Outlines of Theology

1.1

KO

종교란 무엇입니까? 그리고 그리스도교적 의미에서 신학이란 무엇입니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What is Religion? And what Theology in its Christian sense?

Religion, in its most general sense, is the sum of the relations which man sustains to God, and comprises the truths, the experiences, actions, and institutions which correspond to, or grow out of those relations. Theology, in its most general sense, is the science of religion. The Christian religion is that body of truths, experiences, actions, and institutions which are determined by the revelation supernaturally presented in the Christian Scriptures. Christian Theology is the scientific determination, interpretation, and defence of those Scriptures, together with the history of the manner in which the truths it reveals have been understood, and the duties they impose have been performed, by all Christians in all ages.

1.2

KO

신학 백과란 무엇입니까? 그리고 신학 방법론이란 무엇입니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What is Theological Encyclopaedia? and what Theological Methodology?

Theological Encyclopedia presents to the student the entire circle of the special sciences devoted to the discovery, elucidation, and defence of the contents of the supernatural revelation contained in the Christian Scriptures, and aims to present these sciences in those organic relations which are determined by their actual genesis and inmost nature. Theological Methodology is the science of theological method. As each department of human inquiry demands a mode of treatment peculiar to itself; and as even each subdivision of each general department demands its own special modifications of treatment, so theological methodology provides for the scientific determination of the true method, general and special, of pursuing the theological sciences.

1.3

KO

모든 신학 학문을 학문적으로 배열하는 일은 어느 정도까지 가능합니까? 그리고 왜 그 시도가 바람직합니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

How far is the scientific arrangement of all the theological sciences possible? And on what account is the attempt desirable?

Such an arrangement can approach perfection only in proportion as these sciences themselves approach their final and absolute form. At present every such attempt must be only more or less an approximation to an ideal unattainable in the present state of knowledge in this life. The point of view adopted in this book is the evangelical and specifically the Calvinistic or Augustinian one, assuming the following fundamental principles: 1st. The inspired Scriptures are the sole, and an infallible standard of all religious knowledge. 2d. Christ and his work is the centre around which all Christian theology is brought into order. 3d. The salvation brought to light in the gospel is supernatural and of Free Grace. 4th. All religious knowledge has a practical end. The advantages of such a grouping of the theological sciences are obvious, and great. The relations of all truths are determined by their nature, whence it follows that their nature is revealed by an exhibition of their relations.

1.4

KO

모든 신학 학문이 답하려고 하며, 따라서 그 일반 학문의 여러 부문 배열을 결정하는 근본 질문들은 무엇입니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What are the fundamental questions which all theological science proposes to answer, and which therefore determine the arrangement of the several departments of that general science?

1st. Is there a God? 2d. Has God spoken? 3d. What has God said? 4th. How have men in time past understood his word and practically, in their persons and institutions, realized his intentions?

1.5

KO

신학 학문 백과 안에서 인간 지식의 다른 분야들은 어떤 위치를 가져야 합니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What position in an encyclopaedia of theological sciences must be given to other branches of human knowledge?

Because God's supernatural revelation has come to us in historical form, the history of that revelation and of the Christian Church is inseparably connected with human history. Since all truth is one, revealed truths and duties are also connected with every department of human knowledge and with the institutions of human society. For that reason theology cannot be wholly separated from general learning. A system of theological encyclopedia must include some knowledge of every department of human knowledge as preparatory and auxiliary to theology. Some auxiliary sciences stand in closer relation to particular theological sciences than to others, but it is useful to treat them together as disciplines serving theology as a whole.

1.6

KO

제안된 신학 학문 배열의 주요 구분을 말해 보십시오.

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

State the main divisions of the proposed arrangement of the theological sciences.

The proposed arrangement begins with the sciences auxiliary to the study of theology. It then places Apologetics as the department that answers whether there is a God and whether God has spoken. Exegetical Theology determines the exact words of divine revelation and interprets their meaning. Systematic Theology develops the contents of that revelation into a comprehensive and self-consistent system, and then elucidates and defends it. Practical Theology applies Scripture's principles and laws to the church's proclamation of revelation, to the bringing of people into practical obedience, and to the enjoyment of the blessings Scripture promises. Historical Theology studies the actual development of the theoretical and practical elements of revelation in the faith and life of the church throughout past ages and peoples.

1.7

KO

신학 연구를 돕는 인간 지식의 주요 분야들을 말해 보십시오.

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

State the chief departments of human knowledge auxiliary to study of Theology.

Hodge lists several auxiliary fields. Universal history, especially the histories of Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, Greece, Rome, and medieval and modern Europe, underlies and conditions much theological study. Archaeology, in the broad sense, interprets monuments, inscriptions, coins, remains of art, geography, physical conditions, and the political, religious, and social customs of peoples. Ethnology studies the races and nations of the human family, their dispersion, origin, relationships, and differences in physical, intellectual, moral, and religious character. Comparative philology traces the relations and origins of languages and dialects and uses them to recover facts about ancient peoples and civilizations. Comparative religion critically studies the histories, beliefs, spirit, institutions, and moral character of ethnic religions. Philosophy, psychology, aesthetics, the physical sciences, and statistics also serve theology by clarifying human reason, consciousness, beauty and art, the created order, and the measurable condition of humanity in the world.

1.8

KO

변증학이라는 표제 아래에는 어떤 세부 사항들이 포함됩니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What particulars are embraced under the head of Apologetics?

Apologetics is organized around two questions: whether there is a God and whether God has spoken. It first includes the proof of God's being: a transcendent yet immanent personal God who creates, preserves, and governs all things according to his eternal plan. This also requires the discussion and refutation of anti-theistic systems such as atheism, pantheism, naturalistic deism, and materialism. It also includes natural theology, considering God's relation to intelligent and responsible agents as moral governor, and the signs of his will, purposes, human duties, and human destiny that can be traced by the light of nature. Finally, apologetics includes the evidences of Christianity: the proper use of reason in religious questions, the possibility, necessity, and probability of supernatural revelation, and the positive proof that such revelation has actually been given through the Old Testament prophets, the New Testament prophets, and above all in the person and work of Christ. This requires attention to external and internal, historical, rational, moral, spiritual, natural, supernatural, theoretical, and practical evidence, along with answers to criticisms against revelation and the integrity of its record.

1.9

KO

주해신학에는 무엇이 포함됩니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What is embraced under Exegetical Theology?

Exegetical Theology answers the question, "What has God said?" It seeks to interpret the Scriptures as God's word, written in human language and transmitted through human channels. For that purpose it first asks which books belong to the canon and what the exact words of the original writings were, and then asks what those ascertained divine words mean. Hodge places under this head General Introduction, Special Introduction, and Exegesis proper. General Introduction treats matters common to the Bible as a whole or to each Testament: higher criticism, textual criticism, biblical philology, biblical archaeology, hermeneutics, biblical inspiration, and the history of interpretation. Special Introduction studies each biblical book in detail, including dialect, authorship, occasion, design, and reception. Exegesis proper applies that preparatory knowledge and the rules of interpretation to the sacred text in its own order and context. Hodge also connects several special studies with Exegetical Theology: typology, Old Testament Christology, Biblical Theology, and the principles of prophetic interpretation.

1.10

KO

조직신학이라는 표제 아래에는 무엇이 포함됩니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What is embraced under the head of Systematic Theology?

Systematic Theology gathers everything Scripture teaches concerning faith and duty and presents it as a coherent system. It proceeds inductively from the results of exegesis: interpreted Scripture passages are its data, and those passages disclose their own relations within the system whose center is the person and work of Christ. Because all truth is one, Systematic Theology must also show the harmony of revealed truth with valid knowledge in the material and psychological sciences, true speculative philosophy, moral philosophy, and practical philanthropy. Hodge includes three broad concerns: the construction of revelation's contents into a complete system of faith and duty, the history of that doctrinal construction in the church, and polemics. The constructive part is commonly arranged under theology proper, anthropology, soteriology, Christian ethics, eschatology, and ecclesiology. Doctrine-history traces the rise and development of each doctrine through controversies and confessions. Polemics defends the true doctrinal system and its several parts against internal heretical distortions.

1.11

KO

실천신학이라는 표제 아래에는 무엇이 포함됩니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What is embraced under the head of Practical Theology?

Practical Theology is both a science and an art. As an art, it aims at the effective publication of revelation among all people and at the perpetuation, extension, and edification of God's earthly kingdom. As a science, it studies the revealed principles and laws that govern that work. It is rooted in the great principles developed by Systematic Theology, with ecclesiology serving as common ground between the two departments. Hodge includes the idea, design, attributes, constitution, administration, and discretionary adaptation of the church. He also includes church membership, the duties and privileges of members, the relation of baptized children to the church, and the offices of the church, both extraordinary and ordinary. The church's officers are considered as teachers, leaders of worship, and rulers. This brings in catechetics, Sunday schools, sacred rhetoric, homiletics, Christian literature, liturgies, free prayer, psalmody, sacred music, elders, pastors, sessions, presbyteries, synods, and general assemblies. Practical Theology also treats church statistics, stewardship and social economics, theological seminaries, domestic missions, church-state relations, Christian citizenship, civilization and moral reform, and foreign missions.

1.12

KO

역사신학이라는 표제 아래에는 무엇이 포함됩니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What is embraced under the head of Historical Theology?

In the logical exposition of theology, Scripture interpretation and the construction of revealed truths and duties come before the history of their development in the church. Yet in actual study history comes first, because history gives us the Scriptures, the means of determining their text, the methods and results of interpretation, and the creeds, confessions, and controversies through which doctrine has developed. Historical Theology is divided into Biblical and Ecclesiastical history. Biblical history, drawn chiefly from inspired sources, extends to the close of the New Testament canon. It includes Old Testament history in its patriarchal, Mosaic, prophetical, and intertestamental periods, and New Testament history in the life of Christ and the apostolic founding of the church. Ecclesiastical history begins where biblical history ends and continues to the present. It requires geography, chronology, antiquities, statistics, general history, and careful investigation of monumental and documentary sources. Hodge distinguishes the history of the church's life from the history of the church's thought. The latter includes patristics and patrology, Christian archaeology, doctrine-history, and symbolics, including the origin, authority, contents, and comparison of Christian creeds and confessions.

2.1

KO

명목적 정의와 실질적 정의의 차이는 무엇이며, 하나님이라는 말의 참된 정의는 무엇입니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What is the distinction between a nominal and a real definition, and what is the true definition of the word God?

A nominal definition explains the meaning of a term, while a real definition explains the nature of the thing signified by that term. Hodge notes that the word God may be used by some for an impersonal ground of being or for an unknowable first cause. Yet in Christian usage, shaped by the long influence of Christian thought in civilized literature, the word has come to mean a self-existent, eternal, absolutely perfect, free personal Spirit, distinct from and sovereign over the world he has created. To deny such a being is to deny God in the proper Christian sense.

2.2

KO

하나님에 대한 실질적 정의는 어떻게 구성될 수 있습니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

How can a real definition of God be constructed?

God can be defined only so far as he is known to us. The possibility of knowing him rests on the fact that human beings were created in his image. Therefore any definition of God assumes that God and his intelligent creatures share, in an essential but creaturely sense, enough likeness for knowledge to be possible. A real definition proceeds by genus and specific difference. As to genus, God is an intelligent personal Spirit. As to the difference that constitutes him God, he is infinite, eternal, and unchangeable in his being, wisdom, power, holiness, and in every perfection consistent with his being.

2.3

KO

하나님 관념은 어느 정도까지 전통에 기인합니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

To what extent is the idea of God due to tradition?

Hodge grants that the complete Christian idea of God has been attained only through the supernatural revelation recorded in Scripture. The historically influential theistic religions are also connected with that revelation, and each community receives the form and associations of its theistic idea through inherited theological traditions. Yet the idea of God is not merely the product of authority or tradition. Under known and natural human conditions, people spontaneously recognize the divine existence as disclosed in the constitution and conscious experience of their own souls and in external nature. This universal recognition shows that the evidence is present everywhere and is convincing to normally developed human beings.

2.4

KO

하나님 관념은 선천적입니까? 그리고 직관적 진리입니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

Is the idea of God innate, and is it an intuitive truth?

The idea of God is not innate in the sense that a child is born with a fully formed conception of God, nor can the unaided human mind under merely natural conditions attain an adequate conception of the divine nature. It is innate only in the broader sense that the constitutional faculties of the soul, under natural conditions, lead people spontaneously to recognize God as the ultimate ground of being and the Lord of conscience, manifested in the soul and in the world. Nor is God's existence an intuition in the strict sense of a direct vision of a necessary truth. The recognition of God involves elements of intuition, but God is known mediately through his works, and the mind makes at least an implicit inference in recognizing his presence and action. Still, because human beings are made in God's image, they recognize God through his self-revelation in consciousness, especially conscience, and in the marks of the external world.

2.5

KO

정상적인 의식 상태에서 모든 사람이 하나님의 존재를 자발적으로 인식한다면, 그 존재를 증명하는 형식적 논증의 가치는 무엇입니까? 그리고 일반적으로 사용되는 논증들은 무엇입니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

If the existence of God is spontaneously recognized by all men under normal conditions of consciousness, what is the value of formal arguments to prove that existence? And what are the arguments generally used?

Formal arguments do not replace the spontaneous recognition of God. Their value is to analyze and scientifically verify the mental processes already involved in that recognition, to defend the legitimacy of those processes against skeptical criticism, and to awaken and confirm faith by drawing attention to the breadth of the evidence. Hodge treats the arguments as convergent rather than merely sequential. They form an organic whole: the cosmological argument witnesses to God as First Cause, the teleological argument to order and adaptation in the universe, the moral argument to the testimony of moral consciousness and history, the scriptural argument to the phenomena and supernatural history recorded in Scripture, and the a priori argument to reason's testimony to God as infinite and absolute.

2.6

KO

우주론적 논증을 진술하십시오.

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

State the Cosmological Argument.

The cosmological argument reasons from change to a cause beyond the changing universe. Every new existence or change in something already existing requires a prior and adequate cause. The universe as a whole and in all its parts is a system of changes. Therefore the universe must have a cause outside itself, and the ultimate cause must be eternal, uncaused, and unchangeable. Hodge defends the causal premise as a necessary judgment: the claim is not that everything has a cause, but that every new thing or change has a cause. An endless chain of changes cannot satisfy that judgment, because the whole chain is still a series of changes needing explanation. He also argues that scientific accounts of energy, matter, and cosmic development do not supply an eternal and immutable first cause; they describe changing conditions that still call for a cause.

2.7

KO

목적론적 논증을 진술하십시오.

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

State the Teleological Argument.

The teleological argument, or argument from design, reasons from order, harmony, and adaptation in nature to an intelligent cause. In one form, the universal order produced by the cooperation of many distinct elements can be explained only by an intelligent cause; since the universe is a complex and symmetrical order, its eternal and absolute cause must be mind. In another form, the adjustment of parts and means to ends points to designing intelligence and will; since the universe is full of such adaptations, its First Cause must be an intelligent mind and will. Hodge adds that intelligence without will is not a real idea. Intelligence and will together constitute personality. The order that makes science possible, the mathematical harmony of nature, and the special adaptations found in organisms all testify that the First Cause is an eternal, self-existing Person.

2.8

KO

특별한 설계의 증거에서 유신론적 결론을 이끌어 내는 것에 대한 반론들을 진술하고 답하십시오.

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

State and answer the objections to the theistic inference from the evidences of special design.

Hodge first answers Hume's objection that design is only inferred from the analogy of human contrivance and cannot be extended to nature. He replies that we know other human minds by their works, not by direct prior access, and that the conviction that order and adaptation imply intelligence is a rational judgment, not a mere habit drawn from human artifacts. A second objection says that special adaptations are only incidental effects of general laws within the vast whole of the universe, so we cannot read divine purpose from a part. Hodge grants that older natural theology sometimes isolated organisms too much from the larger whole, but insists that the intrinsic end of a special arrangement can be known even when its wider relations are not. A third objection appeals to evolution. Hodge answers that theories compatible with divine immanence do not hurt the argument, while purely naturalistic theories fail to explain life, sensation, intelligence, will, conscience, stable types, and humanity. Even if continuous evolution were established, it would describe a method of means, not remove the need for an intelligent cause of the laws and adjustments involved.

2.9

KO

도덕적 논증을 진술하십시오.

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

State the Moral Argument.

The moral or anthropological argument adds the evidence of human moral consciousness and human history to the earlier arguments. The cosmological argument points to an eternal First Cause, and the teleological argument shows that this cause has intelligence and will. The moral argument confirms that conclusion and further shows that the First Cause is holy, just, good, and true. Hodge develops the argument from several connected facts. Human consciousness gives immediate knowledge of the self as a spiritual and moral agent, and the laws of reason and conscience cannot be reduced to inherited sense impressions. Humanity is also universally religious: conscience carries a sense of moral accountability to a superior moral authority. The beneficent and beautiful adaptations of nature point not merely to design but to benevolent design, and the history of mankind displays a moral order too broad to be explained by the purposes of human actors alone. Together these facts point to a wise, righteous, and benevolent ruler and educator of mankind.

2.10

KO

특별 설계와 섭리적 통치에서 나오는 유신론적 논증에 대한 밀의 반론을 진술하고 답하십시오.

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

State and answer Mill's objections to the Theistic Argument from special design and providential government.

Mill's objections press the darker facts of nature and history against the claim that the world is governed by an omniscient, omnipotent, just, and benevolent personal God. He points to the unbending operation of natural law, the suffering of animals, moral and physical evil among human beings, and the unequal distribution of providential benefits. If nature is the product of a personal will, Mill argues, that will appears limited in power or goodness, or morally indefensible. Hodge answers that God did not make the universe chiefly for creaturely happiness considered by itself. Higher ends are involved: the manifestation of God's glory and the education and discipline of moral creatures toward their highest excellence. The organs of sentient creatures are directed to their welfare, while pain is incidental and may serve larger ends. Human suffering is connected with sin as penalty or chastening, and the origin of sin remains mysterious but is tied to the abuse of responsible freedom. Present providential inequalities show that this life is not the final scene of rewards and punishments, and they point toward future readjustment. Finally, the teleological and moral arguments do not claim that finite observers can already see perfect wisdom and goodness in every detail; they argue that the general character of nature and providence points to those attributes, while many obscurities belong to our limited knowledge.

2.11

KO

성경적 증거를 진술하십시오.

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

State the Scriptural Evidence.

Hodge treats Scripture as the clarifying and completing witness to God. Because human beings are finite, guilty, and morally corrupt, God's self-manifestation in nature is not apprehended as clearly as it ought to be. Supernatural revelation, given through God's historical interventions, interpreted by prophets, and recorded in Scripture, supplements natural light, explains the mysteries of providence, and provides the principles of a true theodicy. The decisive center of this scriptural evidence is Christ. Nature both reveals and veils God, but in Christ God is unveiled in wisdom, holiness, and love. The person of Christ demonstrates the truth of theism in its fullest form, so that true recognition of God is inseparable from acknowledging Christ's lordship over the intellect, conscience, and life.

2.12

KO

하나님의 존재에 대한 선험적 논증들이 의지하는 원리와 그 원리의 가치, 그리고 그 논증들이 제시되어 온 주요 형식들을 진술하십시오.

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

State the principle upon which the a priori arguments for the existence of God rest, the value of the principle, and the principal forms in which they have been presented.

The a priori arguments rest on necessary ideas of reason rather than on an ascent from observed facts. A posteriori arguments move from consciousness and nature to God as First Cause, personal intelligence, moral governor, and benevolent ruler. A priori reasoning asks what must be involved in the necessary truths and intuitions that reason already possesses. Hodge's principle is that necessary truth is universal, unavoidable, and objectively valid. Such truth cannot be grounded merely in subjective consciousness or in changing things; its ground must be an infinite, eternal, self-existent, and unchangeable nature. This principle gives consistency and completion to the idea of God reached by the earlier arguments, because the mind cannot rest in a finite or limited deity. Hodge lists three principal historical forms: Anselm's argument from the idea of an infinitely perfect being, Descartes' argument that the idea of infinite perfection cannot originate from a finite source and bears necessary objective validity, and Samuel Clarke's argument from infinite and necessary time and space to an eternal infinite substance.

3.1

KO

무신론이란 무엇입니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What is Atheism?

Atheism, in Hodge's usage, is the denial of God as a personal Creator and moral Governor. The term had sometimes been used more loosely in antiquity for people who did not conform to the popular religion, but in modern theological usage it means the denial of the God confessed by theism. Hodge treats atheism as possible even though the recognition of a personal God arises naturally from conscience and the works of nature. It may appear practically, when life is conducted as though God were not present, or speculatively, when God is denied, doubted, declared unknowable, or displaced by theories that make divine knowledge, divine attributes, moral government, or human moral freedom impossible.

3.2

KO

이원론이란 무엇입니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What is Dualism?

Dualism, as the opposite of monism, teaches that there are two generically distinct essences in the universe: matter and spirit. In that broad philosophical sense, Hodge notes, ordinary Christian doctrine is dualistic because it distinguishes spirit from matter. The anti-theistic danger appears when matter or evil is treated as an eternal, independent principle alongside God. Ancient pagan philosophers often assumed the independent eternity of matter, and mythological systems such as Zoroastrianism explained evil through opposed personal principles. In more absolute forms, evil was referred to self-existent matter, a tendency Hodge connects with certain Gnostic movements, Manichaeism, and ascetic distortions in early Christianity.

3.3

KO

다신론이란 무엇입니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What is Polytheism?

Polytheism divides the perfections and functions of the infinite God among many limited gods. Hodge sees it as arising from nature-worship and as widely replacing primitive monotheism. In early forms it attached religious devotion to elements such as stars and fire, and later it took different shapes according to each people's memory, character, and civilization. Hodge surveys several expressions of polytheism: fetish worship in less developed forms, Greek religious imagination that exalted heroic human figures, and Indian religion in which pantheistic speculation was joined to an expansive multitude of deities. When polytheism becomes speculative, he regards it as the hidden or popular counterpart of pantheism, because the many gods disperse what should be confessed of the one infinite God.

3.4

KO

이신론이란 무엇입니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What is Deism?

Deism is etymologically close to theism, but Hodge uses the established historical distinction. Deism admits a personal Creator, yet denies God's controlling presence in the world, his immediate moral government, and all supernatural intervention and revelation. Hodge traces the movement through English deists such as Lord Herbert of Cherbury, Hobbes, Shaftesbury, Bolingbroke, and Thomas Paine, then through French and German rationalist currents. In his account, deism tends to reduce religion to natural reason, distance God from providence and revelation, and then give way to more radical forms such as pantheism or materialistic atheism.

3.5

KO

관념론이란 무엇입니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What is Idealism?

Idealism, as Hodge cites it, teaches that the objects immediately known in external perception are ideas. He notes that modern German idealism took several forms: Fichte's subjective idealism made the perceived object a modification of the self; Schelling's objective idealism treated subject and object as manifestations of the absolute; and Hegel's absolute idealism made the idea or relation the finally real thing. Hodge treats extreme idealism as anti-theistic when it dissolves the stable distinction between mind, matter, God, and man. In that form it does not merely discuss perception; it undermines realism, creaturely existence, and the personal God whom Christian theism confesses.

3.6

KO

물질주의란 무엇입니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What is Materialism?

Materialism reduces all reality to matter, atoms, force, or physical organization. Hodge begins from the distinction between two kinds of phenomena: thought, feeling, and will on one side, and extension, inertia, and other sensible properties on the other. Because neither class can be resolved into the other, he refers them to spirit and matter respectively. The materialist error, in Hodge's account, is to explain intelligence, conscience, volition, moral obligation, and freedom as functions of matter or convertible energy. He argues that this dissolves truth, duty, morality, and religion, and that mind and will give a more rational explanation of order than matter gives of consciousness.

3.7

KO

범신론이란 무엇입니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What is Pantheism?

Pantheism is absolute monism: the phenomenal universe is treated as the changing form of one universal substance, and that substance is called God. Hodge summarizes the claim as the identification of God with all things and all things with God, so that finite things are only temporary forms of absolute being. He distinguishes several forms, including Spinoza's one-substance pantheism, material pantheism, and the idealistic pantheism associated with Schelling and Hegel. Hodge's central objection is that pantheism must deny either God's moral personality, man's moral personality, or both. It makes free self-determination, moral responsibility, supernatural revelation, and genuine religion impossible, even when it presents itself in mystical or reverent language.

4.1

KO

신학은 어떤 두 큰 부문으로 나뉩니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What are the two great departments into which Theology is divided?

Hodge divides theology into Natural Theology and Revealed Theology. Natural Theology asks whether God's real objective existence as a personal Spirit beyond the world can be established by adequate evidence, and what may be known of God's nature and relations from the light of nature alone. He also distinguishes strictly unaided natural knowledge from natural reasoning that has borrowed light from supernatural revelation, even when that borrowing is unacknowledged. Revealed Theology presupposes Natural Theology and then gathers what God has made known through supernatural channels concerning himself and his relation to the universe, especially to mankind.

4.2

KO

자연신학과 계시신학의 가능성과 타당성을 설명하려 할 때 제시된 극단적 견해들은 무엇입니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What extreme views have been considered to explain the possibility and validity of Natural, and as distinguished from Revealed Theology?

Hodge identifies two opposite extremes. Deists and naturalistic theists deny either the possibility or the historical fact of supernatural revelation, and therefore treat Natural Theology as sufficient for all that human beings can or need to know about God. Some rationalists admit revelation historically, but reduce its role to enforcing or illustrating truths already available in natural religion. The opposite extreme, held by some Christians, denies that Natural Theology has real existence and says that even the first valid knowledge of God's existence depends on supernatural revelation. Hodge rejects this too, appealing to Scripture, the religious knowledge found among notable heathen thinkers, the theistic inference already defended from consciousness and the external world, and the fact that recognizing a revelation as from God logically presupposes some prior knowledge of God.

4.3

KO

신학에서 지식의 원천 또는 표준이 무엇인가 하는 질문에 대한 주요 답변들을 진술하십시오.

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

State the principal answers given to the question, “What is the Source or Standard of Knowledge in Theology?”

Hodge surveys several proposed sources or standards for theological knowledge. Schleiermacher and the transcendental school made the common Christian consciousness of the church, rather than Scripture, the final appeal in questions of faith. Mystical theories of inner light placed the source of religious truth in inward illumination. Another view located authority in an inspired church or its official teachers. Rationalists made human reason the source and measure of religious knowledge. Against these, Hodge states the Protestant doctrine: the Old and New Testament Scriptures, given by God's inspiration, are God's words to us and the infallible, authoritative rule of faith and practice. For Christian theology they are not one standard among several, but the one source and standard that excludes rival ultimate authorities.

4.4

KO

종교 지식의 원천으로서 믿음과 대조되는 “이성”이라는 말은 어떤 정확한 의미로 쓰입니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What is the precise sense in which the term “Reason” is used by those who contrast it to Faith as the source of Religious Knowledge?

Hodge notes that rationalists use the word reason in different senses. Some mean the higher faculty that apprehends necessary and ultimate truths. Others mean the understanding or logical power that observes, judges, and draws inferences from experience. In practice, people often call by the name reason their settled habits of mind and the accepted body of knowledge, opinion, and prejudice already filling their minds. For the present theological controversy, Hodge defines reason more broadly as humanity's entire natural faculty for finding truth. This includes intuition, understanding, imagination, affections, and emotions, but only as they operate under natural conditions and independently of supernatural assistance.

4.5

KO

합리주의란 무엇입니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

What is Rationalism?

Hodge distinguishes rationalism from naturalism. A naturalist treats nature as a complete, self-contained sphere and therefore denies the supernatural, or at least denies that it can be known by human beings. A rationalist is the broader category: it includes naturalists, but also includes those who admit a divine revelation while still making human reason the ultimate judge of revelation, its doctrines, and its records. Historically, Hodge locates rationalism as a freethinking movement within the Christian church that misused reason in interpreting Scripture and doctrine. He traces its modern German form from Semler and the principle of accommodation through vulgar rationalism and then into transcendental rationalism, where pantheistic assumptions made miracles impossible and New Testament history was explained by tendency, myth, or legend rather than fact.

4.6

KO

역사적 그리스도교에 반대하는 논증적 근거들은 어떤 두 부류로 나눌 수 있습니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

Into what two classes may all the argumentative grounds of opposition to historical Christianity be grouped?

Hodge groups objections to historical Christianity into two classes. First are a priori objections, which rest on false views of God, his nature, and his relation to the world. Positivism, deism, pantheism, and scientific naturalism all tend to deny the possibility or credibility of miracles, reduce inspiration to genius, and explain Scripture away as less than factual history. Second are historical and critical objections. These do not begin from an abstract theory of God and nature, but from alleged defects in the evidence for the genuineness and authenticity of the canonical books, and from alleged discrepancies or historical and scientific inaccuracies in Scripture. Hodge assigns these questions to Biblical Introduction and Exegesis.

4.7

KO

이성이 종교적 관념의 궁극적 원천이자 척도가 아니라는 것은 어떤 근거들로 분명해집니까?

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

State the grounds upon which it is evident that Reason is not the ultimate source and measure of religions ideas.

Hodge gives three general grounds. A priori, reason in humanity's present ignorance, moral degradation, and guilt is not competent to provide either certainty or sufficient practical guidance about God's existence, character, relation to us, or purposes for us. Universal experience confirms this: unaided reason has not attained those ends, and when it is unduly trusted despite revelation, it leads to skepticism and confusion. The third ground is the actual gift of an infallible record of supernatural revelation. Interpreted with the illuminating help of the Holy Spirit, this revelation conveys knowledge essential to salvation that reason could not have anticipated. Hodge says the argument must proceed by showing the necessity, possibility, antecedent probability, historical fact, canonical record, and inspiration of that revelation.

4.8

KO

현재 인간의 상태에서 초자연적 계시가 필요하다는 것을 입증하십시오.

Es ist noch kein übersetzter Text verfügbar.

EN

Prove that a supernatural revelation is necessary for men in their present condition.

Hodge argues first that reason itself recognizes humanity's disordered moral nature and guilty alienation from God. Reason can discover the fact of sin and can infer God's justice in punishing sin, but it cannot disclose whether God will provide or permit a gracious remedy, because grace depends on God's free will. He adds that the universal human longing for divine self-revelation and intervention witnesses to this need. Historical communities have not been led by reason alone to certainty, satisfaction, or moral rule. Rationalism is powerful in criticism and demolition, but it has not constructed a stable positive religious system; prominent rationalists themselves do not agree on reason's certain results.

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