritable crusaders' army; but at this juncture his fate swiftly overtook him, and he was slain by certain Hessian knights, while traveling to Marburg. A second occasion of interest in Conrad's career is his relation to the pious Landgravine Elizabeth of Thuringia. He is a typical Roman Catholic spiri- tual guide, to whom the confiding penitent sur- renders blindly (see Elizabeth, Saint). The view that Conrad's excessive zeal in the perse- cution of heretics is accountable for the fact that the papal Inquisition was unable to assert itself io Germany is erroneous; after his death there still occurred (1234 and 1235) cases of the burning of heretics at the stake by papal inquisitors, and even down to the fourteenth century such cases re- curred again and again. The fact is, the same In- quisition was powerfully supported in the four- teenth century by the Emperor Charles IV., and exacted numberless victims in Bohemia, Silesia, and in parts of North Grermany. K. Benrath. Biblioobaphy: Oe$ta Treverorum, ContinuaUo IV., ed. G. WaitB, in MOH, Script., xxiv (1879). 390-404; A. Hsus- rath, Der Ketxermeieter Konrad von Marburg, Marburg, 1861; E. L. T. Henke. Konrad von Marburg, ib. 1861; L. Cuno, Conrad von Marburg, ib. 1877; B. Kaltner, Kon- rad von Marburg und die InquiaiHon in Deuiachland, Prague. 1822; H. C. I^a, Hiet. of the Inquintion, ii. 325- 341, New York. 1006; K. Benrath. in Deutech-evange- Uache BUUter, part 6, Halle. 1901.

CONSECRATION: [The formal setting apart of a person or thing as sacred or devoted to God by a special religious rite. For the consecration of the elements of the Lord's Supper see Epiklesis; Eucharist, | 5. For the consecration of bishops see Bishop; see also Priest. For the consecration of things (altars, bells, etc.) see Benediction; Sacramentals. This article will be confined to the consecration of churches.] Churches were solemnly consecrated as early as the time of Constantine, both those which were rebuilt after destruction in times of persecution (Eusebius, Hist, eccl,f X. 2-5) and new buildings (Eusebius, Vita Constantini, xlv.). The fundamental thought was naturally the idea that the deity had obtained a new abode of visible presence (cf . Augustine, Sermones, clxiii.), wherewith was later associated the maxim that the sacrifice of the mass may never be per- formed without an altar, and, cases of necessity excepted, only in consecrated churches or public chapels. Even in comparatively early times, relics were used in connection with the consecra- tion. In the Middle Ages the ceremonies increased; the most noteworthy, according to the Liber sacra- mentorum Gregorii Magni (after XIL Kalendas Januarius), was that the bishop traced with ashes the Greek and Latin alphabets (earlier also the Hebrew) diagonally across the church from comer to comer, the two lines intersecting in the form of a cross. The signification, as explained by Ivo of Chartres was " the union of both peoples [Gentiles and Jews] by the single bond of the cross." The present Roman ceremonial is found in the Pontifical, and consecration devolves upon the bishop (see Sacramentals). The consecration of chinches with Eastern Orthodox Christians lays great stress on relics (cf . A. Maltzew, BUt-f Dank- und TFA- gottesdimste, Berlin, 1897, p. xcix.). Protestant churches need neither to be cleansed of demons nor be hallowed for the administration of the sacrifice of the mass. Nevertheless, the need of some act analogous to consecration was early felt (cf . Secken- dorf 's description of the opening of the castle church at Torgau, in his Histaria Lutkeraniami, bk. iii-i (118, and Luther's sermon, Erlangen ed., vol. xvii.)- In the later liturgies forms of consecration for separate objects — e.g., organs and ^bells — occur frequently. 246 OonBcience GonBllla Evanffelioa Even as early as the fourth century the churches on Golgotha and the site of the Resurrection were thronged on occasion of the " encsnia," or anniver- sary of the church dedication (cf. the ** Pilgrim- age " of Silvia of Aquitaine, Palestine Pilgrims* Text Society transL, pp. 76-77). Isidore of Seville (De officiis, i. 35) explains the anniversary festival as a reviv^ of the Jewish encsenia. The lessons Rev. xxi. 1-5 and Luke xix. 1-10 were transferred to the Lutheran pericopes from the medieval lectionary which was in use in Germany. Luther, however, was not partial to the church dedication festival, observing (An den christlichen Adel), " Church dedications ought to be abolished altogether, seeing they have become naught else than very taverns, yearly fairs, and playhouses." Nevertheless, the festival of church dedication persisted, and it may be that the attendant excesses conspired to main- tain it. These excesses perhaps resulted from the fact that the day of church dedication was to be preceded by abstinence, while the day itself was to be regarded as a feast of joyousness. For Protes- tants the anniversary festival of church dedication can have no other significance than that of a thanks- giving feast for the blessings of a well-regulated ecclesiastical status. W. Caspari. Bibliography: Bingham, Originea, book viii., chap, ix.; H. Gerbert, MonumerUa veteria lihurgiae Alemania, di»- quintion vi., chap, i., San Bbu, 1758; E. G. HarrinBton, The Object . . . of the Rite of Coneeeration of ChureKee, London, 1844; H. A. Daniel, Codex liturgicuet 4 vols., Leipsic, 1847-53.

CONRAD OF GELNHAUSEN: Theologian and scholar; b. in the Electoral Palatinate 1320; d. at Heidelberg 1390. His name first appears in 1344 as member of the faculty of the University of Paris. In a document of the following year he is mentioned as provost at St. Maurice. In 1363 he was canon in Mainz and later became provost at Worms. He was procurator of the German nation in Bologna as early as 1369, and obtained the de- gree of doctor of canon law there. Then he re- turned to Paris, devoted himself to the study of theology, and finished his theological studies prob- ably in Prague. After 1387 he was in Heidelberg, a doctor of theology and chancellor of the imiver^ sity. His collection of books formed the nucleus of the university library. Among them were four theological writings of his own: Sermonea; Quces- tiones ; Circa serUerUias ; and Swper librum Cantica CarUicorum, Conrad's fame rests upon the Epiatola concordice which he wrote in Paris in May, 1380, at the com- mand of Charles V. of France, after giving this sov- ereign in the preceding year the same advice in a shorter form; viz., to cooperate with other princes in calling a general council without the popes. Ap- pealing expressly to Thomas Aquinas, but in real- ity leaning upon Occam and developing his ideas, he argued logically from the acknowledged supe- riority of the Catholic Church that the exceptional circumstances of the schism exempted from the letter of the law and justified the meeting of a council without papal convocation. He did not advance beyond this step; but his work became the basis upon which Henry of Langenstein (q.v.) and the conciliar theologians continued to build. (B. Bess.) Bibliography: Th« Epiatola coneordicB is edited in E. Mar- line and U. Durand, T?uaaunu noviu aneedotorum, ii. 1717, pp. 1200-28, ParU, 1717. Consult: F. J. ScheufiF- gen, BeUrUge sttr OeachicfUe dea grouen Sdiimneu^ pp. 75- 91, Freibuis, 1889; A. Kneer, Die EnUt^ung der kotuili- arm Theorie, Rome, 1893; K. Wenok, in HiBtoriaehe Zeit- aehrift, new series, xl., 1896.

CONSALVI, ERCOLE: Italian cardinal and diplomat; b. at Rome June 8, 1757; d. there Jan. 24, 1824. He received his early education at the school of the Piarists at Urbino, which he left to enter the college founded by Cardinal Henry of York at Frascati. The youth's talents won the favor of the cardinal duke. From Frascati he went to the ecclesiastical academy at Rome. On Early leaving the Academy in 1783, he re- Life and ceived a post in the papal household, Training, and aided by the influence of his kins- man, Cardinal Negroni, moved rapidly through several grades of office, receiving in 1792 the post of auditor for Rome at the Roman Rota. He became so prominent a figure in the churchly and noble circles of Rome and Frascati that he gained the sobriquet of " Monsignore Everywhere." He was military assessor at the time of the rise of the French Directory, and when the latter com- pelled Pius VI. to leave Rome, Consalvi, after suf- fering a short term of imprisonment in the castle of St. Angelo, made his way to Venice where he was chosen secretary of the conclave that met to elect a successor to Pius VI. By Pius Vll. he was created secretary of state Aug. 11, 1800, and at the same time was made car- dinal deacon of St. Agata in Suburra. Thence- forth he appeared as the prime mover of the papal diplomacy. The first task to which he applied hixnself was the negotiation of a concordat with the French Republic, which was successfully accom- plished July 15, 1801 (see Concordats, VI., 1, § 1). Napoleon's innovations, as Consalvi admitted, en- tirely annulled the results of his now laborious efforts. Napoleon knew him as his opponent and m 1806, when the French emperor submitted to the pope a plan for a defensive alliance coupled with the recognition of the pope as sovereign in Rome and of Napoleon as Holy Roman emperor, he 1X1.-16 declared that, if Consalvi refused to acquiesce in the proposition, it would be better for him to re- tue from his post. The proposal was rejected, and in June, 1806, Consalvi was superseded by Cardinal Casoni. When in 1809 Pius VII. was deported from Rome Napoleon summoned the college of cardinals to assemble at Paris, partly from the desire to add the luster of their presence to the celebration of his marriage to Marie Louise, partly Diplo- that he might hold them under his matic immediate influence in case of the Achieve- death of Pius VII. Consalvi arrived at ments. Paris in February, 1810. He was one of the thirteen " black " cardinals who refrained from attending the marriage cere- mony of the emperor, thereby arousing the anger of Napoleon to the point where he threatened the ex-secretary of state with death. His property was sequestrated, with that of the other twelve, he was forbidden to display the insignia of his rank, and was ordered to take up his residence at Reims, where he composed his Mimoires (2 vols., Paris, 1864; 2d ed., 1866). After the conclusion of the Concordat of Fontainebleau (Jan. 25, 1813; see Concordats, VI., 1, § 3) he tookup his residence with Pius VII. Upon the fall of Napoleon he was sent to Paris as representative of the papal interests in the council of the powers, and in the same capacity he visited London and attended the Congress of Vienna. There he revealed a depth of insight and suppleness of spirit which aroused the admiration of the pope and the Viennese diplomats. Thoroughly a modem, he fought zealously for the interests of the Church without deluding himself with medieval conceptions of the rights and powers of the papacy. Article 103 of the Peace of Vienna restored to the Church possession of the districts of Camerino, Beneventum, and Pontecorvo, and the legations of Ravenna, Bologna, and Ferrara, with the exception of a small strip of territory included within the last, on the left bank of the Po. " His was the boldest and keenest game played on the green table," said Talleyrand to Mettemich. Before leaving Vienna, Consalvi pledged him- self to the powers to put an end to the sacerdotal regime in Rome, a promise which he found im- possible to keep. For the government of the States of the Church he issued a code of laws which aimed at their reduction to a centralized and unifonnly organized principality. The papal territories were divided into seventeen delegations, each under the authority of a prelate exercising functions similar to those of the prefect of a department Failure in France. In the administration of and Re- affairs he was opposed by the zealots tirement imder Cardinal Pacca, who detested Consalvi as the representative of mod- em and worldly ideals. After 1815 he was en- gaged in the negotiation of a series of concordats by which the relations of the Church with every Catho- lic state but Austria were regulated anew. In the revolutionary movement of 1820 he showed him- self resolutely opposed to all concession, and with the help of the Austrian troops order was main- tained in the legations. Soon, however, his rela- OonBoienoe 242 lions with the Austrian government became strained and it was the opposition of that power which destroyed his chances of being chosen suc- cessor to Pius VII., whose death occurred Aug. 20, 1823. Upon the election of Leo XII. Consalvi went into retirement. During the height of his t>ower after the Congress of Vienna he had been a patron of the arts, Canova and Thorwaldsen being among those who enjoyed his protection. (F. NlELSBNt.) Bzbuoorapht: CorrMpandanee du . . . Conaalvi avee , . . MeUtmidt, 1816-tS, ed. C. van Duerm. LouvBin. 1809; N. P. S. Wiaeman, IUcolUtiion» of the Laat Four Pope; London. 1860; F. Nielsen, OeachichU dee Papetthume im 19. Jahrhundert, vol. i.. Goth*. 1880. Eng. transl.. New York, 1006: L. 8^h^, Lee Originee du concordat, Paris. 1804; Mimoiree du Cardinal Conealvi, introduction par J. CreUneau-Joly, new ed., published by J. £. B. Dro- •hon. ib. 1805; E. L. Fischer, Cardinal Conaalvi, LAene- imd CAoroMerbOd. Mains. 1800.

CONSTANTINE: The name of two popes. Constantine I.: Pope 708-715. He was a Syrian by birth, consecrated Mar. 26, 708. He steadfastly adhered to the traditional papal policy toward both the Italian bishops and the Eastern emperor. Felix of Ravenna, having obtained con- secration from him without furnishing the under- takings required by the emperor, was blinded by order of Justinian II. and banished to Pontus, whence he was able to return, after Justinian's death, only by assenting to the declaration required of him by Constantine, who also supported the bishop of Pavia against Benedict of Milan because he wished to enforce his own claim to jurisdiction over Pavia. The emperor commanded him to appear in Constantinople, probably to extort his assent to the Trullan canons, which had been re- jected by Rome. He bore himself with discretion, and maintained the attitude of his predecessors during his two years' absence (709-71 1 ). The next emperor, Philippicus Bardanes, himself a Monothe- lite, attempted to impose that heresy on his sub- jects, but was steadily opposed by Constantine, who, by making his opposition dogmatic and not political, acquired a commanding influence among the contending factions. On the fall of Philippicus, his successor, Anastasius, hastened to send to Rome an orthodox profession, in which the patriarch John of Constantinople joined. Constantine died Apr. 9, 715, and was buried in St. Peter's. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: lAbar ponHfiealia, ed. T. Mommsen, in MOH, Oaat. pont. Rom., i (1898). 222-226; Jaff«, Ragaala, L 247; Paulus Diaoonus. Hiatoria Langobardorum, vL 31, ed.G. Waits, in MOH. Script, rer. Langob., vi., pp. 12-187. 1878; F. Qresoroviufl, HiaUny of the City of Rome, ii. 201- 202, 212, London, 1894; Bower, Popes, ii. 14-20; Milman, LaHn Chriatianity, ii. 290-291; Mann, Popes, 127-140. Constantine II : Pope 767-768. Though & lay- man, he was chosen pope by the influence of a faction immediately after the death of Paul L and was consecrated July 5, 767. He was but the creature of his ambitious brother Toto, duke of Nepi, and as soon as the opposition, headed by officials of the previous pope, could organize (July 28, 768), he was overthrown by an armed onset. Toto was killed, and Constantine sought sanctuary in a church, from which he was dragged by the soldiery. Sentence of deposition was pronounced upon him, with imprisomnent in a monastery, where he was set upon and blinded, though he lived until the next year at least, when he tried in vain to make his peace with his successor Stephen III. (IV.). [By Roman Catholic writers he is not con- sidered a strictly legitimate pope.] (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Liber pofOiftealia, ed. L. Duchesne, i. 468 Bqq., Paris, 1886; Mansi, Concilia, zii. 717-718: Jalf^ Raoaata, p. 283; F. Qracoroyius, HiaL of the City of Rome, iL 322-330. London, 1894; Bower. Popaa, ii. 114-115: Mtlman. LaHn ChriaHaniiy, u. 432-^435; Mann, I. iL 363 **"*'

CONVENTICLE ACT: An act passed by the Cavalier Parliament of Charles II. in 1664, re- enacted with less severity in 1670, and repealed by the Toleration Act of 1689. By its provisions the attendance of more than five persons outside of one family at meetings for religious rites other than those of the Established Church was punished by three months' imprisonment for the first offense, six months for the second, and for the third the alternative of transportation to the American plantations for seven years, under pain of death for a return before the expiration of that period, or a fine of a hundred pounds. Elizabeth hieui passed a similar act in 1593; but that of 1664 was more significant and more burdensome, as part of the systematic repression of non-conformity sometimes known as the Clarendon Code, including also the Corporation, Uniformity, and Five Mile Acts (qq.v.; 1661-65), which broke forever the pretensions of Puritanism to political supremacy and confined its sphere to the middle and lower classes. These acts were administered with cruel zeal, the justices of the peace, restored Cavalier squires, being bitter foes of dissent Bibliography: The text of the Second Conventicle Act (1670) is given in Gee and Hardy, Documenta, pp. 623- 632. Consult D. Neal. Hiatory of 1h« Puritana, part iv., chaps. 7-S, Am. ed.. iL 261 aqq.. New York. 1844.

CONVERSE, JAMES BOOTH: Presbyterian; b. at Philadelphia Apr. 8, 1844. He was g^u- ated at Princeton (B.A., 1865) and Union Theo- logical Seminary, Va. (1869), and was pastor 1869- 1871 and editor of the Christian Observer 1872-79. He then returned to the active ministry and was an evangelist for two years, after which he held a regular charge until 1887, again becoming an evan- gelist in 1888, while from 1890 to 1895 he was edi- tor of the Christian Patriot (Morristown, Tenn.). In theology he is a Calvinistic Presbyterian, and also holds that the teachings of the Mosaic law upon economic problems were intended and are sufficient to banish poverty from the earth. He advocates the doctrine that the authority of Christ and the Bible should be recognized by all patriots and Christians as supreme in civil affairs. He has written A Summer Vacation Abroad (Louisville, Ky., 1878); The Bible and Land (a single-tax book; Morristown, Tenn., 1889); and Uncle Sam's Bible, or, Bible Teachings about Politics (Chicago, 1899).

CONWELL, RUSSELL HERMAN: Baptist; b. at Worthington, Mass., Feb. 15, 1842. He entered the law school at Yale in 1860, but interrupted his studies on the outbreak of the Civil War and served in the Union Army as captain of infantry, being promoted lieutenant-colonel in 1865. He then re- sumed his studies at Albany University (B.A., 1866), practised law in Minneapolis 1865-67, and was immigration agent of Minnesota to Germany 1867-68. He was foreign correspondent of the New York Tribune and the Boston Traveler in 1868-70, and after his return to the United States practised law in Boston until 1879. He was or- dained to the Baptist ministry in 1879 and for ten years (1881-91) was pastor of Grace Baptist Church, Philadelphia, and since 1891 of the Baptist Temple there. In 1888 he founded Temple College, of OonylMare Oooper 264 which he haa since been president, and two years later established the Samaritan Hospital. Hjb has written biographies of President Hayes (1876), Bayard Taylor (1879), President Garfield (1881), Joshua Gianavello (1884), James G. Blaine (1886), Charles H. Spurgeon (1892), and other volumes.

CONYBEARE, FREDERICK CORNWALLIS: Church of England layman; b. at Kew in the year 1856. He was educated at University College, Ox- ford (M.A., 1883), where he became fellow and prelector in 1881. He is particularly noted for his attainments in Armenian, and is a member of the Venetian Armenian Academy. In 1903 he was elected a fellow of the British Academy. His wri- tings embrace: A Collation with the Ancient ArTne- nian Venuma of the Greek Texts of Aristotle* e Cate- gories, etc. (London, 1892); The Apology and Acts of Apollonius and Other Monuments of Early Chris- tianity (1894; 2d ed., The Armenian Apology and Acts of ApoUonius, 1896); Philo about the Contem- plative Life, or, the Fourth Book of the Treatise Con- cerning Virtues (Oxford, 1895); The Key of Truth, a Manual of the Paulician Church of Armenia, the Armenian Text edited and translated (1898); The Story of Ahikar, from the Syriac, Arabic, Armenian, Ethiopic, Greek and Slavonic Versions (1898); The Dialogues of Athanasius and Zachceus and of Timothy and Aquila (1898); The Dreyfus Case (London, 1898); Roman Catholicism as a Factor in European Politics (1901); Rituale Armenorum (Oxford, 1905); and Old Armenian Texts of Revelation (1906).

CONYBEARE, JOHN: Bishop of Bristol; b. at Pinhoe, near Exeter, Jan. 31, 1692; d. at Bath July 13, 1765. He studied at Exeter College, Ox- ford (fellow, 1711; B.A., 1713; proctor, 1725; B.D., 1728; D.D., 1729); became rector of Exeter 1730, dean of Christ Church 1733, and bishop of Bristol 1750. He was a popular preacher, reformed many abuses as rector of Exeter, and was an energetic dean. His most important publication was A Defence of Revealed Religion against the Exceptions of a late Writer (London, 1732), which was pro- noimced one of the four ablest books (the other three by James Foster, John Leland, and Simon Browne) written in reply to Tindal's Christianity as Old as the Creation (1730).. Two volumes of his Sermons were published at London, 1757. Bibliography: J. Leland, View of iKe DeitHeal Writent 8 Yols.. London, 1754-66; DNB, zii. 60-61.

CONYBEARE, WILLIAM JOHN: Church of England; b. Aug. 1, 1815, eldest son of William Daniel Conybeare; d. at Wey bridge (on the Thames, 20 m. S.W. of London), Surrey, July 22, 1857. He was student and fellow of Trinity College, Cam- bridge (B.A., 1837; M.A., 1840); was first princi- pal of Liverpool Collegiate Institute 1842-48; vicar of AxnidnBter, Devonshire (succeeding his father), 1848-54. He is best known for his work upon the Life and Epistles of St, Paul in collabora- tion with J. S. Howson (2 vols., London, 1852; 2d ed., revised, 1856; many other editions); of the twenty-eight chapters of this work Mr. Conybeare contributed nine, including the speeches and letters of Paul, all of which he translated and annotated. A volume of his Sermons Preached in the Chapel Royal, Whitehall, appeared in 1844, and his contri- butions to the Edinburgh Review were reprinted with additions under the title Essays, Ecdekastical and Social in 1855. He also published a novel, Perversion, or the Causes and Consequences of In- fidelity (3 vols., 1856).

COOK, EMILE FRANCIS: French Methodist; b. at Niort (34 m. e.n.e. of La Rochelle) 1830, son of Charles Cook (q.v.); d. at Hy^res (12 m. e. of Toulon) Jan. 29, 1874. He was educated in Lau- sanne and the Wesleyan institutions in England; ordained in 1854; and in 1866 came to Paris to be pastor of the Wesleyan Congregation there. He came to America as delegate to the General Con- ference of the Evangelical Alliance held in New York Oct. 2-12, 1873, and escaped shipwreck in the ill-fated ViOe du Havre (Nov. 22, 1873), only to die shortly after on land. Bibliography: L. 8. Houghton, Faithful to the End; . . . BmUe Cook'9 Life, Philadelphia, 1881.

COOKMAN, ALFRED: Methodist ; b. at Co- limibia. Pa., Jan. 4, 1828; d. in Newark, N. J., Nov. 13, 1871. He was licensed as an exhorter in Baltimore 1845; served as pastor in West Chester, Harrisburg, Pittsburg, and Philadelphia, Pa.; in New York, in Wilmington, Del., and in Newark. He warmly supported the Union cause during the Civil War and served the Christian Commission in the field. He was a leader in the movement in 1867 which led to the formation of the " National Camp-meeting Association " and was prominent at the various meetings which it held. BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. B. Ridgaway. Life of Rev, Alfred Cook- man, trith eome Account of hie Father, Rev. O, C, Cook- man, New York, 1873.

COOPER, JAMES: Scotch Presbyterian; b. at Elgin (71 m. n.w. of Aberdeen), Elginshire, Scot- land, Feb. 13, 1846. He studied at the University of Aberdeen (M.A., 1867), and was minister of St. Stephen's, Broughty Ferry, Fifeshire (1873-^1), and the East Parish of St. Nicholas, Aberdeen (1881- 18d8). Since 1898 he has been professor of church history in the University of Glasgow. He is presi- dent of the Aberdeen Ecclesiological Society and edited its transactions 1886-1903, and also edited the transactions of the Scottish Ecclesiological Society, of which he was president in 1903. He edited Cartularium EcdesicB Sancti Nicolai Aber- doneneis (2 vols., Aberdeen, 1888-92); and made an English translation of the Sjrriac Testament of Our Lord (London, 1902; in collaboration with A. J. Maclean).

COOPER, THOMAS: English Baptist; b. at Leicester, Eng., Mar. 20, 1805; d. at Lincoln July 15, 1892. He went to school till he was fifteen and then was apprenticed to a shoemaker. He was eager to learn, studied Greek, Latin, and He- brew in his leisure time, and applied himself so Cooper Goptlo Ohuroh SM steadily, with insufficient food, that his health failed in 1827. He then tried school-teaching at Gainsborough and Lincoln, and became abio a Methodist local preacher in 1829. Dififerences with the Methodist superintendents, for which he does not seem to have been altogether at fault, brought him out of sympathy with religious work. He be- came a reporter for country newspapers and tried unsuccessfully to obtain work in London. In 1840 he joined the Chartist movement and for four years was a leader of their extreme party; served two years in Stafford jail on a charge of conspiracy and sedition. After his release he abandoned the Chart- ists and appeared as a lecturer on historical and pohtical subjects before radical and freethinking audiences. In 1856 his views changed and he be- came an itinerant preacher, and lecturer on the evidences of natural and revealed religion. In the course of eight and one-half years he preached 1,169 times, lectured 2,204 times, visited every coimty of England, and many of the counties of Scotland and Wales. In 1866 his health broke down and certain of his friends presented him with an annuity of £100; he went back to his work, however, the next year. He joined the General Baptists in 1859. Besides political writings^ nov- els, and poems (collected ed., London, 1877), he published The Bridge of History over the Gvlf of Time; a popular view of the historical evidence for the truth of Christianity (London, 1871; 4th ed., 1889); Plain PuLpU Talk (1872; 2ded., 1873); his lAfCy written by himself (1872; popular ed., 1880); God, the Soul, and a Future State (1873); The Ver- ity of Christ's Resurrection (1875; new ed., 1884); The Verity and Value of the Miracles of Christ (1876); Evolution : the stone book and the Mosaic record of creation (1878); The Atonement (1880); Thoughts at Fourscore and Earlier (1885).

COOPERATOR: A priest appointed for an indefi- nite time to assist the regular incumbent, depend- ent upon the latter and strictly subordinate to him; the term is applied especially to an assistant in a mother church which has affiliations.

COQUEREL, ATHANASE LAURENT CHARLES: French Protestant; b. in Paris Aug. 27, 1795; d. there Jan. 10, 1868. He came of an old Jansenist family, and was brought up by his aunt Helen OoQa< Coqu ^"SS. 270 Maria Williams (q.v.); studied theology under the Protestant faculty of Montauban 1811-16; in 1818 became pastor of the French Reformed Church at Amsterdam; was called to Paris in 1830 as assist- ant to Pastor Blarron, and succeeded to the hit- ter's place upon his death in 1832. He was elo- quent and popular and wielded a wide influence both as preacher and as citizen. He was elected a member of the National Assembly in 1848, and of the Legislative Assembly in 1849, but after the coup d'itai of Dec. 2, 1851, he confined himself to his pastoral duties. He was liberal in theology, re- jected the doctrines of eternal punishment, and of the Atonement and the Trinity in their orthodox form, and strongly opposed the Calvinistic theory of predestination. He founded and edited three periodicals to express his views, Le Protestant (1831-33), Le Libre Examen (with M. Artaud, 1834-36), and Le Lien (1841-44); m the last-named he labored to imite the branches of French Prot- estantism. Besides many sermons (8 vols., 1819- 1852), his works include: Biographic sacrie (4 vols., Amsterdam, 1825-26); Histoire aainte et analyse de la Bible (Paris, 1838); R&ponee an livre du docteur Strauss, " La vie de Jisus" (1841; Eng. transl., 1844); L'orthodoxie modeme (1842); Le Christia- nisme exp&imental (1847); Christohgie (2 vols., 1858); Ohservaiions pratiques svr la pridication (I860); Pro jet de discipline pour les £glises r6- fomUes de France (1861). Bibuooeafht: Lichtenberger, B8R, iii. 413-416; Nouv^au LarousM iiluttri, iiL 265, Paris, n.d.

COQUEREL, CHARLES AUGUSTIN: French Protestant; b. at Paris Apr. 17, 1797; d. there Feb. 1, 1851. Like his brother, Athanase Laurent Charles Coquerel (q.v.), he was brought up by his aunt Helen Maria Williams (q.v.) and studied the- ology at Montauban. His tastes, however, were more literaiy and scientific and, after returning to Paris, he occupied himself as a layman in critical and exegetical studies on the history of the canon and of the Gospels, at the same time studying medi- cine, chemistry, mathematics, and astronomy. His chief literary work was the first Histoire des £glises du Desert (Paris, 1841).

CORDOVA: A city of Andalusia (on the Gua- dalquivir, 275 m. s.s.w. of Madrid), the capital of the province of Bsetica in Roman times, the most important Moorish town in Spain from the eighth to the eleventh centuries, and one of the great cen- ters of learning, art, and industry of the Middle Ages. In ecclesiastical history it is noteworthy as the episcopal seat in the fourth century of one of the foremost opponents of Arianism, the bishop Hosius (q.v.), as the gathering-place of several provincial synods, and for its university. Synods of Cordova: The first met in 839 to sup- press the " Casians," followers of a certain Casi- anus (C!assianus), who were then making trouble at Epagro, in the diocese of Egabra, by laxity concerning marriage, opposition to the veneration of relics, excessive rigor in fasting, and the demand that the bread of the Lord's Supper should be re- ceived not in the mouth but in the hand of the communicant. More important are synods held tmder Emir Abdalrahman II. (d. 852) and his suc- cessor, Mohammed. The first of these was called in 852 by Abdalrahman to try to check the fanati- cism of certain Christians who sought martyrdom by reviling the prophet of the Mohammedans and in other ways giving them tmneceesary offense (see Alvar op Ck)RDOVA; Eulogiub op Oordova). The bishops who attended, including Hostegisis of Malaga and Reccafred of Seville (or according to others of Merida), condemned the seeking of mar- tyrdom and sanctioned a law of the Stat« forbid- ding it. The acts of the synod were suppressed by the orthodox, and their content is known only from the writings of Eulogius. It is noteworthy that the majority justified their attitude toward the Mohammedans by the fact that the latter wor- sliiped the true God and acknowledged the prin- ciples of morality and revelation. There were two later synods, in 862 and 863, both dominated by Hostegisis. At the first an abbot, Samson, a leader of the fanatics just mentioned, was condemned as a heretic for accusing Hostegisis of teaching anthropomorphic views of God, and at the second a bishop, Valentiniis of Cordova,who supported Sam- son was deposed and a number of decrees were is- sued in accordance with the views and practise of the laxer party (cf. Baudissin, 177 sqq.). For the synods of 1494 and 1540 cf. Hefele, ConcUienge- achichU, viii. 364, 796. The University of Cordova was founded c. 980 by the Calif Hakim II. It is true that both the- ology and jurisprudence had been cultivated in Cordova before this time by famous teachers; but it was due to Hakim's energy and support that chairs were estabHshed for other branches of learn- ing, the library was augmented, and a complete university began to flourish. That the library grew to 600,000 books may be an exaggeration, but it was certainly the best in Arab Spain. At the time of its greatest prosperity (c. 1100) Cordova had the best astronomical observatory in all Europe and was renowned as the center of the study of as- tronomy, mathematics, medicine, and philosophy. A little later it became the principal seat of the Arabian study of Aristotle, and thus it became the mediator between the ancient philosophy and medi- eval speculation. Its most famous teacher was Averroes (b. in Cordova 1126), and his most fa- mous pupil was Maimonides (q.v.). The capture of Cordova by the Christians (1236) made an end of the university, and a Jewish school which had flourished for several centuries did not long sur- vive the fall of the city. (O. ZdCKLERf.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the bishoprio consult KL, iii. 1002- 1094. On the synods: J. S. de Aguirre, CoUedio maxima coneiliorufn . . . Hiapania, iii. 140, Rome, 1603 (also ed. G. Catalani, 6 vols., Rome, 1763-65); W. Baudissin, Eulogitu und Alvar, pp. 70 sqq., 127-128, 177 eqq.. Leip* eic, 1872; W. Gams, Kirchengetchiehte Spaniena, II. iL 311 sqq., Regensburg, 1874; Hefele, ConcUiengetchich'' te, IT. 90. 170, 260. On the university: H. Rashdall, UniveraiHu of Europe in the Middle Agee^ 2 vols., Lon- don, 1806; V. de la Fuente, Hietoria de lae Univeraidadee . . . in EepaHa, vols, iii.-iv., Madrid, 1888-80. On the philosophy: E. Renan, Averroie et Vaverroieme, Paris, 1861; L. Dugat, Hietoire dee j^Uoeophea et dee tMologiene MumdmanM est'1268, ib. 1878; A. F. Mehren, ttudee mil- la philoaophie d'Averrhoie, ib. 1888; KL, i. 1746-60; and the worlu on hist, of philosophy.

CORNELIUS: Pope 251-252. After the mar- tyrdom of Fabian (Jan. 20, 250) the see was vacant for over a year, during which time the rigorist presbyter Novatian (q.v.) presided over the Church. In Apr., 251, Cornelius was chosen bishop. Of his early life little is known. Cyprian tells that he had gone through all the lower orders and that he did not seek the episcopal office, but was compelled to accept it, and characterizes him as a quiet, modest, and humble man, an excellent administrator, and a steadfast upholder of the faith. A strong man was needed at this period (that of the Decian persecu- tion), especially as the rigorist teaching of Novatian threatened to bring about a schism in the Church. He blamed Cornelius for his conduct in the time of the persecution, and asserted that he had been a libeUaticuSj i.e., had saved himself by an equivocal written declaration made before the pagan official (see Lapsed). Novatian even had himself conse- crated to the Roman See by three foreign bishops. Both he and Cornelius made efforts to have their election acknowledged by the metropohtans of Carthage, Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem, and Ephesus. Cyprian of Carthage delayed his decision, and sent two bishops, Caldonius and Fortunatus, to Rome to inquire into the matter. But before they returned, having in the mean time seen the legates of Cornelius, the bishops Pompeius and Stephanus, he declared against Novatian. From that time on the relations between Cyprian and Cor- nelius were cordial, and Cyprian earnestly and suc- cessfully endeavored to detach Novatian's followers from him and induce them to acknowledge Cor- nelius. On Sept. 14 or 15, 252, Cornelius suffered martyrdom with twenty-one Christians of both sexes at Centumcellse (now Civitk Vecchia). Several let- ters of Cornelius are extant concerning his contro- versy with Novatian, somewhat vehement in tone and biased in judgment. [They have been fre- quently appealed to by controversialists on both sides of the question of the Roman primacy, and are of interest also in regard to the question of baptism by heretics.] The death of Cornelius is placed by some authorities in June or July, 253. K. liEIMBACHt* Cornelius a Laplds Oorpi^s Soctrinn 272 Bibliography: The chief sources are the correspondence between Oyprian and Cornelius, in AfPL, iii. 700-874, transl. in ANF, ▼. 319-347. cf. Hirbt, QuOUn, pp. 21-28. Also consult: Libtr ponHfioalU, ed. Duoheme, i. 160, Paris, 1886. ed. Mommsen, in MGH, GeaL pont, Rom., t. 28-31; J. Langen, OMchiehte der rthnitehen Kirdu, vol. L, Bonn, 1881; Bower, PopM, i. 26-20; MUman, Latin ChriMlianity, i. 83^86.

CORPORAL: A square linen cloth, about as wide as the altar, used in the Roman Catholic Church to place under the sacrament either before consecration in the mass or at any time of exposi- tion. It was originally large enough to spread over the oblations, including not only the sacramental bread and wine but any other offerings brought by the faithful. In course of time, for the sake of con- venience, it was divided, the smaller part now used to cover the chalice and stiffened with cardboard being called the pall. The older custom was long maintained in the Gallican Church and the Carthu- sian order. The Greek Church also uses a corporal, and two palls, one for the paten and one for the chalice. The corporal is supposed to symbolise the linen cloth in which the body of Jesus was wrapped before being placed in the sepulcher (Mark XV. 46). When not in use it is folded and placed with the pall in a receptacle called the burse.

CORPORATION ACT: An act passed in 1661 by the Cavalier Parliament of Charles II., the first of the series of repressive measures sometimes known as the Clarendon Code, by which the membership of the municipal bodies, who ruled the towns and usu- ally controlled the elections of their parliamentary representatives, was confined to members of the Church of England. They were expressly required to renounce the covenant, to take the oath of non- resistance, and to receive the Lord's Supper ac- cording to the Anglican form, thus degrading a sacred rite into a political test. This provision, though suspended by temporary statutes after 1689, was not finally abolished until 1769, when a promise not to injure or weaken the Church of England was substituted. 273 Cornelius a Lapide Corpus Doctrinae BIBLIOGRAPHY: The text is given in Gee and Hardy, Docu- menu, pp. 694-600. Titles of many pamphlets called forth by the act are given in the British Museum Catalogue, England, part 1, 6&-68. CORPORATIONS. See Religious Corpora- tions.

CORPUS CATHOLICORUM: The organization of delegates from the Roman Catholic states of the Holy Roman Empire, tacitly made in opposition to that of the Corpus Evangelicorum (q.v.). Though its formation as a definite body with a corresponding purpose is expressly asserted in the report of the Evangelical delegates in 1720, the name " Corpus Catholicorum " is never used in the Reformation period and hardly ever in the seventeenth century. This is explained by the fact that papal recognition could never be secured for it, since the recognition of a special corporation with rights and privileges would have easily led to a limitation of the papal autocracy in Germany. None the less, the body existed in fact, needing formal sanction the less because the emperor, as the protector of their Church, and the imperial councilors would naturally forward their interest. As, too, they denied the right of the Protestants to form a similar corpora- tion, they were precluded from making open claim to such recognition. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) took cognizance of the existence of the two bodies, without mentioning the names of either. Apart from formal organization, a union of the Roman Catholic states took place earlier than of the Protestant, as their joint action at the Nuremberg Diet and the formation of the league at Regensburg (1524) shows. Jointly, again, they met the Prot- estants at the Diet of Speyer (1529), and concluded a peace with them at Nuremberg in 1532; and their organization appears plainly in the Holy League of 1538. The deliberations of the Corpus Catholi- conim, after its action became systematized and permanent, were usually held in a monastery of the town in which the diet was sitting, sometimes in the quarters of the delegate from Mainz, which naturally, from its precedence in the empire, took the headship of the body. The dissolution of the empire itself, and of the Corpus Evangelicorum with it, in 1806, put an end tacitly to the Corpus Catholicorum as well. (E. Friedbero.) CORPUS CHRISTI, cdr'pxTS cris'ti (" the Body of Christ ''): A festival of the Roman Catholic Church in honor of the Eucharist, celebrated on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. As early as Augus- tine's time it was usual to celebrate the institution of the Holy Communion on the fifth day of the last week in Lent. In 1246 Bishop Robert of Li^ge, prompted by the visions of a nun (Juliana of Mont- Comeillo), inaugurated a new festival in honor of the sacrament, in a pastoral letter intended for his own diocese. The forms of its observance were quite simple: divine service, lections, antiphonal chants were the essential elements of the ceremony. Shortly afterward Pantaleon, archdeacon of li^ge, became Pope Urban IV. and gave the festival its ecumenical character (see Bolbena, Miracle of). His bull of 1264 appoints the fifth day after the octave of Pentecost as the festival's calendar place, 111.— 18 and indicates for its proper object that it shall bring Christ near in his real presence. The sumptuous exposition, together with the indulgence accorded by the pope to the participants in the festival, was designed, no doubt, to extend the same; and not less instrumental in this regard was the friendly attitude of the great schoolman Thomas Aquinas. But in this second phase also, the festival continued within modest boundaries. The real turning-point in the development of this festival came in the time of John XXII. (1316-34), who instituted the accompanying procession; there now took place the public exposition of the host in the monstrance. Aiter the Council of Constance (1414-18) the popes took occasion by the amplifi- cation of indulgences to stimulate the zeal of the faithful still further. The splendid exhibition be- came more simiptuous, even kings and princes began to take pajt in the processions, and in this way there soon came about a striking mixture of ecclesiastical parade and worldly splendor. After the fifteenth century Corpus Christi plays also came into vogue, being popular presentations of sacred history. Hermann Herino. BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. C. W. Augtuti, DenkwHrdigkeiten, iii. 804 Miq.. Leipoio, 1820; A. J. Binterim, DenkwOrdioMUn, ▼. It pp. 275 Bqq.. Mains, 1829; A. Butler, The Move- abU Feute, Faatt . . . of the Caiholie Church, DubUn, 1839: Bendel, in TQS, xzsdy (1862). 244 sqq. On the plays: W. Creisenach, Oeaehiehte dee neueren Dramae, L 162 eqq., Halle, 1893. From the Protestant standpoint: P. Tsehaokert, Evanpeliedte Polemik, pp. 81-82, 267. Gotha, 1886; C. H. H. Wright and G. Neil. A ProtettorU DieHonary, pp. 146-146. London, 1904. CORPUS DOCTRINJB, doc'tri-ni or -nd. Origin of the Term (I 1). CorpuB Misnioum and Its Rivals (| 2). Lutheran Tentative Corpora (| 3). Formula and Liber Concordia (| 4). The name ''Corpus Doctrins " was applied in the sixteenth century to collections of doctrinal statements composed as authorized expressions of a certain type of faith, or the belief of an individual church. The Augsburg Confession early became a standard of belief for the local Lutheran churches, and the Apology, as a commentary on it, ranked with it; appeal was likewise made to the Apostles^ Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, known as symbola. Melanchthon, however, designated the z. Origin whole body of writings in which the of the pure faith of the Gospel is expressed Tenn. corpus doctrxncB, and (especially after 1660) insisted strongly on the necessity of having such a recognized norm. The internal controversies of Protestantism became so threaten- ing that a common basis for agreement was sought in 1668 in the compendium known as the Frank- fort Recess (q.v.), and again, on the failure of this to find universal acceptance, at the meeting at Naumburg in Jan., 1661 (see Naumburo Conven- tion), but equally without success. The so-called Corpus doctrince PkiUppicum or Misnicum met with great success among the bodies which inclined to the Philippist party. It was put out by Vdgelin, the learned Leipsic publisher, as a private venture, first in German and then in Latin, in 1561. Besides the three creeds, it consisted of all Corims Sootrlnn Oorrodi 274 the principal doctrinal writings of Melanchthon, including the Augsburg Confession, the Apology, the Saxon Confession, the Loci theolo- 2. Corpus gici, Examen ordinandorum, etc. It Misnicum wss officially recognized in Pomerania and Its (1561) and electoral Saxony (1566); Rivals, other churches (Hesse, Nuremberg, Silesia, Anhalt, Sleswick-Holstein, and Denmark) practically though informally approved it. Representing exclusively, however, the influ- ence of Melanchthon, it was opposed by others. In Warttemberg Duke Christopher had put forth in 1559 the Wttrttemberg Confession (drawn up orig- inally by Brenz in 1551) as the official standard of faith; to this was added, later in the year, a special declaration on the Lord's Supper. In North Gei^ many, the Lttbeck Formula consensus de doctrina evangelii (1560) set forth, besides the Augsburg Confession and the Apology, the Schmalkald Articles. The Lower-Saxon gathering of Ltkneburg in 1561 named besides these the Catechism " and other writings of Luther " as the true Scriptural explanation of the Augsburg Confession. At Ham- burg in 1560 a collection of five declarations issued since 1549 by the clergy of that place was recog- nized as the norma docendi. The first specifically Lutheran collection, how- ever, to bear the title of Corpus doctrincB was that of Brunswick (1563), which contained the constitu- tion drawn up by Bugenhagen in 1528, the Augs- burg Confession, the Apology, the Schmalkidd Articles, and the Liinebiu^ Articles. The Corpus Pomeranicum dates from 1564; before that date Melanchthon's Corpus had been accepted, but its one-sided tendency was now corrected by the addition of the Schmalkald Articles, Luther's Great and Small Catechisms, and some minor treatises of his. In Prussia the final publication of a specif- ically Lutheran standard was brought 3. Lutheran about by the controversies originated Tentative by Osiander in 1549. With a view of Corpora, suppressing his teaching, Duke Albert in 1567 recalled several theologians who had been exiled on account of their opposition to it, especially M6rlin, who brought Chemnitz with him from Brunswick; and as a result of their labors a Corpus Prutenicum was promulgated at Kdnigsberg. The example of Brunswick was fol- lowed in 1568 by the town of G5ttingen, which published its ecclesiastical constitution of 1531, the Small Catechism, and the Schmalkald Articles, with the Augsburg Confession and the Apology in the Frankfort edition of 1565 bound up with them to save expense. This Corpus, with the addition of the three creeds, was again recognized as the norma docendi in 1585; in 1600 the Formula ConcordicB was acknowledged for the first time, the Great Catechism added, and the Schmalkald Articles and the 1531 constitution omitted. The promulga- tion of a Corpus doctrinos for Brunswick-Wolfen- bUttel was prepared for by the constitution drawn up by Chemnitz and Andrese and published by Duke Julius in 1569, which designated as the Cor- pus doctrince, not the Misnicum, but the Bible, the three ancient creeds, and the Augsburg Confession, as explained in the Apology, the Schmalkald Articles, the Catechism, and Luther's other writings. This ducal Corpus was confirmed the next year by a clerical assembly. In ducal Saxony, immediately after John William's accession, the Corpus Thu- ringicum appeared in 1570, with a preface by the duke. It contained the three creeds, the two cate- chisms, the Augsburg Confession and Apology, the Schmalkald Articles, the Thuringian Confession of 1549, and the Confutation of 1558. The Elector of Brandenburg, John George, followed in 1572 with the Corpus Brandenburgicum, prefaced by himself, and containing the Augsburg Confession, the Small Catechism, and the compilation of Luther's ex- positoxy writings made in 1570 by Musculus for Joachim II. The next year saw the establishment of a Corpus for a part of Silesia. Duke George of Brieg declared as the valid doctrine the prophetic and apostolic writings and approved creeds, whose fundamental teaching was to be found in the Augs- burg Confession and Apology, in the Corpus Mis- nicum, the Mecklenburg Agenda, the writings of Luther and others that agreed with them. The close of this process, which prepared the way for the Formula Concordios, may be seen in 1575 and 1576 in the duchies of Brunswick-LUneburg and Brunswick-Wolfenbilttel. In the former, Duke William published in 1575 two expository treatises by Rhegius and Chenmitz, following this up in the next year with the formal Corpus Wilhelminum ; and about the same time appeared the Corpus Julium of the other duchy, which contained, besides the usual formulas, the treatises of Rhegius and Chenmitz. All these local Corpora doctrince lost their im- portance when the whole Lutheran Church suc- ceeded in finding a conmion ground in the Formula Concordia and the LSber Concordia. In a con- siderable minority, however, of the 4. Formula states which had accepted the Augs- and Liber burg Confession, the Formula was not Concordis. accepted. Some of these, such as Nassau, Bremen, Anhalt, and Lower Hesse, were finally driven into Calvinism; others maintained their position as Lutherans without the Formula — Lutherans, that is, who were not pre- pared to go as far as the absolute exclusion of the Philippist party. These latter either adhered to their original Corpus or gradually worked out new ones. Holstein accepted the documents contained in the Liber concordia with the exception of the Formula itself. Brunswick-Wolfenbilttel adhered to the Corpus Julium ; Pomerania supplemented its Corpus in 1593 by the addition of the sections on the Lord's Supper, the Communicatio idiomatumj and predestination; Hesse-Darmstadt produced a Corpus Hassiacum in 1 617-26 by adding the Witten- berg agreement of 1536 to the Brunswick-Wolf en- btlttel selection of 1569. Nuremberg took a middle course, in conjunction with Brandenburg- Ansbach, by combining writings of Luther and of Melanch- thon; and much the same attitude was adopted in 1578 by the county of Hohenlohe. Among the Reformed bodies, the Geneva Corpus et synicgma confessionum fidei of 1612 was received in some places in the same way as the Lutheran Corpora doctrina. See Formula of Concord. (G. Kawerau.) 276 Corpus Doctrinae Corrodi Bibliography: J. A. Schmidt, De corporibus doctrinae Phir Uppieo, etc., Helmstadt. 1706; C. A. Salig. Hutorie fUr Aug*- tfurver Confeuion, i. 702 sqq., Halle, 1730; E. KOllner. SynMik der hUkerxKhen Kirehe, pp. 95 sqq., Hamburg, 1837; H. Heppe, Die konfeBtioneUe ErUwiekeluna der aU- proteMlanHsehen Kirehe DeutecfUande, pp. 179 sqq.. Mar- burs, 1854; F. Loofs, Leitfaden der DogmenoeaekidUe, pp. 007 sqq.. Halle. 1906; H. E. Jaoobe, The Book of Concord, 2 Tols.. Philadelphia, 1893. CORPUS EVANGELICORUM, 6"van-jel"i'-c6rum (also called Corpus Sociorum AuguatancB Confes- sumis): A body composed of delegates from the Evangelical states of the Holy Roman Empire and organized into what was practically an independent political assembly. Its origin is not to be sought in such temporazy alliances among the German Prot- estants as the Leagues of Torgau and Schmalkald, nor in the repeated but always unsuccessful at- tempts of individual princes to unite the states with which they were in religious sympathy either by the formation of a permanent confederation or by a regular " correspondence." It grew out of the need felt by the Protestant states in the diet to treat and to protect their several interests as joint interests. The same need was felt on the other side, and so the two parties in the diet crystallized more and more into distinct corporations — ^the Corpus Evangelicorum and the Corpus Catholiconmi (q.v.) —and came to treat with each other as such. The formal organization of the Corpus Evangelicorum a.s a permanent institution took place at the Diet of Regensburg, July 22, 1653, when the represent- atives of all the Protestant states (then thirty- nine) met for deliberation as to their action in the house of the delegate from electoral Saxony, and agreed to act permanently as a body imder the leadership of that state. Though regarded with disfavor by the imperial court, it maintained its existence, took cognizance of everything which affected Evangelical interests, and corresponded quite independently with the emperor, with the several states, and with foreign sovereigns. When the Elector Frederick Augustus of Saxony became a Roman Catholic in 1677, followed later by his heir apparent, the question was hotly debated whether Saxony could still be allowed to retain the presidency. Brandenburg, Brunswick, and the Er- nestine line of Saxony were anxious to take the place; but the elector gave all assurances, and the fear that his influential house might go over to the Corpus Catholicorum determined the delegates to leave the presidency where it had always been, ex- press stipulations being made that the elector should not interfere with his representative, who was to receive directions from the privy council at Dresden. The regular meetings of the Corpus were held at Regensburg every fortnight. After 1770 there were two standing committees, one for the investigation of religious complaints as to which its action was requested, and one charged with the ad- ministration of the six funds belonging to it. The Corpus Evangelicorum existed on this basis until 1806. when it perished with the empire; but sugges- tions as to the usefulness of its reorganization have been since made more than once. (E. Friedberg.) CORPUS JURIS CANONICI See Canon Law,

CORRECTION, HOUSES OF: Among the pen- alties employed by the Church, especially against delinquent clerics, was in very early times the confinement of the offender, for his own amend- ment, or, if he proved incorrigible, for the removal of a scandal from the eyes of the community. Special places for such imprisonment (decanica) are mentioned in a decree of Arcadius and Honorius in 369; other terms used for them are decaneata, diaconica, secretaria. Numerous synods of the sixth and seventh centuries prescribed imprison- ment for delinquent and especially for deposed clerics. Monasteries and (after their erection be- came general) seminaries were frequently used for this purpose. The present Roman Catholic Church has institutions of this nature in some places. (O. MEJERf.)

CORRIGAN, MICHAEL AUGUSTINE: Third Roman Catholic archbishop of New York; b. at Newark, N. J., Aug. 13, 1839; d. in New York May 5, 1902. He studied at St. Mary's College, Wilmington, Del., and at Mount St. Mary's Col- lege, Emmittsburg, Md. (B.A., 1859); was the first student from the United States to seek admission to the American College at Rome (opened 1859), and continued his studies there for four years, re- ceiving the degree of D.D. on examination in 1864; was ordained at Rome subdeacon Mar., deacon Aug., priest Sept., 1863. He became professor of dogmatic theology and Sacred Scripture at Seton Hall Seminary, South Orange, N. J., 1864, vice- president of Seton Hall College 1865, president 1868 (resigned 1876). In Oct., 1868, he was ap- pointed vicar-general of the diocese of Newark, bishop of Newark 1873, coadjutor to Cardinal McCloskey, archbishop of New York, with the title archbishop of Petra, 1880, and succeeded to the archbishopric 1885. He was a faithful and efficient administrator, possessed of much capacity for system and details, while his uniform courtesy and the nobility of his aims won the respect of the community. From his coming to New York in 1880 to the end of 1895, when his labor was light- ened by the appointment of an auxiliary, he con- firmed 194,678 persons. Bibliography: Michael A. Corrigan, Memorial Volume, New York. 1902.

CORRODI, HEINRICH: Rationalistic writer; b. at Zurich July 31, 1752; d. there Sept. 14, 1793. His father, a clergyman and Pietist, lived in Zu- rich as private tutor, and the son was brought up in Pietistic narrowness. He studied at Halle, where the influence of Semler had a decisive effect on his mind, and he followed this liberal theologian entirely. In 1781 he published anonymously an important work, Kritische Geschichte des Chinas' mus (2 parts, Leipsic; 2d ed., 4 vols., 1794), which has preserved his memory, being written upon the fundamental assumption of the ** Enlightenment " (q.v.) that the history of dogmas is a history of hu- man errors, and applying this assumption rigorously to each doctrine. The author discovers the essence of Christianity in the field of ethics and considers the Epistle of James as its purest expression; the wri- tings of the apostles, he thinks, are full of Judaiz- Zndlooplonstas 276 tic prejudices. In the same "enlightened" spirit he wrote other works to prepare the way for a rational religion. Returning to Zurich, his great learning and undoubted talent for investigation secured him an appointment there as teacher of natural law and ethics. He lived with the simplicity of Diogenes, and managed to save something every month from his meager income "for the worthy poor." Paul Tschackert. Bibliography: F. SehliohtesroU, NtkroUtg avf dot Jahr 1705. i. 283-208, Gothft. 1704; ADB, !▼. 502-604.

CORVEY: Celebrated Benedictine abbey near the town of Hoxter, at the junction of the Scheldt and the Weser (45 m. s.s.w. of Hanover). It was founded by a colony from the abbey of Corbie near Amiens, at the impulse of Abbot Adalhard and his brother Wala (see Adalhard and Wala). Several monks were sent about 815 with the young Saxon Theodrad to found a monastery at Hethis in the Sollinger-Wald; but the soil proved un- fruitful, and the colonists were barely able to ex- tract a living from it. Adalhard asked Louis the Pious for permission to transfer the monks to some more fertile spot, and the permanent home of the abbey was chosen. By the autumn of 822 the buildings were completed and the church was consecrated by Bishop Badurad of Paderbom under the invocation of St. Stephen, the abbey receiving the name of " New Corbie " {Nova Corbeja), Many rich gifts and privileges were bestowed upon it by the emperor and nobles, and it soon grew to con- siderable strength. Adalhard died Jan. 2, 826, and was succeeded by Warin, who ruled the com- mimity for thirty years. In the thousand years following his death sixty more abbots succeeded one another. The abbey reached its highest point of pros- perity under the Saxon emperors, in whose time the convent school, founded soon after the abbey and conducted for a while by Ansgar (q.v.), attained a wide-spread fame. Literary activity distinguished the monks, among whom the best-known author is Widukind (q.v.). The collection of a library was soon begun; among its treasures was the only known manuscript (Ilth cent.) of the first six books of the "Annals" of Tacitus. [This is called the First Medioean MS. of Tacitus be- cause brought to Rome to Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici (afterward Leo X.) in 1509. It is now in the Vatican library.] Corvey had been a royal abbey from its foundation; in 1066 Adal- bert of Bremen obtained a grant of it from Henry IV., but the monks, supported by Otto of Nordheim, succeeded in vindicating their inde- pendence. The administration of Wibald of Sta^- blo (q.v.) was its last brilliant period. After his time it began to decline; discipline feU off, and internal dissensions arose. It managed, however, to sustain itself through the Reformation, only to suffer its hardest blows in the Thirty Years' War, when its library and archives were destroyed, its buildings damaged, and its property and revenues much diminished. In 1792 Pius VI. changed the abbey into a bishopric, with a jurisdiction of five square miles and 9,000 souls. Through the settle- ment of 1803, the territory passed to the house of Nassau-Orange, and later to the kingdom of West- phalia, finally coming under the jurisdiction of Prussia. The bishopric on its spiritual side was suppressed in 1821. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: The AnmUtt Carbei«nt«9 are in MGH, Script., iii. 1-18. Consult: P. Wigand. Gwhidde da . . . AHey Corvey, Hdxter, 1819; idem, TradUionm Cor- beienaea, Leipeic. 1843; W. Wattenbach, DOQ, 5th ed.. iL 472; Neander, CkrUHan Churdt, iii. 273-276. et paadm; Hauok, KDt toI. ii.. paaaim. CORVINUS (RABE, "raven/' not RAEBENER),

CORVINUS, ANTONIUS: Protestant Reformer; b. at Warburg (20 m. n.w. of Cassel) Feb. 27, 1501; d. at Han- over Apr. 6, 1553. He was educated in the Cister- cian monasteries of Riddagshausen in Brunswick, and Loccum in Hanover, at the University of Leip- sic, and probably also at Wittenberg. He early embraced the Reformation; in 1526 he is found at Marburg; in 1528 he went to Goslar to establish the Reformation there, and worked successfully till 1531, when persecution drove him to Witsenhausen in Hesse. There and elsewhere in the country and neighboring lands he played a prominent part and enjoyed the friendship of the landgrave. With the latter's permission he preached in Hanover and Gottingen, in Minden and Pattensen. In 1546 the duke of Gottingen-Kalenberg became a Roman- ist, and when Corvinus vigorously opposed the Augsburg Interim of 1548 he was thrown into prison at Kalenberg (Nov. 2, 1549) and not re- leased till Oct. 21, 1552. He possessed consider- able learning, some poetical ability, but greater organizing talents, and by devotion, patience, and self-sacrifice he won a place among the Reformers of the second rank. Bibliography: G. Uhlhorn, Antonius Corvinus, Hanover, 1901; P. Tschaekert, Antonius Corvinus Leben und Schrif- ten. ib. 1900; his Briefwechsel, ed. P. Tschaekert. 1900; and his Bericht vom Kolloquium in Regensburg 1541, ed- P. Tschaokert, in Archiv fur Reformationsgeschichte, 1903; Q. Geisenhof, BiUioiheea Corviniana, Brunswick. 1900; J. Ktetlin, Martin Luther, ii. 209, 311-312. Berlin, 1903. CORWIN, EDWARD TANJORE: Reformed (Dutch); b. in New York City July 12, 1834. He was graduated at the College of the City of New York, then the Free Academy (B.A., 1853), and the New Brunswick Theological Seminary (1856), where he was a graduate student 1856-57 and in- structor in Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis 1883-^. He held pastorates at Paramus, N. J. (1857--63), and Hillsborough (Millstone), N. J. (1863-88). He was then rector of Hertzog Hall, New Brunswick, N. J., 1888-95, and gave instruc- tion at various times in the Theological Seminary. After a pastorate at Greenport, N. Y., 1895-^7, he was in Holland in 1897-98 as the agent of the General Synod to collect documents relating to the Amst^!dam Correspondence, which passed be- tween the classis of Amsterdam and the colonial Dutch Reformed churches of New Netherlands and the Province of New York. These papers were brought out under his editorship by the State of New York (Ecdenasticdl Records of the State of New York, 6 vols., Albany, 1901-06). He was president of the General Synod of his de- nomination in 1891, and is the official historiog- rapher of the Reformed Church in America. In theology he is a conservative. Among his nu- 277 Corvey Cosmas Indicopleustes numerous writings special mention may be made of his Manual of the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church in North America (New York, 1859, 4th ed., 1902); History of the Reformed Church in America (1895); and A Digest of the Constitutional and Synodical Legislation of the Reformed Church in America (1906). He likewise wrote a number of histories of counties and local churches, and edited Cen- tennial Discourses, in collaboration with T. W. Chambers and J. Anderson (New York, 1876), and Centennial of the Theological Seminary at New Brunswick, N, J., with D. D. Demarest and P. D. Van Giesef (1885).

COSIN, JOHN: Bishop of Durham; b. in Nor- wich Nov. 30, 1594; d. in London Jan. 15, 1672. He studied at Cambridge (Caius College); became secretary to Bishop Overall of Lichfield, and chaplain of Bishop Neile of Durham; became preb- endary of Durham 1624, archdeacon of the East Riding of Yorkshire 1625, master of Peterhouse, Cambridge, 1635, vice-chancellor of the university 1639, dean of Peterborough 1640. He was a friend of Laud and a strict ritualist; also a man of strong character who made his views effective; conse- quently he came early into collision with the Puri- tans. In 1641 he was sequestered from all his benefices by vote of the House of Commons; in 1644 he was rejected from his mastership, having been concerned in sending the college plate to the royal mint. He went to Paris, where he acted as chaplain to the ladies of Queen Henrietta Maria's household belonging to the Church of England. On the Restoration he was reinstated in his bene- fices and made bishop of Durham (1660). His strong convictions and earnest life, his energy and administrative ability, with a thorough knowledge of the world, pleasing manners, and a commanding presence, have caused him to be characterized as " one of the greatest prelates of his own or of any age." He was severe toward Romanists and Puritans, and used his full power to rid his diocese of them; nevertheless his Puritan antagonists charged him with "popery," and some of his prin- ciples and practises were little short of Puritanical. He was a leading member of the Savoy Conference in 1661, and probably had more influence than any one else in the revision of the prayer-book made the same year. His best-known work is his Collection of Private Devotions in the Practice of the Ancient Church Called the Hours of Prayer (Lon- don, 1627; new ed., 1867), which was prepared by royal command for the use of the queen's maids of honor, and gave much offense to the Puritans. In France he wrote Historia transubstantiationis papar lis (published 1675; Eng. transl., 1676; ed., with memoir, by J. S. Brewer, 1840 and 1850); Regni AnglicB religio catholica, prisca, casta, defaecata, a vindication of the Church of England (first pub- lished by Thomas Smith in his Vitae quorumdam eruditissimorum et illustrium virorum, London, 1707; several later editions; translations into Ital- ian, 1853, 1866, into Spanish and modem Greek, 1856, French and German, 1857, Russian, 1866, English, by F. Meyrick, 1870); and A Scholastical History of the Canon of Holy Scripture : or the cer- tain and indubitate books thereof as they are received in the Church of England (1657). His Notes on the Book of Common Prayer (published in Nichols's Comment on the Book of Common Prayer, 1710) is of interest for the history of the prayer-book. His complete works were published in the Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology (5 vols., Oxford, 1843-55), and his correspondence was published by the Sur- tees Society of Durham (2 vols., 1869-72). Bibliography: Consult, besides the memoir in his Historia transubstantiationis, ut sup.. DNB, xii. 264-271; Wright and Neil. Prote$tant Dictionary, pp. 146-148, London, 1004.

COSMAS AND DAMIAN, SAINTS : According to legend, two brothers from Arabia, Christians, who practised medicine at Aegae, on the Bay of Issus, Cilicia, at the time of the Diocletian persecution. They took no fees, and by means of prayer and the sign of the cross accomplished wonderful cures. They refused to renounce their faith at the bidding of the governor, Lysias, endured manifold tor- tures, and finally were executed by the sword. Their brothers, Anthimus, Leontius, and Eupre- pius, suffered at the same time with like fortitude. Cosmas and Damian are the patrons of physicians and apothecaries, and are represented with the emblems of their profession, Their day is Sept. 27. (O. ZdCKLEBt.) Bibliography: ASB, Sept., vii. 400-448; Analecta Bol- Bollandiana, i (1882), 686-696; J. E. Wensley. Ikonographie Gottes und dm' Heiligen, p. 136, Leipsic, 1874. COSMAS INDICOPLEUSTES C'Cosmas the In- dian navigator ") : An Alexandrian merchant who, in the first half of the sixth century, visited Abys- sinia, Arabia, and India; afterward he became a monk and wrote several books, of which the only one preserved is called " A Christian Topography of the World " (written in Greek, in twelve books; published, with Latin version, in MPG, Ixxxviii. 10-475; Eng. transl., with notes and introduction by J. W. McCrindle, vol. xcviii. of the Hakluyt So- ciety's Publications, London, 1897). The purpose of the writer is to set forth certain views about geography and cosmography supposed to be taught in the Bible; incidentally he has much vili- fication for those who drew their natural science from another source, particularly such as impiously asserted the earth to be roimd. To his way of thinking an exact model of the universe was fur^ nished by the Mosaic tabernacle; there are two worlds, an upper and a lower, divided by the fir- mament; the table of showbread represented the earth, which consequently is a rectangular plane twice as long from east to west as broad from north to south; the candlestick typified the sun; there is another earth beyond the ocean, which was the seat of paradise and the abode of man till the del- uge, when the ark floated over the intervening waters; the heavens form four walls joined to the outer edges of the earth and are vaulted overhead. Notwithstanding his fantastic science, Cosmas was a good observer, shrewd of judgment, and is con- sidered truthful; " the nonsense of the monk was mingled with the practical knowledge of the trav- eler" (Gibbon, Decline and FaU, v. 148-149). His reports of Absrssinia, India, and China are inter- I esting, and the fifth book has value for Biblical Oounoils and Synods 278 introduction because of statements concerning the authorship, purpose, and contents of different books. Bibliography: R. Beasley, The Dawn of Modem Geog- raphy, i. 273-803 et paaaim, London, 1807. COSTA, IZAAK DA. See Da Costa. COSTA RICA. See Central America. COTELERIUS, JOHAKHES BAPTISTA (JBAN- BAPTISTE COTELIER): French classical scholar; b. at Nimes (30 m. n.e. of Montpellier) Dec., 1627; d. at Paris Aug. 19, 1686. In 1641 he went to Paris, where he studied philosophy and theology, and became a doctor of the Sorbonne in 1648. In 1667 he was commissioned by the minister Colbert to investigate and catalogue the Greek manuscripts of the Royal Library, and in 1676 he was appointed professor of Greek at the Coll^ de France. He attained high fame as a church historian by his edition of the apostolic Fathers, entitled Sanctorum Patrum qui temporOma apostolicis floruerurUf Bar- nab(B, ClementU, Hermay Ignaiii, Pdycarpi, opera edita et rum edita (2 vols., Paris, 1672). The most of the copies of this edition were destroyed by a fire in the College Montaigu, but a second and third edition was prepared by J. Leclerc (2 vols., Ant- werp, 1698; Amsterdam, 1724). He also edited other documents of ecclesiastical antiquity in HomxUce quattuor in PacUmoa et inlerpretatio pro- phetce Danidis (Paris, 1661), which he ascribed to Chrysostom, and in Ecdesice Grceca monumenta (3 vols., 1677-^), of which a fourth volume appeared posthumously as Analeda Grceca (1692). (C. Pfendbr.) Bibliography: A letter by 8. BaIum, which follows the preface to vol. ii. of Leclerc's ed. of the PoItm, ut sup.; Nio^ron, MimoirM, iv. 243 sqq. COTTA. See Vestments and Insignia, Eccle- siastical. COTTA, URSULA. See Luther, Martin.

COTTERILL, THOMAS: Hymnologist; b. at Cannock (15 m. ii.n.w. of Birmingham), Stafford- shire, Dec. 4, 1779; d. at Sheffield Dec. 29, 1823. He was a student and fellow of St. John's, Cam- bridge (B.A., 1801; M.A., 1805); became curate of Tutbury and of Lane End, Staffordshire, in 1803 and 1808, respectively; perpetual curate of St. Paul's, Sheffield, 1817. He was one of the editors of A Selection of Psalms and Hymns, published at Uttoxeter, Staffordshire, 1805, and with the help of James Montgomery (q.v.) compiled a Selection of Psalms and Hymns (Sheffield, 1810; 8th and most important ed., 1819). The use of hymns in the English service was not yet established, and an attempt by Cotterill to force his book upon his congregation led to a lawsuit; the dispute was compromised by preparing a new edition (9th), London, 1820, in which the number of hymns was greatly reduced and those printed were approved by Edward Harcourt, archbishop of York. This book had great influence upon the hymnody of the Church of England and is remarkable for the free- dom with which the verses of others printed in it are altered from their original form or rewritten. Cotterill also published a book of Family Prayers (2d ed., London, 1816). Bibliography: S. W. Duffield« English Hymns, pp. 58-54. New York. 1886; Julian. Hymnology, pp. 263-264.

COTTON, JOHN: Puritan, early minister of Boston; b. at Derby, England, Dec. 4, 1584 (bap- tized at St. Alkmund's, Derby, Dec. 15, 1584); d. in Boston Dec. 23, 1652. He studied at Derby Grammar School, and Trinity and Emmanuel cot- leges, Cambridge (B.A., 1604 or earlier; MA, 1606; B.D., 1613); became fellow of Emmanuel (not later than 1607), dean, and catechist, and dis- tmguished himself as tutor, orator, and scholar. In 1612 he became vicar of St. Botolph's, Boston, Lincohishire, and gained there a great reputation for learning and piety, as well as for Puritan inclinations, which steadily became stronger. In July, 1633, to escape from a summons to appear before the High Commission Court in London and answer to a charge of not kneeling at the Sacrament and discarding some other ritual observances, he fled to America, landing in September. In October he was ordained '' teacher " of the First Church in Boston and colleague of John Wilson, and soon became the most influential person in the com- munity.* His reputation continued great in Puri- tan circles in England, and in 1642 he was strongly inclined to comply with pressing entreaties to re- turn. He engaged in controversy with Roger Will- iams ^nd defended the latter's expulsion from Massachusetts. In the antinomian dispute he was at first inclined to side with his enthusiastic admirer Mrs. Hutchinson (whose son, Edward, had accompanied him on his flight to America), but ended as her opponent (see Antinomianibu and Antinomian Controversies, II., 2). John Cotton's writings were numerous and deal with a wide variety of subjects. The ** bibliography " of Dr. H. M. Dexter's ConorejftUumalittn of As Laat Tkne Hundred Yean (New York, 1880) has 36 entries ascribed to him. For other lists consult Allen's American Biographical Die- Honary (Boston, 1867), sub titulo; J. 8. Clark, in the Con- ffregaHonat Quarterly, in. 133-148 (Apr., 1861); and the article John Cotton, by Alexander Gordon, in DNB, supple- ment, vol. ii. All were published in London, and many in two or more editions. Some of the more noteworthy est: Abetnui of the Lowe of New England, a summary of Jewish laws supposed to be of perpetual obligation (1641; re- printed in the CoUecHone of the Maeeaehueette Hietorieal So- ciety, ser. i., vol. v [1816], 171-192; cf. W. C. Ford, John Cotton' e Moaee, hie Judidalle and Abetract of the Lowe o/ New England, in the Proceedinge of the Maeeaehueette Hie- torieal Society, Oct., 1902); The Pouring OtU of the S€ven Viale, or an expoeition of the 16th chapter of the RevelaUon, jffith an applieation of it to our Hmee (1642; the fifth Tisl is made to mean episcopal government); The Keye of the Kingdom of Heaven and Power thereof according to tt« Word of Ood (1644; reprinted Boston. 1852; considered one of the most authoritative expositions of Congregationalism); MUk for Babee, Drawn out of the Breaete of both TeetamenU, diiefly for the epiritual nouriehment of BoHon babee in eUhtr Englaiui, but may be of like uee for any t^ildren, a catechism (1646; and many subsequent editions, one at Oambridee, 1656; included in the New England Primer; Cotton Mather calls it " peculiarly the catechism of New England," and says it, will " be valued and studied and improved until New England cease to be New England "); The Bloody Tenri Waehed and Made White in the Blood of th0 Lamb (1647; *"He was the ecclesiastical leader of the Maasaohufletti colony, a part of about all that was done in Church and State till his death " (Walker. Creede and Platfonne of Con- gregationaliem, 184, note 3). " He very quickly came to wield a power in that theocratic settlement akin to that now exercised by a political boss" (Paul Leicester Ford, The New England Primer, 89). 270 Ooata, Tyflf^^f da Oouncils and Synods a reply to Roger Williams, who had charged Um with hold- ing a " bloody tenet of persecution "); A Brief Expontion vith PraeHeal ObtervaHonM upon 0*0 Whole Book of Eeele- naetea (1054); The Sainta' Support and Comfort in the Time of IHetve and Danger, with divert other treatitet (1658; a new edition of Ood'a Mercy Mixed with hie Juetice, 1641). Two of his writings against Roger Williams were published by the Narracansett Club (A Letter of John Cotton and Roger WiUiam**a Reply, ed. R. A. Guild, Providence. 1866; Matter John Cotton'e Anewer to Master Roger WilUame, ed. J. L. Diman, 1867). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult, besides the works mentioned above. Cotton Mather (his grandson), Magnolia, i. 252- 286, Hartford ed.. 1855; John Norton, Abel Being Dead yet Speaketh, or the life and death of that deaervedly famoue man of God, Mr. John Cotton, London. 1658. ed. with notes by Enoch Pond, Boston, 1834; A. W. M'Clure, lAfe of John Cotton, Boston, 1846 and 1870; P. Thompson. The Hietary and AnHquitiea of Boeton [Lincolnshire], pp. 412-424 et passim, Boston. 1856; M. C. Tyler, Hiatory of American Literature, i. 210-216, New York, 1878; W. Walker, Ten New England Leadere, pp. 49-96, New York, 1901 (where references to the sources are fully given). COULIN, cQl'ln', FRANK: Swiss Protestant; b. at Geneva Nov. 17, 1828. He was educated at the college and academy of his native city (B.A., 1844); resided in Germany 1844-47; studied in the theological faculty of Geneva until his ordination in 1851. After extensive travels he became in 1853 pastor at Genthod, a village on the shores of Lake Geneva, and there remained till 1895, when he retired from active life. He was a delegate to the conference of the Evangelical Alliance held at New York in 1873, and on his return was asked to conduct the courses in homiletics in the faculty of free theology at Geneva. He continued these lec- tures until 1886. He has written: Les (Euvres chrS- tiennes (Geneva, 1865); Le File de Vhomme (1866; Eng. transl., by J. Sturge, London, 1869, The Son of Man); and La Vocation du chritien (1870).

COULLIE, PIERRE HECTOR: Cardinal; b. at Paris Mar. 14, 1829. He was educated at the seminary of St. Nicholas-des-Champs and at St. Sulpice, and was ordained to the priesthood in 1851. He was vicar at Ste. Marguerite, St. Eu- stache, and Notre Dame des Victoires, and in 1876 was consecrated bishop coadjutor of Orleans with the title of bishop of Sidonia. In 1878 he suc- ceeded to the bishopric, and in 1893 was enthroned archbishop of Lyons and Vienne. In 1897 he was created cardinal priest of Santa Francesca Ro- COUNCILS AND SYNODS. Origin (i 1). Provincial Synods (f 2). Ecumenical Councils ((3). Teutonic Synods of the Early Middle Ages (| 4). Papal Councils of the Middle Ages (( 6). The Reforming Councils of the Fifteenth Century (| 6). Councils and Synods: Modem Roman Catholic System (ft 7). The Synods of Protestantism. Reformed Churches (ft 8). Adoption in the German Lutheran Churches (ft 9). The Synodal System in America (ft 10). In the ecclesiastical sense, " councils " or " syn- ods'' are assemblies of representatives of the Church for the discussion and decision of questions of faith, points of discipline, and morals. The gathering of the apostles mentioned in Acts xv. (see Apostolic Council at Jerusalem) may be passed over as having no connection with the later development. The earliest synods deserving of mention are those held in Asia Minor in reference to the Montanist question (see Montanism), and those which in both East and West I. Origin, attempted to settle the quartodeciman controversy (see Easter, II., § 1). The former took place probably between 160 and 175; our information in regard to them is derived from an almost contemporary narrator whose ac- coimt is utilized by Eusebius [Hist eccl., V. xvi. 10). He does not use the name " synod," and in fact his words do not necessarily imply such as- semblies; but the usual interpretation of the pas- sage is probably correct, involving gatherings of a number of local churches for the purpose of dis- cussing the new prophecy. The term " the faith- ful," which he uses, of course includes bishops, but presumably is not limited to them. The method of representation is uncertain; it is possible that in some cases only the bishop appee^ed to speak for his church; it is also possible that a certain number of clerics accompanied him, and that prom- inent laymen were not absent; in some cases they may even have been more niunerous than the clergy, or have constituted the only representa- tives of their community. The terms in which Eusebius (V. xxiii. 2) speaks of the synods held in connection with the paschal controversy give on the surface a different picture; but such knowl- edge as we have of his sources shows that he un- consciously approximated his account of synods at the end of the second century to those of his own day. The synods held about 195 were not gathei^ ings of bishops exclusively; although the episco- pate occupied the most prominent position, the time was still remembered when these assemblies were gatherings of all the faithful. The fact that the monarchical episcopate was fully developed by the period first alluded to (160-175), and that this constitution of synods is not altogether harmoni- ous with it, leads to the conclusion that such gath- erings had been usual, at least as early as the middle of the second century. Sohm finds their origin in the expansion of gatherings, such as are mentioned earlier, of a local church for the election of a bishop; others trace them to the analogy of the secular '' provincial council," or make them a natural outgrowth of the need to discuss difficult questions. A full understanding of their origin can not be obtained without remembering the constant in- tercourse by means of accredited representatives which the primitive Christian communities main- tained. If a local church was distracted by dis- cord, the neighboring churches felt bound to assist in the restoration of order (Clementina, I. Ixiii. 3); when peace was restored after a storm of persecu- tion, even distant churches sent envoys to express their joy (Ignatius, Ad Philadelphenos, x.; ad SmymeoSf xi.; ad Polycarpum, vii.); if a bishop was to be chosen in a small church, the delegates of the larger conununities round about assisted in the deliberations. Such envoys, who might be bishops or lower clergy, were chosen in a general gathering of the local church (Ignatius, Ad Poly- carpum, vii.; od Smymeoa, xi.). It is then on the surface scarcely a step further to the assembly of representatives of a number of churches for the purpose of reaching a common decision on a dis- puted question. But a little reflection will show that it is not the same thing. Both the discussion of a local question with the assistanoe of repre- sentatives from outside, and the meeting to discuss a question which affected a number of communities alike, sprang from the primitive Chris- tian feeling of unity and from the consequent mutual intercourse; but they had different aims and significance. The synods of the second oentuiy were loosely organized; they came together when a question happened to need decision, and represented no de- terminate group of churches; they had no ex-of- ficio members, and no authority which could inter- fere with local independence. By 2. Frovin- degrees, however, the logical conse- cial SSynods. quenoes of the monarchical episcopate and the theory of apostolic succession followed. In the third oentuiy the bishops prima- rily constituted the synods. It is true that in this period presbyters still universally took part with the bishops, as is evidenced in Alexandria in the first synod held by Demetrius against Origen (Pho- tius, MPG, ciii. 397); in Antioch (Eusebius, Hist, eed,, VII. XXX. 2, xxviii. 1); in Cappadocia (Cyp- rian, Epist,, Ixxv. 4); in Rome (Eusebius, Hist, eed., VI. xHii. 2, on the basis of the letter of Cor- nelius to Fabius of Antioch); and in Africa (Cyp- rian, Episi,, xix. 2). But none the less the center of gravity had shifted. Though Cyprian mentions the presence of presbyters and deacons, it is evi- dent from more than one passage that in his mind it was the bishops who decided the questions. The records of the synod of Sept., 256, note the pres- ence of many bishops from three provinces, with presbyters and deacons and the greater part of the laity; but in the decision the votes of the bishops alone are given. Thus, too, the African synodal epistles are subscribed by the bishops only (of. Epist,, Ivii., Ixiv., Ixvii., Ixx.)- The presence of the lower clergy and the laity contributed to the pub- licity of the proceedings, not to the decision, which was now in the hands of the episcopate. The de- velopment which was complete by the middle of the second century in Africa was somewhat slower elsewhere. At Rome in 250 the consensus of the clergy and laity was still considered essential to a synodal decision (Cyprian, Epist., xxx. 5), and a similar state of things is found in Cappadocia (Cyp- rian, EpisL, Ixxv. 4). But the same tendency was everywhere in evidence. It is not, therefore, sur- prising that in the First Coimcil of Nicsea and in that of Antioch (341) it should be taken for granted that only the bishops were the active members (cf. eanon v. of Nicsea, xiv., xv. of Antioch). In har- mony with this development was the general con- ception of synodal authority. The bishops, as suc- cessors of the apostles, were officially endued with the Holy Spirit; they made their decisions " under the inspiration of the Holy Ghost " (Csrprian, Epist., Ivii. 5) or '' in the presence of the Holy Ghost and his angels " (synodal letter of the First Council of Aries, Mansi, CancUia, ii. 469); the decision of a synod is equivalent to a divine sentence (letter of Constantine on the dissolution of the Council of Aries, Mansi, Concilia^ ii. 478). The next step was to make s3mods ordinaiy in- stitutions of the Chiirch. Extraordinary ones con- tinued to be held, but they were additional to the regular ones, which are assumed in the first men- tion of Eastern synods by a Western writer, prob- ably between 210 and 220 (Tertullian, De jejunio, xiii.). Annual meetings soon became the rule, as can be evidenced in Cappadocia as early as the middle of the third century (Cyprian, Epist., Ixxv. 4). This regular recurrence led to the restriction of the district represented, and, probably on the analogy of secular assemblies, the bishops of each province met in its capital. The institution bo- came legally established by the First Council of Nicffia (canon v.), which provided for two meet- ings in the year, one before Lent, the other in the autumn. At Antioch in 341 (canon xx.) the dates were defined as four weeks before Pentecost and Oct. 15, and the arrangement continued long in force (Cioimcil of Constantinople, 381, canon iL; of Chalcedon, 451, canon xix.). Finally the Tnill&n Council of 692 (canon viii.) and the Second Nicene of 787 (canon vi.) contented themselves with re- quiring a single annual session. The provincial synod became the most important oigan for the episcopal government of the Church. The metro- politan called it and presided over it. Its compe- tence was practically unlimited, extending over all questions of faith and morals, public worship, and the discipline and organization of the Oiurch. The development of provincial synods accompanied that of metropolitan jurisdiction. After the or- ganization of the patriarchal system in the East, the idea came up of having special synods for these larger divisions, and attempts were made to cany it out; but they did not lead to regular annual meetings or to the permanency of the institution. Ecumenical councils had come into being before the complete organization of the provincial synods. In the course of the Donatist controversy Constan- tine committed the decision of it first to an epis- copal commission meeting in Rome, then to a larger body of bishops assembled at 3. Ecumen- Aries (see Donatism). These assem- ical blies have been commonly considered Councils, as synods, and such they were in the sense of being deliberative assemblies of bishops; but it is obvious that they differed from all previous synods. Their initiative came not from the bishops but from the emperor, who de- termined both the membership and the place and subject of the discussion, and gave his authority to the decisions, which were to be authoritative in secidar law. They were thus not, like the provin- cial synods, organs of free episcopalrgovemment, but assemblies for the purpose of counseling the emperor as to his decisive action in ecclesiastical questions. These, however, and not the provincial synods, were the prototypes of the ecumenical councils. Constantine acted in precisely the same manner at the convocation of the Council of Ni- cffia. It was his intention that the Arian question should be settled by the coimcil, and so he took a personal part in the proceedings; the adoption d 281 Connolls and Synods the Nicene formula was the result of his ui^ncy, and he recognised it as binding in law, imposing penalties on those who refused to subscribe it; he himself promulgated the decision as to the Easter celebration, and imposed its observance on the bishops. Thus, though the Nicene council was theoretically a meeting of the catholic episcopate, and the authority attributed to all synods might be supposed to belong to it in a preeminent de- gree, it was really not an organ of the self-govern- ment of the Church, but an aid to its government by the secular ruler. The following eciunenical councils were modeled on this and bore the same character. The decision to convoke them origi- nated at the court, and was always carried out by the secular authority. They met under the presi- dency, or at least in the presence, of imperial com- missaries. Their decisions were submitted to the emperor before publication, as occurred in the case of the dogmatic decree of Chalcedon (Mansi, Con- cilia, vii. 117, 136). He might either confirm their decrees, as at Chalcedon (Mansi, vii. 476) and Con- stantinople (Mansi, xi. 697, 724), or refuse his assent, as at Ephesus (Mansi, iv. 1377). Their de- pendence upon the court increased, until Constan- tius could say with brutal frankness at the Synod of Milan, "What I will, let that be considered a canon " (Athanasius, " History of the Arians,'' xxxiii.). The detailed history of the several ecu- menical councils will be found in other articles (see the name of the place of meeting). Roman Catho- lic historians number eight in this early period: Nictea I., 325; Constantinople I., 381; Ephesus, 431; Chalcedon, 451; Constantinople XL, 553; Constantinople III., 680; Nicsea II., 787; Constan- tinople IV., 869. But this enumeration is not his- torically justifiable. Apart from the facts that the Constiuitinopolitan council of 381 represented only the Eastern Empire [and that of 869 is re- jected by the Eastern Church], those of Sardica 342, Ephesus 449, and Constantinople 754 have just as much right to the title of ecumenical, nor was confirmation lacking to the decrees of the two latter. Their omission can only be based upon the fact that later development took a direction op- posite to their conclusions. The importance of the ecimienical councils lies in their legislative activity, especially in regard to doctrine, which usually fui^ nished the reason for their convocation. They dealt also with many questions of ecclesiastical organ- ization and private morality; but their action as a supreme judicial tribunal is comparatively unim- portant. Their excommunications were always the consequences of their dogmatic decrees, which were considered infallible from the conception of the episcopate as endowed with the charisma verilatia,* The synodal system underwent a new develop- ment in the Teutonic nationalities which arose on ^ The list of eetimenical eoiincils as accepted by the Roman Catholic Church is as follows: 1. NicsBa I., 325; 2. Constanti- nople 1., 381; 3. Ephesus. 431; 4. Chalcedon. 461; 5. Con- stantinople 11.. 5fi3; 6. ConsUntinopIe III. (First Trallan), 680-681; 7. Nicea II.. 787; 8. Constantinople IV.. 869; 9. Latermn I., 1123; 10. Lateran II.. 1139; 11. Lateran III., 1179; 12. Lateran IV., 1216; 13. Lyons I.. 1246; 14. Lyons II.. 1274; 15. Vienne. 1311-12; 16. Constance, 1414-18; the ruins of the Roman Empire. The old division of ecclesiastical provinces had much less impor- tance now than of old; the larger unit of church life above the diocese was not the metropolitan jurisdiction but the national Church, 4. Teutonic and the former disappeared entirely Synods of for a time in the Prankish kingdom. the Early Moreover, at the beginning of the Middle Middle Ages the diocese was no longer Ages. a town community governed by the bishop with a united presbytery about him, but an extended territory divided into a large nflmber of coordinate parishes. The relation of the king, again, to the Church was important. Though not carrying such unlimited power as the emperors had possessed, it was sufficiently analo- gous to theirs for the provincial synod to lose much of its earlier importance, and to become a merely occasional gathering. This was especially the case in the Prankish kingdom, where in the Merovingian period only a few such synods are heard of, and the acts of only one are extant. Bon- iface asserted in 742 that no synod had been held for more than eighty years; but neither his efforts nor those of Charlemagne availed to alter the situa- tion materially. The case was the same in Eng- land; the ancient provisions were not forgotten, but simply not followed. Provincial synods were most frequent in Spain, as long as the Visigoths were Arian (Tarragona 516, Gerunda 517, Lerida 524, Valencia 624, Toledo 527, Barcelona 540). The place of the provincial synods was taken by national coun- cils. The first of these in the Prankish king- dom was called by Clovis at Orleans in 511, and they never ceased to be held during the Merovingian period, either for the whole kingdom or one of its divisions. They were distinguished from provincial synods by being not regularly re- curring assemblies, but meetings summoned or at least sanctioned by the king for a special purpose. Their decisions did not necessarily require royal confirmation, but the kings felt themselves at liberty to alter or abrogate them, especially when they overstepped the bounds of spiritual adminis- tration. After the middle of the seventh century they met in the presence of the king or his repre- sentative. The Burgundian kingdom also had its national synods (Epaon 517; Lyons 517). It is significant that in Spain they b^in with the con- version of Recared (Toledo 589, 597, 633, 636, 638, etc.), and seem at once to have taken the place of the provincial synods. A peculiarity here was that the magnates of the kingdom and the royal officials were considered members. Only in Eng- land did the national coimcil fail to acquire im- portance. This system lasted, imchanged in es- sentials, through the whole first half of the Middle Ages. The extension of the empire under Charle- 17. Basel-Ferrara-Florenoe. 1431-42; 18. Lateran V.. 1512- 1517; 19. Trant. 1545-63; 20. Vatican. 186^70. The 6rst seven of these are accepted by the Greeks, the others re- jected; they also accept the Second Tnillan Council or Quiniseztum, 602 (rejected by the West), considerinc it a continuation of the First Tnillan or Third Constantinople. The eighth general council of the Greeks was held in Con- stantinople in 879 and rejected by the Latins (see Piiotius). magne made these assemblies practically councils of the entire West (Regensburg 792, Frankfort 794). While adhering in essentials to the catholic doctrine and institutions, they allowed themselves a fairly wide latitude in their legislation. The new diocesan system developed synods also for each separate diocese, somewhat on the lines of the primitive presbyteriumf presided over by the bishop and including the parish priests, abbots, and deans of the diocese. The earliest of these were the two at Auxerre, between 573 and 603 and 695, and that of Autun, between 663 and 680. The attempt was made to establish the custom of meeting an- nually, but apparently without much success. The popes did not overlook the weight which synodal decisions carried; and thus, although Italy waa never a scene of much conciliar activity, more assemblies of this kind were held in Rome imder papal presidency than in any other city of Chris- tendom. The position of the popes 5. Papal brought about the participation in Coimcils them of distant churches. Julius I. of the siunmoned one for the year 341, to Middle which he bade the Eastern antago- Ages. nists of Athanasius. They refused to appear; but more than fifty bishops attended, including some from Thrace, CcBle-syria, Phenicia, and Palestine. Gallic bishops sat with those of Italy in the synod called by Damasus in 369, and similar gatherings continued to be held. They were called by the popes not as patriarchs of the West, but as successors of St. Peter; and the papal sanction gave them high authority. The importance of the synods held by the Carolingian emperors north of the Alps somewhat diminished the preeminent authority of these Roman councils; but a change came with the pontificate of Leo IX. (1048-54), who was the first pope to raise the papal dignity once more after its prolonged humiliation. He made much use of synods, and, not content with holding them in Rome and other parts of Italy, presided in person at the imperial synods held in Germany and France. From the middle of the eleventh century the papal synods constantly increased in importance and consideration (Lateran synod of 1059 under Nicholas II.; 1063 under Alex- ander II.; 1074, 1075, 1076, 1078, 1079, 1080, 1083 under Gregory VII.; 1095 at Piacenza and Clermont under Urban II.; 1119 at Reims under Calixtus II.). The last of these popes summoned the Lat- eran council of 1123 under the name of a general council; but the placing of it on a level with the old ecumenical ones came later and gradually; that of Constance reckoned in this category only three modern councils — Lateran 1215, Lyons 1274, and Vienne 1311. Roman Catholic theologians now add to these three more Lateran synods (1123, 1139, 1179) and the first of Lyons, 1245. These had, it is true, an authority in the medieval Church answering to that of the old ecumenical councils imder the Roman Empire; but they were confined to the papal obedience, called and presided over by the pope, and dependent on his sanction for the validity of their decrees, so that they were merely orgaiu for his government of the Western Chiirch. The beliefs as to the pope's position current in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were shaken by the Great Schism, which forced 6. The Re- men to seek an authority powerful forming enough to restore unity even in spite Coimcils of conflicting claimants of the papacy. of the Fif- This they thought they had found in teenth the general council, on lines f oreshad- Century, owed even in the fourteenth century by Marsilius of Padua and William of Occam. At the very outset of the Schism, after the election of Clement VII., the appeal to a uni- versal coimcil was heard (see Clement VII.; Ur- ban VI.). Presently it was taken up by such in- fluential theologians as Pierre d'Ailly and Gerson, and became prevalent. The attempt to end the Schism by the Council of Pisa (q.v.) was indeed a failure, but this did not affect the belief in the eflicacy of this method. The Council of Constance (q.v.) boldly attempted to alter the constitution of the Western Church by the introduction of gen- eral councils as a regular factor in its government, to recur at intervals of five, seven, and ultimately ten years. But the execution of this plan, though approved by the Council of Basel (q.v.), was ren- dered impossible by the natural opposition of the Curia. When Eugenius IV. transferred the Coun- cil of Basel to Ferrara (see Ferrara-Florence, Council of), he took his stand on the principles accepted before Constance,- and logically declared null and void, with the assent of his council, the decrees of Basel as to the superiority of the coun- cil over the pope. In the Lateran Council of 1512- 1517 Leo X. struck a mortal blow at the idea in the bull Pastor cBtemus. After this the Curia had an unconcealed distrust of general councils, and it was only the pressure of political powers which led to the reoiganization of Catholicism after the storms of the 7. Councils Reformation by that of Trent (see and Synods : Trent, Council of). It was only when Modern the last trace of opposition to imUmited Roman papal power disappeared in the nine- Catholic teenth century that this distrust was System, finally lulled, so that Pius IX. could give the world the long imseen spec- tacle of a general council in 1870 (see Vatican Council). The principles now accepted are that these assemblies may only be called by the pope and presided over by him or his delegates; that their membership is confined to the cardinals, bishops, vicars apostolic, generals of religious or- ders, and such dignitaries, to the exclusion of the laity; that the subjects discussed must be laid be- fore them by the pope, and their decisions con- firmed by him. They are thus nothing more than assemblies of advisers about the pope, with no in- dependent power of their own. Nor have pro- vincial synods any longer a necessary place in the polity of the Roman Catholic Church. The Coun- cil of Trent ordained, indeed, that they should be held every three years — a period which it was pro- posed at the Vatican Council to extend to five — but the rule is not observed in practise. Much the same may be said of the diocesan synods, which the Council of Trent required to be held annually. d8d Connoils and Synods The Reformation broke with all the medieval ideas on the subject. Luther very early repudi- ated the belief in the infallibility of councils, and, where Roman Catholic theology had tended to put their decisions on a par with the Writ- 8. The ten Word, was inclined rather to con- Synods of sider the two opposed, withdrawing the Protestant- whole domain of faith, morals, and ism. Re- worship from their legislative jurisdic- formed tion and leaving them only the duty Churches, of guarding against departures from Scriptural faith and practise. Thus he considered them practically as judicial tribunals, in which character they were to be composed not only of bishops but also of godly secular persons. From these principles, qb from the emphasis laid on the assertion that the Church needed to care only for preaching and the administration of the sacraments, there was no reason to expect that any use would be made of a Reformed synodal sys- tem in the organization of the Lutheran territorial churches; and in their later development, with a few sporadic exceptions, no such system was con- sidered. In England the synodal system of the Middle Ages waa carried over into the Established Church. But the convocations, after the Refor- mation as before, were exclusively clerical assem- blies; and in accordance with the doctrine of royal supremacy they were not permitted to meet with- out the sovereign's license, nor were their decisions valid without his assent. The home of the new synodal system was the Reformed Church, in which questions of organiza- tion were regarded as of more importance than among the Lutherans. The presbyterial organ- ization established by Calvin at Geneva became the model for all the Reformed churches. That of France was the first to develop the synodal system for a national Church. At the first national synod (1559) it was resolved that no local church should have any precedence over any other; that general synods should meet from time to time as occasion arose, composed of the ministers and one or more elders or deacons from each church, imder a presi- dent elected at the meeting; that in each province twice a year the ministers and at least one elder or deacon from each congregation should meet in synod. In 1565 the composition of the national synods was changed to either one or two elected ministers and elders from each provincial synod. These synods, of mixed clerical and lay character, were charged with the government of the Church. On the same lines proceeded the organization of the Reformed churches of Scotland, the Nether- lands, and northwestern Germany. The polity was in each case built up on a national basis; the idea of completing it by an international organization seems to have been unknown, and the Synod of Dort was a mere isolated exception. The imperfection of the older Lutheran system became more and more obvious after the seven- teenth century, but the first attempts at improve- ment dealt with the local churches. It was not until political changes gave occasion for reorgani- sation in many of the German states that the idea of introducing the synodal element was taken up. In 1807 Schleiermacher made a proposal for a new constitution of the Protestant Church in Prus- sia, which included the adoption of the Q. Adoption synodal system, and this principle has in the Ger- since been dominant. Since the rela- man Lu- tion of the Church to the temporal theran sovereigns made it impossible simply Churches, to adopt the Reformed plan, an at- tempt was made to combine the syn- odal and the conslstorial systems. In 1817 presby- teries were formed in Prussia, and the first synods were constituted of ministers alone. Not much came of these attempts there, although they were followed by Bavaria in 1818 and Baden in 1821. Before half a century had passed, however, all but a few of the Lutheran churches of Germany adopted synodal constitutions, Warttemberg 1854, Hanover 1864, Saxony 1868, Prussia 1873-76, etc. These German synods are not, like the old Reformed ones, charged with the government of the Church, but are rather the representatives of the Church with the government. They consist of both ministers and laymen, and are chosen for the district synods by the congregations, for the provincial and na- tional synods by the bodies below. Owing to va- rious causes — ^their restricted competence, their infrequent meetings (every four, five, or six years), their imwieldy numbers, and cumbrous parlia- mentaiy forms — ^they have not produced the re- sults that were hoped from them, and can scarcely do so unless the gift of greater freedom of action makes them really organs of a self-governing Church. The Protestant emigrants from England to America were at first mostly Independents, and it was not till after the middle of the seventeenth century that the number of Presbyterians gradu- ally increased.* The first union of several congre- gations into a presbytery occurred in 1705 or 1706, and the first synod met in Philadelphia in 1717 (see Presbyterians, section on America). The system took firm root in America, and was adopted ^ [The first eettlera in Vincinia (1007) and most of those that followed for a century or more were members of the Established English Church. Althouffh Puritanical tenden- cies early appeared, episcopalian institutions long prevailed. The founders of the Plymouth colony (1620) were semi- Separatists, and soon reached a pooition that resembled " In- dependency." The founders of Salem (1622 onward) were Puritans, strongly committed from the first to non-conformist principlee, and early won to essentially Congregational prin- ciples through the influence of the men of Plymouth. The Massachusetts Company (1628) were Puritans, who in leaving England professed the warmest attachment to the Church of England and so were not avowed non-conformists. They early developed a strong theocratic and presbyterial system. In Axigust, 1637, a ssmod was held at (^mbridge, consisting of about twenty-five ministers, " others sent by the churches," and the Massachusetts magistrates, for the suppression of the antinomian heresy. In 1648 " the elders and meseen- gers of the churchra assembled at Cambridge " agreed upon *• A Platform of Church Discipline/' which was afterward adopted by the churches and the General Court, in which it is declared that " Synods orderly assembled, and rightly proceeding according to the pattern. Act. 15, we acknowledge as the ordinance of Christ . . . necessary to the well-being of churches. . . . Magistrates have power to call a synod. ... It belongeth unto synods and councils to debate and determine controversies of faith and eases of consdenoe," etc. For the councils of the Congregational Church aee CONOBEOATIONAUSTS, IV., || 2-3. A. H. N.] Oouxudla and Synods Court 284 with variations not only by the Lutherans there, but also by the Episcopal Church. The Reformed synods in America were in the main 10. The framed on the French model, except Synodal that the elders were chosen by the Syttem in congregations and were considered as America, representatives of the congregations. As to the Lutherans, it is to be ob- served that they came not only from Germany, but also from the Netherlands, where the presbyterial system had been in force from the beginning, and from Sweden, which had something of a similar organization. But even among the Germans the fact that their principal oiganizer, H. M. MQhlen- berg (q.v.), belonged to the school of Spener and organized his congregation with elders gave an impulse toward the adoption of the synodal sys- tem. The first Lutheran synod was held in Phila- delphia in 1748, consisting of six pastors and a laiger number of lay delegates (see Lutherans). After 1760 annual synods were held. The Epis^ copal Church, as the daughter of the Church of England, began with the same constitution; but the separation following upon the War of Inde- pendence forced it to adopt a new organization, whose principles were established in the General Conventions of Philadelphia, 1784, and Richmond, 1785, both composed of clergy and laity sitting to- gether. The former laid down the principle ** that to make canons or laws there be no other author- ity than that of a representative body of the clergy and laity conjointly," which has since been fol- lowed (see Protsstant Episcopal Church). See Church Council. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: For the collections of the Acta of Councils by LabM, Harduin, Mansi, and Hefele see vol. i. of this work. Preface, p. xiz. The earliest collection was by J. Merlin. ConcUia oeneralia, Paris, 1523, 1530. 1536. fol- lowed by that of P. Grabbe, ConeUia omnia tarn generalia quam parHcularia, 2 vols., Cologne, 1538. Partial col- lections and translations are: H. T. Bruns. Canone$ aj)09- iolorum ef eoneUiorum, Berlin, 1839; W. Lambert, Church Canont; ths firat four CounciU, London, 1871; J. Chrys- tal, AuthorUaUve ChrisHanUy; fte Dociaiona of tha nx 9oU ecumenical CouncilBt vols. i.-iii., Jersey City, 1891- 1904; J. Fulton, Index eanonum; Greek text, Eng. tranai., and complete Digeet of the . . . Canon Law of the undi- vided primitive Church, New York, 1892. A translation of the canons and decrees of the seven ecumenical councils is in NPNF, 2d ser., vol. xiv. The Acts of the Catholic synods since 1682 are in the Acta et decreta eandorum condUorum reoentiorum, 7 vols., Freiburg, 1870 sqq. Collections for individual lands are: J. F. Bchannat and J. Hartsheim, Concilia (Tsrmania, 11 vols., Cologne, 1749- 1790; MOH, ConcUia, vols. i.-u. 1. 1893-1906; J. Sir- mond. ConcUia antiqua OaUiiB, 8 vols., Paris, 1629; Con- eUiorum OaUioB coUectio, Paris, 1789; D. Wilkins, Conn eUia Maona Briiannia et Hibernim, 4 vols., London, 1737; E Gibson, Synodue AngUcana, fb, 1854; J. W. Joyce, England'e Sacred Synode, ib. 1855; Haddan and Stubbs, CouncUe; J. Robertson, ConeUia ScoHa, Edinburgh, 1866; Synodicon Betgicwn, ed. J. F. van de Velde and P. F. X. de Ram. 4 vols., Mechhn, 1828-59; H. Reuterdahl, Staiuta eynodalia veterie eedeeia SveogoOiica, Lund, 1841; J. 8. de Aguirre and J. Catalano, CoUeetio maxima conr- eUiorum omnium Hiepania, Rome, 1753; C. Peterfy, Con- eUia ecdeeia Romana CathoUca in regno Hungarim, 2 vols., Posen, 1741-42; J. Aymon, Toue lee eynodee naiionaux dee ^lieee rifarmiee de France, 2 vols., The Hague. 1710; £. Hugues, Lee Synodee du dieert, 8 vols.. Pans, 1885. Discussions on the subject are: F. Salmon, TraUS de I'Hude dee concUee et de leure coUecHone, Paris, 1724 and often; A. J. Binterim, OeechidUe der deutedien . . . Con- cUien, 7 vols.. Mains, 1835-48; W. A. Hammcmd. The Deftnitiane of Faith and Canone of Dieeipline of the Six (Ecumenical CouncUe, Oxford, 1843; L. Richta-. Gc- echichte der evangeliechen Kirthenverfaaeung in Deutoeh- land, Leipsic 1851; G. Lechler. QeediichU der Prethit terial- und Synodalverfaeeung eeU der ReformaHon, Ley- den. 1854; J. F. von Schulte. Die Stdlung der CondUen, P&pete und BiechOfe vom hieUnieehen und eanonieeken Standpunkte, Prague, 1871; E. Michaud, Diacumeion eur lee eept concUee teeuminiquee, Bern, 1878; E. B. Puaey, The CouncUe of the Churdi from . . . 51 to . . . S81, Oxford, 1878; E. Hatch, The Growth of Church In*tii»- tione, London. 1887; idem. The Organization of the Early Chrietian Churdtee, ib. 1895; H. Finke. Konxilionehtdieu tur GeediidUe dee IS. Jahrhunderte, Munster, 1891; W. Bright, Notee on the Canone of the Firet Four General CouncUe, London, 1892; E. H. Landon, Manual of the CouncUe of the Holy Caiholie Churd^ 2 vols., ib. 1893; W. P. Du Bose, The Ecumcmcal CouncUe, New York, 1896; P. Gudrin, Lee ConcUee giniraux et parHculiere, 3 vols., Paris, 1897; P. de Felice, Lee Pro- teetante d'auirefoie, 5 vols., Peris, 1897-1902; K. von Schwarts. Die Enietehung der Synoden, Leipoic 1896; H. von Ho£Fmann, Dae KirthenverfaeeungeredU der nieder- Htndiedien Reformierten, ib. 1902; G. B. Howard, Storie* of the Firet Four CouncUe, London, 1906. The subject is treated in all the principal treatises on church his- tory; the literature on the individual councils and synods will be found under the articles dealing with them. A valuable guide may be found in Ceillier, Auieure eaerea, index volume under " Condles," giving directions to a rich literature. Consult also DC A, i, 473-485; KL, iiL 779-810.

COUNTERREFORMATION: The general name for the complex of causes and results which from the middle of the sixteenth century checked the progress of the Protestant Reformation and won back to the Roman Catholic Church much of the territory and the prestige which had been appar- ently lost to it; in a narrower sense, the reform and revival in the Roman Church which was one of these causes. See Reformation; Roman Catho- lic Church; Italy, the Reformation in; Spain, THE Reformation m; also the articles upon the events, leaders, and agencies of the Counterrefor- mation which are mentioned in these articles, as well as the articles devoted to the Counterreforma- tion in certain lands and localities, viz.: Albert V. of Bavaria (for Bavaria); Balthazar of Dernbach (Fulda); Cysat, Ren ward (Switzer- land); Daniel, Elector of Mainz (the Eichs- feld); Ferdinand II. (Austria); Gerhard II., Elector of Cologne (the Lower Rhine); Inner Austria; Jacob Christopher, Bishop of Basel (Switzerland); Jacob of Eltz (Archbishopric of Treves); Julius Echter (WUrzburg). COURAYER, ca''ra''y6', PIERRE FRANCOIS L£: Roman Catholic; b. at Rouen Nov. 17,^1681; d. in London Oct. 17, 1776. He became canon of St. Genevieve in Paris 1697, presbyter and professor of theology 1706, librarian of the abbey 1711. He was interested in the reunion of the Anglican with the Roman Catholic Church, and defended the validity of Anglican orders in a series of books which were fiercely attacked by Gervaise, Bar- douin, Le Quien, and others, and were formally condemned by the French bishops. Encouraged and helped by Bishop Francis Atterbiuy, he went to England in 1728, where he spent the rest of his life. He was excommunicated in 1728; neverthe- less he always professed to be a true Roman Cath- olic, although he rejected certain of the alleged 285 Councils and Synods Court superstitions of the Church. His works were Dis- sertation gur la validiU des ordinations des Anglois et star la swxessum des Piques de Viglise anglicane (Brussels, 1723; Eng. transL, by D. Williams, Lon- don, 1725 and 1728; revised and corrected, with an account of the author and his works, notes, etc., Oxford, 1844); Defense de la dissertation sur la validity des ordinations des Anglois (2 vols., Brus- sels, 1726; Eng. transL, 1728); Relation historique et apologHiqtie des sentiments et de la conduite du P, Le Courayer (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1729); Swp- pUment attx deux ouvrages fails pour la defense de la validity des ordinations anglieanes (Amsterdam, 1732); Examen des cUfauts thSologiques oiL Von in- dique Us moyens de les reformer (1744); Didaror lions de mes demiers sentiments sur les diffirens dogmes de la religion (London, 1787; Eng. transl., 1787). COURCELLES, car^'sd' (CurcelloBus), ETIENITE DE: Arminian; b. at Geneva May 2, 1586; d. in Amsterdam May 22, 1659. He studiied theology under Calvin and Beza, and in Heidelberg, and was appointed pastor at Bois-le-Roi, near Fontaine- bleau, in 1614. In 1621 he became pastor at Amiens; but, having refused to subscribe the de- crees of the Syuod of Dort, he was deposed. He afterward gave a qualified assent, and was ap- pointed pastor at Vitry, but gave up this position in 1634, went to Amsterdam, and became (1637) Episcopius' successor as professor of theology in the Remonstrants' College. He studied particu- larly the Greek text of the New Testament, and published an edition of it with many variant read- ings (Amsterdam, 1658). He published also a Vindicia Arminii (1646); Defensio Blondelli (1657); Dissertationes (1659); all of which, with others of his writings, appeared in a collected edition of his works at Amsterdam, 1675. COURT, cilr, AITTOINE: 1. Reorganizer of the Reformed Church in France; b. at Villeneuve de Berg (50 m. n. of Nimes) Mar. 17, 1696; d. at Lausanne June 12, 1760. He determined at an sarly age to become a Protestant minister, and wandered throughout Vivarais with an itinerant preacher, delivering sermons and becoming still more firmly convinced of his calling. In 1714-15, defying the rigid laws promulgated against Prot- estantism by Louis XIV., he undertook his first tour, which comprised C^vennes, Languedoc, and Dauphin^. On Mar. 8, 1716, an edict of the king declared Protestantism non-existent in France, but on Aug. 21 of the same year Court Labon in convened the " first synod " in an Organizing abandoned quarry at Monoblet (De- Church of partment of Gud). There certain Desert, plans of organization were dra^ :i up, elders were chosen, the Bible was de- clared to be the only rule of faith and doctrine, women were forbidden to preach, and an earnest warning was made against " revelations." The rraolutions were disseminated in writing, and the work of propaganda was actively carried on, while Court, who held a second synod in the following year, was unceasing in his sermons and efforts to obtain religious books forbidden by the author- ities. On Nov. 21, 1718, he was ordained minis^ ter by the laying on of hands by Pierre Carri^re (commonly known under the name of Corteis), and now made provision for the training of young preachers, although the administration of the sacrament and the laying on of hands were re- stricted to the ordained ministers. The organisa- tion thus effected was termed " the Church of the Desert " (with reference to Rev. xiL 6), and was characterized by vigorous opposition to Roman Catholicism. The hostility manifested by Louis XIV. to the Reformed worship was continued by the regency after his death, and its observance was sternly punished. In 1719 it was rumored that the Span- ish minister Alberoni intended to call the Protes- tants of Languedoc and Poitou to arms, and the regency, in its fear of a second Camisard revolt, entered into correspondence with Court Successful as well as with B4n6dict Pictet and Leadership. Benjamin Basnage, urging them to ad- monish their coreligionists of their obe- dience. Basnage responded, but denied that the Protestants had the right to hold services publicly. He was answered by Court in his R&ponse des pas- teurs du disert d Vinstruction pastorale de Basnage, but the latter's hope of securing greater leniency for the Protestants was disappointed. In 1720 he visited Geneva, where he sought to win the leaders of Swiss Protestantism to his side, and at the same time entered into correspondence with William Wake, archbishop of Canterbury. Returning in Aug., 1722, he found his church in a flourishing condition, but a decree of May 14, 1724, renewed all the restrictions placed upon Protestantism. The Reformed, however, persisted in their course, and on May 16, 1726, a general synod was held in a small valley of Vivarais. The organization pre- vailing in Languedoc was adopted, synods were required at regular intervals, and definite parishes were assigned the clergy. A docmnent of the latter half of 1728 gives the number of Reformed in Languedoc and Dauphin^ at 200,0(X) (which is probably too high). Languedoc, together with Rouergue and Vivarais, contained 120 parishes, three synods, sixteen conferences, four ministers, and eighteen candidates, and this organization was maintained in the face of the utmost difficulty and danger. Until 1729 Court shared this life of toil, acting not only as pastor but as leader of the en- tire movement, in addition to maintaining an enor- mous correspondence, instructing candidates for the ministry, convening synods, preparing memo- rials for the king, and collecting docimients for a history of his churcL In September of that year he resolved to leave France, and accordingly went to Lausanne, where for three years French stu- dents had been trained for the ministry in their native coimtry. Under his supervision, although he occupied no fixed position in it, the seminary steadily increased in numbers and efficiency. Meanwhile a schism arose which divided the church of Languedoc into two camps, and on June 2, 1744, Court left Geneva and hastened to France. There he quickly restored harmony and was chosen general deputy in place of Duplan by the national Court OoTsnant 286 synod of June 18, 1744. On Oct. 2 he returned to Lausanne. In that year the Reformed Church contained thirty-three pastors; Normandy had seventeen parishes, Poitou thirty, and Dauphin^ sixty; and in Nimes there were 20,000 believers. In 1756 the number of clergy was forty-eight, in addition to eighteen candidates and fifteen stu- dents; and in 1763 there were sixty-two ministers, thirty-five candidates, and fifteen students. De- spite executions, imprisonments, fines, dragonades, and the reenforcement of all the old restrictions, it became evident that such measures could not overthrow the church, and a period of tacit tol- eration prevailed from 1754 to 1760. The final years of Court's life were passed in quiet retire- ment, far from this scene of struggle. Though he was a prolific writer, the library of Geneva con- taining 116 volimies of his manuscripts, his only published work of value was his Histoire des trovr Ues dea Civenne8f ou de la guerre des Camiaards (ViUefranche, 1760). 2. Antoine Court de Gebelin, the only son of the preoBding, wu bom at Ntmes Jan. 25, 1725, and died at Paris May 10, 1784. After completing his education at Lausanne and Geneva, he was 0]> dained in the former city (1754), but never held a regular charge. He acted as secretary and as- sistant to his father, and on the death of the latter became his informal successor. His life was de- voted partly to the duties of his office and partly to scientific studies. The Calas affair in 1762, which created great excitement among the Prot- estants of France (see Rabaut, Paul), inspired Court to publish his Les Touiouaainea, ou lettrea histariquea et apolog^Hquea en faveur de la religion Tiformie (Edinburgh, 1763), but Voltaire, who had been a leader in the agitation, disapproved of the work, and Court in anger left Lausanne. After a tour of southern France, he settled in Paris, where . he soon gained great popularity and in 1765 was appointed general deputy by the Protestants. About 1780 he was made royal censor, and availed himself of his double position to ameliorate the miseries of the Protestants. His fame as a scholar was established in 1773 by the first volume of his Le Monde primitif analyai et compart avec le monde modeme (9 vols., Paris, 1773-84), a learned but capricious attempt to discover the original lan- guage and alphabet, and to give an allegorical in- terpretation of mythology, as well as of Greek and French etymologies, and the like. He also wrote Lettre eur le magniiiame animal (1784) and the pos- thimious Devovra du 'prince et du citoyen (1789), and collaborated on the Affairea d'Angleterre et de VAmMque, a magazine edited by Benjamin Frank- Un and others (Antwerp, 1776 sqq.). (Theodob ScHont.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. Hucoet, Anion Court, Hi^oire de la ntlawraUon du vroto&tanHomo on Pranee ou xviiio. oiieU, 2 vols., Paris, 1872 (the ehief work); idem, MSmoirea d'Antoine Court, Toulouae, 1886 (autobiography); A. Coquerel, Hioloiro doo HHitoo du dSaert, 2 yob., Paris, 1841 (still of value); P. Rabaut, Let Uttrea h A. Court, ed. A. Picherol-Dardier and C. Dardier, ib. 1886; ib. Le» Uttrea h divert, ed. C. Dardier, ib. 1891; T. Bohott, Die Kirche der WiUU, HaUe. 1803; H. M. Baird, Tho HuguonoU and the RovooaHon of the Edict of NantoB, vol. ii.. New York. 1895 (from tb« newett aouroes); E. Oombe, Anton Court et sea aermone, Lausanne, 1896. The BvUeHn de la aoeUU dt Vhidokre du proteetantiame fran^ia contains many notices of Oourt and his times. Concerning Corteis consult J. G. Baum, Minurirea de Pierre CarrUre dU Corteia, Strasburg, 1871. On Roger. D. Benoit, Un martur du dSaert, Jaequea Roger, Toulouae. 1896. On Oourt de Gebelin consult C. Dardier, Court de Oebelin, Ntmes, 1896 (an acute study). COUSIN, cQ"zah', VICTOR: Phfloeophcr; b. in Paris Nov. 28, 1792; d. at Cannes Jan. 14, 1867. He studied at the £cole Nonnale in Paris, and be- gan to lecture on philosophy there and at the Sor- bonne 1815. In 1821 he was removed for political reasons, and during the next seven years gave him- self to study, and produced the first volume of his Fragmena phUoaophiqtiea (1826), his editions of Proclus (6 vols., 1820-27; 2d ed., 1864) and Des- cartes (U vols., 1824-26), and began his transla- tion of Plato (13 vols., 1822-40). In 1828 he was reinstated and for three years lectured to large audiences. After the Revolution of 1830 he be- came councilor of state, peer of France, director of the £cole Normale, member of the Academy, member of the council of public instruction, and minister of public instruction in the cabinet of Thiers in 1840. He was the real head of the uni- versity, and for nearly twenty years dominated the teaching of philosophy in France; he also reor- ganized the French primary school system. The downfall of Louis PUlippe in 1848 made an end of his political career, and the remainder of his life was spent in quiet, devoted to study and the col- lection of a remarkable library, wbdch he left at his death to the professors of the university. Cousin's direct influence on Christian theology was not great, but indirectly his activity was of consequence. He changed the character of French philosophy, and led its students from the materi- alism of the eighteenth century to the idealism of the Scotch school. Furthermore, he made an end of the dogmatic method of the French and Scotch philosophy and introduced the dialectic method of German philosophy. He was an eclectic and did not produce a complete system, but his eclecti- eism was not a mere mosaic. The vigorous under- standing and vivid representation of the various philosophical systems which he gives are every- where permeated by a spirit of idealism, which, in the latter part of tJs life, drew him and his pupils nearer and nearer to Christianity. His literary activity was great. His writings on philosophy appeared in many editions with ex* tensive changes; the following works and editions are named as important for the study of his sys- tem: Fragmena phUoaophiquea (4 vols., 1847-48); Uhiatoire gHUrale de la phihaopkie (1861); Du vrai, du beau et du hien (1867); Coura de Vhistoin de la phUoaophie modeme (8 vols., 1866). He ed- ited the works of Abelard (Quvragea inidita ^AU- lard, 1836; Petri Abelardi opera, 2 vols., 184^ 1859). In the latter period of his life he published several studies of the lives of women of the seven- teenth century and their time (Jacqueline Pascal, 1844; Mme. de Longueville, 1853; Mme. de Haute- fort, 1866; La SocUU fran^iae au xviL aikie,2 vols., 1858; and others), which have much h»- torical and literary value. Certain writmgB cod- 287 Court Govenant oeming education, as a report upon the schools of Gennany (1833) and Holland (1837), are also worthy of mention. These reports and some of his essays have been translated into English; also The Philosophy of the Beautiftd by J. C. Daniel (Lon- don, 1848); and Course oj the History of Modem Philosophy (2 vols.) and Lectures on the True, the Beautiful, and the Good by O. W. Wight (Edin- burgh, 1852 and 1854). Bibliography: Sir William Hamilton (" the aoutest eritio of Cousin's philosophy "), Diaaunona on Phitoaophy^ LUeratun, EdueaHon, and Univeraity Rafcrm^ London, 1852 (the first articlb is a review of Cousin); P. Janet, Victor Couain et aon ctuvre, Paris, 1885; J. Simon, Victor Couain, ib. 1887. Eng. transl.. London, 1887; J. B. St. Hi- laire. Victor Couain, 3 vols., Paris, 1805. COUSSIRAT, cas"st''ra', DANIEL: Canadian Presbyterian; b. at N^rac (66 m. s.e. of Bordeaux), France, Mar. 6, 1841; d. at Montreal Jan. 8, 1907. He was graduated at Toulouse in 1859, and. at the theologi^ seminary at Montauban 1864; was stated supply to the Reformed Church at Bellocq (Basses-F^^n^es) 1864; pastor of the French Evangelical C)hurch at Philadelphia, Pa., 1864-66; professor of divinity in Montreal, Canada, 1867-75; pastor of a Reformed church at Orthez (Basses- Pyr^n^es) 1875-80. After 1880 he was French pro- fessor of divinity in the Presbyterian College in Montreal, and professor of Semitic languages and literatures in McGill University after 1882. In 1885 he founded the Soci^t^ musicale et litt^raire de Montrtol, and was an officier do I'instruction publique. Theologically his position was evangel- ical, and he felt no fear of either higher or lower criticism. He was one of the revisers of the French translation of the Old Testament under the aus- pices of the Sociitd Biblique de France (Paris, 1881). COVENANT. Original Meaning of the Terms (( 1)> Historic Development of the Meaning (| 2). Covenant Ceremonies and Symbols (| 3). Religion as a Covenant (| 4). Provisions and Sanctions (ft 5). Prophetic Development of the Conception (| 6). Later Phases of the Conception ($7). Covenant in the New Testament ($ 8). The term " covenant " (Hebr. bhith, cf. Assyrian- Babylonian birit, " bond, fetter," probably intro- duced into Canaan during the long Babylonian occupation of the " Westland "; Gk. diaihekS, " will, testament **) is one of the most significant in the whole range of Biblical literature as well as in busi- ness, social, political, and religious re- 1. Original lations. From the primary signifi- Meaningof cations given above all the historical the Terms, applications of the word are readily drawn. Not all, indeed not most of these, are implied in the English " covenant," which generally applies to a contract between two parties acting freely, while both the Hebrew and the Greek words may be used of anything binding upon the two parties to any transaction, whether the terms •are accepted voluntarily or imposed by one of the parties or by another. The use of the Greek dia- theki in the sense of " covenant " in the Septiiagint and New Testament is due to the usage of bMth, as indicated above, including the disposals of the divine covenants (cf. the word '' will " as suggest- ing the essential character of a testament from the standpoint of the testator). In classical Greek the word is very rarely employed in the sense of a con- tract or agreement. The historical development of the Hebrew word which determined the usage of the Greek must be the chief guide in determining what 2. Historic the Bible means by ** covenant." Develop- Originally the b^rtth was an agreement ment of the between two clans or tribes represented Meaning, by their leaders, and also between in- dividuals for themselves. Such were the terms of peace between Isaac and Abimelech, (Gen. xxvi. 28 sqq.) or between Laban and Jacob (Gen. zxxi. 44) which also bound their respective families and dependents. Such also was the trans- action, really a primitive tribal affair, between She- chem and the sons of Jacob (Gen. xxxiv.), where, however, the word for covenant is not directly used. The main object of such early agreements was the promotion of peace and safety, since the natural condition of primitive man was that of warfare. Hence the significance of the phrase " covenant of peace " (Num. xxv. 12; Isa. liv. 10) for which the word " peace " alone may be used (Jer. xvi. 5), accordingly those who were not at war with one another were supposed to be imder a covenant of peace; hence breaking a covenant is equivalent to making war (I Kings xv. 19; A. V., *' league "). So one could be in covenant with the beasts and with the stones of the field (Job v. 23, A. V., "league" that is, with the superhuman powers resident therein (cf. Hos. ii. 18). Ck)venants were made for mutual support or protection (e.g., II Sam. iii. 12-13), or for the fulfilment of common obligations to a third party (II Kings xi. 17); even submission to a su- perior enemy might be called making a covenant (I Sam. xi. 1), in which case also both parties were of course obligated (I Kings xx. 34). And, gener- ally speaking, duties, obligations, or services required of his subjects or servants by a sovereign, suzerain, or feudal ford might be the subject of a covenant because they were imposed by the superior under certain conditions. This is the key to the prevailing use of the word " covenant " in the Bible, which was natiuiilly religious, as setting forth the relations between God and his people. There were many kinds of covenant among an- cient peoples, as well as various modes of ratifying them. And, just as ail covenants have the one essential condition or object of a mutual under- standing and obligation, so, as seems probable, all ceremonies confirming the agreements are based upon one fundamental notion, that of 3* Covenant a community of feeling or sentiment Ceremonies between the parties. This naturally and implied among primitive men the con- Symbols, ception of a community of life — ^the participants were for the time being members of the same community of clan or " life." Most prominent therefore among such ceremonies was the well-known ceremony of the blood-covenant (see Comparative Religion, VI., 1, b, § 6). As a substitute for the mixing of the blood came the natural and universal usage of animal sacrifice, Covenant Covenantars 288 which was always a most solemn method of ratifying a covenant; note how its sacredness is implied in Ps. 1. 5. An elaborate symbolism in the develop- ment of this rite is shown in the custom of cutting the animal in pieces, between which, when laid out, the parties solemnly passed (Gen. xv.; cf. Jer. zxxiv. 18, 19). This ceremony is supposed by many to explain the word hlhrith as being something " cut,'' but its obvious secondary character makes the hypothesis improbable. In another main direction the primary notion of sharing a common feeling or life is symbolized by the partaking of common food — ^the most convenient and frequent of all forms of covenant-making, from the " covenant of salt " to a solemn sacramental meal (see Comparative Rs>- LiGiON, VI., 1, d, § 1). Both of these comprehen- sive types are also present in the covenant made between God and man, since in every sacrifice the blood or life of the victim was presented to God, as also at every meal a portion of the animal or vege- table partaken of was also dedicated to him. Both forms are exemplified in their deepest significance in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. " Religion " means literally the bond that unites man to God, and this is precisely the Biblical con- ception of religion which is constantly represented as the observance of a covenapt with Yahweh. The dedication of the nation to the 4. Religion service of God at Sinai is figured thus: as a '' that thou shouldst enter into the Covenant covenant of Yahweh thy God, and into his oath which Yahweh thy God makethwith thee this day " (Deut. xxix. 12; cf. Jer. ii. 2, 6, xxxi. 31). To be estranged from God and his service is to " forsake " or " foiget " or " break " or " profane " or " transgress " the covenant (Gen. xvii. 14; Deut. iv. 23, 31, xxix. 25, xxxi. 20; Mai. ii. 10; Hos. viii. 1). Similar is the conception of God's own fidelity to the covenant which he has imposed (Judges ii. 1; Deut. xxxi. 16; Ps. Ixxxix. 34; cf. Jer. xxxiii. 20-21). Fulfilling the duties of practical life as well as the obligation of worship is called *' keeping the covenant " (Ps. ciii. 18; Isa. Ivi. 4). The provisions and sanctions of the covenant are contained or smnmarized in the ** laws " which were at various times promulgated in Israel. This was necessarily so for two reasons. On the one hand, a covenant is not merely a theoretical conception, but is concretely an actual 5. Pro- engagement made upon explicit con- visionaand ditions; and these conditions as dio- Sanctiona. tated by Yahweh were the obligations or rules of his service, which answer to the abstract term " covenant " as the concrete commandments or statutes answer to the abstract torah or " Law." On the other hand, conversely, " the covenant was the only form in which a law could be fashioned and sanctioned in Israel " (Smend). Hence the earliest legislation (Ex, xxi.- xxiii.) is called " the book of the covenant " (Ex. xxiv. 7) and the ten commandments of Ex. xxxiv. are called ** the words of the covenant, the ten words " (Ex. xxxiv. 28). It is not certain that this codification and its comments were completed be- fore the reign of llanasseh; but the idea had long been familiar, and in the Jehovistic and Elohistic writings of the ninth and eighth centuries b.c. a covenant between God and the fathers (Gen. xv. 18; cf. xxiv. 7, from J) is so taken for granted that its extension to Moses and Israel in the law of Sinai is the natural sequel. It is through the Deuteronomistic writers that this conception of the covenant by law and precept has obtained widest currency. Although the word itself occurs only once (xvii. 2) in the legislation proper of Deuteronomy (chaps. xii.-xxvi.), it is found more often in the book as a whole than in any other of the Old Testament writings. Next in frequency of use are the prophecy of 6. Prophetic Jeremiah, whom one might venture to Develop- call a mediator of the Old Covenant, ment of the and in the Psalms, where its hold on Conception, the thought and life of the later Israel receives practical illustration. In Deuteronomy not only are the *' ten words " called " covenant," but they are said to have been written on two tablets of stone and placed in an ark (v. 2, ix. 9 sqq., x. 1 sqq.; cf. Ex. xxxii. 15-16, xxxiv. 1, probably influenced by D). Thus the covenant was incorporated into the religious life of Israel as centered in the Temple. It is in Jeremiah and his pupil Ezekiel that the prophetic conception of bhith attains its consmnmation. It is still a matter of dispute whether Jeremiah was the author of the great prophecy cL xxxi. 31-34. But all will admit that it is written in his spirit and that " the new heart " is a mere adaptation of his preaching (cf. xiii. 23, xvii. 9-10) about the essential moral bent of the human soul. In his most profound words exists in any case the germ of the " new covenant." Ezekiel, who is less set on the fundamental impor- tance of righteousness or morahty, develops on the other hand the idea of the covenant as a union be- tween Yahweh and his people on the metaphorical basis of the marriage relation. Thus he completes and reenforoes Hosea's germinal conception of the marriage-bond as a symbol of the love and fidelity which Israel owed to Yahweh as contrasted with the Baals, which the earlier prophet had not asso- ciated with the national covenant between Yahweh and Israel. By the second Isaiah the covenant was projected from the sphere of preaching into the realm of prediction (e.g., Isa. xlii. 6, xlix. 8, Iv. 4). In the course of the prophetic history the primary con- ception of the covenant as a body of precepts had gradually given way to its interpretation as a living bond of union between Yahweh and 7. Later his people and a guaranty of his faith- Phases of fulness to his guardian trust. Henoe the Con- the restoration of the kingdom founded caption, by David comes to be an animating principle of religious patriotism in the closing years of the exile and the inspiration of the builders of Jerusalem during the many weary 3^ear9 that followed the return under Gyrus, the Messiah of Yahweh (cf. Hagg. ii. 5). Next to the practical reflections of the Psalms the latest writings on the covenant are those of the priestly narratives, which describe in detail the earliest covenants: that with Noah (Gen. ix. 9-17; cf. Isa. liv. 9) replaced by 289 Oovenant Govenanters that with Abraham (Gen. xvii.) as preceding and preparing for the rise and progress of Israel as the people of Yahweh. In still later times this cove- nant with the fathers was most frequently in the minds of fiiblical writers as the foundation-stone of the whole structure of Israel's religious history, at- tested as it was by the mark and sign of circumci- sion. Soy for example, in the Psalms (e.g., cv. 6 sqq.; I Chr. xvi. 16 sqq.; Neh. ix. 8). The New Testament writers in their few allusions to the ancient covenants refer in the same way to that made with Abraham. So Paul in Gal. iii. makes this fundamental and practically exclusive, the Law of Sinai, and still more the 8. Covenant mediatorial work of Christ, being its in the Ne^ realization and fulfilment. In the Testament, realm of his practical theology the most fruitful idea was that which saw in the propagation of the Gospel the ratification of the promise that in Abraham ail the nations of the earth should be blessed. The Epistle to the He- brews, a priestly work, while it uses the promise to .\braham incidentally as an illustration of God's covenant-faithfulness (vi. 13 sqq.), places in the foreground the shadowy figure of Melchizedek as a type of him who by his sacrifice '* became the surety of a better covenant " (vii. 1-22). The author uses the word also in the later classical sense of " testa- ment " (see § 1), combining the two meanings in the statement that Christ is '^ the mediator of a new covenant " according to the conditions of whose ' testament," made operative only by the death of the *' testator," an " external inheritance " is made sure to the beneficiaries along with ** redemption for the transgressions that were under the old covenant " (ix. 15, 16; compare Acts iii. 25, vii. 8; Eph.ii. 12). J. F. McCURDY. Bibliography: Excellent discussions are to be found in DB, i. 50&-615; BB, i. 928-^7; DCO, i. 373-380. Consult further: H. Guthe, De foederis notione Jeremiana^ Leipsic, 1877; Valeton, in ZATW, xu (1892), 1-22, 224-260, xiii (1893). 245-279; R. Kraetssohxnar. Die Bundeavar- »teUuno im A. 7., Marburg, 1896; W. M. Ramsay, in Expontor, Nov.. 1898, pp. 321-336; Smith, Rel. of 5«m., pp. 269 sqq., 312 sqq.. 479 sqq.; idem. Kinship, pp. 46 Bqq.; and such works on the theology of the Old and the New Testament as H. Schulti, O. T. Theolooy, ii. 1 sqq., Edinburgh, 1892; and W. Beyschlag, N. T. Theology, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1896. For the modem idea consult: C. Burrage. The Church Covenant Idea; Ua Origin and Development, Philadelphia, 1907. COVENANTERS. Early Agreements to 1572 (§1). The King's Confession and Other Agreements to 1696 (i 2). The NaUonal Goyenant of 1638 (ft 3). The Solenm League and Covenant, 1643 (f 4). Divisions Among the Covenanters (| 6). Persecution Under Charles II. and James II. (| 6). The Later " Covenanters " (ft 7). The name " Covenanters " was given to Scotch Presbyterians, or a portion of them, in the six- teenth century, because of the solenm agreements by which they bound themselves; since I. Early then it has been applied to a| small Agreements party in Scotland who have held to to 1572. similar views. In the confusion of the Reformation time in Scotland, when the central authority, with little power of its own, was liable to fall under the control of temporary III.— 19 groups of the turbulent gentry or to be swayed by ecclesiastical dignitaries, anxious for their secular interests, the legal position of innova- tors and agitators was never clear. The Protes- tant parties therefore sought sanction and secur- ity in the various steps they took by entering into formal "covenants," which had a double charac- ter, religious and political. There is a suggestion of a " band " at a meeting of Forfarshire gentle- men in 1556; the first, however, of which there are definite details — ^an ancient copy is in the National Museum of Antiquities in Edinburgh — "the com- mon band " (Knox) was drawn up in 1557 on the renewal of the Reformers' invitation to John Knox (q.v.) to return to Scotland. Three others in 1559 marked as many crises in the struggle with the queen regent, and a fourth signed in 1560 by the leading nobility was the prelude to the expulsion of the French and the triumph of the Reformation ratified in the Parliament of that year. In alarm at Mary's policy, Knox and the Ayrshire gentry signed a covenant in 1562. St. Bartholomew's massacre suggested the idea of another in 1572, but possibly this was not carried out. More important than these early bands di- rected to special emeigencies was the lengthy cove- nant of 1580 called the King's Confession, the Second Confession of Faith, or the a. The Negative Confession. It was drawn King's Con- up by John Craig (q.v.) and subscribed fession and by all classes from the boy king James Other VI. downward. The original is now Agreements in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh. to 1596. It is a strongly Protestant manifesto in which the declaration of allegiance to the crown is carefully interwoven with the dec- laration of the duty of the crown to maintain the constitution of the Reformed Kirk and the Prot- estant settlement embodied in previous acts of Parliament. It was signed again in 1587. Once more the party of the Ruthven raid in 1582 had made a '* band." The Spanish Armada inspu^d a national " band " in 1588. Another was signed in 1589. In 1590 the King's Confession and the band of 1588 were printed and circulated, multi- tudes subscribing throughout Scotland. The year 1592 saw another " band " in Aberdeen against suspected treason. In 1596 a more durectly relig- ious movement was initiated by the assembly and spread downward through presbyteries to parishes. There were, if not formal signatures, at least meet- ings for humiliation and confession at which vows of steadfastness were renewed. Court diplomacy directed to the reintroduction of episcopacy was now busy; but James' success did not much affect the local groundwork of Pres- byterian practise, and Charles I. and Laud found, when they were free to turn attention 3. The to Scotland, that conformity with Eng- National lish episcopacy was far from being a Covenant reality. The new service-book was of 1638. sent down to Edinbui^gh; Dean Han- ney tried to read it in St. Giles' Ca- thedral and, according to tradition, Jenny Geddes (q.v.) threw her stool at him on July 23, 1637. The covenanting instinct of a previous generation Oovenanters Oowan 290 came into play, and 1638 saw the enthusiastic and almost universal subscription to the National Cove- nant inaugurated in the Greyfriars' churchyard. This covenant consisted of the King's Confession of 1580 followed by a lengthy legal remonstrance and statement by Johnston, of Warriston, and a popular religious conclusion by Henderson, of Leu- chars (see Henderson, Alexander). As before, loyalty to king and religion were carefully inter- wound, '' the true worship of God and the king's authority being so straitly joined as that they . . . did stand and fall together." The organized Pres- byterians are at this time referred to in royal cor- respondence as "Covenanters." During two years Charles's attempts to use unwilling English forces against the Scots were thwarted by the skill of Alexander Leslie, a great ex-genersJ of Gustavus Adolphus. Leslie avoided any vigorous invasion which would rouse English sentiment, and the peace (164 1 ) saw the Scotch army established quietly in Northumberland and Durham and subsidized by the Long Parliament. In 1643, in their darkest hour, the Long Parlia- ment sought a definite alliance with the Scots. The latter suggested a religious covenant instead of the civil league favored by English 4. The Independents, and the Solemn League Solemn and Covenant was drawn up in Ekiin- League and burgh by Henderson, there approved. Covenant, and sent up to be adopted at West- 1643. minster by the Assembly, Lords, and Commons, the majority of the Eng- lish Parliament being disposed to make trial of Presbyterianism as the only visible alternative to episcopacy. This league, which was signed throughout the length and breadth of Britain, pledged subscribers to the maintenance of the Re- formed Church of Scotland and the Reformation in England and Ireland, to the extirpation of popery and prelacy, to a common endeavor after uniform- ity of discipline and doctrine according to the Word of God and the example of the best Reformed churches, and to loyalty to Parliament and crown. It was renewed in Scotland in 1648 and signed with the National Covenant by Charles II. in 1650 and 1651. But rigid Presbyterianism made itself impracti- cable in England, and the execution of Churles I. completed the alienation of the Scots. A party in Scotland signed an " engagement " with Charles with a view to his liberation, and Hamilton led an army to defeat by Cromwell at Preston in 1647. The " non-Engagers " headed by Ar- 5. Divisions gyll, who had protested against this Among treachery to the English Parliament, the Cove- now came into power, and while tum- nanten. ing against Cromwell by proclaiming Charles II., whom they kept nevei^ theless in strict tutelage, they passed the Act of Classes excluding " malignants," or " engagers/' from all offices aiid from the army. Cromwell's victorious march from Dunbar made it seem ex- pedient to a short-sighted majority to pass " reso- lutions " rescinding this Act, for every soldier was wanted. The stricter party protested. A re- monstrance was signed in the West. The increased army availed nothing against Cromwell, who forced upon Scotland a period of profound peace and prosperity, reproaching Presbyterians with then- divisions and hostility to himself and favoring the more Evangelical and zealous party of the Protest- ers. In these days true religion made great ad- vances, but the strife of " Resolutioners and Pro- testers " continued to divide the Covenanters into bitterly opposed factions. This schism and the fact that the Resolutioners had admitted many half-hearted into place and power account for the strange facility with which Charies II. at the Res- toration in 1660 was able to impose his agents on the Scotch kirk and nation. The Resolutioners were betrayed at the outset by their chosen agent, James Sharp (q.v.), who got himself made archbishop of St. Andrews. The Court of High Commission was set up and, without effective protest, episcopacy and the machinery for enforcing it. The Solemn League and 6. Persecu- Covenant was burned in London and tion Under Linlithgow. A packed Scotch Parlia- Charles U. ment rescinded all the Acts of the and preceding twenty years. One new James U. Act commanded abjuration of the Covenant. Another voided all min- isterial appointments since 1649, ordering such ministers now to request presentation from the patron and the bishop. Four hundred, chiefly in the West and South, heroically chose ejectment. The country awoke at the spectacle. Few waited on the ministrations of the new curates. Rolls of parishioners were therefore made up and soldiers sent to enforce attendance by fines. The people flocked with increasing numbers and enthusiasm to conventicles in bams or on the moors. Three successive " indulgences " to " outed " ministers being accepted by a few in spite of the compromise involved fulfilled in slight degree their aim of sow- ing dissension. At the same time measures against the faithful became ever harsher, and Aigyll and Guthrie had been executed in 1661. Men like Graham, of Claverhouse, and Lauderdale earned immortal infamy. A long roll'^all of martyrs follows during these twenty-eight years of the ''killing time" — Hugh Mackail, Cargill, John Brown, of Priesthill, the two dauntless women who were slowly drowned in the rising tide at Wigtown (see Wilson, Margaret), the preacher Renwick, nameless ones without number. Hundreds were sold into slavery in Barbados, among them many women. Others died of exposure or rotted in dungeons. Many were horribly tortured. Alto- gether many thousands perished. The offenses were refusals to abjure the Covenant or attend the parish kirk, and the frequenting of conventicles and " intercommuning " with those who did. It was punishable to let a child remain unbaptised by the parish ciu^te. Fighting took place at Rullion Green, Drumclog, and Bothwell Bridge. Richard Cameron (q.v.), who proclaimed a definite rebellion at Sanquahar in 1680, was defeated and slain at Ayrsmoss. On the other hand, Sharp had been killed in 1679 by nine Covenanters- Every sol- dier of the government was allowed to kill, and their cruelty was directed on women and children as 291 OoTenaatara Oowan on men. A children's covenant hcuB survived signed in the village of Pentland by fifteen girls, the first on the list being then ten years old. The accession of James II. brought no relief. Another Argyll perished in an abortive rising in 1685. At last on James's flight in 1688 the persecution ceased. William of Orange believed in toleration and left the Scotch Estates to settle their own religious af- fairs. Prelacy was at once thrown off, and the Par- liament of 1690 renewed the Act of 1592 establish- ing Presbyterianism. As only about ninety of the ministers " outed " in 1661 now survived, the complaisant curates were allowed to 7. The Later stay on. The aggressive Presbyterian ** Covenant- ideal of 1638 and 1643 was abandoned. era." Some of the obnoxious legislation since then was left unrescinded. There- fore, a stricter section calling themselves Camero- niana, or the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scot- land, holding the nation still bound by the great National Covenants of the preceding generation, refused to approve the settlement and protested against the constitution of both Church and State. There was of course no more persecution, and they and their descendants maintained their testimony and their aloofness from all exercise of civil rights undisturbed. Almost all joined the Free Church in 1876, but several congregations still remain. See Cameron, Richard, Cameronians; also the section of Presbtterians treating of the Scotch CJhurch. (R. W. Stewart.) Thomas M. Lindsay. Biblioorafht: For the earlier '* bands " the sources are: John Knox, Hiat. of the Reformation in Scotland, ed. D. Laixi«. vols. i.-ii. of Works, Edinburgh. 184&^7; D. Cal- derwood. Hiat. of the Kirk of Scotland, 8 vola., republished, ib. 1842-49; A Cloud of WOneesee for the Royal Preroqa- tivee of Jeeue Chriet, or the last Speeches and Testimonies of those teho suffered for the Truth in Scotland since . . . 1680, ib. 1730; J. Howie. Scots Worthies, ed. W. H. Car^- law, ib. 1885. Modem books are R. Simpson. Traditions of the Covenanters, Edinburs^. 1889; D. H. Fleming. Story of the ScoUish Covenants, ib. 1904 (based upon ear- lier sources, readable, condensed). Scott's grossly un- fair Tales of My Landlord was answered by T. McCrie in Christum Instructor, 1817 (reprinted with his Sermons), and a reply by Scott is in the Quarterly Review, xvi. 439^ 480. Other works are: J. Dodds. Fifty Years* Struggles cf (he Scottish Covenanters, London. 1871; J. K. Hewi- son. Hist, of the Church in Scotland from the Reformation to the RevduHon, 2 vols., Glasgow, 1908.

COVERDALE, MILES: Bible translator; b. probably in the district known as Cover-dale, in that part of the North Riding of Yorkshire called Richmondshire, 1488; d. in London and buried in St. Bartholomew's Church Feb. 19, 1568. He studied at Cambridge (bachelor of canon law 1531), became priest at Norwich in 1514, and entered the convent of Austin friars at Cambridge, where Rob- ert Barnes (q.v.) was prior in 1523 and probably influenced him in favor of Protestantism. When Barnes was tried for heresy in 1526 Coverdale as- sisted in his defense, and shortly afterward left the convent and gave himself entirely to preaching. From 1528 to 1535 he appears to have spent most of his time on the Continent, where his Bible (the first complete Bible in English) was published in 1535— at what place and by whom is disputed. In 1538 he was in Paris, superintending the printing of the " Great Bible," and the same year were published, both in London and Paris, editions of a Latin and an English New Testament, the latter being by Coverdale. He also edited ''Cranmer's Bible " (1540). (For further information concern- ing Coverdale's Bible translations see Bible Ver- sions, B, IV., § 4.) He returned to England in 1539, but on the execution of Thomas Cromwell (who had been his friend and protector since 1527) in 1540 was compelled again to go into exile, lived for a time at Tuebingen, and, between 1543 and 1547, was Lutheran pastor and schoolmaster at Bergzabem in the Palatinate, and very poor. In Mar., 1548, he went back to England, was well received at court and made king's chaplain and almoner to the queen dowager, Catherine Parr. In 1551 he became bishop of Exeter, but was deprived in 1553 after the succession of Mary. He went to Denmark (where his brother-in-law was chap- lain to the king), then to Wesel, and finally back to Bergzabem. In 1559 he was again in England, but was not reinstated in his bishopric, perhaps because of Puritanical scruples about vestments. From 1564 to 1566 he was rector of St. Magnus's, near London Bridge. " He was pious, conscien- tious, laborious, generous, and a thoroughly hon- est and good man. He knew German and Latin well, some Greek and Hebrew, and a little French. He did little original literary work. As a transla^ tor he was faithful and harmonious. He was fairly read in theology, and became more inclined to Puritan ideas as his life wore on. All accounts agree in his remarkable popularity as a preacher. He was a leading figure during the progress of the Reformed opinions, and had a considerable share in the introduction of German spiritual culture to English readers in the second quarter of the six- teenth century." Bibliography: Coverdale's works and letters were pub- lished by the Parker Society, ed. G. Pearson, 2 vols.. Wri- tings and Translations, Cambridge. 1844; Remains, 1846. A list of his works, with information concerning his life and the sources, is given in DNB, zii. 364-372. Consult: Memorials of Myles Coverdale^ London, 1838; C. Anderson, Annals of the English Bible, pp. 314-318, 443-440. ib. 1862; F. Pry, The Bible by Coverdale, MDCXXXV., ib. 1867; J. I. Mombert, Hand-book of the Eng. Versions of the Bible, chap, v.. New York, 1882; H. W. Hoare, Evo- lution of the Eng. Bible, chap, vi., London, 1902.

COWAN, HENRY: Church of Scotland; b. at Ayr (40 m. s.s.w. of Glasgow), Ayrshire, Scotland, Sept. 17, 1844. He studied at Edinburgh (M.A., 1864), Bonn, Halle, and Tuebingen, holding from Edinburgh a Greek traveling fellowship (1865) and the Pitt theological scholarship (1866-68). In addition to being theological examiner at Edin- burgh 1871-73, he held pastorates at West Parish, Aberdeen (1869-74), Rubislaw, Aberdeen (187&- 1882), and New Greyfriars', Edinburgh (1882-89), and since 1889 has been professor of church his- tory in the University of Aberdeen, as well as dean of the faculty of divinity since 1894. He has been vice-convener of the Church of Scotland Endow- ment Scheme since 1886, and joint-convener of the Scottish Universities' Mission Committee since 1900, and was also Baird Lecturer in 1895 and chairman of the Church of Scotland Aberdeen Normal Training College Board 1896-1906. In Cowl 202 theological doctrine he is broad Evangelical, and in Biblical criticism he is a moderate. In addition to briefer contributions, he has written: Landmarks of Church History (Edinburgh, 1894); Influence of the Scottish Church in Christendom (Baird lectures for 1895); and Life of John Knox (New York, 1905).

COWL: Primarily the hood with which the early monks, following a style of dress common among all classes in the Roman Empire, covered their heads. It increased in length after its wearing had been positively prescribed for Western monks by Benedict, until Benedict of Aniane ruled that it should be uniform in size and not reach below the knees. Thus the name came to apply not only to the hood but to the whole characteristic outer gar- ment of a monk. The hood proper in more mod- em times was attached with the Franciscans and Capuchins to the habit, with the Brothers of Char- ity to the scapular, with canons to the cappa or mozetta ; the Augustinians and Servites retained it as a separate garment. At the present time the shape varies in different orders, and the color is that of the habit. It does not as a rule form part of the dress of orders founded since the Middle Ages.

COWLES, HENRY: Commentator; b. in Nor- folk, Conn., Apr. 24, 1803; d. at Janesville, Wis., Sept. 6, 1881. He was graduated at Yale 1826, studied in the Yale Divinity School 1826-28, and was from 1828 to 1835 a missionary on the West- em Reserve in Ohio. From 1835 to 1848, he was professor, first of Greek and Latin, and then of ecclesiastical history and sacred literature in Ober- lin College; from 1848 to 1863 he was editor of the Oberlin Evangelist. He published a com- mentary on the entire Bible (16 vols.. New York, 1867-81), a Hebrew History (1873), and other works.

COWPER, WILLIAM: Poet and hymn-writer; b. at Great Berkhampstead (28 m. n.w. of Lon- don), Hertfordshire, Nov. 15, 1731; d. at East Dereham (15 m. w.n.w. of Norwich), Norfolk, Apr. 25, 1800. He studied law and was called to the bar in 1754, but took more interest in literature than in his profession. He was naturally inclined to morbid brooding, and suffered from an unhappy love-affair; in 1763 nervous dread of an examina- tion for which he was preparing preliminary to entering upon a government position so wrought upon his mind that it was necessary to confine him in an asylum. After about eighteen months he was able to go free, but was subject to attacks of insanity ever afterward, and never fully recov- ered from the last in 1787. For thirty years he lived a retired life at Olney, Buckinghamshire, and at the neighboring village of Weston. He was tenderly cared for by his relatives and had kind friends who encouraged him to write to divert his mind; he became excessively pious and devout, was ever a prey to religious doubts and hallucina- tions, and often in deep depression. At Olney he was intimate with John Newton (q.v.),and helped him in his parish work as a sort of lay curate. Some of Cowper's poems are models of tender verse, and his letters have none superior in all literature. His hymns include the familiar and admirable "God moves in a mysterious way," "There is a fountain filled with blood," and "O for a closer walk with God." He joined Newton in writing the Olney Hymns (1779; see Newton, John), and contributed sixty-eight to Newton's 280. Bibliography: The best edition of his Works with his life is by Robert Southey, 16 vob., London, 1836-37; re- printed in Bohn*M Standard Library, 8 vols., ib. 1853-55; other lives are by J. Bruce, in " Aldine Edition " of his poems, 3 vols., Philadelphia, 1865; by W. Benham, in " Globe Edition " of his poems. New York, 1870; by Goldwin Smith, London. 1880; and by T. Wright, ib. 1892. Wright has also edited his Unpublished and Un- ooUected Poenu, ib. 1000; and his Correspondence, 4 vok, ib. 1904; selections from his letters are by W. Benham, ib. 1884, and by W. T. Webb, ib. 1895.

COX, SAMUEL: English Baptist; b. in London Apr. 19, 1826; d. at Hastings Mar. 27, 1893. He was graduated at the Stepney Baptist Theological College, London, 1851, and was ordained pastor of St. Paul's Square Baptist Church, Southsea; be- came pastor at Ryde, Isle of Wight, 1855; resigned because of throat trouble 1859; was pastor of the General Baptist Church, Mansfield Road, Notting- ham, 1863-88. He was president of the British General Baptist Association in 1873. He is best known in connection with the Expositor, which he founded in 1875 and edited till 1884; some of the volumes are almost entirely his work. According to his own statement, he wrote thirty independent books and edited twenty more, including The Quest of the Chief Good : Expository Lectures on the Book Ecclesiastes, with a New Translation (London, 1868; rewritten for the Expositor's Bible, 1890); The Private Letters of St, Paul and St. John (1867); Salvator Mundi; or, is Christ the Saviour of ail Men? a defense of restorationism, the best known of his books (1877); Expository Essays and Dis- courses (1877); Commentary on the Book of Job (1880); The Larger Hope, a sequel to Salvator Mundi (1883); Miracles, an Argument and a Challenge (1884); Expositions (4 vols., 1885-88); and The He- brew Twins, a Vindication of God's Ways with Jacob and Esau (1894) with a Memoir by his wife.

COX, SAMUEL HANSON: Presbyterian; b. of Quaker parentage at Rahway, N. J., Aug. 25, 1793; d. in Bronxville, N. Y., Oct. 2, 1880. He was or- dained in 1817, and was pastor at Mendham, N. J., till 1820, when he settled in New York as pastor, first of the Spring Street Church (1820-25) and then of the Laight Street Church (1825-35). He was professor of sacred rhetoric and pastoral the- ology in Auburn Theological Seminary 1836-37, pastor of the First Presbyterian Church in Brook- lyn 1837-64, was president of Ingham University 1856-63, and thenceforth lived in retirement in and near New York. He was one of the founders of the University of the City of New York and of Union Theological Seminary. He was a leader of the New School party in the disruption of 1837 and was moderator of the General Assembly in 1846. Many stories are told of his fondness for big words and peculiar expressions in public prayer. But he pos- sessed much eloquence and learning.

COXE, ARTHUR CLEVELAND: Second bishop of western New York; b. at Mendham, N. J., May 10, 1818; d. at Clifton Springs, N. Y., July 20, 1896. 998 Craik He was a son of Samuel Hanson Cox (q.v.) and himself added the " e " to his name. He was grad- uated at the University of the City of New York 1838, and at the General Theological Seminary, New York, 1841; became rector of St. Ann's, Morrisania, N. Y., 1841; of St. John's, Hartford, Conn., 1842; of Grace, Baltimore, 1854; of Cal- vary, New York, 1863; bishop of western New York 1865. In 1868 his diocese was divided and the new diocese of Central New York formed. He was provisional bishop of Haiti 1872-74. The Old Catholic movement', P^re Hyacinthe, and all that concerned Gallicanism and Anglo-Catholicism had his active sjrmpathy. He helped to form the Anglo- Continental Society ( 1853 ) and gave it its name. In 1873 he collaborated with Bishop Wilberforce in issuing a serial in defense of Anglo-Catholicism against Romanism. In his pamphlet, An Apology for the English Bible (New York, 1857), he gave voice to the opposition against the attempt of the American Bible Society to introduce slight changes in the text and punctuation of the Scriptures, and the plan was abandoned (see Bible Societies, III., 1, § 5). He also opposed the Revised Version of 1881- 1885, but advocated a revision of the prayer-book. His writings include several volumes of poems, of which Christian Ballads (Hartford, 1840; enlarged ed., New York, 1901) is best known. Several hymns in general use "In the silent midnight watches"; " O where are kings and empires now? " and others) are from his pen. Works upon theological topics were Absolution and Confession (New Haven, 1860); Sermons on Doctrine and Duty (Philadelphia, 1855); Thoughts on the Services (Baltimore, 1859; rev. ed., Philadelphia, 1900); The Criterion, defining his position concerning the Oxford movement (New York and Oxford, 1866); A Letter to Pius IX., relating to the call for the Vatican Council (New York, 1869); Moral Reforms (Buffalo, 1869); Lectures on Prophecy (1871); Apollos, or the Way of God (Buffalo, 1871); L'episcopat de V Occident, a defense of the Church of England (Paris, 1874); Covenant Prayers (1875); The Penitential (New York, 1882); Institutes of Christian History, Bal- dwin lectures before the University of Michigan, 1887 (Chicago, 1887); Holy Writ and Modem Thought, Bedell lectures at Kenyon College, 1891 (New York, 1892). He edited the American reprint of the Ante-Nicene Fathers (9 vols., New York, 1885-«7). BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. 8. Perry, The Episcopate in America, pp. 150-161, New York, 1895.

COYLE, ROBERT FRANCIS: Presbyterian; b. at Roseneath, Ont., July 28, 1850. He studied at Wabash College (B.A., 1877) and Auburn Theo- logical Seminary (B.D., 1879), and held pastorates at Fort Dodge, la. (1879-85), Fullerton Avenue Church, Chicago (1885-91), and the First Presby- terian Church, Oakland, Cal. (1891-1900). Since 1900 he has been pastor of the (Jentral Presbyterian Church, Denver, Col. He was moderator of the General Assembly at Los Angeles, Cal., in 1903, and has written Foundation Stones (Chicago, 1887); Workingmen and the Church (New York, 1896); and The Church and the Times (1905).

CRAFTS, WILBUR FISK: Presbyterian; b. at Fryeburg, Me., Jan. 12, 1850. He studied at Wes- leyan University, Middletown, Conn. (B.A., 1869), and Boston University School of Theology (B.D., 1871), and held various Methodist pastorates from 1867 to 1879. In the latter year he entered the Congregational Church, and in 1883 he became a Presbyterian. His chief pastorates were those in Stoneham, Haverville, and New Bedford, Mass., Dover, N. H., Chicago, Brooklyn, and New York. He has been active in Sunday-school work since 1871, and has written on the Sunday-school lessons for the Sunday School Times, International Lesson Monthly, Pocket Lesson Notes, and the Christian Herald, In 1889 he founded the American Sab- bath Union, and for six years lectured throughout the United States chiefly on Sabbath observance. In 1895 he founded the Reform Bureau, now called the International Reform Bureau, particularly for the promotion of social purity, the defense of the Sabbath, the suppression of the liquor traffic, and the protection of children and the less civilized races. As the superintendent of this bureau he has been active both as a lecturer and in the preparation of laws to further its aims. He was chief editor of the Christian Statesman 1901-03, and of the Twentieth Century Quarterly since 1896. He also edited departments in Our Day (1888-91), Ram's Horn (1896-98), and the Advance, and has written, among others, the following books, several in col- laboration with his wife: Through the Eye to the Heart (New York, 1875); Talks to Boys and Girls About Jesus (1881); The Sabbath for Man (1884); Social Progress (Washington, 1896); Protection of Na- tive Races Against Intoxicants and Opium (Chicago, 1900); and The March of Christ Down the Centuries (1902). CRAIG, cr6g JAMES ALEXANDER: Layman; b. at Fitzroy Harbour, Ont., Mar. 5, 1855. He studied at McGill University, Montreal (B.A., 1880), Yale Divinity School (B.D., 1883), and the University of Leipsic (Ph.D., 1886). He was instructor and adjunct professor of Biblical languages in Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati, 1886-90, pro- fessor of Old Testament literature and exegesis in Oberlin Theological Seminary 1891-93; and since 1893 has been professor of Semitic languages and literatures and Hellenistic Greek in the University of Michigan. He has edited The Semitic Series of Handbooks, and written The Monolith Inscription of Salmanesar IL (Leipsic, 1888); Hebrew Word Manual (Cincinnati, 1890); Assyrian and Baby- lonian Religious Texts (2 vols., Leipsic, 1895-97); and Astronomical-Astrological Texts (1899).

CRAIG, JOHN : The name of two Scotchmen. 1. Scotch Reformer; b. about 1512; d. in Edinburgh Dec. 12, 1600. He studied at St. Andrews, and became a Dominican monk; went to England in 1536, thence to Rome, and served his order on missions in Italy and to the island of Chios, and as teacher at Bologna. He was converted to Protestantism by reading the " In- stitutes " of Calvin, it is said, and was in prison at Rome, condemned to the stake, when the pope, Paul IV., died (1559) and the mob opened the Craig Cranmer 294 prisons and he escaped. He went to Vienna, thence to England in 1560, and back to his native land; was appointed colleague to Knox in Edin- burgh in 1563, and, after the death of Knox (1572), succeeded to the leadership of the Scottish Church. At first he refused to proclaim the banns between Mary and Bothwell, but yielded later, protesting that " he abhorred and detested the marriage." After 1579 he was king's chaplain and was bold enough to rebuke the king to his face, but too con- ciliatory to suit the extreme party led by Melville. He compiled part of the " Second Book of Disci- pline," wrote the " King's Confession " (see Cove- nanters, S 2) in 1580, and published A Short Sum of the Whole Catechism (Edinburgh, 1581; reprinted in facsimile with introduction by T. G. Law, 1883), and a shorter catechism, A Form of Examination Before the Communion (1590). Both catechisms are reprinted in H. Bonar's Catechisms of the Scot- Hah Reformation (London, 1866). Bibliography: J. Knox, Works, ed. D. Laing, ii. 456, Edin- burffh, 1896; T. McCrie. Life of John Knox, ii. 53-57. ib. 1841; DNB, zii. 446-447. 2. Scotch mathematician; d. in London Oct. 11, 1731. He lived in Cambridge and London, and had decided mathematical talent; from 1708 he was prebendary of Salisbury. He is mentioned here for his curious Theologia Christianae principia mathematica (London, 1699; reprinted, with a learned preface, Leipsic, 1755), in which he en- deavors " to calculate the duration of moral evi- dence, and the authority of historical facts." By applying the theory of probabilities he attempts to show that the proofs of the Christian religion steadily become weaker sa the force of the testimony decays, and in the year 3144 Christianity will en- tirely disappear, " unless the second coming of Christ prevent its extinction." He also calculated " the ratio of happiness promised in another world to that obtainable in this, and proved it to be in- finite." Bduoorafht: DNB, xii. 448 (gives the eouroes).

CRAKANTHORPE, RICHARD: Puritan; b. at or near Strickland (25 m. 8.s.e. of Carlisle), West- moreland, 1567; d. at Black Notley (35 m. n.e. of London), Essex, 1624 (buried Nov. 25). He be- came fellow of Queen's College, Oxford, 1598, went to Germany as chaplain to Lord Evens, ambassador extraordinary; became chaplain to the bishop of London and to the king; rector of Black Notley, and of Paglesham, Essex. His most noteworthy work was a Defensio ecclesiae Anglicanae (London, 1625; republished in the Library of Anglo-catholic Theology, Oxford, 1847), a reply to the ConaUium reditua of Marco Antonio de Dominis (q.v.). Cra- kanthorpe's Latin and learning are commended, but his tone is described as " savage." CRAMER, JOHANN ANDREAS: German theo- logian and hymnologist; b. at J6hstadt (7 m. s.e. of Annaberg, Saxony) Jan. 27, 1723; d. at Kiel June 12, 1788. He studied at Leipsic, and from 1748 to 1750 was pastor at Crollwitz near Merse- burg, where he began the publication of a trans- lation of sermons and minor writings of Chrysostom (10 vols., Leipsic, 1748-51). In 1750 he was ap- pointed chief court preacher and councilor of the consistory at Quedlinburg, and four years later, at the recommendation of Klopstock, became German court preacher at Copenhagen. There his sermons and his personality gained him a position of im- portance, and he influenced the spiritual life of Denmark by the Nordischer Aufseher, which he edited (3 vols., Copenhagen, 1755-70), and which contained, in addition to reviews of important literary works, studies on ethics and esthetics. From this time date two collections of sermons and an elucidation of the Epistle to the Hebrews (2 vols., Leipsic, 1757). In 1765 he was made professor of theology at the University of Copen- hagen, but was dismissed and expelled from Den- mark on account of his bold opposition to Struen- see. After acting for three years as superintendent at Lubeck, where he prepared a rationalistic cate- chism, he accepted a call to Kiel in 1774 as profes- sor of theology and vice-chancellor of the university. There he remained fourteen years, developing a versatile activity, especially in the interests of the young theologians, and also providing for the salaries of the instructors by the establishment of a Schulmeisterseminar, In the Church of Sleswick- Holstein Cramer exercised great influence through the hymnal edited by him (Altona, 1780), which remained in use until 1887. Throughout his life he composed religious poems, of which 444 have been enumerated, in addition to sixty-four revisions of older hymns, and thirteen religious songs. Espe- cially noteworthy was his Poetische Uebersetzung der Psalmen mit Abhandlungen uber dieselben (4 vols., Leipsic, 1755-64). Some of his hymns are reminiscent of the swing of Klopstock, while others recall the measured movement of Gellert, but in too many cases quality was sacrificed to quantity. Carl Berthkau. Bibliography: K. H. Jfirdena, Lexikon deuto<^ier DidUer, i. 328-^47. Y. 828 sqq., Leipsic 1806-10; E. E. Kooh« Oetdiidiie dea Kirchsnlieds, vi. 334-344. Stuttgart, ISOQ; 8. W. Duffield. Enoli9h Hymnt, p. 589. New York, 1886; Julian. Hymnology, pp. 267-268; ADB, iv. 65a

CRAMER, SAMUEL: Dutch Mennonite; b. at Middelburg, Holland, July 3, 1842. He was edu- cated at the Athenaeum of Amsterdam and the uni- versities of Heidelberg and Zurich, and after being a Mennonite pastor at Zijldijk (1866-70), Emden, Hanover (1870-72), Enschede (1872-85), and Zwolle (1885-90), was appointed to his present position of professor of practical theology at the Mennonite theological seminary of Amsterdam. He is a member of the editorial board of Teyler's Theologisch Tijdschrift, an associate editor (with F. Pijper of Leyden) of the Bibliotheca Reforma- toria Neerlendica, and editor of the Doopsgezinde Bijdragen.

CRANE, LOUIS BURTON: Presbyterian; b. at Mt. Sterling, 111., Apr. 23, 1869. He studied at Princeton University (B.A., 1891), Princeton Theo- logical Seminary, and Berlin, Erlangen, and Gies- sen. He was pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, Princeton, N. J. (1896-99), and Calvary Presbyterian Church, Buffalo, N. Y. (1899-1902). In 1902-05 he was professor of New Testament lit- erature and interpretation in Chicago Theological 295 Craig Cranmer Seminary, and since 1906 has been pastor of Brain- erd Union Church, Easton, Pa. He has written The Teaching of Jesus Concerning the Holy Spirit (New York, 1906).

CRANMER, THOMAS: The first Protestant archbishop of Canterbury; b. at Aslacton (9 m. e. of Nottingham), Nottinghamshire, July 2, 1489; d. at Oxford Mar. 21, 1556. He spent eight years at Jesus College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. in 1510 or 1511 and his M.A. in 1515, and was elected to a fellowship. About the time of the publication of Erasmus's New Testament (1516) and Luther's theses (1517), he began a systematic study of the Scriptures; he was ordained before 1520, and in that year was university preacher and examiner in theology. About 1525 he had begun " in private to pray for the abolition of the papal power in England," but did not commit himself openly. In the summer of 1529, talking over the question of the divorce with the king's chief agents, Fox ^ ^ and Gardiner, Cranmer suggested ''aa ^" taking the matter out of the hands of b" ftl D* *^® lawyers and referring it to the Royal Di- theologians of the universities. Henry ^®'^** grasped at the suggestion, summoned Cranmer, and commissioned the preparation of a treatise on the question, making use of Cranmer's influence also in other ways, and attaching him to the embassy which left England early in 1530 to see the pope and the emperor. He brought back little definite result, but the king rewarded his services by the gift of the archdeaconry of Taunton, and early in 1532 made him ambassador to the emperor. During his sojourn in Germany he was brought much into contact with the Lutheran leader Osiander, and married his niece Margaret. In the autumn of the same year Henry determined to appoint him to the archbishopric of Canterbury, vacant by Warham's death; and he was conse- crated on Mar. 30, 1533, after having drawn up a formal protest to the effect that he would consider the oath of obedience to the pope a form and not a reality, and that he did not intend to bind himself to do anything contrary to the king and common- wealth of England, or to restrain his liberty in things pertaining to the reformation of the Chris- tian religion and the government of the Church of England. In April he asked the king's leave to proceed with the trial of Catherinee's case, opened his court in May, and on the 23d pronounced sen- tence, declaring that the marriage of Henry and Catherinee had been void from the beginning. Five days later he declared the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn valid, and on June 1 crowned her as queen. The breach with Rome on the side of jurisdiction widened steadily; that in doctrine was somewhat behind it. In 1534 Cranmer issued a pastoral en- joining silence in regard to masses for the dead, prayers to the saints, pilgrimages, and celibacy — points on which it was hoped that an authoritative decision might be reached within a year. In 1536, though speaking with the greatest personal regard for Anne Boleyn, he was obliged officially to pro- nounce Henry's marriage with her also void, and on the day she was beheaded issued a license for him to marry Lady Jane Seymour. The Beginnings revision of doctrine proceeded by de- of the Ref- grees, and was assisted by the publi- ormation. cation of the English version of the Scriptures, which had been a favorite project of Cranmer's for some time. He remained at his post under the reactionary system enforced by the Six Articles, but during the last years of Henry's reign was subject to continual assaults from the Roman party. Sheltered by Henry's un- failing protection, he went quietly on maturing his plans for religious reform. He worked at the prep- aration of English services, of which the Litany that appeared in 1545 was the first to come into use. Tlie First Prayeivbook of Edward VI. was, in the form in which it came before Parliament, to all intents and purposes the work of Cranmer, though afterward modified into the shape of a compromise between the two parties. The new ordinal, published in Mar., 1550, was also principally his work. During the reign of Edward VI. he was constantly busy with projects for completing the new order of things, including the revision of the canon law known as Reformatio legum ecdesiae^ ticarunif and the Forty-two Articles, afterward re- duced to thirty-nine. The Second Prayer-book of Edward VI. repre- sented Cranmer's furthest advance toward Conti- nental Protestantism; but he adhered firmly to it after Mary's accession, knowing that he did so at the peril of his life. A manifesto which he wrote to define his position got into circulation befoire he intended it, and led to his arrest in Sept., 1553, and to his trial ior treason two months later, on account of his yielding to the plan to proclaim Lady Jane Grey queen. He was condemned to death, but his ecclesiastical character Fall Under made it impossible to carry out the Mary and sentence, as the law then stood. For Death. months he lay a prisoner in the Tower, until the passing of the statute De haretico comburendo in Jan., 1555, warned him to prepare for his end. He was taken to Oxford, and there submitted to a searching examination before a court possessing papal jurisdiction. On Nov. 25 he was pronoimced contumacious by the pope for not appearing in Rome and solemnly excommuni- cated. Pole was appointed to the vacant arch- bishopric, and a commission was issued for Cran- mer's degradation and delivery to the secular arm. He appealed in vain to a general council, and in the following February Bonner and Thirlby went to Oxford to execute the sentence. Cranmer now signed the documents which have been known as his successive recantations; but the first three, at least, are not really recantations, but submissions to authority, such as his political principles always impelled him to make. His fifth, or real, recan- tation was signed rather under the influence of seductive hopes held out to him than under that of fear. It surrendered every point for which he had fought, anathematized the whole heresy of Luther and Zwingli, and recognized the pope as Christ's vicar and supreme head of the Church on earth. A Cranston Creation 296 sixth and still more humiliating confession was signed on Mar. 18. When he saw that all availed nothing, and that his death was resolved on, he braced himself to a final effort, publicly re- canted his recantations and heroically met his fate, dying by fire in Broad Street, Oxford, on the same spot where Ridley and Latimer had already suffered. He was a man of simple and amiable character, a learned theologian, as well as a great patron of learning in others. Though naturally of a shrinking, sensitive temperament and a some- what slow and hesitating mind, when once he saw his duty he showed no lack of courage; and if at the last " he tried to concede that impossible change of belief which his inquisitors required, he redeemed his fall by a heroism in the hour of death to which history can find few parallels." Bibliography: Cranmer's Remains were collected by H. Jenkyns, 4 vols., Oxford, 1833; his Works were edited by J. £. Cox, for the Parker Society. 2 vols., London, 1844-. 1846; and his Letters in Lettera of the Martyrs of the English Church, ib. 1883. Sources are: J. Strype, Memorials of Cranmer, 2 vols., Oxford, 1840 (contains appendix of documents); idem, Ecclesiastical Memorials^ 3 vols.. Lon- don, 1842; Narratives of the Daya of (Ka Reformation . . . with Two Contemporary Biographies of Archbishop Cranmer, ed. J. O. Nichols for Camden Society, ib. 1869. There are Lives by H. J. Todd, London, 1831; C. W. Le Bas, ib. 1833; W. F. Hook, in Lives of Archbishops of Canterbury, vols, v.-vii., 12 vols., ib, 1860-77; C. H. Collette, ib. 1887; A. J. Mason, ib. 1808; A. F. Pollard, New York, 1004. Consult also: A. D. Innes, Cranmer and The Reformation in England, Edinburgh. 1000; DNB, xiii. 10-31.

CRANSTON, EARL : Methodist Episcopal bishop ; b. at Athens, O., June 27, 1840. He studied at Ohio University, Athens, O. (B.A., 1861), and served throughout the Civil War in the Ohio infantry and West Virginia cavalry, being promoted captain. He entered the Ohio Conference of the Methodist Episcopal ministry in 1867, and after holding vari- ous pastorates for fourteen years was elected pub- lishing agent of his denomination in 1884. In 1896 he was elected bishop, and spent the years 1898-1900 in an official tour of inspection which covered China, Japan, and Korea. Since 1903 he has had special charge of the Methodist Episcopal missions in Mexico. He was one of the founders of Denver University, and has been treasurer and a member of the examining board of the Freed- men's Aid and Southern Education Society, as well as treasurer of the trustees of the Methodist Episco- pal Church (at large) and a trustee of Ohio Uni- versity.

CRAPSEY, ALGERNON SIDNEY: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Fairmount, O., June 28, 1847. He was graduated at St. Stephen's College, Annan- dale, N. Y. (1869), and at the General Theological Seminary (1872). He was on the staff of Trinity Church, New York City, 1872-79; rector of St. Andrew's, Rochester, N. Y., 1879-1906, when he was convicted of violating his ordination vows in denying certain statements of the Apostles' Creed, particularly the Virgin Birth. In theology he holds " to the theistic conception of the universe; one God who is all in all; Jesus the son of Joseph, the manifestation of God in the ethical sphere," while to him " the catholic creeds are the interpre- tation of God to the Greco-Roman world," and " to love God and man is salvation." He has writ- ten: Five Sorrowful Mysteries (New York, 1883); Five Joyful Mysteries (1886); A Voice in the WU- demess (1897); Life and Labors of Sarah Wisner Thome (1900); and Religion and Politics (1905). CRATO OF CRAFFTHEIM. See Krafft,

JOHANN. CRAVEN, ELIJAH RICHARDSON: Presby- terian; b. at Washington, D. C, Mar. 28, 1824; d. at Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 5, 1908. He stud- ied at the College of New Jersey (B. A., 1842) and Princeton Theological Seminary (1848), mean- while studying law (1842-44) and being tutor in mathematics at the College of New Jersey (1847- 1849). He was pastor of the Reformed (Dutch) Church at Somerville, N. J., 1850-54, and of the Third Presbyterian Church, Newark. N. J., 1854- 1887; secretary of the Presbyterian Board of Publi- cation and Sabbath School Work 1887-1904, when he retired as secretary emeritus. He was chair- man of the committee for the revision of the Book of Discipline of the Presbyterian Church 1879-82, and moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church, North, in 1885. In theology he was an Old School Presbyterian. He edited the American edition of J. P. Lange's Commentary on the Book of Revelation (New York, 1874).

CRAWFORD, CLARENCE KERR: Presbyterian (Southern Church); b. at Perryville, Ky., Mar. 16, 1864. He studied at Centre College, Danville, Ky. (B.A., 1884), and Danville Theological Seminary (1889). He was tutor in Hebrew (1887-96) and professor of Old Testament exegesis (1897-1901) in the latter institution, and since its consolidation with the Louisville Theological Seminary in 1901 to form the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of Kentucky at Louisville he has been professor of Old Testament exegesis and hermeneutics in the new institution. In theological position he is a liberal conservative. CREAGH, crā, JOHN THOMAS: Roman Catholic; b. at Wakefield, Mass., Mar. 7, 1870. He studied at Boston College (B.A., 1891), St. John's Seminary, Brighton, Mass., and the Seminario Romano, Rome (S.T.D., 1896; J.C.D., 1897), and in 1896 was ap- pointed professor of canon law in the Catholic University of America, Washington. He has been lecturer on Religion at Trinity College, Washington, D. C, since 1902, and has written Remarriage After Divorce (New York, 1905).

CREATION, BABYLONIAN ACCOUNTS: Until 1875 knowledge of the Babylonian conception of creation had come only through Berosus (a Baby- lonian priest of Marduk, c. 300 B.C.), whose narra- tive was transmitted by Alexander Polyhistor, from whose book probably it was taken by Eusebius into his Chronicon (book i.). This account tells of a primeval darkness in which beings Account combining parts of the form of man. of Berosus. beast, and bird inhabited a watery waste along with reptiles, fishes, and monsters, all under the rule of Thamte (Tiamat; see below). Marduk came, cut Thamte in two, of one 297 OranatCMt Oreation half creating the heaven and of the other the earth, and destroyed or shut up the monsters whom she had ruled. This, however, left an uninhabited earth which was peopled by the device of cutting off Marduk's head (at his direction), when the blood which fell was mixed with earth by the gods, men and animals being formed from the mixture. Mar- duk created also the heavenly bodies. In 1875 George Smith discovered a tablet from the library of Asshurbcmipal which ran in part parallel with the account of Berosus. This he translated, in great part correctly, but made mis- takes which misled many. From time to time other fragments were f oimd and trans- Cuneiform lated, in some of which rightly and in Accounts, others mistakenly parts of the creation narrative were seen. Thus the so- called " Cuthsean account " is now shown not to refer tx) creation but to the story of a king of Cutha. It soon became evident from the diversities that there were several accounts current in early times and that creation was attributed in different cen- ters to different deities. The creation account of Babylonia which finally became current, to which Mr. Smith's tablet be- longed, has finally by L. W. King of the British Museum been shown to have been written on a series of seven tablets as a narrative poem in 994 lines, of which more than half are now fully re- covered, and so much of the rest that three-quar- ters of the whole text are now in hand. The tablets carried from 138 to 146 lines each, and in some cases there are at least four copies of parts of the inscrip- tion, Mr. King's reconstruction involving the use of forty-nine separate tablets. These are of different periods, none older than the Assyrian period and some as late as the Persian, a few being the exei^ cise studies of Babylonian students. The epic was known to Babylonians from the opening words as the ** When above " series. This account is in part at least a theogony as well as a cosmogony, this part having its closest parallel in the Japanese theogony. The primal existences are said to have been Apsu, "the deep," Mmnmu, " con- fusion " (?), and Tiamat (Hebr. Content of Tehom), "Chaos" — watery existences the Latter, which in darkness mingled their floods. No gods then existed. In the course of time appeared the primal gods Lahmu and Lah- amu; then Anshar and Kishar, while Ann's name is read in a much mutilated section. After a long gap in the text it appears that in consequence of the existence of the gods an orderliness was coming into being because of which Apsu and Mummu precipi- tated a conflict with the gods in which Ea by his wisdom defeated the opponents of order. A second conflict was forced by Tiamat, a monster so forbid- ding that the gods could not stand before her until Manluk stood forth as their champion on condition that he be recognized as supreme among them. After a banquet of the gods at which the terms were ac- cepted Marduk overcame the monster and with nets captured and imprisoned or slew her and her hosts. With the fourth tablet the narrative of creative work begins. Marduk cleft in two the body of Tiamat, and out of one half made the firma- ment restraining the upper waters, created heaven, and appointed to their stations Anu, Bel, and Ea. He marked out the years, months, and days, ap- pointing for this office the heavenly bodies. Prob- ably the fifth tablet told of the creation of trees and plants, since in the closing ode of praise Marduk is hailed as lord and giver of vegetation. The sixth tablet teUs of the creation of man, caused by the plaint of the gods that there was no one to minister to them. To this end Marduk's blood was used as in the account of Berosus. A variant is found in a tablet according to which originally there was no heaven, earth, vegetation, house, or city, only a watery waste. Marduk laid a reed on the water, poured on it dust which he created, made a habitation for the gods, and then with the help of the goddess Amaru created man and beast, then ^he rivers of Babylonia, and dammed out the sea and erected houses and cities. Still other texts, one in Sumerian and a parallel in Semitic, give a variant account of the creation of sun and moon. The analysis of the principal myth pieced out by Mr. King reveals a complex narrative evidently built up after Marduk became chief deity and in his honor, the composite showing traces of diverse origin of the components in centers where other deities than Marduk were honored. The double contest, the conception of the victory by Ela in the first battle, suggestions of participation by En-lil, and the synonymity of the names of Composite the three primeval existences be- Origin. speak separate myths of diverse origin, which were combined into the narra- tive which became dominant. This conclusion is corroborated by references in isolated texts to the creative work of Ea, En-lil, Ishtar, and other deities. While none of the extant texts are earlier than the time of Asshurbanipal, the essential facts are referred to as early as the third pre-Christian millennium. The most likely time for the con- struction of the epic is the age of Hammurabi. The points of contact with the Hebrew narrative have been overrated through the influence of George Smith. The Babylonian text is still too fragmentary to afford a satisfactory basis of com- parison. The similarities are (1) the original watery chaos, (2) the creation of the firmament (a common ethnic notion), (3) the creation of the heavenly bodies as rulers of time, (4) the crowning of creative operations by the production of man (in one case by the blood of deity, in the other by his breath), and (5) the coincidence of Tiamat and Tehom (Gen. i. 2) and of i^imu and c?em, " bone " (Gen. ii. 23), in the two narratives. Geo. W. Gilmore. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The most important book is L. W. King, Seven Tableta of CreaHon, 2 vola., London, 1902. Con- sult: George Smith, Chaidctan . . . Oeneeia, New York, 1876 (the epoch-making work); P. Jensen, Koemologie der Babylonier, Strasburg, 1890; idem, MyiKen und Epen, Berlin, 1900; H. Gunkel. Schiipfung und Chao9, Gotting- en, 1896 (traces relationship of Hebrew and Babylonian literature); F. Delitssch, Die babyloniaehe WeUechCpf- unoal^ire, Leipsio, 1896; C. J. Ball, Light from the Boat, London, 1899; H. Radan, in Moniat, xii. 604 sqq., xiv. 81-87; Aatvrian and Babylonian Literature^ ed. R. F. Harper, pp. 282-303. New York, 190L Creation and Praaarvation 298 CREATION AlID PRESERVATION OF THE WORLD. I. The Biblical and Theological Doctrine. II. The Connogonies of Andent and Modem Paganiflm. 1. The Mythological Coflmogonies of Paganism Proper. 2. Coemogonio Notions in Ancient, especially Greek, Philosophy. 3. The Gnostio-Manicfaean Cosmogonies. 4. Speculative Cosmogonies of the Modem Pantheistic- Materialistic Natural Philosophy. III. The Creation Theories of the Older Judaism and the Judaising Christianity of Many Fathers and Modem Tlieologians. 1. In Judaism Proper. 2. In the Patristic Period. 3. In Modem Times. IV. The Normal Via Media between Jewish and Pagan The- V. Preservation of the World. L The Biblical and Theological Doctrine: The idea of the origm of the universe through the creative power of God is inseparable from the fundamental conception of monotheism. If there is but one living, personal God, nothing in the world can have come into being but through his will. Nowhere is this idea more clearly expressed than in the Old and New Testaments. According to the Mosaic account, God created "the heaven and the earth," that is, the whole natural universe, " in the beginning " of all temporal being. In six working-days he called into existence all inorganic and organic beings by the simple word of power, " Let there be " this or that (Gen. i. 1-ii. 3). God is not less the absolute creator of the world to the authors of Ps. xxxiii. and civ. and Job xxxviii. With the same definiteness the deutero-canonical or apocryphal literature of pre-Christian Judaism emphasizes the monotheistic nature of the idea of creation (Ecclus. xvi. 26-xvii. 9; II Mace. vii. 28; Wisd. xi. 17 sqq.). In the New Testament the content of the Mosaic cosmogony is presupposed in numerous sayings of Christ and his apostles, as in those which mention the foundation of the world (John i. 24; Matt. xxv. 24; Luke xi. 60; Eph. i. 4; I Pet. i. 20; Heb. iv. 3), the creation of man and woman (Matt. xix. 4-6; Acts xvii. 24-26; I Tim. ii. 13), and the Sabbath, on which God rested (Heb. iv. 4; cf. John v. 17). God is repeatedly spoken of as the Lord of heaven and earth, who made both (Matt. xL 25; Luke x. 21; Acts xvii. 24; cf. Rev. iv. 11); as the primal source, of whom are all things (I Cor. viii. 6; Rom. xi. 36; cf. Eph. iv. 6); as the everlasting Father, who through the Son made the world (John i. 3; Col. i. 15-18; Heb. i. 2); as the invisible God, who reveals his eternal power and Godhead by the works of his hands (Rom. i. 20; Acts xiv. 17). The creation of the world out of nothing is mentioned at least once in the New Testament (Heb. xi. 3). On the basis of this Biblical teaching the dog- matic theology of the Chureh developed. The most important Fathers, the scholastics, and the old Protestant theologians are in essential agree- ment in the doctrine of a miraculous creation of the world out of nothing. The distinction is made between a first or immediate and a second or me- diate creation. The former is the creation of *' the heavens and the earth," i.e., of the substance of the universe both within and without this world, as well as of purely spiritual or immaterial essences. The second is the gradual development and organi- zation of the matter immediately created out of nothing. As the operative cause of creation the entire Trinity is named, the Father creating the world by the Son in the Holy Ghost (Ps. xxxiiL 6; Gen. i. 2; John i. 3; Heb. i. 2; Col. i. 16; cf. also Rom. xi. 36; Eph. iv. 6). As the final end of creation dogmatic theology places the glorification of God or the complete revelation of his power, wisdom, and goodness — as the intermediate end the beatification of men through their union with God (cf. Gen. i. 31; Ps. viii. 6, xix. 2, cxv. 16; Is. xlv. 18; Acts xvii. 26; I Cor. xv. 46). The variations from this doctrine which have made their appearance in the history of human speculation have related either to the creative sub- ject or to the manner of creation, modifying either the conception of a conscious personal Creator or that of a determinate process of creation rising by a definite progression to man. On the fiist point, they are inclined toward changing creation into a mere cosmogony or slow development of the world; on the second, toward neglecting the ele- ment of cosmogony or well-ordered plan in creation. The former is the common error of all pagan doc- trines of the origin of the universe, as well as of such pagan-pantheistic speculation as has taken place within the Church. The doctrine of later Judaism and the Judaizing supematuralism of many of the Fathers and late Christian thinkers suffers, on the other hand, from too exclusive mono- theistic emphasizing of the absolute action of God in creation. XL The Cosmogonies of Ancient and Modem Paganism: To pagan thought, creation in its essence is a slow self-originating process, into which the theogonic element enters, if at all, only in the final stages. Its result is the universe considered as mere thusisy or nature, not as ktiaiSj or the crea- tiue. This is true equally of the polytheistic, dualistic, and pantheistic systems of non-Christian paganism, of modem pantheistic tendencies with Christian form, and of their logical consequence, atheistic materialism. 1. The Mythological Oosmoffonlea of Pacanim Proper : These are all characterized by some notion of emanation; they consider the world and the substances within it as effluxes of the Godhead, and thus suggest a certain coherence of matter and the created world of spirits with God. This is tme also of the dualistic religions, according to which the world originates from the joint action of the ema- nations from the good god of light with those from the god of darkness — either in the way of a hostile conflict of the two principles, as in the Persian legend, or in that of the parallei development of both, as in the mythologies of the Slavic, and to some extent of the Germanic, peoples. Into both the dualistic and the pantheistic systems much that is originally polytheistic has penetrated, just as scarcely any developed pagan cosmogony ia without suggestion of the monotheistic conception. A complete classification of the pagan cosmogonies will not be attempted here; it will be sufficient to glance at the most characteristic ones, beginning 299 Or«atlon aad Preaoryatloa with thofle most closely related to the Old Testa- ment account. According to the Persian myth in the BundahUhn, Ormuzd, with the Amshaspands, created the world in six periods by his word (see Zoroaster, Zoroabtri- AN ism). The usual order is the heavens and the light » the water, the earth, the trees, the animals, and men as descendants of the archetypal man Gayomart. The division of the process into definite periods of one thousand years is apparently later, but in both earlier and later sources an absolute creation out of nothing is affirmed. StUl more definitely the traditional stoiy of the Etruscans seems to point to an original connection with the Old Testament. The world is here said to have been created by God in six periods of one thousand years — first, heaven and earth, then the firmament, the sea and other waters, the sun, moon, and stars, the animals, and lastly men. Ajs the earliest authority for this belief is Suidas (s.v. Tvpptrvia), it is hardly pos- sible to avoid the conclusion of Jewish or Christian influences in the account. Much fuller of obscure mythological elements are the cosmogonies of several peoples of Western Asia. In the Old Babylonian, according to Berosus (about 3(X) B.C.), the primitive chaos was dominated by the sea- goddess Markaya or Homoroka, i.e., the ocean; then the supreme god Bel-Zeus split her in two and out of one half made the heavens, out of the other half the earth; then Bel had hki own head cut ofT, and men were formed out of the blood which flowed from him, mixed with earth (see Creation, Babylonian Accounts). Some con- fused similarities to the Old Testament account, with a large admixture of theogonic myths, are found in the Phenidan legends, as given by the somewhat doubtful authority Sanchuniathon. Ac- cording to this, the spirit which, as a dark wind, brood^ over the primeval chaos was in some way united with the matter of this chaos; and out of this union, which is called Desire, originated first a fertile watery slime in which lay concealed the seed of all things; then the heaven, in the shape of an egg* out of which came the sun, moon, and stars, the air and the sea, the clouds and the wind, thunder and lightning; and finally, awakened by the thun- der, intellectual beings of both sexes. In the cos- mogonies of the Greeks and the Egyptians, par- tially related to these, the gods originate together with the forming world. According to the oldest Greek legend in Hesiod, out of chaos proceeded first Gala, Tartaros, Eros (the earth, the depths, and love); next the pair Erebos and Nyx (darkness and night), who produced Aither and Hemera (the light of heaven and the day). Gaia then brought forth at intervals other cosmic powers and the Titans from whom Zeus, the other gods of Olympus, and men were descended. A somewhat sixnilar cosmogony, though rather more influenced by Eastern myths, is found in Aristophanes. According to the Egyptian cosmogony, as given by Diodorus Siculus, the elements originally mixed in chaos were separated by a self-originating move- ment of air; the heavier ones sank and gradually separated into land and sea, under the continuous impulse of this movement. Out of the earth. while it still retained a half-fluid character, the heat of the sun generated animals. The older Egyptian mythology is more monotheistic. Amun, or Chnum, or Thoth appears as the supreme crea- tive god, who produces the heavens, earth and its vegetation, animals, men, and gods. Here also thm are several remarkable reminders of Genesis. In the oldest religious literature of India, as in the Rig- Veda, there are also traces of monotheism. The much later book of Manu is more fantastic. Ac- cording to it the universe was once a confused chaotic darkness; God, the great originator of all things, appeared and drove away the darkness by his light, creating first water, and in it the seed of light. Out of this seed developed a golden egg, in which Brahma sat a whole year in calm meditation, finally breaking it and making heaven and earth out of its halves. A similar process is described in the Mahabharata and generally in the later sources of Indian mythology, some of which go more into detail, as in deducing varioils elements from the different parts of Brahma's body. The notion of the primeval egg is found in other mythologies, such as the old Chinese, the Japanese, the Finnish (in the ancient epos Kalewala the formation of heaven and earth from the two halves of the egg is described just as by Manu), and even that of the South Sea Islands. Again, the story of the origin of different parts of the world from the severed limbs of a gigantic primitive man or anthropo- morphic god is found also in the old (jermanic and Scandinavian cosmogony. As common traits of all these mythological cos- mogonies may be mentioned the development of the process of formation from less perfect to more perfect, or from original chaos to the final creation of man; the predominance of water in the original condition of the earth; the evolution of a luminous or spiritual principle which reacts on this prime- val water; and finally the emphasis laid upon the godlike origin of man, or his mediate relation to the Deity, as a ground of superiority over the animals generated from the earth by elementary forces. 8. Oosmoffonio Notions in Ancient, •specially Greek, Philosophy: The philosophy of both lonians and Dorians is essentially a natural phi- losophy, and thus largely cosmologies!. The Ionian philosophers searched for the material principle of things, which they defined variously. Thales found it in water or abstract moisture; Anaximander in the apeiran, i.e., infinite and in- definite primeval substance; Anaximenes in the air; Heraclitus in ethereal fire; Anaxagoras in the seeds of things, once inextricably intermingled in chaos, then disentangled and formed into a well- ordered cosmos by the divine spirit, the absolutely simple, indivisible, impassible noua ; Leucippus and Democritus in the atoms, those indivisible, infinitely small bodies which are distinguished from each other not by their qualities, but only geo- metrically by form, position, and arrangement, and whose sum constitutes abstract fulness in contrast with the other primeval principle of emptiness or nothingness. The Doric philosophers in Magna Graecia and Sicily directed their attention toward Oreatlon and Preflarvation 800 discovering an ideal or formal principle of things. The Pythagoreans found it in numbers, geometrical forms, and relations; the Eleatics (Xenophanes, Parmenides, Zeno, Melissus) in the conceptual unity of being. A clever attempt to combine the Ionic and Eleatic standpoints was made by Empe- docles, who defined four material and two ideal elements or roots of things — the former being earth, water, air, and fire, the latter the motive powers of love and hate, to one of which the \mion, to the other the separation of things in the process of world-formation is attributed. See Materialism. In the main period of Greek philosophy the oppo- sition between idealistic and realistic (or material- istic) cosmology recurs in the relation of the Pla- tonic to the Aristotelian theory, then in that of the Stoic to the Epicurean. Plato, who considered ideas, and especially the highest, that of the Good, as the only eternal things, asserts the temporal nature of the world, or at most makes it to have been created by God; the absolute Good, out of matter without quality and actually unreal. First the Anima mundi, or soul of the world, was formed by harmonic union of indivisible and divisible sub- stance, then the body of the world. The relation of the world-isoul to the material universe corre- sponds, in the human microcosm, to that between the immortal soul with its seat in the head and the body with its two inferior souls. Aristotle, on the other hand, declared the world to be finite in space or extension, but infinite in time. According to him, the first thing to be set in motion by the " immovable mover " was the heaven of the fixed stars, as the highest of the spheres which surround the earth. The cosmology of the Stoics, in con- sequence of their generally idealistic attitude, ap- proached more closely to the Platonic and the Eleatic than to Aristotle. They considered the world as eternal, but only in so far as it is the result or the image of the eternal power of the Grodhead which works in it. This Godhead, who is in the world as an all-pervading breath, as a formative fire, as a rational soul, and includes in itself the individual rational type-forms or logai spermatikoi, separates itself through a creative process into four elements, as well as into bodies formed by various combinations of them. After the expira- tion of a certain period things return, by a consu- ming conflagration, once more into the Godhead, which then creates the world anew, only to destroy it once more when the time comes. Epicurus and his school, going back for their physics to the realistic natural philosophers, especially Democ- ritus, aflGum the eternity of space, and in it of atoms distinguished by size, shape, and weight. These atoms, tending downward on account of their weight, generate by collision certain movements which end in the rotary motion that forms worlds, countless in number. Animals and men are mere products of the earth; the formation of the latter (whose souls are substances with the nature of air and fire, consisting of refined atoms, diffused throughout the whole body) includes a gradual evolution toward perfection. Coming to the philosophical movements which follow the close of independent intellectual life in Greece (the last centuiy B.C.), the Skeptics declared all certain knowledge on these subjects impossible, while the Eclectics, such as Cicero, attempted to combine various elements of the Platonic, Stoic, and Epicurean cosmology. These problems were taken up with still greater interest by the theo- sophic-syncretistic schools of the last century be- fore and the first after Christ — especially the Jewish-Alexandrian school, the Neo-Pythagoreans, and the Neoplatonists. According to Philo, the principal representative of the first-named, in contrast with God as the absolute active principle, stands matter without form or quality as the principle of absolute passivity; the former produces first the world of ideas (the Logos or kosmos noetos), and then impresses the type of this ideal world on the eternal matter. The Logos, or divine ideal world, which according to this doctrine was the mediate cause of the world's existence, became in the Neo-Pythagorean, partially Gnostic system of Numenius of Apamea (c. 170) the demiurge, a second God beside the supreme and purely spiri- tual God, or NouB, This second God, who gains by contemplation of the transcendental arche- types the knowledge which enables him to exercise creative power on matter, constructs out of it the world as a sort of third God, or the offspring of the two higher ones. Finally, in Neoplatonism (q.v.), especially with Plotinus and Porphsny, the con- necting principle in the formation of the universe is again the world of ideas, which is not, however, as with Plato, identified with the Godhead, but appears as an emanation or radiation from the highest Good. It generates souls in its image, together with the bodies dependent upon and gov- erned by them, as well as the other beings percep- tible by the sense or material. Matter in itself is a formless, negative substance which gains form and life first by the entrance of the higher powers, the logoif which proceed from the Now and its ideas. 8. The Onoatio-Xanichean Oosmoffoniea: The ideal and abstract treatment of the question which has been seen in the speculation of these philoso- phers, together with much more fantastic and arbitrary solutions of the problem which come from the mythical cosmogonies of the still older period, was to a certain extent combined with Christian ideas in the Gnostic theories. All of them appeared as paganizing perversions of the Christian revelation. They have a more or less hostile atti- tude toward the Old Testament, although they usually attempt to find a place for its monotheistic teachhig concerning the creation and government of the world in their practically pagan systems. For this purpose they make use of the peculiar figure of the demiurge. The demiurge of the Gnostics is not, however, a higher divine principle, like the Platonic Logos, but rather a representative of the life of the world as distinguished from God. He IB generally considered from the standpoint of the natural world which is to be overcome and elevated into a higher form of existence in the spiritual kingdom of Christ. The creation accom- plished by him is only an imperfect preliminary to redemption; and this he is able to bring about 801 Oreation and Preserratton neither by himself nor by the psychic Messiah sent by him. For it the spiritual Christ is required, the higher eon who is revealed at his baptism in Jordan as stronger than the demiurgic Messiah, coming to execute his mission by a dooetic life and death. Gnostic speculation took two distinct forms — ^the Western, or Greek-Egyptian, based large- ly upon Platonic thought, and the Eastern, or Per- sian-Syrian, following more the dualistic thought of the Parsees. In the former the transition from the divine being and life to the development of the world appears as an emanation or the production of a series of hypostatic effluxes from the world of light (the Pleroma), growing weaker and less divine the farther they go, down to the demiurge, the lowest, to whom the formation of formless or empty matter is attributed. The latter class considered the world essentially as a product of conflict between the eons of the kingdom of light and Satan and his demons, in which matter, created and dominated by Satan and thus a positive efflux of the evil principle, forms the battle-ground, and is partially wrested from him by the good eons. See Gnosti- cism. The history of Manicheanism, a theory of the world whose foundation is more pagan than Chris- tian, has been shown by recent investigation to have a special importance for the development of Christian thought on its heretical side. The roots of this remarkable syncretistic religion reach down into the primitive age of Christianity, and are con- nected with the Jewish-Christian and Gnostic sects of the Elkesaites and Mandsans; and the offshoots of the developed Persian Manicheanism of the third century appear throughout the latter history of medieval sects, both Eastern and Western — Pris- cillians, Paulicians, Euchites, Bogomiles, and Albigenses. Some of their ideas, especially those relating to the creation of the world and of man, have even had their influence on the systems of some modem Christian theosophists, such as Weigel <and Jakob Bdhme. Both ancient and medieval Manicheanism dispensed with the figure of the demiurge, and made the whole earthly or material creation, including mankind, both body and soul, a product of Satan and his demons as imitators of the creative activity of the Light-god. See Mani- CHEANs; and Mandjeanb. 4. Specnlatlve Oosmoffonies of thelEodem Pan- theistlc-UaterlaUBtic Natural Philosophy: These are not without points of contact with the cosmo- logical theories of the old Greek philosophers, and even with those of the Gnostic and of the old pagan mythologies. The principal difference is that mod- em pantheistic paganism more completely excludes the free creative and formative operation of a per- sonal wUl. The most thoroughgoing in this direc- tion is materialism proper or logical sensualism, as found in the systems of English freethinkers and deists since Hobbes, the French Encyclopedists of the eighteenth century, and the scientific atom- istic theories of modem Germany, best known through Haeckel. This, excluding a personal Creator and all spirit-life, together with freedom, immortality, and all ethical principles, recognizes only abstract matter, divided into an infinite num- ber of hypothetical atoms, infinitely small, as the operative cause and explanation of all present and past phenomena of life. This view is most logically carried out in Czolbe's Neu$ DarsteUung des Sen- siuUiamus (Leipsic, 1855), according to which the world is without beginning as without end; matter exists from eternity, in its smallest atoms as well as in its organic forms; it is absolutely without begin- ning, coeval with the world-^soul, which may be considered as the principle which holds it together and vivifies it. See Enctclopedibts; and Mate- rialism. In contrast with this sensualistic theoiy of the eternity of the world. Pantheism (q.v.) considers the universe, both in matter and form, as temporal, but regards it as the efflux or inevitable evolution of an eternal power of idea which underlies it. Where this absolute idea is considered as a primeval union of spirit and nature, or of thinking and extended substance, separating in creation, it leads to the realistic form of the pantheist theory, as represented by Spinoza and Schelling; where it is conceived as being entirely without substance, as absolute spirit, the idealistic form results, which is represented by Fichte and Hegel. For both schools the accept- ance of a real creative act is impossible, since they deny any transcendence of God over nature, and consider it rather as a special form of divine exist- ence, as a phase of development or method of mani- festation of the divine principle dwelling in it and thus fully realizing itself. To all of these philoso- phers the world is practically an emanation of the primal divine spirit, a successive self-potentiation of the absolute idea, according to which this original nothing develops itself through the stages of ether, cosmic matter, coarse planetaiy matter, and or- ganic substance up to the existence, both material and spiritual, of animal and human organisms. For the formation of space and of the earth as a body the nebular hypothesis of Kant and Laplace is taken as a basis; for the origin of the geological structure of the earth, the quietistic theory of Lyell and his school; and for the analogous devel- opment of the organic species of the vegetable and animal kingdoms, the theory of evolution as held by Darwin and Spencer. m. The Creation Theories of the Older Judaism and the Judaizing Christianity of Many Fathers and Modem Theologians: In contrast with the systems already discussed, which emphasize the cosmogonic element at the expense of the mono- theistic, these latter dwell exclusively on God's action in creation, to the neglect of what may be accomplished by the powers and laws set in motion by him. 1. In Jndaiam Proper: Here not only is the creation of heaven and earth out of nothing strongly emphasized, but special stress is laid on the rela- tive nothingness or weakness of the creature in comparison with God (Wisd. xi. 23; Ps. xxiii. 6; Isa. xlviii. 13; Judith xvi. 18; Ps. xcvii. 5; Mic. i. 4; Rev. vi. 13). In harmony with the uncon- ditional supematuralism, nay, acosmism of such a view, it is not surprising to find the six creative days of Genesis taken in the strict literal sense, or even minimized into mere points of time in a defi- Or«ation and Preaervatlon 802 nite prearranged sequence. The last is the case especially with Philo» who, in spite of his Platonic acceptance of the eternity of matter, regards its formation into an orderly cosmos as a work which God could, if necessary, have accomplished in a moment, and which he divided into six days merely for the sake of orderly procedure. 8. In the Patristic Period: Here the absolute nothingness out of which God created the world is sharply emphasized, as by Tertidlian in oppo- sition to the dualism of the Gnostic Hermogenes, and by later representatives of the ecclesiastical creationism, such as Ambrose, Jerome, and the scholastics from Peter Lombard. Here again occurs the assertion that God needed no more than an instant for the creation of the world. The Alexandrian school especially followed Philo's view on this point; Clement even denies that the world was created in time, since time came into existence with created things. Origen, asserting the same thing, places over against it an eternally creative activity of God, which, indeed, he con- fines to the production of the spiritual world. Athanasius, Basil, and Gregory of Nyssa assert the same practically instantaneous and extratemporal creation; and so also Ambrose and Augustine in the West. The underlying thought of a creation not gradual but at once concluded, and the accom- panying proposition that the world was made " not in time, but with time," descended from Au- gustine and the schoolmen, and so to the common orthodox teaching. 8. In Kodem Timaa: Even here a certain Judai- sing or abstract monotheistic treatment of the sub- ject is to be noticed — not only among Roman Catholic theologians, but also within the boundaries of Protestantism, where the literal interpretation of the six days as six periods of twenty-four hours, generally given in orthodox dogmatics from Luther on, retained the extreme supematuralist character, left no space for organically independent elements, and brought on an inevitable conflict with the ascertained facts of geology and astronomy. These sciences have demonstrated the origin of the heav- enly bodies before the earth; the slow and gradual origin of the mountains and the strata of the earth's surface; and a long succession of many organisms, now for the most part vanished and evidenced only by fossil remains, as preliminaxy to those existing at present. On the other hand, it has been real- ized that the account in Genesis, so far from re- quiring a literal interpretation of the six days, lends itself readily to the explanation of indefinite periods of time — a view which is supported not only by the cosmogonic passages in Ps. civ. and Job xxxviii., but by the analogy of the old Persian and Babylonian legends of the creation, which are more or less parallel with the Scriptural narrative. Of the various h3rpotheses put forth by modem apologetics in order to reconcile the account in Genesis with geology and astronomy two deserve mention: one which admits the necessity of the long periods required for the formation of the earth, and conceives them as preceding the six days' work ; and one which denies the great duration of the pri- tiicval epochs, and considers the geological for- mations, with the petrifactions contained in them, to have originated after the creative process de- scribed in Gen. i. The latter of these is supported by reference to the flood described in Gen. vi-ix., with its accompanying cataclysms to which ancient legends testify. Its root-ideas are found as early as Tertullian and Hippolytus, and numerous mod- em writers have adopted the same mode of ex- plaining the presence of petrified shells and skele- tons of animals in geological formations. But while this theory has its value ss a protest against the extravagant assumptions of geologists, with their formative periods of thousands or even mil- lions of years, it is still untenable on purely scien- tific grounds. The other, sometimes known as the restitution theory, which places the formative period, of a length suflicient to satisfy geologists, before the six days' work, and regards this as a restoration or setting in order of the confused chaotic results of frequent cataclysms, is objection- able rather on exegetical grounds. This hypothesis, which commonly includes some traces of the par- tially Gnostic or Manichean idea of the interference of Satan and his demons in the process of creation, seems to have foimd its first expression in the Arminian theologian Episcopius; its serious scien- tific defense was first undertaken by J. G. Rosen- mQller in his Antiquisaima telluria historia (Ulm, 1776), while at the same time and later a number of theosophic writers used the idea of restitution in connection with the speculations of Bohme. What- ever its advantages in meeting the contentions of modem science, it is open to the obvious objection that the narrative in Genesis is clearly that of a primitive creation, not of a recreation, and in more than one of its details is irreconcilable with this theory. IV. The Normal Via Media between Jewish and Pagan Theories : In place of the restitution theory, now usually abandoned, there has been in modem times an attempt to harmonize the conclusions of science and religion by a direct parallel between the days of creation, taken as periods of indeterminate length, and the main epochs of geological develop- ment. This was made first by some of the anti- deistic apologists of the latter eighteenth century, and taken up by Cuvier, the founder of modem paleontology. He was followed by a large num- ber of both theologians and scientists, among others Hugh MiQer, J. D. Dana, F. de Rougemont, G. B. Pianciani, Delitzsch, Gilttler, Secchi, and PesneL This parallel, which is carried out in minute detail by some of its advocates, removes at least a part of the diflSculties offered at the first glance by the Scriptural account. Thus the objection that light was created before the sun, which came into being after the earth, is met by the assumption that the narrative in Gen. i. 14-19 is a purely optical or phe- nomenological one. Certain difficulties, to be sure, stiU remain unsolved, such as the relation of the six days or periods in the light of their different duration, and their separation from each other, which is given variously by different harmonista. The total number of the geological epochs is con- siderably more than six (according to some geolo- gists as many as twenty or thirty), so that a direct 303 Creation and Preaervmtioa combination of them with the six days is only pos- sible by a great reduction. In the way of a too specific harmonization stands also the fact that the Mosaic account postulates a gradual progression from vegetable to animal life, and within the latter from one class to another, while according to the geological history plants and animals must have been simultaneously present from the first. In any case, a too strict harmonizing is forbidden by the character of the Biblical narrative, which is not literally historical, but prophetically ideal; it is con- sidered as a sort of inverse prophecy even by some of the Fathers, such as Chrysostom and Severianus. The more this view of the Mosaic narrative is ac- cepted; the more it is realized that its author was intending not to teach the elements of geology, but to reveal the fundamental conceptions of theology; the more it is seen that his standpoint was that of religion, not of natural history, the clearer will it become that it is necessary to give up the idea of carrying out the reconciliation in every detail and to be content with establishing an ideal harmony in the main outlines. It is of no slight value to be able to include in this harmony the fundamental truths of the revealed accoimt: (1) the priority of the inorganic elements of the earth's constitution to the creation of oi^anisms; (2) the separate origin, in accordance with a definite plan, of the various species, orders, and classes of plants and animals; and (3) the constant rising of these representatives of the organic creation to man as the crown and dominant end of the entire process. This view, if properly realized, leads to a deeper speculative solution of the problem which does jus- tice also to the theological side of the whole sub- ject, its relations to the eternal being and life of the Godhead. . If the real Christian or concrete theistic idea of creation is to receive its proper de- velopment, it is of the utmost importance to con- ceive the act of creation as a product of the free Trinitarian self-determination of the personal God. This involves a full and exhaustive utilization of the Scriptural doctrine of the creation of all things through the Son as the absolute archetype of a universe which attains its perfection in the free intellectual life of man made in the image of God (John i. 1-3; Heb. i. 2; I Cor. viii. 6; Col. i. 16); and not less a careful speculative development of the idea of creation in the Spirit of God, or, in the Scriptural phrase, " by the breath of his mouth " — by the formative and vivifying principle from which proceed the organic disposition, differentiation, and development of the world created after the image and by the word of the Son (Ps. xxxiii. 6, civ. 30; Job xxxiii. 4; cf. Gen. i. 2). Through the conception of creation through the Son it is possible to set forth the true nature of the transcendence of God in his creative activity, while the idea of a creation in the Spirit of God brings the immanence of this activity vividly before the mind. The former doctrine serves to utilize what is true in deism for the Christian view, while the latter serves to utilize what is true in pantheism, especially the transmutation or development theory of the mod- em scientific pantheism. The former takes the abstract monotheistic view of Judaism, as the latter takes the polytheistic, atheistic, or pantheistic view of pagan thought, purifies them both from their one-sided or superstitious or fantastic elements and develops them into a truly Christian or con- crete monotheistic belief. V. Preservation of the World: In the form just outlined, the idea of creation by God is inseparably coimected with the idea of the preservation of the world by him. God's " rest " on the seventh day is not mentioned as a contrast with his activity on the preceding six, as a transition to idle inactivity, but merely, in accordance with the radical sense of the Hebrew word, denotes the completion of the work. The New Testament leaves no doubt of this interpretation of God's rest (John v. 17; Heb. iv. 1-10, ii. 3). The doctrine of the Church gives the same view of the relation of God's activity as creator and as preserver. The scholastics desig- nated the conservation of the world as a continuance of creation. Nor is this conservation merely nega- tive. What is required is, in the words of Baier, " a divine action which imports a continuous influ- ence upon created things, such as is convenient and necessary for each according to its nature, to the end that they may be able to continue in their essence and power." This influence is of funda- mental importance; together with God's trans- cendence, his immanence must be asserted. The creation, the preservation, and the governance of the world are an inseparable group of divine activities. The doctrine in regard to the preservation of the world attains special importance on account of its points of contact with the modem scientific doc- trine of evolution. These are sufficiently numerous, since the created world nowhere presents itself to us in any other shape than aa a development from lower stages and forms of life to higher and higher ones. God preserves the universe which he has created, not as a lifeless machine eternally standing still, but in a condition of progressive motion; the preservation of the world is practically equivalent to the development of the world. In this doctrine of the preservation of the universe is the point of connection for whatever elements of truth are con- tained in the theories of Kant and Laplace on the formation of the world and in Darwin's theory of the origin of species; and, though they may be received with caution in the province of the history of creation, freer play may and must be allowed to them in that of the preservation of the world. See Evolution. (Q. ZdcKLBRf.) Biblioorapht: The most convenient book for a study of comparative cosmology is P. D. C. de la Saussaye, Lehr- buck der ReligionsgeMehi/^Ue, 2 vols., Tflbingen, 1005. Consult: H. Faye, Sur Vorigine du monde. ThSorieB oos- mogoniguea dea ancient et det modemea, Paris, 1885; E. B. Tylor. Brimiiive Culture, London, 1003; F. Lukaa, Orund- hegriffe tu den Koamogonien der <Uten V6lker, Leipflic, 1803. For special cosmogonies: A. V. W. Jackson, Iraniache Religion, Strasburg, 1000; J. Dpfmesteter, Ormuad el Ahriman, Paris, 1877; P. JenmtC\oamoloaie der Bahy lonier, Strasburg, 1800; G. ^tfasp^ro,^ Davm of Civiliza- tion, London, 1806; R. Pietschmann, OeadiidUe der Phdnicier, Berlin, 1880; G. St. Clair, Creation Recorda in Egypt, London. 1808; H. W. Wallis. Coemology of the Rigveda, London. 1887; £. H. Meyer. Die Eddiache Koe- mogoniet Freiburg. 1801; J. Curtin, Creation Mytha of Oreation and Preserratioii Orete in the Apostolic A^e 804 PrimiHve America, Boston, 1898; D. G. Brinton, Mytha of (he New World, Philadelphia, 1896. On the Genesis narrative and its relations to the Baby- lonian account the later commentaries should be con- suited. One of the best single works is H. E. Ryle, Early NarraUvea of Oeneeia, London, 1892. Consult: W. Bau- dissin. Studien gur semtiMcften Relioumageeehichte, Leipsio, 187(V-78; J. H. Oswald, Die Sehdpfungelehre, Paderbom. 1885; H. Gunkel, Sd^Opfuno und Chaoe, Gottingen, 1895 (a remarkable book); L. T. Townsend, EvoltUion or Crea^ tion, Retfiew of the Scientifie and Scriptural Theoriee of Creation, New York. 1896; H. Radau, Creation Story of Gen. i., Chicago, 1902 (highly oonunended); Schrader, KAT. For the classical philosophy of oreation consult the works on history of philosophy by J. £. Erdman, 3 vols., London. 1893; W. Windelband, New York, 1901; P. Janet and O. Sdailles, HUtory of the ProUeme of Philoeo- phy, 2 vols., ib. 1903. For the Gnostic and Manichean cosmologies see works dted under Gnobticibm and Mani- CHEANS. On late Jewish thought consult: A. Schmidl, Studien Hber jiidiaehe . . . Reliffionephiloeophie, Vienna, 1869; J. Guttmann, Die Scholaetik dee dreitehnten Jahrhundertaf Breslau, 1902. The following treat the subject from the scientific or philosophic standpoint: J. W. Dawson, Origin of the World, London, 1886; C. Wolf, Lee Hypothtaee eoemogo- niQuee, Paris, 1886; D. Nys, Le ProbUme coemdoffique, Louvain, 1888; C. Braun, U^ter Koamogonie vom Stand- punkt chriMicher Wieaenechaft, Mftnater, 1889; E. Mao- Lennan. CoanUoal Evolution, ib. 1890; £. H. P. A. Haeckel, Hiatory of Creation, ib. 1892; idem, Creation or Development, ib. 1899; Riddle of the Univerae, New York. 1900 (all of Haeckel's works are evolutionistic); T. Mitchell, Coamogony, ib. 1894; R. 8. Foster, Creation, Ood in Time and Space, ib. 1895; J. Guibert, In tfie Beginning, Lon- don. 1900; J. M. E. McTaggart, Studiea in Hegelian Coa- mology. New York, 1901; F. Paulsen, Problem of Coamolr bgy, ib. 1902. From the theological standpoint: O. Zdckler, Oeachichte der Betiehungen swiachen Theologie und Naturufiaaen^ achaft, 2 vols., Gfltersloh. 1877-79; W. H. Dallinger, The Creator and . . . Method of Creation, hondon, 1881; £. de Preasens^. Lee Originea, Paris, 1883, Eng. transl., London, 1887; A. B. Bruce, Providential Order of the World, ib. 1897; A. Wagenmann, Daa Syatem der Welt, vol. i., Cann- statt, 1905; R. Schmid, Naturwiaaenachaftlidiea Olaubena- bekenntnia einea Theologen, Stuttgart, 1906. On the preservation of the world: J. McCosh, Method of Divine Government, London, 1870; R. A. Lipsius, Die gbtUiche Weltregierung, Frankfort. 1878; W. W. Smyth, The Government of Ood, London, 1882; A. A. Hodge. Rela- tion of God to the World, in Preabyterian and Reformed Re- view, 1887, pp. 1-15; W.Schmidt, Die gOttliche VoraO^ ung und daa SefbatUben der Welt, Berlin, 1887; F. Bettex, SymbolUc der Schdpfung und ewige Natur, Bielefeld, 1898. CREATIONISM See Soul and Spirit.

CREDENCE TABLE: A small table or shelf at one side of the altar in Roman Catholic and Anglican churches, on which the bread and wine, and some- times the sacred vessels, are placed at the beginning of the service.

CREDNER, KARL AUGUST: New Testament scholar; b. atWaltershausen (7 m. w.s.w. of Gotha), Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Jan. 10, 1797; d. at Giessen July 16, 1857. He studied at Jena (1817) and at Breslau (1817-21). Being rejected by the Halle missionary society for service in the East Indies owing to his reluctance to bind himself to a definite creed, he went to Göttingen and studied and taught privately there from 1821 till 1825. From 1825 to 1827 he was tutor at Hanover. In 1828 he became privat-docent, in 1830 extraordinary professor at Jena, and in 1832 ordinary professor of New Testa- ment exegesis and church history in Giessen, where his chief literary work was done. He had rational- istic tendencies, which became more marked as he grew older. Nevertheless, his labors as a Biblical critic, especially his investigations of the origin of the New Testament books and of the history of its canon, had value which is generally acknowledged, not only because of their richness of information, but also for the clearness and objectivity of pres- entation. His principal works were: Beilrdge gur EirUeitung in die biblischen Schriften (2 vols., Halle, 1832-38); EinUUung in daa Neue Testament (1836), generally considered his chief work, although never finished; Zvr Qeschichle des Kanons (1847); Ge- 8ckichte de8 neutestamentlichen Kanons (ed. after his death G. Volkmar, Berlin, 1860). (O. Z6CKLERt.) Bibuoobafht: W. BaldeiupeiVBr, Karl Attguat Kredner, aein Leben und aeine Theologie, Leipeie, 1897 (addren on the centenary of Credner's birth); ADB, iv. 575 sqq. CREEDS AlID CONFESSIONS. See Stmboucs. CREI6HT0N, crS'tun, MANDELL: Bishop of London; b. at Carlisle July 5, 1843; d. in London Jan. 14, 1901. He studied at Merton College, Ox- ford (B.A., 1867; M.A., 1870), and was feUow and tutor of his college, 1866-75, during which time he devoted himself to historical work and lectured chiefly on ecclesiastical, Italian, and Byzantine history. He was ordained deacon in 1870, priest in 1873. In 1875 he became vicar of Embleton, Northumberland, and in 1884 he went to Cambridge as Dixie professor of ecclesiastical history and fel- low of Emmanuel. He was appointed bishop of Peterborough in 1891, and was transferred to Lon- don in 1897. He was select preacher at Oxford 1875-77, 1883, 1886-88, at Cambridge 1887; ex- amining chaplain to the bishop of Newcastle, 1882- 1883, to the bishop of Worcester, 1886-90; w^as nom- inated canon of Worcester 1886, of Windsor 1890; honorary fellow of Merton, Oxford, 1889, of Em- manuel, Cambridge, 1891. At the time of his death he was member of the Privy Council, dean of Her Majesty's Chapels Royal, provincial dean of Can- terbury, and a member of many official boards and learned societies in England and abroad. His trans- ference to the episcopate deprived the study of church histoiy of one of its best exponents, while it involved him in cares and anxieties which short- ened his days. It is much to be regretted that his history of the papacy, which was intended to cover the entire period of the Reformation, only goei down to the sack of Rome in 1527. Bishop Creighton was one of the greatest of mod- em English churchmen, an extraordinarily bril- liant man, who distinguished himself in eveiy sphere which he filled — as student at Oxford, as vicar of a country parish, as teacher at Cambridge, and as bishop. He was a man of affairs, a states- man, as weU as a scholar. He was a good preacher and much in demand as speaker on social and official occasions. He represented Emmanuel O)!- lege at the 250th anniversary of Harvard in 1886, and the English Church at the coronation of the Czar Nicholas II. at Moscow in 1896. As bishop of London he was confronted by serious difficulties owing to ritualistic controversies, and, although a High-churchman himself, he followed a conciliatory course, aiming to establish true liberalism. His 805 Oreation and Preservation Orate in the Apostolic Age chief books were: A Primer of Raman History (London, 1876); The Age of Elizabeth, The Tudors and the Reformation, and Simon de Montfort (1876); The Shilling History of England (1879); A History of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation, his chief work, but left incomplete (5 vols., 1882- 1894; 2d ed., A History of the Papacy from the Great Schism to the Sack of Rome, 6 vols., 1897); Cardinal Wolsey (1888); Carlisle (1889); Persecution and Tolerance, Hulsean lectures at Cambridge, 1893-94 (London, 1895); The Early Renaissance in Eng- land, Rede lecture at Cambridge, 1895 (Cambridge, 1895); The English National Character, Romanes lecture at Oxford, 1896 (London, 1896); Queen Elizabeth (1896; 2d ed., 1899); The Heritage of the Spirit and Other Sermons (1896); Church and State (1897); The Story of Some English Shires, papers on certain counties which he had visited on pedestrian and other tours (1897); Lessons from the Cross, Addresses Delivereid in St. Paul's Cathedral during Holy Week 1898 (1898); The Position of the Church of England, an address delivered at ruridecanal con- ferences in the diocese of London, 1898 (1899); The Church and the Nation, charge to the clergy of the Diocese of London 1900 (1900). He was one of the founders of The English Historical Review and its editor 1886-91. The following volumes ap- peared posthumously, edited by his wife: Church and Nation : Charges and Addresses (1901 ) ; Thoughts on Education : Speeches and Sermons (1902); /fis- torical Essays and Reviews (1902); Historical Lec- tures and Addresses (1903); University and Other Sermons (1903); The Mind of St, Peter and Other Sermons (1904); Claims of the Common Life (1905); Counsel for the Young (1905). Bibliography: Mandell Creighton, hU Life and LMen^ 5y Am TFi/e, London, 1004; Dl^B^ supplement voL, ii. 82-^.

CREMER, AUGUST HERMANN : German theo- logian; b. at Unna (30 m. s. of Münster) Oct. 18, 1834; d. at Greifswald Oct. 4, 1903. He studied at Halle and Tübingen, and in 1859 was appointed pastor at Ostdnnen, near Soest, Westphalia. Eleven years later he became professor of systematic theology at Greifswald, and pastor of St. Mary's. Cremer was a prolific writer, his principal works being as follows: Die eschatologische Rede Jesu Christi, Matthdi £4. £5 (Stuttgart, 1860); Ueber den hiblischen Begriff der Erbauung (Leipsic, 1863); Ueber die W under im Zusammenhang der gottlichen Offenbarung (1865); Biblisch-theologi- sches Worterbuch der neutestamentlichen Gräcität (Gotha, 1866-67; 9th ed., 1902; Eng. transl. by W. Urwick, Edinburgh, 1872); Vemunft, Gewissen und Offenbarung (Gotha, 1869; Eng. transl. by D. Heagle, Boston, 1871); Die Auferstehung der Todten (Barmen, 1870); Der GoU dee Alien Bundes (1872); Ueber die Befdhigung zum geistlichen Amte (1878); Die Btbel im Pfarrhaus und in der Ge- meinde (1878); Ueber den Zustand nach dem Tode, nebst einigen Andeutungen aber das Kindersterben und aber den Spiritismus (Gtitersloh, 1883; Eng. transl. by S. T. Lowrie, Beyond the Grave, New York, 1885); Zum Kampf um das Apostdikum (7th ed., Berlin, 1893); Glaube, Schrift und heilige GeschichU (Giltersloh, 1896); Die christliche Lehre von den Eigenschaften Gottes (Grotha, 1899); Die HI.— 20 paulinische Rechtfertigungslehre im Zusammenhang ihrer geschichtlichen Voraussetzungen (2d ed., Gu- tersloh, 1900); Taufe, WiedergebuH und Kinder- taufe (1900); Weissagung und Wunder (1900); Bedeutung des Artikels von der Oottheit Christi fUr die Ethik (1901); Das Wesen des Christenthums (1901; Eng. transl. by B. Pick, Reply to Hamack, on the Essence of Christianity, New York, 1903); and GrundvjahrheUen der christlichen Religion nach D. Seeberg (1903). Biblzogbapht: A%iouat Hermann Cremer, OedenkbliUier, GO- tersloh. 1904. CRESPIN, cr6''pah', JEAN: French Protestant; b. at Arras c. 1520; d. at Geneva 1572. He studied law at Lou vain. In 1540 he was in Paris, where he worked with his friend F. Baudouin under the celebrated advocate C. du Moulin, and became himself advocate at the Parliament of Paris. He became interested in the doctrine of the Reformed Church and, upon his return to his native town, his relations with the Protestants caused him to be treated as a heretic. In 1545 he went to Strasburg, where he married. In 1548 he was able to realize his dearest wish and live near his friend Calvin; with his family he settled in Geneva, where he established a printing-press. In 1555 he received citizenship. Like other printers and publishers of his time he also wrote books, viz.: Le Livre des Martyrs (Geneva, 1554); RecueU de plusieurs per^ sonnes qui ont constamment enduri la mart pour le nam de N. S. J. C, depuis Jean Hus jusqu'di cette anrUe prisenie 1554 (1555); Indice et concordance des choses contenues d la Bible (1554); Le Marchand converti, tragidie nouvelle (1558); Histoire des vrays timoins de la v4rit4 de VJ^vangHe depuis Jean Hus jusqu'h prisent (1570). G. Bonbt-Maurt. Bibuographt: E. and £. Haas, La France proteetante, ed. H. L. Bordier, vol. iv., Paris, 1884; Bibliographie dee martyrologee proteetanie Nierlandaie, The HacuBt 1800; Lichtenberger, ESR, iii. 471-474. CRETE m THE APOSTOLIC AGE: Crete, once the flourishing " isle of the hundred cities," was entirely devastated in the last century before Christ by continual civil wars, and for the countries of the Mediterranean it became a continuous menace on account of the pirates who swarmed there. In the Cretan war (68-67 B.C.) the proconsul Quintus Metellus subdued the icdand. He also began its organization as a province, which organization was completed 66 B.C. by Pompey. In the year 27 B.C. after the death of Antony its administration was united by Octavian with that of Cyrene, and the name of the province varied between Creta- Cyrene or Crete and C!yrene (Dio Cass., LIII. xiL 4; Strabo, xvii. 3, 840). It belonged to the senate and was governed by a propretor with the title proconsid. Among the cities which in the time of the Romans were connected with the government seated in Crete were the famous Gortyna, Kydonia, and Knossos; the latter was a Roman colony. When Paul on his voyage as a prisoner (Acts xxviL 7) had come to Crete his ship passed over against Salmone. Sailing along the southern coast one comes to Fair Havens, near the city of Matala. The city of Lasea can not be located. The haven of Phcenix which the sailors wished to reach (Acts Oretonl Cromwell 806 xxvii. 12) is called by Ptolemy (III. xvii. 3) " Har- bor of Phoenice "; he caUa the idand Klaudos (III. xvii. 11). The population of Crete contained a strong Semitic element. From I Mace. xv. 23 it is clear that Jews lived there (in Gortyna; cf . also Josephus, Ant., XVII. adL 1; Wan, IL ciiL; Philo, Legal, ad Cajum, i 36, ii. 587, ed. Biangey). The "Cretans" mentioned Acts ii. 11 were Cretan Jews or prose- Ijrtes. The bad reputation of the population of Crete is referred to in Titus i. 12, where is given (R. V.) the translation of the well-known hexameter, " Cretans are always liars, evil beasts, idle gluttons," said by Clhrysostom to have been derived from Epimenides, the priestly seer and miracle-worker, one of the seven wise men. The Greek had a verb formed from the noun which meant " to lie and deceive "; " to Crete a Cretan " meant " to outwit a knave." (Johannes Wkibs.) Bibuookapht: Beaidas the commentaries on Acts, there may be consulted Sabatier, in lichtenberfer. E8R, tii. 474^75; DB, L 105-620; SB, I 95&-9M, CRETONI, SBRAFmO: Cardinal; b. at Soriano (7 m. e. of Viterbo), Italy, Sept. 4, 1833; d. at Rome Feb. 3, 1909. He was educated at Rome, became archivist of the Propaganda, secretary of the committee for Oriental affairs at the Vatican Council, and councilor at the Holy Office. In 1877 he was sent by Pius IX. to the general chapter of the Armenian Mekhitarists at Venice, but was re- called by Leo XIII. and appointed assistant secre- tary of state, 1879. In 1880 he returned to the Propaganda as secretary for Oriental affairs, and in 1889 became an assessor of the Holy Office. In 1893 he was consecrated titular archbishop of Damascus, and went as papal nuncio to Madrid, where he remained three years. In 1896 he was created cardinal priest of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, and in 1900 became prefect of the Congregation of Indulgences. After 1903 he was prefect of the Con- gregation of Rites. He was a member of the Con- gregations of Bishops and Regulars, the Councils, Supervision of Provincial Councils, the Propaganda, the Propaganda for the Oriental Rite, and Cere- monials, as well as of the Laurentian Congregation.

CRISP, TOBIAS: Antinomian; b. in London 1600; d. there Feb. 27, 1643. He took his first degree at Cambridge, then removed to Balliol College, Oxford {M.A., 1626; D.D., before 1642); in 1627 became rector of Brinkworth, Wiltshire; removed to London in 1642 because of persecution from royalist soldiers. At first he was a rigid Arminian, but later went to the opposite extreme, and after going to London was fiercely attacked as an Antinomian by the ministers there. Anthony Wood says (AthencB, iii. 50, ed. P. Bliss, London, 1817): "He was baited by fifty-two opponents in a grand dispute concerning the freeness of the grace of God, in Jesus Christ, to poor sinners. By which encounter, which was eagerly managed on his part, he contracted a disease that brought him to his grave." His life is described as innocent and up- right, " zealous and fervent of all good." He made himself popular at Brinkworth by the lavish hospitality which his private fortune enabled him to extend. His sermons were published after his death with the title Christ Alone Exalted (4 vols., 1643-83); they were collected by his son (London, 1690), and were republished by Dr. John Gill, with notes and brief memoir (2 vols., 1791). CRISPIN AND CRISPIHIAlfySAniTS: Twobroth- era of good Roman family, who, it is said, went to Gaul in the beginning of the reign of Diodetian to labor for the conversion of the pagans. They set- tled at Soissons, where they preached with much success by day and labored at night at their trade of shoemaking (whence they have become the patron saints of shoemakere), sellhig the shoes to the poor; according to a tradition they stole the leather that they mi^t sell at a low price. They were put to death with cruel tortures by the governor in 287. Their day is Oct. 26. Bibuoorapht: ASB, Oct., ad. 485-640; F. Gdma. in JPT, ziu (1887), part 2. CRinCI SACRI: A thesaurus of Bible antiq- uities and exegesis, undertaken as an appendage to Walton's Polyglot at the instigation and expense of (Cornelius Bee, a London bookseller, and pre- pared under the direction of John Pearson, mAt- deacon of Surrey (afterward bishop of (tester); Anthony Scattergood, canon of Lincoln; Francis Gouldman, rector of South Ockendon, Essex; and Richard Pearson, fellow of King's College (brother of John). The full title is Critici sacri : nve doctissimarum virorum in SS. BMia annota- tianee et tractatru (9 vols., London, 1660). The work combines the labors of many of the best English and Continental scholars of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.* It was reprinted twice at Frankfort, and a new edition, augmented and provided with index, appeared at Amsterdam in nine volumes, 1698. The Thesaurue theologico- phUotogictLS eive aylloge diseertoHonum ekganHortan ad eelecHora et iUustriora VeterU et Novi Testamenti loca, a theologie Protestantibus in Gennania wepa- ralimdiverne temporibue oonscnpUxrum (2 vols., folio, 1701-02) and the Theeaums novue theUogtoo-phHo- logicus (2 vols., 1732), both works edited by Theo- dor Hase and Cionrad Iken, constitute a supplement. The Synopsis criticorum of Matthew Poole (q.v.) is an abridgment of the original work with addi- tional matter. For contents of the Critiei saeri consult James Darling, Cyclopaedia Bibliographica (London, 1864), 816-826.

CROALL LECTURES: A lectureship on a foun- dation created by a bequest of £6,000 by Mr. John Croall. The aim is to defend and maintain the doctrines of the Christian religion and "to in- crease the religious literature of Scotland." The lectures are delivered in alternate years in Edin- burgh, the lecturer is by preference from one or other of the Presbyterian churches of Scotland, * In » note from *' Cornelius Bee to the reader " it is seid: *' If any one should be disposed to blame us either for the great sise of the work or because of its priee, let him know that we have aimed both to benefit him and to save him money. For here about ninety books, in their entirety, are brought together into nine, and fifty pounds more or less (you would find it hard to buy them all for leas at the present time, if you oould get them at all) are reduced to fifteen. So there is no good reason why any one should find fault with us; on the contrary, every one should fed much satisfaction." 807 Oreteal OromwdU though he may be a " clergyman of any Reformed Church other than Presbyterian," and may not be reappointed. The first lecturer, in 1875-76, was John Tulloch, and his subject was The Christian Doctrine of Sin (Edinburgh, 1877). A full list of lecturers and their subjects is given in L. H. Jor- dan, Comparative Religion^ p. 668, New York, 1906.

CROCIUS, JOHANNES: Reformed theologian; b. at Laasphe (36 m. 8.8.e. of Amsberg), in the county of Wittgenstein, Germany, July 28, 1690; d. at Marburg July 1, 1669. After studying at Herbom and Mai^ buig, he became, in 1612, court preacher to the Land- grave Maurice in Cassel and obtained the degree of doctor of theology 1613. With the permission of his prince he entered for two years the service of the elector John Sigismund of Brandenburg, who in 1617 appointed him professor of theology at the University of Marburg. In 1624 he was obliged to return to Cas- sel, in consequence of the closing of the university. During this period he played a great part in the Hes- sian Church, which had gone over to the Reformed confession, and in the time of the Thirty Years' War he wrote in support of the political demands of the Reformed party in Germany. His chief work was a polemic against Roman Catholic attacks: Anti- Becanue i.e. controveraiarum communium, qtuis M. Becanus ... in manuali movU examen ex S, S, et antiquitate inetUidum (Cassel, 1643). In 1631 he took part in the religious conference at Leipsic between Lutheran and Reformed theologians. At the reopening of the Reformed university in Mar- burg in 1663 he returned thither, and became its first rector. He had a great share in the church order published by Landgrave Louis VI. in 1667. Carl Mirbt. Bibliography: F. C. Qaua, JohannM CroduB, Maxburg, 1857; F. W. Strieder. Heuiache GeUhriengesehieKU, ii. 397 sqq.. Gdttingen, 1782; H. Heppe, OetchiehU d§r theo- hffiadun FakulUU xu Marburg, Harburs, 1873.

CROMWELL, OLIVER: Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England; b. at Huntingdon (17 m. n.w. of Cambridge), Huntingdonshire, Apr. 26, 1699; d. in London Sept. 3, 1658. He entered Cambridge University in 1616, but left it a year later to care for his mother and sisters on his father's death. In 1628 he was elected to Parlia- ment from Huntingdon, from which town he removed to Ely in 1636. In 1640 he was again sent to the House of Commons, this time from Cambridge, and in the Long Parliament he soon took his stand in opposition to the royal preroga- tive. In 1642 he moved the appointment of a committee to put the kingdom in a posture of defense, and, when Essex received the commission to raise a parliamentary army, raised a troop of arquebusiers, sixty Godfearing men who fought first at Edgehill. Early in his career, when the modem idea of religiouB liberty was in its infancy, he took a de- cided stand in its favor, with the Defense of younger Vane but against the great Religious majority of those who fought on his Liberty, side. In defense of his Independent principles, he had to contend not only against the attempt of the Scotch to force their rigid Presbyterianism upon England, but with the English Presbyterians who had a majority in the House of Commons, and hampered and weakened the army because it was not in sympathy with their narrow views. Their action forced Cromwell into open opposition to Parliament, in favor of the liberty proclaimed in Milton's Areopagiiica (1644) and Jeremy Taylor's lAbeHy of Prophesying (1647). In July, 1647, Cromwell and his son-in-law Ireton submitted to the king the treaty known as the " Heads of the Proposals," which if carried into effect would have been the settlement of 1689 with a laiger flavor of democracy and Puritanism, and left all forms of worship, including the Prayer- book, to the free choice of the worshipers. In all his efforts Cromwell's aim had been to strengthen toleration by intertwining it with the old con- stitutional pillars of king and parliament; but he found out by degrees that nothing was to be hoped for from the king, and ultimately sat as a member of the High Court of Justice which tried and exe- cuted him, contributing more than any other mem- ber to the result. In the following August he was made lord- lieutenant and commander in chief in Ireland, and put down opposition with a strong Rise to hand. Appointed captain-general of Power, all the forces of the Commonwealth (June 26, 1660), he marched into Scotland, and won the successive victories of Dun- bar, Edinburgh, and Perth. The battle of Worces- ter (Sept. 3, 1661) ended the war, and Oomwell returned to London. In April, 1663, he dissolved the " Rump " Parliament and formed a council of state. After the " Little " or " Barebones " Par- liament had sat from July to December, he was installed at Westminster (Dec. 16) as Lord Protector under the conditions of the ** Instrument of Gov- ernment " drawn up by the militaiy power. One of the early important measures of the Pro- tectorate was the establishment of a new scheme of church government. The minister presented to a living was to have a certificate of fitness from three persons of known godliness and integrity, one of them being a settled minister. After this had been passed by commissioners known as Triers, he became an incumbent, liable to expulsion by a local body of Ejectors for immorality, blasphemy, or atheism; but while he remained he might uphold any Puritan system he chose, and organize his con- Pdlicyof gregation on the Presbyterian, Inde- Protect- pendent, or Baptist system, if they orate. would follow him. Any who ob- jected to the system adopted in their parish might form separate congregations at their own discretion. Later on, toward the close of 1666, the Jews, who had been exiled from England since the reign of Edward I., were allowed to return. But ultimately the position held by the Prayer- book as a symbol of attachment to royalty drove Cromwell to proscribe its use as thoroughly as that of the mass; yet the persecution along this line was sharp only for a time, and on the other hand he stood forth before all Europe as the champion of religious liberty by his espousal of the cause of the Vaudois Protestants against the duke of Savoy, and his foreign policy looked toward the establish- Oromwell Oroas and It« XTse 808 ment of an alliance which shotild uphold Protes- tantism everywhere. Though he was limited by the defects which make imperfect the character of the best of men, it has been generally admitted, now that old preju- dices have passed away (especially since the publi- cation of Carlyle's great work), that Modem Cromwell was a man of sincere devo- Estimate. tion to duty and to his ideal of what a Christian man shoidd be. No sour fanatic, he was strict in banishing not merely vice, but the folly which leads to vice. Long reviled as a regicide, a hypocrite, and a tyrant, he is now recognized as a patriotic, wise, and just ruler. Bduoorapbt: A diacriixdiuitinc eriticiam of literature prior to 1887 may be found at the end of the article in the DNB, adii. 165-186. The only early life of value is H. Fletcher. TU Perfect PoUHeian . . . T%« Life of O. Cromwell^ London, 1660. Consult : O. Cromwell, Mem^ otra of the Protector . . . and of hie Sone Ridtard and Henry^ 2 vols., London, 1823 (by a deaoendant and in apologetic tone); T. Carlyle, Oliver CromvfeU*e LetUre and Speediee, 3 vols., London, 1846, reprinted often, e.g., 1906 (a vindication of Cromwell, turned the eurrent of opin- ion eonoemins the subject); D. Masson, Life of MUion^ 6 vols., Cambridge. 1867-80 (indispensable); J. Forster, Lives of Eminent Staleemen of the ConunanweaUh^ vol. i., London, 1863 (adverse); F. P. G. Ouisot. Life of Oliver CromwdL, 0th ed., ib. 1899; J. A. Pioton, Oliver CrwnvoeU, the Man and hie Mieeion, ib. 1889 (defensive); 8. R. Qt- diner, Hiet. of the CommonweaUh and Protectorate, 1849- 00, London, 1894; idem, Oliver Cromwell, ib. 1903; 8. H. Church, Oliver Cromwell, Life, Eztraete from LeUere and 8pee(hee, New York and London, 4th ed., 1899; J. Morley. OUver CromweU, ib. 1904. From the view of church history: W. Clark, Anglioan Reformation, pp. 396. 428-429, 436^M0, New York, 1897; J. H. Overton, The Church in England, ii. 114-119, London, 1897; W. H. Hutton, The EnoUeh Chwrch . . . iet&-1714, ib. 1903. An interesting volume is Menaeeeh Ben lerai^e Mieeion to Oliver Crom- weU. A Reprint, ed, L. Wolf, ib. 1901.

CROOKER, JOSEPH HENRY: Unitarian; b. at Foxcroft, Me., Dec. 8, 1850. He was educated at Norway, Me. (1864-67), and Ypsilanti Union Sem- inary (1870), and after a Baptist ministry of five years became a convert to Unitarianism in 1877. He held charges at Madison, Wis. (1881-91), Hel- ena, Mont. (1891-97), and Ann Arbor, Mich. (1898- 1905). Since 1905 he has been minister of Ros- lindale Unitarian Church, Boston. He has written Jesus Brought Back (Boston, 1889); Problems in American Society (1889); Different New Testament Views of Jesus (1890); The New Bible and its New Uses (1893); The Unitarian Church (1901); Relig- ious Freedom in American Education (1903); and The Supremacy of Jesus (1904).

CROOKS, GEORGE RICHARD: Methodist; b. in Philadelphia Feb. 3, 1822; d. in Madison, N. J., Feb. 20, 1897. He was graduated at Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., 1840; became teacher in the grammar-school of the college 1842, its prin- cipal 1843, adjunct professor of Latin and Greek in the college 1846; was pastor in Philadelphia, Wil- mington, New York, and Brooklyn 1848-^; pro- fessor of historical theology in Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, N. J., 1880 till his death. In the General Conference of 1856 he led the move- ment which sanctioned theological seminaries in the Methodist Church, and he aimed steadily at higher ideals of culture for the ministry. From 1860 to 1875 he edited The Methodist. With John F. Hurst he prepared an adaptation of Hagen- bach's EncydopcBdia and Methodology (New York, 1884); independently he published an edition of Butler's Analogy, containing a life and completion of Emory's analysis (1852); The Life and Letters of Rev. Dr. John McClintock (1876); the Sermons (1885) and Life (1890) of Bishop Matthew Simpson; The Story of the Christian Church (1897). CROSBY, FANNY (FRANCES JANE YAH AL- STYHE): Hymn-writer; b. at South East, N. Y., Mar. 24, 1820. She became totally blind in in- fancy, and was educated at the New York Institute for the Blind, where she taught En^ish grammar and rhetoric, as well as Greek, Roman, and Amer- ican history, 1847-58, when she married Alexan- der Van Alstyne, a blind man. She has written more than three thousand hymns, among the best known being " Safe in the arms of Jesus; " " Jesus, keep me near the Cross; " " Pass me not, O gentle Savior; " " Rescue the perishing; " and " Sweet hour of prayer." She has also written The Blind Girl and other Poems (New York, 1844); Monterey and other Poems (1849); A Wreath of Columbia's Flowers (1859); Bells at Evening and other Poems, with biographical Sketch by Robert Lowry, 1898 (5th ed., 1903); and Memories of Eighty Years (1907).

CROSBY, HOWARD: Presbyterian; b. in New York Feb. 27, 1826; d. there Mar. 29, 1891. He was graduated at the University of the City of New York 1844; was professor of Greek there 1851-59, at Rutgers College 1859-63; was also pastor of the First Presbyterian Church of New Brunswick 1861- 1863; pastor of the Fourth Avenue Presbyterian Church, New York, 1863 till his death. From 1870 to 1881 he was chancellor of the New York Univer- sity; member of the American Bible Revision Committee; moderator of the General Assembly at Baltimore 1873. He advocated Christian union, favored a restriction of wealth, and was outspoken in behalf of temperance in the proper meaning of the word (not total abstinence). He assisted in organizing the Young Men's Christian Association of New York and was its president 1852-55; he was also the chief founder of the Society for the Prevention of Crime in 1877 and its president till his death. Besides occasional pamphlets, articles, etc., he published Lands of the Moslem, travels (New York, 1851); an edition of the (Edipus Tyrannus of Sophocles (1852);' The New Testa- ment with Brief Explanatory Notes or Scholia (1863); Social Hints for Young Christians, three sermons (1866); BibU Manual (1870); Jesus, his Life and Work (1871); The Healthy Christian, an appeal to the Church (1871); Thoughts on the Decalogue (Philadelphia, 1873); Expository Notes on the Book of Joshua (New York, 1875); Nehemiah in the American Lange series (1877); The Christian Preacher, Yale lectures on preaching for 1879-80 (1880); The True Humanity of Christ (1880); The New Testament in Both Authorised and Revised Versions Carefully Annotated (Boston, 1885); The Bible View of the Jewish Church (New York, 1888); The Good and Evil of Calvinism (1890); The Seven Churches of Asia, or v)orldliness in the Church (1890); Will and Providence (1890). A volume of Sermons 809 Oromwell Oroas and It« XTse appeared in New York, 1891, and At the Lord^s TabU, 1894. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hotpard Crotby, Memorial Paptrt and Rem- inuoenceM, New York, 1892. CROSS AND ITS USE AS A SYKBOL. The Sign of the Cross ({ 1). Its Form (S 2). Am an Amulet. Ecclesiastical Symbolism ({ 3). The Croos in Art. Different Forms ({ 4). Similar Pre-Christian Symbols ({ 6). The significance and importance of the cross in Christianity are obviously due to its association with the death of Jesus. Its use as an instrument of torture and capital pimishment, and the cross of Jesus are treated under the headhig Crucifixion. Other topics are most conveniently discussed in connection with the symbolism of the cross, to which this article will be in the main devoted. Its historical associations and its connection with the salvation of men made the cross the emblem of Christianity even from the beginning. The sym- bolic act known as the sign of the cross appears veiy early, signifying, of course, Christ's death on the cross; but inevitably importance X. The Sign came to be attached to the mere act of the and it was believed to be helpful in Croes. securing the blessing and efficacy of this holy event and of the exalted Christ. As early bs about the middle of the second century a superstitious conception and application had so far developed that the popular faith of the Church, not without support from theology, sought by performing the act a powerfid device against the will of demons, by whom people imagined themselves beset and threatened. The expedient wajs also applied in case of sickness and other perils, before battle and elsewhere. The sign was usu- ally made on the forehead, but also on other parts of the body, which were supposed to need its protect- ive operation. The sign is also used contempo- raneously in public worship, as conferring a blessing or consecration and protection against the ungodly world. Its supposed efficacy comes to light espe- cially in exorcism. Possibly the pagan reproach of cross-worship had some connection with this comprehensive practise. The medieval development occasioned in some respects a very considerable increase in the use of the sign of the cross in public worship. The West- em Church exhibits the double form of the so-called Latin and the so-called German sign of the cross. The former is made by touching the a. Its Form, forehead and breast and then the left and the right shoulder with the open right hand; using the formula: In nomine patris et filii et apiriius aancti amen ; or: AdjtUorium nostrum in nomine dominif or: In nomine do- mini nostri Jesu Christi, The German cross con- sists in touching the forehead, lips, and breast with the thumb and fingers of the right hand brought together, while the left hand rests on the breast. The accompanying words are: " In the name of God the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. Amen." The Greeks place thumb, index finger, and middle finger of the right hand together, the two remaining fingers closed in the palm of the hand, and so touch the forehead, breast, right and left shoulders. The three extended fingers denote for them confession of the Trinity; the two closed ones express faith in the divine and human nature in Christ. Their formula runs: " Holy God, Holy Strong One, Holy Immortal, have mercy on us." The Lutheran Churches have retained the sign of the cross in particular acts of devotion (baptism, communion, and some others), and likewise the Anglican Church; whereas Reformed Protestantism rejected it strictly. To the private and devotional appreciation of the value of the cross as a symbol correspond the extent and affluence of its representations, even in the early Christian era. The superstitious phase of the matter is exemplified in the use of the cross on amulet inscriptions; and even the amulet itself takes the form of a cross. The mark- 3. As ing of walls, doors, and household an Amu- objects with a cross may in many cases let. Eccle- be attributed to the same motive. siastical However, the cross occurs for the most Sym- part as a symbol and notation of Chris- bolism. tianity. Accordingly the use of it in- creases with the victorious progress of the new religion through the heathen world from the time of Constantine the Great. Ornaments are marked with it, especially rings, vestments, and other dress fabrics, various utensils like lamps, combs, caskets, and boxes, as well as sarcophagi and epitaphs. Nor does the ecclesiastical use of it fall short of the private use. The cross became the outward and visible token of church edifices. Then the State had it circulated on its coins throughout its entire dominion and beyond; and it crowned the imperial globe, scepter, and diadem. In the Middle Ages, it is true, the cross recedes in the sphere of private usage, but it gains all the more ground in the public life of the Church. It is the symbol of ecclesiastical seizin and right of possession; it is used to excess in one form or an- other in connection with ecclesiastical functions (altar dedication, proclamation of indulgences, processions, etc.); becomes more lavishly appropri- ated to devotional objects, and is the most charac- teristic Christian burial token. It participates in the ordeal (q.v.); admonishes, in detached situa- tions, to religious thoiights and acts (wayside crosses, etc.), and is affixed by clerics and secular persons to their signatures. It is adopted as ground-plan of churches (both the Latin and the Greek cross). Monastic and knightly orders and civil gilds, spiritual and temporal lords, municipalities and countries adopt it as emblem. It is borne on banners and arms. Asceticism and mysticism, and religious poetry direct their thoughts to it. It is at once the simplest and most universal Chris- tian symbol. And as far as the evidence goes, there was no distinction in this respect between Eastern and Western Christianity. In the West a powerful reaction was occasioned by the Reformation, so far, at least, as the super- stitious and generally tmworthy use of the cross as a symbol was in question. But although Reformed Protestantism took radical measures in the matter, the Lutheran movement, consistently with its OrcMM and Its XTm Orosthwaite 310 proper nature, confined itaelf to doing away with unevangelical practises. It is doubtless true that even before Constantine's time the cross was used in plastic art and painting, and especially in the minor arts, though only in- frequently. But the earliest certain representa- tions of it extant are later than Constantine. This is explained, for one thing, by the greater wealth of monumental material preserved from the later time; but it is also due to a growing predilection which originated in Constantine's time or later; the rep- resentations become more and more 4. The Cross frequent as time goes on. The oldest in Art forms, probably simultaneous in origin, Different are the " Greek cross " ( t ) and the Forms. " Latin cross" (crux immiasa, -f- ). The cross was anticipated, even though not intentionally, in the Greek letter " chi " of the mono- gram of Christ (see Jesus Christ, Monooram of). It is sometimes combined with the letters " alpha " and " omega," or it is enclosed in a circle, or offset with doves or long-stemmed flowers. It is, further- more, adorned with precious stones, and associated with the monogram in the triumphal labarum (see CoNSTANTiNB THE Grbat, I., § 4). As emblem of victory it soars in the starry dome, upheld by hovering angels; and in the fifth century it enters into the nimbus of Christ, imparting to the same its characteristic form down to this day. Less frequent is the " tau " form of the cross ( T t " S^- Anthony's " or " Egyptian cross," crux commiasa), which originated in the symbolic reflections of church writers, and is not demonstrably extant before the fourth century. To the Middle Ages belong " St. Andrew's cross " ( x , crux decuatata), which legend reputed to be St. Andrew's implement of mart^dom (see Crucifixion); the papal cross with three crossbars ( ^ ) and the patriarchal cross with two ( 4* )» <^^ numerous others con- structed upon the fundamental traditional out- lines, and belonging distinctively to heraldry — the Maltese cross, the cross fleury, the cross patt^, and others. Similar or equivalent pre-Christian symbols of this description have neither an intrinsic nor ex- traneous connection with the Christian cross, al- though such relationship has been and 5. Similar is persistently asserted. The Egyp- Pre-Chris- tian "handle cross" ( f, ankh), tian which has been transferred in isolated Symbols, instances to Coptic art, has been merely reconstructed and transformed into the cross of Christ. The swastika (^, crux gamminata, gammadion, or fylfot), a veiy ancient prophylactic qrmbol occurring among all peoples, perhaps owes its not infrequent adoption by Chris- tians to its resemblance to the cross; at least this resemblance may have made the adoption easier; but the fylfot also stands independently beside the cross. Victor Schuivtze. Bibliography: W. W. Sesrmour, Thg Cro— in Tradition, HiH,, and AH, New York, 1808; J. Stookbauer, Kunat- gtaehithU det KrtuMe; Schaffhauaen, 1870; E. Dobbert, Zur EnUUihunQ»ge9ckiehU det Kre%ue9, Berlin. 1880; O. S. Tysck, Th4 Croat in Ritual, Ardtiteeture and Art, London, 1896; J. Hoppenot, Le Crucifix dana Vhiatoire et dan» Vart, FviM, 1890; W. O. Stopbans, Th» CroM in the Ufa and LUBraiurt of Ab AngloSaxona, New York. 1904: P. M. C. Kermode. Manx Cro—a . . . 6thto iSth C€ntvry. London. 1007; E. Beresford-Ocroke, The Sign of Ihm Croaa in the Weatem LUurgiaa, London, 1007; Sebaff. Christian Church, vol. ii., cbap. iv.; KL, viL 1054-88. On pre-Chrifltian and non-Christian forma aad uaa^e oonBult: G. de Mortillet, Le Signe de la eroix avant U ekriatianieme, Paris, 1866; E. von Bunaen. Daa Symibol dea Kreuaea bei alien Nationen, und die Bntatdtuno dea Kreuaaymbola der ihrieaichen Kinhe, Berlin. 1876; W. W. Blake. The Croaa Ancient and Modem, New York, 1888; Anaault. La eroix avant JSaue Chriat, Paris. 1804; J. D. Parson, The Non^hriatUzn Croaa, London, 1896; T. Wil- son. The Swutika, ib. 1808.

CROSS, EXALTATION OF THE: One of the older church festivals, although, as it appears, it had no independent status to begin with, but was an addition to the festival of the Invention of the Cross (q.v.), celebrated on the following day (Sept. 14). The first mention and account of it is by the Aquitanian pilgrim Silvia, about 385. It was naturalized in Constantinople as early as the begin- ning of the fifth century, and in the first half of the same it is on record with respect to Syria and Egypt. Probably during the fifth century the festival spread through the entire Church of the East. The way was paved for it on every side, directly and indirectly, by the migration of allied fragments of the cross. The recovery of the Holy Cross, which in 614 was carried off by the Persian king Chosroes II., but in 628 was brought back to Jerusalem in solemn procession by the emperor Heraclius in person, doubtless gave the festival a new impulse. It is first mentioned in the West under Pope Sergius (687-701). Victor Schultze. Bibliography: The Pilgrimaoa of S, Silvia of Aquiiania, in Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society leries. vol. L. London. 1806; A. J. Binterim. DenkwQrdiokeiten, V. i. 465 sqq.. Mains. 1820; DCA, i. 602-503; ASB and ASM for Sept. 14. CROSS, HVVBIITION (OR FDIDING) OF THE: The name of an ancient festival of the Church. In the history of the discovery of " holy sites " the finding of the cross of Jesus has its place, even prior to the middle of the fourth century. While Eusebius of Csesarea and the Pilgrim of Bordeaux (333) have nothing to say in the matter, Cyril of Jerusalem, not long afterward (347 or 348), pre- supposes the existence of this cross and the wide distribution of splinters detached from it (" Catechetical Lectures," iv. 10, x. 19; " Let- ter to Constantine," iii.; MPG, xxxiii. 468, 680, 1168; NPNF, 2 ser., vii. 21, 63). StiU in the same century, the legendary account, no doubt incited by the visit of the empress Helena (the mother of Constantine the Great) to the holy scenes, associates her directly with the event. The empress, it relates, conjointly with the bishop Macarius, instituted researches as to buried crosses on Golgotha; and thanks to the aid of a Jew, or even of a divine revelation, the three crosses were discovered. The true one was reoogniaed by means of the attached titulus (Matt, zxvii. 37, and parallels) or by virtue of a miracle of healing. The reports vary in detail, but are essentially the same in substance. It is nevertheless d^on- strable that this narrative has its origin in the transference to the empress Helena of a sinular episode in the legend of Abgar {Doctrina Addai; 311 OroM and Its T7m GhroBthwaite cf. T. Zahn, Forschungen tut OeschichU des new testamenUichen Kanons, i., Erlangen, 1891, pp. 370 sqq.; Socrates, Hist, eccl, i. 17, Eng. transl. in \PNF, 2 scr., ii. 21; Sozomen, HiaL eccl., ii. 1, in NPNF, 2 aer., ii. 258-259. These relate the discoveries at length). Both Greeks and Latins commemorated the occurrence in a special festival, the former com- bining it with the annual celebration of the dedi- cation of Constantine's Basilica on Sept. 13, the latter appointing a particular date for it on May 3. The first traces of a Latin observance appear in Gaul at the beginning of the Middle Ages. The fusion of the Gallic and Roman ritual carried the festival to Rome about 800, whence it became gradually di£fused through the Western Church. Victor Schultzb. BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. H. Newnum, Two eMay <m . . . Mvra- cUa, pp. 287-320. London. 1873 (defends the legend); W. C. Prime, HtBtory of the Invention, Freaervation and Dia- appearaneeof the Wood knotonae the True Croee, New York, 1877; The Leoendary Uiatory of the Croae, a Seriea of eixtu-four Woodeuia from a Dutch Book . . . i4SS, . . . with Preface by S. Barinff-Oould, ib. 1887; InvenHonie crude . . . hymnue antiquue, ed. A. Holder, Leipsic, 1880; E. Nestle, De eanda cruce, Berlin, 1880; J. H. Bernard. The Churehee of Conetantine al Jeruealem, Being Tranela- Hone from BueeUue and the early Pilgrime, London, 1806; DC A, i. 603-606. CROSS, ORDERS OF THE {Crucifori, Crucigeri): A term applied to the knights of the Teutonic Order (q.v.) and also to four medieval orders in other countries. 1. The Italian Knights of the Cross traced their origin to Cyriacus, the martyr-bishop of Jerusalem, who died c. 362, or, according to another tradition of the order, to Cletus (Anacletus), one of the early bishops of Rome. Historically, however, they are not known to have existed before the middle of the twelfth century, when, c. 1160, Alexander III. granted to their mother house, a large hospital at Bologna, certain privileges which were increased by Urban III. and Innocent III. Gerhard de Rocha, the prior of the mother house under Alex- ander and Urban, seems to have raised the order to a position of importance in Italy by establishing daughter houses throughout the country, even if he wajs not actually the founder. In the time of its greatest prosperity, during the rule of Clement IV., the order possessed more than 200 houses in the five provinces of Bologna, Venice, Rome, Milan, and Naples. In the fourteenth century, however, the Knights began to degenerate through schisms and lax discipline. A general chapter held at Bologna in 1462 proved unable to check the decline by the reforms which it proposed, and the order was finally dissolved under Alexander VIII. in 1656. 2. In 1211 a canon of Li^ named Theodore of CeUes founded at Huy, a town in his diocese, an order which was destined to spread through Hol- land, France, the west and south of Germany, and, for a time, even to Ireland. The chief object of the new order was the conversion of heretics, and its Augustinian rule, modified according to Domin- ican principles, is said to have received the sanction of Innocent III. in 1216. These Knights of the Cross have preserved their existence until the pres- ent day, despite the losses which they Bu£Fered both at the Reformation and during the French Revolution. At present they have five houses, two in Holland, two in Belgium, and one in Germany. The indult granted them by Leo X. in 1516, by which they are permitted to bless rosaries with an indulgence of 500 days for each Pater Noster or Ave Maria, has been confirmed repeatedly by succeeding popes, most recently by Leo XIII. in 1884. 8. The Knights of the Cross with the Red Star (Qrdo miliiaris crucigerorum cum rubra atella) be- lieve that they originated as an order of knights spiritual during the Crusades, although historically they seem to have been established c. 1235 as a hospital brotherhood in a Franciscan monastery founded at Prague by the Bohemian princess Agnes. In 1252 they received their rule with their emblem of a cross within a hexagonal red star. Within the year they had assumed control of a hospital newly erected at Breslau, and Bohemia and Silesia re- mained the centers of their activity. The order soon became wealthy, but at the same time degen- erated and many of its houses later passed to other orders, the one at Prague being controlled suc- cessively by the Jesuits (1555) and the Capuchins (1599). 4. A distinctively Polish Order of Knights of the Cross with the Red Heart was established in the monastery of St. Mark at Cracow in the second half of the thirteenth century. It was distinguished from the preceding order, which was clothed in black, by a white habit, and was primarily a peni- tential organization (known officially as Ordo de ptgnitentia sanctorum martyrum). It attained its greatest prosperity about the beginning of the six- teenth century, after which it rapidly declined. (O. ZdCKLERf.) Bibuoorapht: 1. B. Leoni, Oriffin* • fondatione deU'ctt' dine di Crociferi, Venice, 1608; Helyot, Ordree monae- tiquee, ii. 222 sqq.; KL, vii. 1101-04; Currier, R^igioue Ordera, p. 188. 2. C. R. Hennana, Anncdee eawmicorum regularium . . . ordinia S. crude, Boi»-Ie-due. 1858; He- lyot, ut sup., ii. 222-234; Heimbucher, Orden und Kof^ greoaUonen, i. 400-408; Currier, ut nip., pp. 188-180; XL, Tii. 1106-11. 3. F. Jachaee, Die ritterlidte Orden der Kreuaherren mU dem roten Stem, Vienna, 1882; Helyoi, ut tup., ii. 230 sqq.; Heimbueher, Orden und KongreoO' Honen, I 408-400; KL, vii 1111-17. 4. Helyot. ut sup., ii. 241; Heimbueher. ut lup., i. 400; KL, ii. 1440- 1450. CROSS, SIGN OF THE. See Cross and its Use AS A Symbol.

CROSTHWAITE, ROBERT JARRATT: Bishop of Beverley; b. at Wellington (7 m. b.w. of Taunton), Somersetshire, England, Oct. 13, 1837. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1860), where he was fellow 1862-67. He was successively curate of North Cave, Yorkshire (1862-66), and of Bishopthorpe, York (1866-68), private secretary and domestic chaplain to the archbishop of York (1866-69), and vicar of Waghen-Wrawne, York- shire (1869-74), Brayton, Yorkshire (1874-^), and St. Lawrence cum St. Nicholas, Yorkshire (1883- 1885). He was also chaplain to the archbishop of York 1879-84, prebendary of Grindal in York Cathedral, and archdeacon of York since 1884, and rector of Bolton Percy, Yorkshire, since 1885. He was rural dean of Selby, Yorkshire, in 1883-85 and of Ainsty, Yorkshire, 1893-95. In 1889 he was consecrated bishop of Beverley, suffragan to the archbishop of York. He has written The Gospels of the New Testament, their Genuineness and Au- therUicity (London, 1887).

CROWTHER, SAMUEL ADJAI: Church of England missionary bishop of the Niger; b. at Oshogun Yoruba, Central Africa, 1808; d. at Lagos, West Africa, end of Oct., 1891. When twelve and a half years old he was captured by Mohammedan slave traders, sold to the Portuguese, and shipped from Lagos. The ship was captured by a British man-of-war and he was landed at Bathurst, Sierra Leone, and given his freedom. There in the Church of England mission he was educated and converted, and baptized on Dec. 11, 1825, taking the name of Samuel Crowther. He showed marked ability and learned with avidity. In 1826 he studied in the parochial school at Islington, London. In 1827 he returned to Africa and, after graduating from the Fourah Bay college at Sierra Leone, was put in charge of the school at Regents Town in 1830, in 1832 of that at Wellington, and in 1832 was pro- fessor in his alma mater. In 1841 he was sent by the Church Missionary Society to explore the Niger country. In 1842 he was ordained in England. In 1843 he resumed work at Sierra Leone. In 1844 he began the Yoruba mission. On June 29th, 1864, he was consecrated first bishop of the Niger in Can- terbury CathedraL Bibliography: J. Pl«e, Samud Crowther, Biahop of At Niotr, New York, 1889; DNB, rapplemaDi voL. ii. 08.

CROZIER: A tall staff, terminating in a cross, which is borne before Roman Catholic patriarchs and archbishops as a symbol of jurisdiction. That of the ordinary archbishop, which he uses only within his own province, has a single cross-piece; that of a patriarch two, and of the pope three. A cross similar to an archbishop's is also borne before cardinals in particular solemnities. The name crosier is sometimes, though less correctly, applied to the pastoral staff or crook of bishops, for which see Vestments and Insignia, Ecclesiastical.

CROZIER, JOHN BAPTIST: Bishop of Down, Connor, and Dromore; b. at Ballyhaise (65 m. s. of Londonderry), County Cavan, Ireland, Apr. 8, 1853. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1872; M.A., 1875), and was curate of St. Stephen's, Belfast (1876-77), St. Anne's, Belfast (1877-80), vicar of Holywood, County Down (1880-97). He was chaplain to the bishop of Down 1885-86, chap- lain to the archbishop of Armagh 1886-93, and chaplain to the lord lieutenant of Ireland 1891-97. He was also prebendary of Dunsford in Down Cathedral 1889-90, treasurer of Down Cathedral 1890-97, and prebendary of Wicklow and canon of St. Patrick's National Cathedral 1896-97 He was honorary secretary of the General Synod of the Church of Ireland in 1896-97, and select preacher to Dublin University in 1898 and 1906, and to Cambridge University in 1903. In 1897 he was consecrated to the see of Ossory, Ferns, and Leighr lin, and in 1907 was translated to Down.

CRUCIFIX: A cross bearing the image of the crucified Christ. Early Christian art did not at- tempt to portray the crucifixion, and crucifixes do not seem to be older than the ninth century. They show the same general characteristics as artistic representations of the crucifixion in general (see Crucifixion, { 4). In the West crucifixes have been much used in the churches as objects of public devotion and also as objects of private devo- tion in houses, and are worn on the person by eccle- siastics and others. CRUCIFIXION. Form of the Cross (| 1). Method of Fastening to the Cross ({ 2). The Cross and Crucifixion of Jesus (| 3). The Crucifixion in Art ({ 4). Crucifixion (" fixing to the cross "), aa tk method of inflicting the death penalty, originated in the East and was practised by Medes, Persians, and Semitic peoples (except the Jews); later by the Greeks and especially by the Romans. The scanty and not always clear information ex- 1. Form of tant with reference to the form of the the Cross, cross used reveals two main types: the so-called crux acuta, a perpendic- ular stake or pale, sharpened at the top; and the form consisting of an upright post and a superim- posed, or transverse, cross-beam ( T t "t" )• I'he so-called St. Andrew's cross, reputed to have sig- nalised the martyrdom of the Apostle Andrew, and traditionally conceived as consisting of two arms of equal length intersecting obliquely ( X )» is a product of medieval legend. WYaHe the simple stake was employed for the impalement aa well as for the suspension of those under sentence, the composite cross was used for the latter purpose only. The length of the main portion was ordinarily but little above human stature; the cross-piece {pati- bulum) was either bolted fast to the upright post, which stood driven into the ground; or, as oftener happened, the cross-piece was carried to the place of execution by the sentenced culprits. Tliere was no uniform process of fastening the delinquent on the cix)ss. A certain latitude appears to have been allowed the executioners both in re- gard to the means employed and abo 2. Method with reference to the manner and of Fasten- method of suspension — a fact ex- ing to the plicable by the circumstance that the Croti. Roman law recognized crucifixion only as punishment for slaves and people of inferior standing. Either cords alone or cords and nails were employed; and in the latter case, now only the hands, again both hands and feet were nailed fast. The " seat " {eediie), serving to support the body, a block or pin on which the condemned was placed astride, apparently was not used in all cases; and the same is true with respect to a wooden step for the feet (represented in the "travesty crucifixion" of the imperial palace at Rome; see AsmAiin) — ^which, by the way, is not to be confused with the hypopodium or suppedaneum of medieval portrayals of the crucifixion, the exist- ence of which in antiquity is not sufficiently con- firmed by the testimony of Gregory of Toun. The transgressor's offense, where not made known orally by a preceding crier, was usually written on a tablet {tUulue), which the delinquent carried him- self or another carried before him. Naturally this titiUtu waa attached to the cross after the act of execution (cf. Matt, xxvii. 37, and parallels). No definite data are found in the New Testament concerning the nature of the cross on which Jesus died. It is only the Church writers after Justin Martyr who indicate the composite four-armed cross as Christ's vehicle of torture. Justin, Ire- nicus, Tertullian, and others mention 3. The Cross the presence of a aedile. The palatine and Cruci- travesty cross belonging to the begin- fixion of ning of the third century is of the Jesus. four-armed pattern, but without the aedile and with the wooden step. There is no valid reason for supposing that the representation of the form of the cross of Jesus given by ecclesiastical antiquity is an imaginary construction of later times. If there were witnesses of the death of Jesus, and if the words from the cross furnished the central theme of apostolic and postapostolic preaching, then a genuine tradition as to the form of the Lord's cross may well have been maintained till the time of Justin. Indeed, in the Gospel narrative itself some indications are found which confirm this conclusion. The " cross ** borne by Jesus himself (John xix. 17) or by Simon of Cyrene (Matt, xxvii. 32, and parallels) can hardly have been the upright, embedded post, with or without the patibidum, since the strength of one nuin alone might scarcely have sufficed for so great a burden. If " cross," however (Gk. Btauros), in the passages cited be interpreted as meaning the pcUibulum — ^which is quite possible — ^the narrative is in accord with custom, as already noted. Fur- thermore, at Jerusalem as elsewhere, posts were no doubt in readiness at the place of execution driven into the ground to serve their purpose. From the circumstance, finally, that the execu- tionary order caused the titulua to be fastened at the upper end of the cross it may be deduced that the cross-piece did not rest on top, but intersected the post; or, in other words, the cross was a four- armed one. A basis for estimating the height of the cross of Jesus is afforded by John xix. 29 (cf. Matt. xxviL 48, and parallels). The length of the " [reed of] hyssop" there mentioned was probably about one yard; the height of the entire cross, therefore, was from two and a half to three yards. Crucifixion was accounted in all antiquity the most cruel and at the same time the most infamous death penalty, and was applied almost exclusively to slaves and persons of inferior estate (servile eupplicium), or to aliens lacking Roman citizen- ship; and this for both common and political trans- gressions. A scourging commonly preceded, con- joined with all kinds of mockery at the expense of the culprit. The disrobing which anticipated the closing act accorded with a general custom, as did also the distribution of raiment among the executioners. The ooipse was ordinarily left on the cross. Nevertheless, there was no statutory obstacle to the surrender of the body. Value was attached to publicity of execution; and for this reason highways or elevated squares were selected for the place. The crucifixion of Jesus accords fully with our general knowledge of such executions. save that certain peculiar features were added owing to Jewish views and customs: for instance, the stupefying potion (cf. Prov. xxxi. 6) and the removal of the body no later than Friday evening (Deut. xxi. 22-23). The matter of nailing the feet is debatable, and a positive decision on this point is not attainable. Constantine the Great abolished the penalty of crucifixion. The first picture of the crucifixion, so far as known, is the "travesty crucifixion" referred to above (J 2), and is by a pagan hand. The religious sentiment of Christianity regarded the Savior not so much in the act of his humiliation as in his power- ful exaltation; and, accordant with this feeling, Christian art for a long time made no 4. The Cm- representations of the Passion. When cifixion in the first irresolute steps were taken Art in the way of such art, the controlling design appears to have been to soften the agony as far as possible (cf. Victor Schultxe, Arckaologie der altchrUtlichen Kunat, Mimich, 1896, pp. 332 sqq.). The first example of a crucifixion of Christian origin is found in a relief of the timber door of Santa Sabina at Rome, dating at the earliest from about the middle of the fifth century. The backgroimd represents the walls of Jerusalem. The heroic form of the Savior is accompanied by the two malefactors, the latter being of a somewhat youthful design. Oi perhaps the same age is a North Italian ivory tablet of the British Museum, grouping John and Mary with the Savior, and ex- pressing chiefly an emotion of deep silent sorrow. In both cases Christ is represented as alive and free from suffering. How strongly, indeed, the earlier sentiment still acted even a century later is attested by the small metal flasks at Monza in North Italy, which came from Jerusalem to the West in the time of Gregory the Great. They manifestly endeavor to deviate from the real cruci- fixion, and stop short with suggestions; as where, in one instance, Jesus extends his arms in the man- ner of a crucified victim, though the cross itself is wanting; or, again, where only his head hovers above the cross. During the transition from the early Christian to the Romanesque period, the reactive influences of the more primitive age stiU appear; Christ is represented as living, draped only with the loin cloth, his feet placed side by side. In another aspect, the increasing number of accompanying figures indicates an elaboration of the treatment; while also the long timic occurs, though this ex- ceptionally. In contrast with the West, Byzantine art favors both in this period and subsequently the representation of the dying Savior, as he succumbs in death's agony. In every instance his hands and feet are pierced, the feet resting on a step-fashioned cross-piece. The Romanesque epoch, during which the crucifixion was most extensively treated as a theme of painting or sculpture, adorns the head of Christ with a wreath or diadem; but there now also occur more and more frequent examples of the treatment of the Lord as dead or dying; in fact, there is a tendency toward sharpest realism. On the other hand, there still persists as a characteristic trait the composure of the feet side by side; and this custom is observed as far down as the middle of the thirteenth century. A material transformation was brought about by the Gothic style, partly under the sway of religious individuality, partly through the realistic reaction of devotional plays. The kingly crown gives place to the crown of thorns; the effect of pain becomes visible in the bodily attitude, often most acutely so; the head is bowed, the body bent. A single nail now pierces or transfixes both feet, which are superimposed (for what is alleged to be better knowledge cf. F. Piper, EinUitung in die monu- mentale Theologie, Gotha, 1867, pp. 619 sqq.). The convulsive and tragical elements of the events are also reflected in the general setting. To this prov- ince belongs the German art of the sixteenth cen- tury, especially as illustrated in DUrer and Holbein. It aspires to historical truth, and is not repelled by what is ghastly. On the other hand, the Italian Renaissance mitigates the harsh tones by appli- cation of its ideal of beauty. The same tendency is followed in the main by the art evolution of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; while the so-called " Nazarenes " introduced an insipid sen- timental tone into portrayals of the Passion, which has its exponents even to-day. The modem relig- ious inclination seeks to enforce historic truth, and does not shrink from the sternest realism. At the outset the other personages presented by the Gospel narrative appear only to a limited ex- tent (John and Mary, and one or two soldiers); but, as the Middle Ages draw to a close, richly ani- mated scenes are created from the accessory de- tails; most notably so on the carved altars. The religious dramas were of conspicuous influence in this direction. However, during the Romanesque period as well, certain legendary or allegorical fig- ures begin to group themselves about the cross. Personifications of the Church and the Synagogue occur: the former as Victrix, the latter as Van- quished (cf. Paul Weber, Geistlichea Schauspiel und kirchliche Kurut in ihrem Verh&Unis erldutert an einer Ikanographie der Kirche und Synagoge^ Stutt- gart, 1894, with illustrations). Adam and Eve, the primogenitors of sin, which the Savior expiated for them as well as others, kneel beside the cross; though usually Adam alone is seen, resting in his grave beneath the cross, or in the act of rising and uplifting his hand toward the Crucified. With reference to the grave on Golgotha, the skull and cross bones appear at the foot of the cross. Further- more, in connection with Gen. iii. 15, a serpent is twined about the base of the cross. The chalice on which rests the Savior's foot, or which is fastened under the step, represents the Holy Grail. The chalice also is sometimes held in the hand of the Church, Ecclesia, At a quite early period, sun and moon are drawn into the scene, either in their natural semblance or personified; likewise, lament- ing angels, God the Father, and the Holy Ghost on high. The popularity and wide circulation of the legend of Veronica (q.v.), again, accounts for the fact that the devout lady finds a place with especial frequency on the way to the place of execution, though sometimes as well in the vicinity of the Crucified. The cross generally adheres to its traditional form. The medieval legends as to the wood of the cross became influential in approximating the cross in greater or less degree to the tree form. These ob- servations attest the tremendous attractive power which the cross and the crucifixion exercised upon the religious temperament and upon ecclesiastical usage; and therewith, both directly and indirectly, upon art. See Cross and its Use as a Symbol. Victor Schitl,tze. Bibliography: O. Zdekler, Da$ KreuM ChriHi, Gaterrioh. 1876, Eng. tranoi., London, 1877 (" sane and dJBcriniiiia>- ting "); H. Fulda, D<u Kreuz und die Kreunffung^ Bm- lau, 1878 (of great value); C. A. Zestermann, Die hUd- li^ DareteUung dee Kreuzee und die Kreungung Christi, 2 parts, Leipsio. 1867-68; T. Reil. Die fmhehrieUiehen DareteUungen der Kreutigung CkrieH, ib. 1904; DB, L 528- 629; EB, i. 957-961. For list of books on tbe Croes in Art see under Cross and its Use as a Symbol CRUCIGER (CREUZIGER, CREUTZIHGER),

CRUCIGER, KASPAR: The name of two German theologians. 1. Kaspar Cruciger the Elder: Luther's secretary and collaborator; b. at Leipsic Jan. 1, 1504; d. at Wittenberg Nov. 16, 1548. In 1513 he matricu- lated at Leipsic, where he heard the disputation between Eck and Luther. In 1521 he matricu- lated in theology at Wittenberg, and studied also mathematics and botany. In 1525 he became rector of St. John's School and pastor at Magde- burg, but in 1528 he returned to Wittenberg as pro- fessor of theology and minister at the Schlosskirche, where he remained with a few intermissions until his death. He assisted Luther in his translation of the Bible, gave instruction when Melanchthon and others were called away, and participated in theological debates and conferences. His most important public service was connected with the establishment of the Reformation in Leipsic (1539), which he carried through with the help of Myconius. The city council tried to keep him there, but Luther declared him indispensable to Wittenberg. The Schmalkald war and the Interim embittered his last years. He wrote exegetical and dogmatic works, most of which were published after his death. He had a knowledge of shorthand and thus pre- served many of Luther's sermons. With Georg Rörer he edited the first volumes of the Witten- berg edition of Luther's Works (1539 sqq.). 2. Kaspar Cruciger the Younger: Melanchthon's successor at Wittenberg, son of the elder Kaspar Cruciger; b. at Wittenberg Mar. 19, 1525; d. at Cassel Apr. 16, 1597. In the discussions after 1570 he was one of the leaders of the Philippists, and was engulfed in their catastrophe in 1574. He was imprisoned and was banished from Saxony in 1576. After a short residence with the count of Nassau at Dillenberg he went to Hesse, and died as pastor and president of the consistory at Cassel. (Ferdinand Cohss.) Bibliography: For 1. CA, zi. 833-^1; O. G. Schmidt, Caepar Crudgen Leben, Leipsic, 1862; T. Preasel. Caepar Cruciger, Elberfeld. 1862; J. KdstUn. Martin Lutker, 2 vola., Berlin. 1003. For 2. G. J. Planck. CfeechiefUe der Enuiehung . . . Tprotesianiiedten Lehrbegriffe, V. iL 626 sqq., Leipsic. 1790; H. Heppe. Geeehiehie dee deuteeken ProteetanHemue, ii. 312 sqq., Maxburs. 1853.

CRUDEN, ALEXANDER: The author of "Cru- den's Concordance "; b. at Aberdeen May 31, 1701; 315 Oruolflxion OrasadeB d. in London Nov. 1, 1770. He studied at Maris- chal College, Aberdeen, and took the degree of M.A. (year not known). Indications of an unsound mind, from which he suffered more or less all his life, soon became evident and he was in confine- ment for a short time. In 1722 he went to London and found employment as tutor in Hertfordshire and the Isle of Man till 1732, when he opened a bookseller's shop in London, also acting as corrector of the press. He began the Concordance in 1736 and issued it the following year in quarto. It was not a success pecuniarily; he lost his business, suffered another attack of insanity, and was again put in an asylum. After a few weeks he escaped and in Mar., 1739, issued a curious pamphlet relating to his confinement, with the title The London- Citizen exceedingly Injured, or a British Inqui- sition Displayed, He instituted proceedings for damages, pleaded his own cause (unsuccessfully), and published a report of the trial dedicated to King George II. He was again in confinement for a short time in 1753. In 1754 he became proof- reader for the Public Advertiser (daily newspaper); at the same time he was busy as general corrector of the press and labored diligently in revising the Concordance, The hard and regular work seems to have been beneficial to his health, and it was not necessary to send him again to the asylum. He supervised the printing of an edition of Matthew Henry's Commentary, and published a Compen- dium of the Holy Bible, . . . Designed for Making the Reading more Easy (1750); he compiled a Scripture Dictionary, which was published in two volumes at Aberdeen shortly after his death; it is said also that he wrote prefaces for many books, and he prepared the verbal index for Bishop New- ton's edition of Milton (1749). He issued second and third editions of the Concordance in 1761 and 1769, and received considerable profit from them. The explanations of Scripture terms (omitted in some editions) were published separately by the Religious Tract Society (1840); they are strongly Calvinistic. Many stories are 'told of Cruden's eccentricities. He thought himself divinely ap- pointed as the public censor, especially in regard to swearing and Sabbath keeping, and took the title ** Alexander the Corrector." He went about London with a sponge, erasing obscene words on walls and other things which did not meet with his approval. He appeared as candidate for par- liament in 1754, applied for knighthood, sought to marry the daughter of the Lord Mayor of London, and paid unwelcome and embarrassing addresses to other young ladies. To promote his schemes he issued several extraordinary pamphlets. But not- withstanding all this he was kind-hearted, benevo- lent, fearless in the dischaige of duty, a useful citizen, and a humble, devout Christian; and he was honored and respected where he was fully known. He was a member of an Independent chureh in London. He gives much information about himself in his pamphlets, particularly the three which he called The Adventures of Alexander the Corrector (1754-65). Biblioorapht: His life by Alexander Chalmers, written for the Biographia Britannioa (1780), was reprinted in the 6th edition of the oonoordanoe; a memoir by Samuel Blackburn was prepared for the first octavo edition (1823); another by William Youngman is found in some editions. Consult DNB, xii. 249-261. CRUSADES. The First Crusade. 1006-00 (( 1). The Second and Third Crusadee. 1147-40, 1180-02 (| 2). The Fourth Crusade. 1202-04 ({ 3). The Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Crusades. 1228-70 (| 4). Power of Papacy Increased, also Intoleranoe ({ 6). Devotion Stimulated, Absolution Extended (S 6). The Renaissance and Reformation ({ 7). The Crusades were expeditions of Christian Eu- rope in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries for the recovery of the Holy Land. They are a part of the thousand years' conflict between Christianity and Islam; yet they constitute in themselves a complete phase of Ustorical development. They came at a time when the wave of Mohammedan conquest had been at a standstill for more than four himdred years, and the old fanatic zeal of Islam had given way to the pursuit of worldly interests and the fostering of that high cidture which still constitutes its title to historic fame. In Christian Europe, on the contrary, religious feeling had been gaining in strength. There was a movement of revulsion from earthly interests, even of actual hatred for them, and a passionate longing for the felicities of another world and for a more intimate union with God. In this spirit of piety which strove to attain material vision of the Deity must be sought the true causes of the Crusades. An age which laid so much stress on sacred relics would as a matter of course be extraordinarily susceptible to the influence of the greatest of all relics, the Holy Land. The many pil^ims of the eleventh century may scarcely be regarded as precursors of the Cru- sades; yet the motives that animated them throw light upon the character of the later and greater movement. Had not thousands of individuals ex- perienced the yearning for the heavenly Jerusalem, statecraft would not have found it possible at a later date to enlist great hosts for the recovery of the earthly capital. As early as 1074, when Asia Minor passed into the hands of the Seljuk Turks, Gregory VII. had pro- jected a war against the infidels, having also for its object reunion with the Greek Church. The plan was thrust into the backgroimd by the conflict with the emperor Henry IV. Urban II. (1088-09), who next took up the idea, was animated not so much by the political considerations of Gregory as by actual religious impulse. From the Church should come the impelling force; on the secular powers rested the actual execution of the plan. Before this, Norman knights had engaged in conflict with the infidel, and the conception of a crusade against the Saracen was therefore no absolute novelty to the nations of the West. The Byzantine emperor Alexius I. was quite aware of this when he turned to Urban for aid against the Turks z. The First in 1094, and met with a ready re- Cnssadey sponse from the general religious en- 1096-^. thusiasm, from the ambitions of the Church, and from the lust for adventure and conquest. When the Greek ambassadors arrived Urban was preparing for the Council of Clermont; Cmubdas 316 and there before great throngs the pope first preached the crusade, Nov. 26, 1095, in words which have not come down, but which stirred the mighty multitudes to frenzied enthusiasm. The number of those who assumed the crusader's cross increased daily, and the movement, soon passing beyond papal restraint, seized upon the lower classes. The peasant exchanged his plow for arms and was joined by the dissatisfied, the oppressed, and the outcast; members of the lower clergy, nm- away monks, women, children gave to this advance- guard of the crusading army the character of a mob, recognizing no leadership but that of God. This un- dercurrent of opposition to the pope gave rise to the legend, which is still current, that not Urban, but Peter the Hermit (Peter of Amiens) was the true representative of the crusading idea. Peter was one of the leaders of the fanatical bands, whose contribution to the enterprise was a story of an alleged personal appearance of Jesus, giving him commission to acquaint Christendom with the sad condition of the Holy Land. After the wildest excesses, in which the Jews appear as the principal sufferers at their hands, these tumidtuous hosts found a pitiful end in Hungary and beyond the Bosporus. The real crusading armies set out in 1096. They comprised the men of Lorraine under the brothers Godfrey, Eustace, and Baldwin of Bouillon; north- em French under Robert of Normandy; Proven- gals under Raymond of Toulouse; and Nonnans of Italy under Bohemund and Tancred. The Chris- tian cause suffered from dissensions among the leaders, not all of whom resembled Godfrey of Bouillon in his freedom from worldly motives, and it had to contend against the machinations of Alexius I., who was roused to a sense of danger to his realm by the presence of the Western armies. Niciea was taken, the Sultan of Iconium was de- feated at Dorylieum, and on June 3, 1098, Antioch was captured and on Jime 28 was successfully defended against the Sultan of Mosul; on July 15, 1099, Jerusalem was taken, and Godfrey of Bouillon was made Protector of the Holy Sepulcher. He died in July, 1100, and under his successors, Baldwin I. (d. 1118), Baldwin II. (d. 1131), and Fulk (d. 1143), the boundaries of the kingdom were extended through successful warfare. The kingdom drew strength from the influx of new crusading forces, from the presence of the Italian merchants who established themselves in the Syrian ports, and from the religious and military orders of the Tem- plars and the Knights of St. John. But prosperity led to a weakening of the military spirit, and internal strife crippled the resources of the kingdom. On Christmas day, 1144, the capture of the strong frontier fortress of Edessa by the Emir of Mosul inflicted a serious blow on the Christian power. The news of the fall of Edessa led to a second crusade (1147-49), headed by Louis VII. of France and Conrad III. of Germany. In spite of the lofty motives which animated the French Idng, the sec- ond crusade shows a waning of the spirit of enthu- siasm which had brought about the first. The political danger involved in the triumph of the Mohammedan arms was a determining factor in the departure of the crusading armies, and Bernard of Clairvaux, the great preacher of this crusade, foimd it expedient to dwell upon the 2, The taking of the cross as a potent means Second and in gaining absolution for sin and at- Third Cm- taining grace. Lack of harmony be- sades, 1 147- tween the royal leaders and the treach- 49, X189-92. eroua policy of the Byzantines led to irremediable disaster. Tlie Ger- man army was almost totally destroyed in Asia Minor during the winter of 1147-48, and the other crusading host succumbed to defeat and the climate in the smnmer of 1 148. Baldwin III. by his unwise seizure of Ascalon in 1153 brought Egypt into the sphere of conflict and thus prepared the way for the fall of Jerusalem. Egypt after 1169 was ruled by the powerful Seljuks, whose great champion Saladin made it the object of his life to drive the Christian power from Palestine. The war was car- ried on in a half-hearted manner by the ChristiaD princes. On July 4, 1187, Saladin won the battle of Hattin, and on Oct. 2 the Holy City surrendered. The Christian power was restricted to Antioch . Tripoli, Tyre, and Margat. In the third crusade (1189-92), to which the fall of Jerusalem gave occa- sion, Richard I. of England, Philip Augustus of France, and Eknperor Frederick I., Barbarossa, participated. The German emperor was drowned at Salef in June, 1190; Acre was taken by Richard and Philip, but the two kings quarreled and Philip retired; and Richard left Palestine in 1192, after securing by treaty with Saladin the right for pil- grims to visit the Holy Sepulcher in small bands and imarmed. The vital crusading spirit was now dead, and the succeeding crusades are to be explained rather as arising from the efforts of the papacy in its struggle against the secular power, to divert the militaiy energies of the European nations toward Syria. A systematic agitation was carried on, 3. The and in 1201 a large army was collected Fourth which it was planned to transport on Crusade, Venetian vessels to E^ypt. The Ve- 1202-04. netians imder their astute doge, Enrico Dandolo, succeeded in turning the crusading movement to their own purposes. The crusaders threw themselves against the Byzan- tines, Constantinople was taken and sacked (1204), and the empire was apportioned between Venice and the Christian leaders. The Latin empire at Constantinople was established. An outburst of the old enthusiasm led to the Children's Crusade of 1212, which Iimocent III. interpreted as a reproof from heaven to their unworthy elders. By processions, prayers, and preaching, the Church attempted to set another crusade on foot, and the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) formu- lated a plan for the recovery of the Holy Land. A crusading force from Hungary, Austria, and Bavaria achieved a remarkable feat in the capture of Damietta in Egypt in 1219, but under the urgent insbtence of the papal legate, Pelagius, they pro- ceeded to a foolhardy attack on Cairo, and an in- undation of the Nile compelled them to choose between surrender and destruction. In 1228 Emperor Frederick II. set sail from 817 Orofladea Brindisi for Syria, though laden with the papal ex- communication. Through diplomacy he achieved unexpected success, Jerusalem, Naz- 4. The Fifth, areth, and Bethlehem being delivered Sixth, and to the Christians for a period of ten Seventh years. The papal interests represented Crusades, by the Templars brought on a con- 1228-70. flict with Egypt in 1243, and in the following year a Korasmian force sum- moned by the latter stormed Jerusalem. Europe's last efforts appear in the two unsuccessful crusades of Louis IX. of France, against Cyprus, Egypt, and Syria in 1248-64 and against Tunis in 1270. With the fall of Antioch (1268), Tripoli (1289), and Acre (1291) the last traces of the Christian occupation of Syria disappeared. First among the results of the Crusades is to be counted the great increase they brought about in the power of the Church and of the 5. Power papacy. The achievements of the of Papacy religious wars fell far behind expec- Increased, tations; but the idea became finnly also Intol- fixed that the pope at the head of erance. armed Christendom had effected the conquest of the Holy Sepulcher. It was he who gave the call to arms, who supplied the necessary means from the treasures of the Church, who showered on the warriors of the cross priv- ileges and benedictions, and who led them on through his legates; and, though the actual work of battle fell to the secular princes, the latter were held firmly in the control of the hierarchy by their irrevocable crusader's vow. Through the instrumentality of his legates, who now became an important part in the ecclesiastical administration, the pope drew to himself increased authority within the Church. A more material source of strength was the riches which inured to the Church as a result of the sacri- fices of individuals in providing themselves with the means for making the crusade. Princes and knights sold or mortgaged their estates, and the Church was the readiest and unchallenged purchaser in the open market. The popes drew a special profit from this state of affairs, for, whereas during the twelfth century the bishops were accustomed to contribute out of their funds toward the cost of the military expeditions, after the Lateran Council of 1215 these bounties were claimed by Rome as the supreme leader of the holy war and became the basis of a regular tax that was enforced throughout Europe long after the fall of the last Christian citadel in the East. Further, the crusades acted as a powerful incentive to the growth of the spirit of religious intolerance. From warfare against the non-believer, whether Mohammedan, Jew, or pagan, it was not a far step to war against the heretic. Here, too. Innocent III. appears as an epoch-maker when he ventured to turn the secular arm against the internal enemies of the Church and to preach a crusade of extermination against the Albigenses of southern France. The Inqui- sition with all its horrors could never have taken such deep root but for the awakening of religious passions which marked the Crusades. As an offset it can hardly be maintained that European knowl- edge profited by the wars with the Mohanmiedans. The introduction of the study of Aristotle in the West is to be ascribed rather to the friendly rela- tions which prevailed between Christians and Sara- cens in Spain and Sicily. Nor is it absolutely cei^ tain that Western art was materially enriched by contact with Byzantium and Syria; the numerous objeta d*art brought back as booty from the East did no more than influence the development of a decorative art by supplying models for imitation. On the other hand, it would be impossible to overestimate the stimulating effect of the Crusades on the spirit of devotion in Christian £}urope. In the papal emissaries entrusted with 6. Devotion the preaching of the crusade the first Stimulated, popular preachers of the Middle Ages Absolution are met with. The clerics left their Extended, churches and addressed the multi- tudes in the field and public squares; to them in large measure may be traced the fei^ vent, imaginative eloquence of the later mendicant monks. The questionable practise of searching out localities supposedly connected with sacred tra- dition and the establishment therein of ceremonies endowed with peculiar efficacies now arises. The period is one of tradition-making, which up to the present day has plunged the geography of Palestine into confusion. The pilgrim who after the fall of Acre was shut off from the greatest shrine of Chris- tian worship turned to the sacred places of the West or of his own land, and the creation of such centers and objects of devotion became an impor- tant function of tlte Church. The worship of relics extended enormously and the trade in holy remains was carried on in all conceivable forms and not without the grossest absurdities or decep- tions. The body of legend increased and the Virgin became an especially favorite subject of presentation in narrative and art. It would also seem that the great importance of the rosary, which before this period appears prominently only in isolated instances, is to be regarded as dating from the thirteenth century, when it developed imder the influence of the sixnilar feature of Mohammedan worship known as tasbify. Of portentous importance was the effect wrought by the Crusades on the system of absolution. Orig- inally inmiunity from the penalties of transgression was granted only to those who assumed the cross out of purely religious motives; but as early as Celestine III. (d. 1198) the mere contribution of money toward an expedition against the infidel was rewarded with at least partial remission, while Innocent III. granted complete remission to one who sent a substitute to the field. And inasmuch ss one might be absolved from his crusader's vow on the payment of a sum of money, and absolution eventually was offered for such minor acts of piety as the mere listening to an exhortation to take the cross, it is evident that wide opportunities, indeed, were offered for escape from the penalties of sin. The Crusades were not without effect on the Renaissance and the Reformation. Friendly in- tercourse with the Mohammedan world brought Europe into contact with accomplishments and vir- tues which were felt to be lacking at home. Men became aware of a moral ^stem independent of Ghodworth 818 Christianity that was DevertheleBB worthy of re- spect. Tkieological disputations between Christian and Mohammedan revealed the fact 7. The Re- that the Cat(iolic dogma was not invul- naisaance nerable. FVom the attention to the and Refer- hitherto unsuspected merits of an mation. opponent it was not a far step to a critical examination of one's own condition. In Germany suspicion of the motives of the Church in urging the wars against the Mohammedans and a reluctance to contribute toward the realization of the plans fonnulated by an ambitious papacy and carried on by self- seeking warriors became manifest. Thus the Church, which had made itself the leader of the Crusades, came to suffer the consequences of their ill success. Faith in papal absolutism waned; and a new religious spirit appeared, first in the sectaries (Cathari and Albigenses), and later in the Refor- mation. This spirit was fostered by the inspiration of that higher culture of which Frederick II. is the preeminent type, by the development of the sci- ences, and by the growth of commerce with the East, which enriched Europe and turned the atten- tion of men from purely religious to material and cultural interests in the movement known as the Renaissance. (Frixdrich Wieoand.) BnHiiooBAFHT: The best collection of aouroes are tUetiM det hiitoritng de9 aroiaadea, 13 vols., Paris, 1841-85 (under the care of the Academy); J. llichaud, BiUioUUvue dea CroiaadM, 4 vols., Paris, 1829. Sincle aouroes are: Jean de JoinTille, Hi$toir€ da 8L Louia IX., ed. A. Delboulle, Paris, 1882, Ens. transl., in Boht^a lAbrary, London, 1848; Qeoffroy de Villehardouin, Hiatoira da I'ampira da Con- alanUnopU, ed. £. Bouchet, 2 vols.. Paris, 1801, Enc. transl., in Bohn'a Library, London, 1848; Ansbert, Hia- toria da axpadiHona Fridarici . . . , ed. J. Dobrowsky, Pracue, 1827; Odo of Deuil, Da profaetiona Ludoviei VII. in orimUam, ed. G. H. Perts, in MOH, Saript, xxvi (1882), 59-73; Hiatoria of William of Tyre, transl. by Mary N. Colom for the Early EncUsh Text Society. Lon- don, 1893; original documents in TranalaHona andRaprinla from tha Orif/inal Sourcaa of Europaan Hiatory, vol. i., Philadelphia, 1902; H. von Sybel. HiaL and Litaratura of iha Cruaadaa, ed. Lady D. Gordon, London, 1861 (a compilation, not a translation of any one work, gives ac- count of literature). On the general history of the Crusades the best single work is still J. liiehaud, Hiatoira daa Croiaadaa, 4 vols., Paris, 1856, Eng. transl., with preface and supplement, by H. W. Mabie, 3 vols., Boston, 1881. Other general works are: F. Wilken, OaaehidUa dar Krauaaltifa, 7 vols., Leipsic, 1807-32; R. Rdhrioht, BeitrHoa sur Gaadtiehta dar KrauagUga, 2 vols., Berlin, 1874-78; B. Kugler. Oa- adiiehta der Krauaa^loa, Berlin, 1891; J. I. Mombert. Short Hiatory of tha Cruaadaa, New York, 1894 (popular); T. A. Aroher and C. L. Kingsford, Tha Cruaadaa, ib. 1895; J. M. Ludlow, Aoa of tha Cruaadaa, ib. 1897 (contains bibli- ography); L. von Ranke, WeUgaadkichta, vol. viii., Leip- sic, 1898; E. Heyck, Dia KrauaaUga und daa hailiifa Land, ib. 19(X); Assays on tha Cruaadaa, by D. C. Munio. C. Diehl, and H. Pruts, Burlington, 1903; L. Brehier, Vtgliaa at Voriani au moyan dga. Laa croiaadaa, Paris, 1907; W. B. Stevenson, Tha Cruaadera in tha Eaat. A brief Hiat. of tha Wara of lalam with tha LaHna, It -IS. Centuriaa, Cam- bridge, 1907; Schaff, Chriatian Church, v. 1, pp. 211-295. For the Kingdom of Jerusalem consult: R. R6hricht, OaadiiehU daa KOniffraicha Jeruaalem, 1100-1291, Inns- bruck, 1898; C. R. Conder, The Latin Kingdom of Jeru- aalam, 1099-1291, London. 1897. On individual Crusades consult: H. von Sybel, Ge- aehichta daa aratan Kreuaauga, Leipsic, 1881; T. Wolff, Die BauamkrauaaUga, TQbingen. 1891; B. Kugler, Studien tur Oaaehiehta daa atoeiten Krauzsugaa, Stuttgart. 1866; E. Fe»n,ThaFaUofConatantinopie, London, 1885; R. Rdh- richt, Studian aur Geaehichte daa fUnftan Krauagugaa, Inns- bruck, 1891; H. Klettke, Robartof Maramliea, or Ae Cr^ aadaof tha ChUdrwn, Philadelphia. 1883; G. Z. Gray. CkU- dran'a Cruaada, Boeton, 1886; M. Schwob. Chiidran'a Cruaada, ib. 1906. CRUSIUSy CHRISTIAK AUGUST: Gennan the- ologian; b. at Leuna, near Merseburg (10 m. s. of Halle), Jan. 10, 1716; d. at Leipdc Oct. 18, 1775. He entered the UniveiBity of Leipsic in 1734, be- came profeeeor of philosophy there, and in 1750 professor of theology. He was an independent follower of J. A. Bengel and an opponent of the Wolfian philosophy, founding all knowledge on positive revelation and seeking to prove that it harmonises with reason. At the same time he intermingled mystic peculiarities, and thus con- structed a strange typico-prophetical system of doctrine. While his colleague Emesti explained the Scriptures in a purely grammatical way, Cni- sius followed the Church doctrine, which he inter- preted in a mystical sense. Of his many writings the most important are Hypomnemata ad theologiam prapheticam (3 parts, Leipsic, 1764) and Kurzer Begriff der MoraUheoiogie (2 parts, 1772-73). Here he opposes the divine will, known from reve- lation as moral principle, to the Wolfian principle of perfection. His ** Prophetic Theology " was brought into notice in the nineteenth century by Hengstenberg and Delitzsch, who called attention to the fact that Crusius conceived of the essence and aim of prophecy in connection with the scheme of salvation, which no theologian before him had done with like emphasis. Crusius left the reputa- tion of a learned, keen, original thinker and of a pure, pious, and mild character. Even in the great controversy which divided the University of Leipsic into " Emestians " and " Crusians " he maintained his pious and mild manner, though there was no question that Emesti's views were caning the upper hand. Paul Tbchackert. Bibliography: H. Dfiring, Dia G^ahrtan Thaotoo^n Dautaek- 1anda,i. 291-296. Neustadt, 1831; ADB, it. 630-631; J. £. Erdmann, Geaehichte der Philoaophia, voL iii.. i 290. Berlin, 1870, Eng. transl., London, 1893.

CRUTTWELL, CHARLES THOMAS: Church of England; b. at London July 30, 1847. He studied at the Merchant Taylors' School, London, and St. John's College, Oxford (B.A., 1871), and was elected fellow of Merton College, Oxford, in 1870, where he was also tutor in 1875-77. He was curate of St. Giles's, Oxford, 1875-77, head master of St. Andrew's College, Bradfield, 1878-^, and of Malvern College 1880-85. He was rector of Sutton, Surrey (1885), Denton, Norfolk (1885-91), and Kibworth-Beauchamp, Leicestershire (1891-1901), as well as rural dean of Gartree, diocese of Peter- borough (1892-1902). Since 1901 he has been rector of Ewelme, Oxfordshire, and was honorary canon of Peterborough Cathedral in 1897-1903, of which he has been residentiary canon since 1903, being also appointed proctor in convocation for the clergy of the diocese of Peterborough in 1900-05 and examining chaplain to the bishop of Peterborough in 1900. He has written A His- tory of Roman Literature (London, 1877); Speet- mens of Roman Literature (1879; in collabora- tion with P. Banton); Literary History of Early Christianity (2 vols., 1893); and Six Lectures on the Oxford Movement (1899).