Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological & Ecclesiastical Literature

Wilkinson, Jemima a fanatical Quakeress, was born at Cumberland, R.I., in 1753. In October 1776, on recovering from an, attack of sickness, in which she had fallen into a kind of trance, she announced that she had been raised from the dead, and had received a divine commission as a religious teacher. She gathered around her a few proselytes, who styled themselves "Universal Friends" (q.v.), and formed a settlement between Seneca and Crooked lakes, N.Y., which she called New Jerusalem. Here she secured the belief of her followers in the most absurd pretensions. She claimed to be inspired and to have reached absolute perfection. She pretended to foretell future events, to discern the secrets of the heart, and to have the power of healing diseases. She declared that those who refused to believe in her claims rejected the counsel of God to their own hurt. She even claimed to be Christ in his second coming. On one occasion she declared her intention of walking across Seneca Lake; but when all the preparations were made, she inquired of her followers whether they had faith in her power to do so, and on their replying in the affirmative, said that as they believed in her power it was unnecessary to display it. She claimed to be the one by whom the millennium was to be established, and two of her disciples declared themselves to be the "two witnesses" mentioned in the book of Revelation. She lived in a luxurious style in an elegant house, having amassed a large fortune by the donations made by her followers. She died in 1819. See Hudson, *History of Jemima Wilkinson *(Geneva, N.Y., 1821); and *Memoirs of Bath.*

Wilkinson, John a Puritan divine, brother of the Henry foregoing, was born in Halifax, and educated at Oxford, where he became fellow of Magdalen College; in 1605 principal of Magdalen Hall, and in 1648 president of Magdalen College. He died January 2, 1649.

Wilkinson, Sir John Gardner, D.C.L., F.R.S. a celebrated English traveler and Egyptologist, was born at Haxendale, Westmoreland, Oct. 5, 1797. He was the son of the Rev. John Wilkinson and a daughter of the Rev. Richard Gardner. He received his education at Harrow School and at Exeter College, Oxford. He afterwards went to Egypt, where he remained twelve years, devoting himself to the study of the antiquities of the country and making himself acquainted with the languages, manners, and customs of the modern inhabitants. He resided a considerable time in a tomb at Thebes, and employed himself in making accurate surveys of the district and drawings of the superb architectural monuments, and in copying the sculptures, paintings, hieroglyphics, and other objects of interest then existing. In 1828 he published at Malta *Materia Hieroglyphica, *in four parts, and in 1835, in London, *Topography of Thebes and General View of Egypt. *In 1836 he began the publication of his great work, *The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians *printing the first series in 3 vols. 8vo., the second series, in 2 vols. 8vo, appearing in 1840. In 1843 he published *Modern Egypt and Thebes, *a new and condensed edition of which was published among Murray's *Hand- books *in 1847. In 1844 he traveled in Dalmatia and Montenegro, and in 1848 published *Dalmatia and Montenegro, with a Journey to Mostar, in Herzegovina, and Remarks on the Slavonic Nations, *etc. In 1850 he published *The Architecture of Ancient Egypt, *and in 1851 *The Fragments of the Hieratic Papyrus at Turin containing the Names of the Egyptian Kings, *etc. In 1855-56 he revisited Egypt, and on his return published *Egypt in the Time of the Pharaohs. *He presented his collections of Egyptian, Greek, and other antiquities to Harrow School fur the purpose of forming a museum, to which he added, in 1874, his valuable collection of coins and medals. In 1858 he published *A Treatise on Color and the General Diffusion of Taste among all Classes. *He contributed many of the notes to Rawlinson's *Herodotus, *and published papers in the *Transactions *of the geographical and archeological societies in Great Britain. He died Oct. 29,1875. A *Memoir *was published by his widow in 1876. Lord Ripon, in an address before the Royal Society of Literature, spoke thus of his great work on the ancient Egyptians: "Indefatigable in research, full of learning, accurate in facts, Sir Gardner Wilkinson has at the same time treated his subject with the enthusiasm of genius and the liveliness of poetry. He opens to you the temple of their deities, the palace of their sovereign, the field of battle, and the repositories of the dead. He traces for you their early history, he exhibits to you their knowledge of the arts and sciences, the course of their husbandry, and the process of their manufactures; and he introduces you to their private life with a graphic vivacity which makes you at once a judge of the virtues and vices of the Egyptian character, and a partaker, as it were, of the intimacies of their domestic society."

Will (Testament) *SEE WILLS*.

Will ,Worship **(**θελοθρησκεία*, *Col 2:23), the invention and practice of sulch expedients of appeasing or of pleasing God as neither reason lnor revelation suggests.

Will, Arminian View Of The. **I. ***Definitions. —* **1. **Mind is one and indivisible. For convenience in language, the phenomena of mind are generalized, and names given to the powers by which phenomena become possible and to which phenomena are, referred. Those powers of mind which are immediately concerned in the acquisition, retention, and classification of knowledge are classed together and generalized so that the generic name of the *intellect *is made to include them all, or, more briefly, the mind's power to know is called the *intellect. *In like manner, the susceptibility *of feeling *is called the *sensibility, *and the power to put forth action is called the *will. *Not that there are three distinct entities, for evidently it is the same one and indivisible mind that perceives, judges, remembers, imagines, is pleased or displeased, loves or hates, chooses, resolves, determines, acts. Perhaps it would be quite as scientific as is the usual method of statement to say that mind, considered as an entity, is one, simple, indivisible, and ultimate; that the same one mind, considered as a power to know is called the intellect; considered as a power of feeling, is called the sensibility; and considered as a power of action, is called the *will.* **2. **Edwards defines will as "the power to choose." This is unscientific and inadequate, because there are evidently other phenomena of mind as distinctly active, and as clearly distinguished from knowledge and from feeling, as is choice. Tappan's definition of will is "the mind's causality." This is not objectionable, unless it be said that it is too general and does not enable the thinker to form a definite conception. Whedon says the will is "that power of the mind by which it becomes the conscious author of an intentional act." This is more specific, and is correct so far as it goes; but it may be asked, Is not will sometimes active when there is no intention or purpose cognized in consciousness? Does not the mind put forth acts of will unconsciously? Haven says, "I understand by the will that power which the mind has of determining or deciding what it will do and of putting forth volitions accordingly." Upham says "the will may properly enough be defined the mental power or susceptibility by which we put forth volitions." These are both defective, because they require a knowledge of what is meant by the term volitions. Manifestly mind is so perfectly one, and its phenomena are so thoroughly interpenetrated, each and all being mutually conditioned one upon the other, that accurate and exhaustive definition is extremely difficult, if not impossible. In the present state of mental science, perhaps we say the best thing possible, and all that is requisite for practical purposes, when we say that to know, to feel and to act is an exhaustive category of mental phenomena, and the mind's power to act is what is expressed by the term "the will." **3. **In general use, all acts of will are called *volitions. *Some writers, however, distinguish them as "choices" and "volitions;" but no reason is apparent for varying from the general usage, as the distinction sought may be easily made when necessary by simply noting one class as volitions in choice, and the other as volitions in the executive *nisus. *To make a choice, to form a purpose, to seek an end, to indulge an intention, to resolve to do, with other terms of similar import, express-acts of mind which are different from the mental *nisus *that moves the mind or body, or both, to do the thing intended. As between idleness and employment, as between one form of occupation and another, and as between several books lying before me, I determine to take up a particular book and give attention to the reading of the same, and the study of the topic on which it treats. These selections and the determination formed are acts of will are choices, volitions in choice; but no one of them alone, nor all of them together, have as yet stirred a muscle. Another act of will is requisite to move the body and do the, work intended this may be called volition in the executive nisus. The executive power of will is exerted both upon the mind and upon the body upon the mind as in all acts whereby attention is confined to any particular topics; upon the body as in. all cases of intended muscular movement. The above, in a matter so well understood, may suffice as a sort of index pointing towards, rather than accurately defining, what is intended by the terms "will," "choice," "volition," and their synonyms; and we now proceed to the discussion of the question which, more than all others connected herewith, is of vital importance, namely. **II. ***The Freedom of the Will. — *Fatalism is a denial of the existence of free-will in any sense in which the term may be used. What *is *is, because it could not *not be; and *what is *not *is not, because it *could *not be. The actual is equal to the possible, and the non-existent is equal to the impossible. Eternal fate governs all existences and events. Of course atheists are universally fatalists. Materialism, when it asserts that nothing exists but matter, is inseparably associated with fatalism, and in any of the forms which it assumes it is logically fatalistic. Dualism and pantheism always lead in the same direction, though dualists and pantheists are not all professed fatalists. One form of professed theism is I confessedly fatalistic, namely, that species of theism which affirms that God acts from the necessities of his, nature, so that he does all he can do, and what he does he cannot avoid doing, the actual being, by the necessity of God's nature, the measure of the possible. All that it is deemed needful to say of fatalism in this connection is that it contradicts the universal convictions of the human mind. All men, fatalists themselves included, have an ineradicable conviction that many things might be different from what they are. All men irresistibly conceive an essential difference between a man and a machine, and conceive that that difference is found chiefly in the fact that man chooses his ends, and the means of their accomplishment, and the machine does not. Fatalism, if true, cannot be proved, for to admit the possibility of its truth long enough for the, consideration of an argument is to admit that human thought is a necessary falsehood; and arguments against fatalism are evidently futile, for the fatalist is by his own profession compelled to ignore all confidence in his own thinkings. Rejecting as he does ultimate principles, denying intuitive truths, there is no foundation for an argument. The antagonism between fatalism and freedom may be found in their answer to the question, Is mind subject to the law of necessity in every direction, and the same sense that matter is subject to that law? The fatalist affirms and the freedomist denies. For all that is apparent, the antagonists must stand face to face forever the one affirming and the other denying with nothing for either to say that will be of any service to the other. Among anti-fatalists there is great diversity of opinion, and here controversy begins. All are agreed in affirming the doctrine of human liberty, or technically in asserting the doctrine of free-will; but they instantly begin to differ by giving different and opposite definitions of the terms "liberty," "freedom," "certainty," "necessity," etc. This controversy may be as explicitly stated, and the arguments pro and con as perspicuously presented, with some advantage as to brevity, as in any other method, by making the whole discussion: consist in an answer to the sole question, Is there existent such a thing as "power to the contrary?" It may be said that this question does not cover the whole ground of controversy, since some allow that "the power to the contrary?" is essential to a probation, and that the first man possessed it; affirming only that the posterity of the first pair, by reason of their relation to the first sin, do not possess it. This is true; but it is also true that all, or well-nigh all, arguments adduced to prove the non-existence of a power to the contrary in the posterity of Adam prove, if they prove anything, not the non-existence, but the impossibility, of such a power. The question may be stated in other terms — Is mind a power competent for either of several different results? When the mind chooses A, could it at the same time and under the same circumstances have chosen B instead? Is mind, or is it not an either causal power? Is it, or is it not, in respect to any event, a first cause? The parties to this controversy have been called *Freedomists *and *Necessitarians. *We adopt these terms not only for convenience but because they explicitly-characterize the opinions held by each. **1. **Freedomists affirm that the power to the contrary is not only conceivable, but actual; that it is involved in all intuitive conceptions of infinite power; that at any moment in. infinite duration God .can create or refrain from creating; that, creating a world, he can place its center in any one given point in space or in any one of an infinite number of other points; that this power in God is absolutely free from all constraint, either from anything external to himself or from anything pertaining to his own nature. They further affirm that God created man in this feature of his image, so that to deprive man of it entirely would be to dehumanize him would be to reduce him to the character and condition of a brute, or perhaps worse, to mere machinery. They still further affirm that the possession of this power is fundamental and essential in the make-up of a moral being. Necessitarians deny the power to the contrary. They affirm stating it in the mildest terms they choose to adopt an invariable antecedency in all events, psychical as well as physical. All phenomena are uniform, equally so whether pertaining to matter or to mind. External objects determines perception, perception determines emotion, emotion determines desire, desire determines volition in choice, volition in choice determines volition in the executive nisus, and this determines the external muscular action. The chain is unbreakable; the connection between choice and desire is as uniform, as impossible to be otherwise, as is the connection between external object and perception. Every cause is potent only for one sole effect; every antecedent is followed, and must be followed, by one sole consequent. As Edwards puts it, the law of necessity governs all events; it is absurd to suppose the possibility of the opposite of what is. Discussions on this subject among theologians have primary and chief respect to the power for good. Pelagians affirm that the power for good is as essential to human nature any other power. Of course it was not lost by the fall, and all men come into personal consciousness as fully possessed of power to choose the good as they are possessed of power to choose the evil. Augustinians and Arminians affirm that power to choose the good 'was lost by the first sin; that man became enslaved, and that the race have inherited the enslavement. Augustinians further affirm that the lost power is never restored; that if man wills a good, it is by a. divine efficiency causing him thus to will-in other words, the power to the contrary does not exist in the human mind, has not since the first sin, and never will. Arminians agree with Pelagians in affirming that the power to the contrary is essential to a moral nature, to a being morally responsible, but differ from them when they deny that the power to good was lost by sin. Arminians agree with Augustinians in affirming that the posterity of the first pair have inherited an enslaved nature, but they differ from them when they assert that this enslavement is perpetual. Arminians affirm that the race, except the first pair, come into personal consciousness under grace; that the unconditioned benefits of atonement include not only personal existence, but also all the requisites of a fair probation, among which the power to refuse the evil and choose the good is chief, is fundamental and essential. These differences among theologians deserve mention in this connection; but its is not needful that they be kept in mind, for the discussion is the same, whether they be considered or left out of the account. **(1.) **Freedomism is sustained by an appeal to *universal consciousness. *It is affirmed that every man does, every day of his life, many things with a consciousness while doing these things that he has power to do otherwise. It is objected to this appeal by opponents that consciousness testifies to the *acts *of mind, and not to its *powers. *This objection is an assumption which all psychologist do not admit, and it cannot-be denied that man is, in some sense, conscious of his powers. But allowing the objection to stand for what it is worth, it is still averred that the consciousness of a conviction so universal as is the conviction that very many things we do, we do with the same ability to do otherwise that we have to do as we do, is as determinative as any conviction ever existing in consciousness. If consciousness can be relied upon in any testimony that it gives respecting human nature, or if a conviction existing in universal consciousness is any evidence that that conviction is true, then man is free in the sense of the freedomists; he possesses power, or, more accurately, he is himself a power for either of several results. **(2.) **Freedomists affirm that the power to the contrary is essential to *moral obligation; *that a conviction of its existence arises necessarily from a consciousness of moral responsibility. It is affirmed that it is impossible for any one to feel responsible for any event, unless he also feels that that event is under his control. If one feels obligated to choose the good, he must also feel that he has power to do so; if he feels condemned for choosing the evil, he must also feel that he might have chosen the good. These convictions are in perfect accordance with what in abstract science, must be judged as just, honorable, and right. Wherever obligation and responsibility exist, alternatively must be coexistent. In justice and in honor, punishment cannot be awarded for the unavoidable; if but one way be possible, moral desert is impossible. Necessitarians attempt to avoid these manifest inferences by affirming that not a power to contrary, but voluntariness, is the basis of obligation and responsibility; voluntariness, they say, is self motion in the absence of constraint. It is said if a man choose evil unconstrained by anything extraneous to himself, he is responsible; though being what he is it were impossible for him to choose otherwise. Moreover, it is said that it is no matter how he came to be what he is, whether his depravity be concerted, infused, or self-imposed, if his acts are his own and not another's, he is responsible. Is this so? If without any fault or agency of my own I am a slave to evil desires, so that I have no power or ability to choose good, am I responsible for the evil I do? Let the common sense of mankind answer. **(3.) **Freedomists aver that a denial of power to the contrary, if not itself identical with fatalism, is logically its equivalent, since absence of power to be otherwise equals necessity. The term necessity cannot be more accurately defined than by the term absence of power to the contrary. In reply, necessitarians make a distinction between a physical and a moral necessity; the former being found in the connection between a physical cause and its effect, and the latter between a mental state and its consequent. Edwards says the necessity he contends for is "the full and fixed connection between the thing signified by the subject and predicate of a proposition which affirms something to be true." The rejoinder of the freedomist is that necessity is always the same, whatever be the subject to which it applies, and is always impossibility of the opposite. No distinction founded on an irrelevant matter, nor the obscurity of Edwards's definition, avails to, avert the force of the evident affirmation that absence of power to be otherwise is necessity, fate; and necessitarianism equals fatalism. **(4.) **Freedomists affirm that to deny the power to the contrary is to deny human liberty fully and totally. If man cannot do otherwise than he does, he is not free. To avoid this affirmation, vicious definitions are given of the terms liberty, freedom, etc. Liberty is power to do as you will, to will as you choose, to do as you are pleased, etc. To do as you will defines physical liberty, the freedom of the body, and has no relation whatever to mental freedom. To will as you choose is without significance, because choosing is willing, and liberty if anywhere, is found in the choice itself, and not in the accordance with it of any subsequent act either of bold or mind. To will as you are pleased admits the inseparable connection between choice and antecedent pleasure or desire, and may reject the possibility of the opposite, and this is precisely that for which the definition is constructed. When used for this purpose, the outcome is simply a statement of the issue; the definition, and all that depends upon it, avails nothing in averting the affirmation that the denial of a possible opposite is a denial of the possibility of freedom fully and totally. Liberty does not exist, fixed fate governs all things. **(5.) **As a corollary of the above, freedomists affirm that necessitarianism must, if consistent with itself, equally with fatalism, deny all moral distinctions and regard the idea of a moral government as chimerical. **2. **The principal arguments adduced in support of necessitarianism are as follows: **(1.) ***Causality. — *Volitions are effects, and must have a cause; the cause being what it is, the effect cannot be otherwise than it is. This is regarded by opponents as a plain begging of the question, for it assumes that all causes are potent only for one sole effect, when the question under discussion is whether or not mind is a cause equally potent for each of several different effects. If it be asked, What causes the mind to cause as it does? the answer is, Nothing causes it; it is itself first cause of its own volitions, and is by its nature an adequate cause of all its volitions, both general and particular. **(2.) **Edwards's *reductio ad absunrdun. *If the mind be self-determined, it must determine itself in any given volition by an antecedent volition; but if this antecedent volition: be self-determined, it also must be determined' by another 'antecedent volition, and so on *ad infinitnum. *But to suppose such an infinite series of volitions is absurd; therefore mind is not self- determined. All the force of this argument comes from the unfortunate use of the term self-determined. Mind is not determined, it is itself determiner. The supposed antecedent volition is useless, and the series is stopped at its beginning. **(3.) ***Utility. — *The question is asked, "What is the use of a power that is never used?" The events that do occur are produced each by a power adequate to its production; 'if there be a power adequate for the production of an opposite event, it is never used, is useless, and therefore need not be. The fallacy here consists in the assumption that the doctrine of freedom supposes two powers-one to do, an another not to do. Whereas the assertors of a power to the- contrary affirm that the same one power is fully adequate to the production of either of several different results. Mind is such a cause that when it produces effect A, it is fully adequate to produce effect B instead. **(4) ***Motivity. — *It is said mind cannot act without a motive. In a conflict of motives the strongest must prevail, therefore volitions always are as the strongest motive. The fallacy of this argument comes from the materialistic idea conveyed by the term "strongest." There is no analogy between mental and material phenomena that admits of such argumentation. The strength of a motive cannot be represented by the weights of a balance; to infer, prevalence from strength in mental the same as in physical phenomena is vicious. If, however, the term 'strongest motive must be used, it is indispensable: that it be distinctly stated in what the strength of a motive consists; the term strength must be clearly defined. "The so-called strength of a motive," says Whedon, "may be defined the degree of probability that the, will *will *choose in accordance with it, or on account of it." This definition being admitted, the argument is, closed, for- beyond all controversy it is evident that great improbabilities do sometimes occur; an improbability, however great, is not the equivalent even of a certainty, much less of a necessity. But, again, the argument assumes that mind never acts but in view of motives, and that it cannot act without a motive. This is not admitted. Every active man, every day of hiis life, in a thousand indifferent and unimportant movements, both of mind and body, acts in the total absence from consciousness of any motive or reasons for doing as he does; and, again, in an equilibrium of conflicting motives, clearly cognized in consciousness, man can make-a choice. This is not a supposed case, but is of actual and frequent occurrence. Men frequently with strong motives for action find themselves without any motive whatever for action in one way rather than another, and yet in these circumstances they put forth volitions as readily and as easily as when a strong preponderance is obvious. The argument from the strength of motives is not determinative. **(5.) ***Divine Prescience. — *Infinite wisdom must include a perfect knowledge from eternity of all existences and events. A complete history of the universe through all time must have always been perfectly cognized by the Divine Mind. God's foreknowledge can never be disappointed. All existences and events will be as God has from eternity foreknown them; therefore the opposite to what is, and the different from it, could not be; the power to the contrary does not exist. Let it be distinctly noted that the inference here is not merely the non-existence of a power to the contrary, but its impossibility; and if the argument proves an impossibility in human affairs, it also proves the same as to divine affairs, indeed, as to all events from eternity to eternity and God himself is forever shut up to one sole, and necessary history; the actual equals the possible; eternal fate governs God and all that is not God. The premises are unquestionable, but the conclusion is a *non-sequitur. *A future event may be certain, may be known as certain, and its opposite be possible notwithstanding; *will be *is not the same as *must be. *The argument would be equally forcible if the foreknowledge of God were eliminated. Knowledge is not causative; the knowledge of an event has nothing to do with its production. All that the divine prescience of future events does in this argument is to prove their certainty. But this must be admitted without such proof: all things will be as they will be, whether God knows them or not. The history of the universe will be in one way, *and *not two; objective certainty is self-evident. But certainty is not necessity; it does not exclude the possibility of an opposite. Prescience neither helps nor hurts this case at all. If a man can see no difference between certainty and necessity, he cannot admit contingency; he is logically shut up to invincible fate. If one does apprehend a clear difference between will be and must be, he may affirm both prescience and contingency. Between these two parties thus cognizing these ultimate ideas there must be a perpetual difference of opinion on the question under discussion. Further controversy is useless; they have reached the ultimate of the question; they must stand face to face, one affirming contingency, and the other necessity, without the possibility of an argument from either that will be of any service to the other. **(6.) ***Divine Sovereignty. — *God governs the world in accordance with a plan. No existence or event can be permitted to contravene his plan; all existences and events must be included in the plan, and each must form a constituent part thereof. To suppose anything contingent upon the, human will is to take that thing from the purview of the divine sovereignty, subject it to human caprice, to uncertainty, to chance. Therefore nothing can be possible which is different from what is. All the strength of this argument lies in one or the other, or both, of two conceptions. One of these conceptions is that a perfect government implies an absolute control, a determining efficiency; the other is that contingency is the equivalent of uncertainty, no cause, chance. The one conception is that the divine sovereignty cannot be complete and perfect unless all that is not God be reduced to the condition of machinery. The antagonist of this idea is the conception of a government of beings endowed with alternative powers. The idea that a contingency is an uncertainty is antagonized by the conception that contingency and certainty may both be predicated of the same event; it may be certain that a thing will be, and yet, at the same time, be possible that it may not be. These antagonizing conceptions are ultimate; and two parties, the one entertaining one and the other the other, must forever be at variance. Controversy closes, the one party affirming and the other denying. If God cannot know how his creatures will conduct themselves when endowed with alternative power, when left to determine their conduct by their own free will; if he cannot govern the world when much of its history is within the power of his creatures, when much that is, is determined and enacted by the free volitions of men, then freedomism must quit the field, and, as we see it, fatalism is triumphant. There are innumerable possibilities, which never become actual; if the actual be the measure of the possible, then fate governs all things. **III. ***Literature. — *Arminius, *Works *(Auburn, N. Y. 1853, 3 vols. 8vo), is 252; 2, 472; Wesley, *Works *(N. Y. ed.), 2, 69, 404, 460; .5, 39: .6, 41, 49, 127, 584; 7:97; Fletcher, *Works *(ibid.), 1, 90 sq., 322, 502; 2, 227, etc.; Watson, *Theological Institutes *(ibid.), 2, 435 sq.; Fisk, *Calvinistic Controversy *(ibid. 1835), p. 129 sq.; Bledsoe, *Examination of Edwards *(Phila. 1845); Whedon, *Freedom of the Will *(N. Y. 1864); Raymond, *Systematic Theology *(Cincinnati, 1877), 2, 140 sq.; Pope, *Christian Theology *(Lond and N.Y. 1879 sq.), 2, 363 sq. A very moderately Calvinistic, but not strictly Arminia; view of the will may be-found in the *Baptist Review, *1880; p. 527 sq. *SEE ARMINIANISM; SEE THEOLOGY (NEW ENGLAND); SEE WESLEYANISM*. (M. R.)

Will, Calvinistic Doctrine Of The It is obvious that consistent Calvinists and Pelagians cannot hold the same theory as to the nature, conditions, and extent of the freedom of man in willing. It is no less certain that Evangelical Calvinists can, in perfect logical consistency with their system of faith, hold any theory of human freedom which is open to evangelical Arminians in consistency with the logic of their system. **I. ***Freedom of the Will. — *It has always been part of the religious faith of Calvinists that .man -is a free responsible agent. The various methods of philosophically accounting for the fact of freedom, and the relation of the will to the other faculties of the soul, and of its freedom to the revealed doctrines of sin and grace, are elements of philosophy and not of theology. The *Westminster Confession of Faith *represents all other Calvinistic standards in asserting as follows: Ch. 3, § 1. God has "unchangeably ordained whatsoever comes to pass; yet so as thereby neither is God the author of sin, nor is violence offered to the will of the creatures, nor is the liberty or contingency of second causes taken away, but rather established." Ch. 5, § 2. "Although, in relation to the foreknowledge and decree of God, the first cause, all things come to pass immutably, yet, by the same providence, he ordereth them to *fill *out according to the nature of second causes, either necessarily, freely, or contingently." Ch. 9; § 1. "God hath endured the will of man with that natural liberty, that it is neither forced nor by any absolute necessity of nature determined to good or evil." This doctrine Calvinists have always maintained, and they have never held any other doctrines which, in, their belief, were inconsistent with this fundamental doctrine of human freedom. In former times Calvinistic theologians, while maintaining the freedom of man as a responsible moral agent, have generally felt impelled to set over against the fact of freedom the equally certain facts of man's moral depravity, and consequent voluntary aversion and moral inability to fulfill those obligations which spring out of our relation to God. This has been sharply emphasized in opposition to Pelagian, error. But more recently, in consequence of the prevalence of pantheistic and materialistic modes of thought, which are alike fatalistic, Calvinists generally have been impelled to unite with their Wesleyan brethren in emphasizing the rational and moral self-determining power of the human soul which they had always held. This primary truth is the only and the efficient solvent alike of materialism and of pantheism in all their forms. It is the citadel of faith, the last tenable stronghold in defense of supernatural religion. We therefore not only hold to the freedom of the human soul in willing sincerely and in good faith, but we regard it as fundamental and essential, the truth of all others to be held aloft and vindicated at the present day. That Calvinistic theologians as a class have always maintained the freedom of the human soul as the sole cause of its own volitions is so conspicuously true that such impartial, learned, and able critics as Sir William Hamilton *(Discussions, *Appendix I, A; and note on p. 402 of collected *Works of Dugald Stewart), *Dugald Stewart *(Dissertation on the Progress of Philosophy), *and Sir James Mackintosh (Note O to his *Preliminary Dissertation) *have affirmed that the doctrine of the will maintained by Jonathan Edwards is irreconcilably inconsistent with the doctrines of Augustine and Calvin, and the system they taught. In direct contradiction to this opinion. Edwards and Chalmers have held that the particular theory of liberty which they maintained which has been absurdly misrepresented by its title of philosophical necessity is essential to the logical defense of the Calvinistic system. Principal William Cunningham, in his article "Calvinism and the Doctrine of Philosophical Necessity," in his *Reformers and the Theology of the Reformation, *has incontrovertibly proved that both these opposite opinions, as to the relation of the Calvinistic system of theology to special theories of the freedom of the will, are false; and that neither the theory taught by Edwards, nor the theory of self-determination taught by Evangelical Arminians, or any other theory of the will which can be consistently held by Wesleyans, is excluded by the logic of Calvinism. **II. ***Opposition to Pelagianism. — *Pelagians hold that the essence of free- will involves an absolutely unconditioned power of choice between good and evil, and that this power is inalienable from human nature and essential to responsible agency; that the moral agency of a man at any one moment cannot determine nor limit his moral agency at any other moment, but that he must possess, whatever his conduct, throughout his entire existence; full ability to will and to do all that-God has any right to require of him; that moral character, whether good or bad, can be rationally predicated only of *acts *of the will, and not of any permanent states of the will or of the affections. Hence Pelagians deny **1. **That Adam was created with a holy character antecedent to his own morally unbiased action. **2. **They deny that Adam was the representative head of the human race, and that, in consequence of his apostasy, his own nature or that of his posterity became morally depraved. **3. **They deny that man's will is ever morally impotent, or unable to meet all the obligations resting upon him. **4. **That the will of sinful man is dependent upon supernatural assistance, or that it can be effectually influenced by such grace without prejudice to its freedom or responsibility, **5. **Socinians, the only consistent Pelagians, hold that *certainty *is absolutely inconsistent with liberty, and that, consequently, God cannot foreknow the future free acts of men, or other contingent events. Calvinists are, of course, prevented by their religious faith from agreeing with the above positions of the Pelagians as to the conditions of free agency. They hold that man was created with a positive holy character, yet able to obey or disobey. That man's moral nature has been since the fall totally corrupt, indisposed and disabled to obey God's holy law. That the influence of divine grace, prevenient and co-operative, exercised in regeneration, and sanctification, instead of limiting the liberty of the human will, re-establishes and reinvigorates it. **III. ***Ability and Liberty. — *Hence Augustinians have sharply emphasized the distinction between *liberty, *the inalienable property of the human soul as a free rational moral agent, and *ability, *i.e. the power to will and do up to the full measure of our responsibility; or the power to will in a manner contrary to the prevailing moral state of the soul itself; or the power, by a mere volition, to change that prevalent moral state. The same distinction is signalized, by German philosophical theologians, by the terms *Formtale Freiheit, *or ability, and *Reale Freiheit, *or liberty. The neglect of this distinction has led to much confusion. Augustine, Luther, and many of the older Augustinian theologians, in terms denied liberty, when they really meant only to deny to men moral ability to obey the divine law independently of supernatural grace. This has led many honest opponents of Calvinism, imperfectly acquainted with Augustinian theological literature, and the usage of technical language which prevails in it, to misunderstand altogether the meaning of many of our classical authorities. Calvinists, as they have understood themselves have always maintained the freedom of the human will, and at the same tine, and in perfect consistency have denied the moral ability of man since the fall to obey God's law without supernatural grace. They have also always, and with equal consistency, maintained that all events, including the volitions of free agents well as those dependent upon necessary causes, have been from eternity certainly future, and that this certain futurition has been determined by the sovereign foreordination of God. But in all these points, except the last, Wesleyans and Calvinists agree. Different explanations and adjustments of these great commonplaces of Evangelical Christianity may distinguish them, but, as above generally stated, they are at one. God did create man with a mature holy, antecedent to all action, yet mutable (Watson, *Institutes, *pt. 2, ch. 6 and 18; and Wesley, as there quoted by Watson). Man, after his fall continues to be a free and responsible moral agent, and yet is morally depraved before individual action and is unable, before regeneration, and without the assistance of supernatural grace, to obey the divine law; and the operation of this grace does no violence to his freedom of will (*Methodist Articles, *art. 8; Watson, *Institutes, *pt. 2, ch. 18; and Wesley on. *Original Sin). *Saints in glory will be free, yet confirmed in holiness and not liable to fall into sin (Watson, *Institutes, *pt. 2. ch. 29). The free acts of men and angels have always been certainly future to the infinite foreknowledge of God (*ibid. *pt. 2, ch. 4). **IV. ***Foreknowledge and Predestination. *— Obviously, therefore, the only point at which the essential elements of the Calvinistic system even appear to bear upon the nature or conditions of human free agency in a manner different from that in which the essential principles of evangelical Arminianism bear upon the same is the point of the divine decrees. Calvinists hold that God has from eternity immutably foreknown *and foreordained *whatsoever comes to pass. Wesleyans hold that God has from eternity immutably foreknown whatsoever comes to pass. Both equally in love *certainty, *and neither involves anything else. Watson says "the great fallacy in the argument, that the certain prescience of a moral action destroys its contingency, lies in supposing -that contingency and certainty are the opposite of each other." Anti-Calvinists commonly understand that divine foreordination necessarily includes the determination upon the part of God efficiently to bring to pass the things foreordained. But all events are effects either of necessary or of free causes. Foreordination of the effects of necessary causes, of course, does involve a putting-forth of divine efficiency to bring them to pass either immediately or mediately. But the foreordination of the effects of free causes, such as the volitions of free agents, of course, does *not *involve upon the part of God any purpose of putting forth efficiency to bring the foreordained volition to pass, except that involved in bringing the free agent into existence whom he foresaw would freely execute the volition in question; and in giving him power, either natural or gracious, to execute it. God eternally saw in idea all possible free agents, under all possible conditions, and all the volitions, which they would freely exercise under all those conditions, if they were so created and conditioned. This knowledge *(scientia simplicis intelligentice) *precedes and conditions all foreordination. He then sovereignly chose out of the possible the entire system of things he desired to make actually future, and by this choice he made the futurition of all things *certain. *This foreordination precedes and conditions his foreknowledge of, things certainly future. In order to execute it, God, in creation and providence, brings into existence and controls in action all necessary agents, including some sides of human nature; but as to free volitions, he simply brings the agents into existence and conditions them according to his plan, and graciously or naturally supplies them with the power necessary to will and act as predetermined, and then leaves them freely and contingently to will as he had certainly foreseen they would do. Or, as an eminent Calvinistic authority prefers to put it, "The Calvinistic position is stated with sufficient distinctness when it is said that the existing system of things or world-plan was present in the divine mind from all eternity, and was therefore both foreknown and foreordained. Thus the Calvinistic doctrine of the foreordination of free acts, like the Wesleyan doctrine of foreknowledge (which really does not differ from it as much as many suppose), simply involves the previous immutable *certainty *of the act, and in no way affects the freedom of the agent or the contingency of his act (*Westminster Confession of: Faith, *3, 1). It is free in its very essential nature. It is foreseen that the agent would exercise it if created and so conditioned. God makes it *certainly future *by his purpose to so create and so place that man. His creation and providential condition are brought about by the efficiency of God. His volition, although foreseen to be certainly future, is his own free spontaneous self-determination. Even if this explanation should be proved untrue or absurd, surely a thousand other reconciliation's of these revealed truths may be, possible to divine, although they should all be impossible to human, reason. Hence, neither Calvinist nor evangelical Arminian can consistently hold a theory of the will involving the principles of Pelagianism which both repudiate. And hence, also, Wesleyans and Calvinists agreeing (1) that God's foreknowledge proves that all events are certainly future, and (2) that there can be no foreordination of a human volition in any sense or degree inconsistent with its perfect freedom, have, each of them, in consistency with the logic of their respective systems, precisely the same range of choice as to theories of the will as the other. Principal William Cunningham incontrovertibly proves this in essay *Reformers and Theology of the Reformation. *That foreknowledge leads to foreordination is argued by professor L. D. M'Cabe, D.D., LL.D., in his Chautauqua *Address *for 1880, and in his work on *The Foreknowledge of God; *and hence he proposes to revolutionize Wesleyan theology by the introduction of the denial of God's foreknowledge of future contingent events. **V. ***The Edwardean Doctrine. — *Edwards wrote against the Pelagianizing Arminians represented by Whitby, and in a theological interest, as he supposed. He proposed to settle forever, by strictly logical process, all the questions at issue. He argued that the act of the will is by a rigid law of causation determined by the strongest motive. "'He does not carefully distinguish between the different usages of the word cause;' he seems to limit freedom too exclusively to executive volition; at times he implies that the whole causal power, producing volition, resides in the motives; his conception of causation is derived from the sphere of mechanics rather than from that of living spontaneous forces; and he is so in earnest in arguing against then self-determining power of the will as to neglect that element of self-determination which is undeniably found in every personal act" (Smith [Dr. Henry B.], in *the Amer. Presb and Theol. Review, *Jan. 1865). Yet he never intended to deny that essential freedom of choice which is witnessed for in consciousness, and that he conducted his argument with consummate power is witnessed to by his most earnest opponents. He set up a philosophy of the will which is not consonant with the doctrine that had been held by the main body of Augustinian theologians. The doctrine of Augustine, however, and the more general doctrine, even, of Calvinistic theologians, the doctrine of Calvin himself, and of the Westminster Assembly's creeds, is that a certain liberty of will *(ad utrumvis), *or the power of contrary choice, had belonged to the first man, but had disappeared in the act of transgression, which brought his will into bondage to evil. It was the common doctrine, too, that in mankind now, while the will is enslaved as regards religious obedience, it remains free outside of this province in all civil and secular concerns. In this wide domain the power of contrary choice still remains"(Fisher [Rev. Prof. George P.], in *the North American Review, *March, 1879). Calvin-says, in writing against, Pighius, "If force be opposed to freedom, I acknowledge and will always affirm that there is a free will, a will determining itself, and proclaim every man who thinks otherwise a heretic. Let the will be called free in this sense, that is, because it is not constrained or impelled irresistibly from without, but determines itself by itself" (Henry, *Life of Calvin, *transl. by Stebbing, 1, 497). Dr. Thomas Reid, the founder of the Scottish philosophy, was a Calvinistic minister, and in his *Active Powers *taught the freedom of the will. Sir William Hamilton, who was a member of a Calvinistic Church, and a believer in foreknowledge and foreordination, taught the same (see his *Notes on Reid, *and his *Discussions*). Dr. M'Cosh (*Divine Government, *bk. 3, ch. 1, § 1 and 2) plainly enters his dissent from Edwards, although he regards the problem- as to the consistency of the admitted self-determining power of the human soul and the universal reign of the law of causation to be at present insoluble. Henry P. Tappan has ably criticized Edwards in the interest of the "doctrine of a self-determined will," while he remains a consistent Calvinist. There is no doubt that Edwards's celebrated treatise is an amazing monument of genius. In certain special directions its argument has never been answered, and, as far as can now be seen, never will be. Dr. Whedon's new view of the will is a practical testimony to the convincing power of Edwards's logic. His (Edwards) *Infinite Series *remains a triumphant refutation of the old doctrine of the liberty of indifference. The position of the treatise before the public in the present age, however, is maintained not by its Calvinistic defenders, but by its persistent critics, who attack it because they believe it to be the citadel of Calvinistic theology. This is, and has always been, an entire mistake. Calvinists, as such, are independent of, and indifferent to, the psychological theory it advocates, and the fate of the argument on which that theory rests. **VI. ***Psychology of the Subject. — *The question as to the human will and the laws of its action should be investigated purely as a psychological, and not as a theological, question. In this respect both. Edwards and Whedon have equally erred. The opinion of most modern theologians, founded purely on psychological considerations, and independent of all theological bias, is, upon the whole, as follows. Great confusion has been imported into this difficult problem by the usage, common to both parties, of considering the will as a separate organ or agent, exterior to the reason, affection, desires, conscience, and other faculties of the soul. Consciousness affirms that the human soul is an absolute unit, not like the body a system of organs. The whole soul is the one organ of all its functions; the whole soul (Ego) thinks, desires, judges, feels; and the whole soul wills. The soul, that is, the person, is an original self-prompted cause, and is the sole and sufficient cause of all its volitions. In every free volition the soul is self-determined only, and had power to the contrary choice. The will, however, is not separate from the reason, but includes it; includes all the soul includes; is self-decided by its own contents and its own character; and hence is rational and moral, free and responsible. If the problem be pushed further, arid we are asked to affirm the relation which the previous states of the soul sustain to its volitions, most theologians believe that no satisfactory answer has ever been given. The answer of Edwards that the volitions are determined, through a rigid law of moral causation, by the preceding state of the soul, or by the strongest motive, appears to involve the reign within the will of the same law. of cause and effect which prevails in the physical universe; and this it is difficult to prevent from degenerating into fatalism. The answer of Whedon that the will, independent of the reason, and the affections and the .conscience can "project volitions" for the origin and direction of which no cause or reason whatever exists, except the bare power the man has to will anything, appears to us to involve pure chance (by excluding conscience and reason and personal character and content from the will itself). And chance is only another name for fate. It is better to be satisfied with the statement of the points in which all agree (a) the free self-determining power of the soul itself in every free choice, (b) that in the free acts for which we are morally responsible we act for reasons, in view of moral considerations, and our personal character is revealed in the act than to insist further upon a rational account of the genesis of each volition and its relation to the antecedent states of the soul. For hitherto no such account has been permanently regarded as satisfactory by either party. **VII. ***Literature. — *Leibnitz, *Essais de Théodicee; *etc.; Reid, *Active Powers, *essay 4; Turretine, *Institutio Theologicae, *locus decimus; Hodge, *Systematic Theology, *pt. 2, ch. 9; Edwards, *Inquiry on the Freedom of the Will; *Cunningham, *Theology of the Reformers, *essay 9; Hamilton, *Notes on Stewart; *id. *Discussions; Fisher, Discussions on History and Theology, *p. 227-252; Smith, *Review of Whedon on the Will, *in the *American Presbyterian and Theological Review, *Jan. 1865; Day, *On the Will;* Tappan, *Review of Edwards's Inquiry, *and *The. Doctrine of the Will Applied to Moral Agency and Responsibility; *Taylor, *Moral Government of God; *M'Cosh, *Divine Government, *bk. 3, ch. 1. (A. A. H.)

Will, Georg Andreas professor at Altdorf, where he died, September 18, 1798, is the author of, *Beitrage zur Geschichte der Anabaptisten in Deutschland *(Nuremberg, 1773): — *Dissertatio de Nethinaeis Levitarun Famulis, ex Sacrae Potissimum Scripturas Foltibus Institutis *(Altdorf, 1785): — *Typus Pronominum Ebraicorum, quae Suffixa Dicunatur, et Forma Classium Temporumque Verborum Perfectorum in Tabulis *(ibid. 1750). See Winer, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *1:767; *Furst, Bibl. Jud. *3:515. (B.P.)

Willard, Joseph, D.D., LL.D. a president of Harvard College, brother of Rev. John Willard, D.D., or Strafford, Conn., was born in Biddeford, Me., Dec. 29, 1738. He was the son of the Rev. Samuel Willard, minister of that town, and great-grandson of the Rev. Samuel Willard of the Old South Church, Boston; and vice- president of Harvard College. Joseph was born and reared in poverty, but by the aid of others and by his own energy he entered Harvard College, and graduated in 1765. He studied divinity after his graduation, was tutor in Greek for six years, and was ordained colleague pastor (with Joseph Champney) of the First Congregational Church in Beverly, Mass., in 1772. Here he preached until 1781, when he was elected president of Harvard University. For more than sixteen years he performed his duties without interruption by sickness; but in 1798 he was prostrated by a severe illness and could never afterwards attend to the work of the college with the same constancy. In August, 1804, he took a journey to the southern part of the state, and of his return from Nantucket to New Bedford he was seized at the latter place with sudden illness, and died in five days, Sept. 25,1804. "President Willard's whole life was modeled on the sound and impregnable principles of religion, and presented an admirable specimen of the old Puritan character liberalized and improved. Generosity, disinterestedness, a lofty integrity, and honor were united with modesty, simplicity, and singleness of heart." In the administration of the college he was eminently faithful; his firmness, dignity, affability, and benignity secured the cordial respect, and often the affection, of both the students and the faculty. As a preacher, he was plain, instructive, and solemn. President Willard was a thorough and profound scholar; especially in his knowledge of the Greek language and literature he had few superiors, if any. He wrote a *Grammar of the Greek Language *(the first, probably that was written in English), which remains in manuscript in the library of the university. It shows great, research. The publication of the *Gloucester Greek Grammar *when Dr. Willard's was nearly completed induced him to abandon the design of publication. A few occasional sermons were published. See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *2, 23-30; *Cong. Quarterly, *1859, p. 40; *Willard's Memoirs.*

Willard, Samuel, D.D. a Congregational minister, nephew of president Joseph Willard, was born at Petersham, Massachusetts, in 1775. He graduated from Harvard College in 1803, was tutor at Bowdoin College in 1804 and 1805, became pastor of the Church at Deerfield in 1807, and resigned his pastorate, on account of the total loss of sight, in 1829, but preached occasionally until within a month of his death, which occurred October 8, 1859. He was the author of, *The Deerfield Collection of Sacred Music (*1808): — *Original Hymns *(1823): — *An Index of the Bible *(1826): — *An Improved Reader *(1827): — *The General Class-book *(1828): — *Sacred Poetry and Music Reconciled: a Collection of Hymns *(1830): — *An Introduction to the Latin Language *(1835), and other school-books (some anonymous), several sermons, papers in periodicals, and left hymns and other works in MS. Willelmus, an ecclesiastic of the 11th century, became abbot of Metz in 1073, and was friendly to Gregory VII. Seven of his epistles and an oration have been published in Mabillon's *Analecta, *1:247. See Mosheim, *Hist. of the Church, *book 3, cent. 11, part 2, chapter 2.

Willehad, St. apostle to the Frisians and Saxons, was born about A.D. 730 in the kingdom of Northumberland of an ancient family. His early training was largely conducted by Alcuin (q.v.) of York, He reached Friesland in or about the year 770, and began his labors in the place (Dockum) where Boniface had been murdered, with successful results. His zeal drove him, however, to seek a region where Christianity had not been introduced, and he went, in consequence, to Eastern Frisia. Here the idolatrous people were extremely fanatical, and he escaped murder at their hands only through the narrow chance of a favorable lot being thrown when the gods were invoked. At another place, Drenthe, he was more successful, until the fanatical zeal of his own companions excited the anger of the people and compelled his removal. In the meantime his labors had been mentioned to Charlemagne, and in 781 that monarch entrusted to him the work of converting the Saxons in the vale of Wigmodi, on the Lower Weser, and also, the neighboring Frisians. In this work he displayed great tact and zeal, and succeeded in a little while to a degree which had not been possible to Charlemagne with all his armies. Many families were converted and several churches founded during the two years which elapsed before the last rising of the Saxons under their duke, Widukind, against the new authorities. This rising occurred in 782, and was especially violent against the Christians who had- been gathered by Willehad. The missionary saved himself by flight to Frisia, but a number of his assistants and friends were killed. The interval until the re-conquest of the country was employed by Willehad in a visit to the pope, where he met with a fellow-laborer and sufferer among the heathen named Liutger, and in a sojourn employed with devotional and literary duties, especially the copying of Paul's epistles in one of Willebrord's convents at Echternach, near Treves. In 785 Widukind was baptized, and Willehad returned to his work in the region of the Lower Weser and resumed his labors. He established a central Church at Bremen and a smaller Church at Blexen. In 787, July 13, he as consecrated bishop at Worms, having previously been a simple presbyter. On his return, he found the Saxons unwilling to recognize a bishop placed over them by the conqueror and endowed with the right of exacting tithes; but he labored with persistent zeal to effect a firm establishment of the Church among, them, and succeeded in dedicating the first Church in his diocese Nov. 1, 789. His administration, however, was but brief. He undertook a tour of visitation, the fatigues of which threw him into a violent fever, from which he died Nov. 8, 789. He had earned the reputation of a devout, eminently trustful, and very zealous Christian laborer, as well as of a modest, courageous, and abstemious man. He wholly abstained from the use of flesh food and intoxicating drink. His body was interred at Bremen and was credited with the performance of many miracles. Ansgar enumerates thirty- four such wonders, which involve not only many noteworthy historical and topographical traditions of that time, but also several psychological features which deserve examination. He was formally canonized, and two days, July 13 and Nov. 18, were set apart in his honor. *Literature. — *Anskarius, *Vita S. Willehadi, Episc. Brem. *(earliest edition), the principal source; Csesaris [Philippians] *Triapostol. Septentrion., sive Vitae et Gestae SS. Willehadi, Ansgarii, et Rimberti *(Colon. 1642); Mabillon, *Acta SS. Bened. *3, 2, 404 sq., best edition in Pertz, *Monum. *2, 378-390; Adamir *Gesta Hammaburg. Eccl. Pontif. usque ad An. *1072, in Pertz. 7, 267 sq.; Rettberg, *Kirchengesch. Deutschlands, *2, 450-455, 537; Klippel, *Lebensbeschreibung d. Erzbischofs Ansgar *(Bremen, 1845); Herzog, *Real-Encyklop. *s.v.

Willemer, Johann Helvich a German theologian, who flourished in the latter half of the 17th century, at Wittenberg, is the author of, *Dissert. de Tunica Adami Pellicea *(Wittenberg, 1680): — *Disputatio de Sadducceis *(ibid. eod.): — *Diss. Philolog. de Essenis *(ibid. eod.): — *De Pallio Eliae ad 2 Reg. *1:8; 2:8, 13, 14 (ibid. 1679): — *De Pronunciatione Noninis *יהוה *per Legem Levit.* 24:16; *Concessa *(ibid. 1677), etc. See Jocher, *Allgemeines Gelehrten- Lexikon, s.v.; *Furst, *Bibl. Jud. *3:515. (B.P.)

Willeram (or Williram, also Walram and Waltramus) was a learned German monk, and native of Francohia. On his return from Paris, where he had been to study philosophy and belles-lettres under able masters, he was appointed prebendary at Bamberg; but ere long he assumed the garb of a monk and retired into the convent at Fulda. The report of his piety, his merits, and his learning reached the emperor Henry III, who gave to him the Abbey of Ebersberg, Bavaria, in 1048, where he passed the remainder of his days. Willeram died May 7, 1085. He seems to have been concerned to improve the material interests of his monastery, as a number of exchanges of property made by him are on record, among them the barter of several devotional books for a vineyard possessed by bishop Henry of Trident. He had the reputation of being a scholar and a poet. We are indebted to him for a double paraphrase of Solomon's Song, one in hexameter verse, in Latin, another in prose in the language of the ancient Franks. It was arranged in the form of a dialogue between bridegroom and bride. Several copies of this double work are preserved in manuscript in various libraries of Europe; the original is at the Abbey of Ebersberg. The Latin paraphrase had been brought out for the first time by Meenrad Molther of Augsburg, under the title *Wilrami Abbatos in Cantica Salomonis Mystica Explanatio* (Hagenau, 1528). Paul Mertula published the two texts, with notes and a Dutch translation, at Leyden, in 1598, entitled *Willerami Parmaphrasis Geminu in Canticum Canticorum, prior Rhythmis Laiis; Aislteira, Veteri Lingua Francica. *But, in spite of all his merit, his publication, after one poor manuscript was finished, remained incorrect and of little value. That which Marquard Freher had given in German from the, manuscript at Heidelberg is more highly estimated. It was published at Worms in 1631 under the title *Uhralte Verdolmetschung des hohen Liedes Salomonis. *Schiller, the author of *Thesaurus Antiq. Teuton., *formed a plan of reducing the work of Willeram, but he died before he had time to realize his project. His work was found among his papers, and Scherz took upon himself the task of completing it, and published it in Ulm in 1726. Through the efforts of M. de Fallersleben, an entire edition of the work was published by Hoffmann in German, at Breslau in .1827. See Oe'fele, *Rerum Boicar. Script. *2, 1-46; Hirsch, *Jahrb. d. deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich- 1I, *1, 150; Wattenbach, *Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen. im Mittelalter, *p.. 217 sq.; Giesebrecht, *Geschd. deutsch. Kaiserzeit *(2d ed.), 2, 540; Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Géneralé, s.v.*

Willes, Edward, D.D. a Church of England divine, was prebend of Westminster in 1724, of Lincoln in 1730, dean the same year, elected bishop of St. David's in 1742, translated to the see of Bath and Wells in 1743, and died November 24, 1773. See (Lond.) *Annual Register, *1773, page 176.

Willet, Andrew a learned English divine, was born at Ely in 1562. He was educated at Peterhouse and at Christ College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship; became prebendary of Ely July 22, 1584; had the rectory of Childerly, in Cambridgeshire, and in 1597 that of Little Grantesden, in the same county; became chaplain .to prince Henry, and died at Hoddesden, in Hertfordshire, December 4, 1621. He was the author of, *Synopsis Papismi *(1593): — *Tetrastylon Papisticum *(eod.): — *Sacrorum Emblematum Centuria Una, *etc. (1598): — *A Catholicon *(1602): — *Hexapla on Genesis, Exodus, *etc., and other works.

William the name of several Scotch prelates. **1. **Bishop of Moray some time in the 12th century. He died in February 1162. See Keith, *Scottish Bishops, *page 135. **2. **Bishop of Dunblane about 1210. See Keith, *Scottish Bishops, *page 172. 3. Bishop of Argyle in 1240. He was drowned in 1241. See Keith, *Scottish Bishops, *page 286. **4. **Bishop of the see of Dunblane in 1290. On July 12, 1291, he signed a submission to Edward I, king of England. He was bishop here in 1292. See Keith, *Scottish Bishops, *page 174. **5. **Bishop of Dunblane in 1353. See Keith, *Scottish Bishops, *page 175.

William (St.) Of Aquitaine *duke, *surnamed "the Great," was the son of count Thierry, and is thought to have been the brother of Charlemagne, who greatly honored him, and rewarded his services in reducing the Saracens in Spain. William founded a monastery in Gellone, a little valley on the borders of the diocese of Lodeve, which he entered barefooted and in sack-cloth in 806, after having obtained the consent of his wife, and made provision for his children. He practiced great austerity, aid died May 28, 812 or 813. His body was found in 1679 under the great altar of the church there. See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Géneralé, *22:594.

William (St.) Of Dijon was born in 961 of a noble family, near Navarre (Italy), and was early dedicated to the Church. He became a proficient in sacred and profane learning, and retired first to Clugny, but was soon made abbé of St. Benigne, and superior of a large number' of monasteries, into which he introduced wise reforms and a love of polite literature. He founded the abbey of Frutaire, commonly called St. Balain, in the diocese of Yvree, and died at Fecamp (Normandy), Jan. 1, 1031. See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Géneralé, *22:595.

William I of Orange (of the house of Nassau), the first leader in the Dutch war of independence, was born of Lutheran parents at Dillenburg, in Nassau, April 16,1533. He was educated in the principles of the Reformed religion; but the emperor Charles V, who early became interested in his career, removed him to his 'court, and had him trained in the Roman Catholic faith. The emperor soon admitted the boy to great intimacy with him, allowing him alone to be present when he gave audience to foreign ambassadors, and in other ways honoring him with a confidence far above his years. The discretion which the young prince manifested in matters of public concern gained for him the surname of *The Silent; *and even the emperor avowed that he had been indebted to so young a man for important suggestions which had not occurred to his own mind. In 1554 he put him in command of troops, and employed him in diplomacy. On the abdication of Charles in favor of his son Philip II, the relation of William to the crown was materially changed. Philip hated him on account of the esteem in which he had been held by his father. Yet, under Philip, William paved the way for the treaty of Cateau- Cambrisis in 1559, and Henry II of France detained him and the duke of Alva as hostages for its execition. While Charles remained on the throne William adhered to the Roman faith; but on the abdication of that monarch he embraced Calvinism as readily as he had abandoned Lutheranism in his youth. This change was unknown to the French monarch at the time of his residence there, who, supposing him to enjoy the same confidence with Philip that he had enjoyed with Charles, incautiously revealed to him the secret of a treaty lately concluded between the crowns of France and Spain to exterminate "that accursed vermin the Protestants" in the dominions of both. William hastened to communicate this disclosure to the Protestant leaders at Brussels, and Philip discovered that he had revealed the secret. William was already a member of the council of state which was to assist Margaret of Parma in the regency of the Netherlands. Being also stadtholler of Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht, he was able to exert a strong influence in behalf of the Protestants, and largely undermine the designs of Philip. In 1564 he brought about the removal of Cardinal Granvelle, the principal enemy of the Protestants, but could, not prevent the introduction of the Inquisition, and the increasingly strong hand of persecution. At length the approach of the bloody duke of Alva, to whom Philip had transferred the regency of the Netherlands from Margaret of Parma, was the signal to William of the coming contest. He avoided the tragical fate of Egmont and Horn by retiring for a few months to his paternal domains in Nassau. The cruelties of Alva to the Protestants of the Netherlands, his own wrongs, and perhaps political more than religious motives aroused William, ill 1568, to an energetic course of opposition to the tyranny of Spain, which did not cease until triumph was complete. He published his *Justification against the False Blame of his Calumniators, *and began, in concert with the Protestant princes of Germany, to raise money and troops. His first operations miscarried. He was driven back with his army of 30,000 men into French Flanders; and in the spring of 1569 he, and his brothers Louis and Henry, with 1200 of his soldiers, joined the Huguenots under Coligni. Then again in 1572, after various successful engagements, in which he had had command of an army of 24,000 troops, he was compelled to disband it on account of the loss of all hope of assistance from France. In 1576 William secured the famous Union of Utrecht, which formed the basis of the Dutch republic. This union included the seven Protestant provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, Overyssel, and Guelderland As soon as this measure became known to Philip, he offered a reward of 25,000 crowns and a patent of nobility for his assassination. Once he was dangerously wounded, but the task was finally undertaken by Balthazar Gerard, a Burgundian fanatic, who obtained audience with the stadtholder on pretence of business, drew a pistol, and shot him through the body, at Delft, July 10, 1584. See Motley, *The. Rise of the Dutch Republic *(N. Y. 1856, 3 vols.); Klose, *Wilhelm I von Oranien *(Leips. 1864); Herrmann, *Wilhehl, von Oranien *(Stuttig. 1873); Gachanrd, *Correspondence de Guillaume le Taciturne *(Brussels, 1847-56); and Juste, *Guillaume le Taciturne d'apres sa Correspondance et les Papiers d'Etat.*

William III Of England *(William, Henry of Nassau), *prince of Orange, stadtholder of Holland, was born at the Hague, November 4, 1650. He was the son of William II of Orange, by Mary, daughter of Charles I of England, and was born to a large inheritance, though his party was kept in check for some time by the influence of Cromwell. The house of Orange had long sought to obtain supreme power in Holland, a country which its greatest member had freed from the Spanish yoke. The death of William II eight days before the birth of his son put a stop to the projects for the establishment of a despotism over the republic, and threw the power into the hands of the opposite party. For years the Orange party was depressed for want of a representative of sufficient influence to maintain its policy and secure the stateholdership. The republic was governed by Jan de Witt, the grand pensionary. The attack upon Holland by France and England combined, in 1672, made a great change in the fortunes of the young prince of Orange. He was immediately chosen captain and admiral-general of the United Provinces. The contest was at first unfavorable to the Provinces, but by the wisdom and determination of the young stateholder, the struggle, which lasted for nearly seven years, was, in 1678, terminated by the treaty of Nimeguen, in a manner highly advantageous and honorable to Holland. This was brought about more especially by the diplomatic abilities of William, who detached England from the alliance and brought her over to the side of the Dutch. A few years before their ruin had seemed inevitable, and the fame of William became great over Europe. In November 1677, William had married his cousin Mary, eldest daughter of James, duke of York, afterwards James II. This marriage was entered into chiefly for political purposes, and proved very popular in both countries, the prince being regarded as the natural head of the Protestant party, and his wife being expected to succeed to the English throne. James II came to the throne in 1685, and determined to establish the Catholic religion; but William was still the champion of Protestantism, and in 1686 became the head of a league formed among the Protestant princes of Germany, the kings of Spain, Sweden, and others, having for its object the crushing of the power of Louis XIV of France, whose influence was the dread of all Europe, and who was the most dreaded foe of Protestantism. The treaty by which the alliance was constituted was signed at Augsburg in July 1686. The oppressions of James II drove many of the Protestants into exile, and Holland became the place of refuge or the discontented English. The national dissatisfaction became so great that on June 30, 1688, a number of prominent English statesmen invited the prince of Orange to enter England with an army. William conducted his operations with great secrecy and skill, and on November 15 of the same year he landed at Torbay with an army of fifteen thousand men, composed of English and Dutch. Soon. the whole country was at his side. and James was an exile in France. Men of influence of all parties gave him their presence and support; and on December 18 following he entered London triumphantly as a national deliverer. The adherents of James held out for some time in Scotland and Ireland, but the death of Dundee, ended the resistance of the Highlanders; while in Ireland it was quelled after a vigorous contest in 1691. In spite of his sterling qualities and of the debt which they owed him, the English nation never really liked William III. In 1695 the death of queen Mary diminished her husband's influence, and leaving factious opposition at home, he had to maintain unequal strife with Louis, until the treaty of Ryswick was brought about by sheer exhaustion on both sides, in September 1697. During the whole war William had been disturbed by Jacobite plots, some of them against his life. A partition treaty regarding Spain was violated by Louis, who took the throne of that country for his grandson, the duke of Anjou, and the French king, on the death of James II, acknowledged his son as successor. The English, enraged at this, were making preparations for a powerful invasion, when William was thrown from his horse while hunting, and died March 8, 1702. His career was one of incessant and strenuous activity and he carried himself victoriously amidst immense difficulties and numerous discomfitures. The predominant motive of his foreign policy from the beginning of his career as stateholder of Holland until the close of it as king of England was resistance to the aggressive and tyrannous policy of Louis XIV. There is little room for doubt that he accepted the English throne for the sole purpose of enhancing his power against French despotism. While it is true that his policy dragged England more thoroughly than before into the circle of European politics, yet it brought to the English a free constitution, with political institutions capable of receiving indefinite improvement without danger of destruction. The sacred principle of toleration, both in civil and ecclesiastical matters, was firmly established, though its full bearings and application were not yet developed or even clearly apprehended. Covenanters, in the North, and highchurchmen, in the South hated him, but the great mass of moderate and reasonable Protestants felt that he was a thoroughly practical and inflexibly just sovereign. He loved his own countrymen, and advanced them to positions of trust and honor; but no discredit is to be attached to him on this account, for they were loyal to him and not disloyal to England. While his temper was cold, the nobler passions of man were in him deep and strong, and he possessed that stern love of truth, honor, and right that distinguishes a moral hero. Few greater kings have ever ruled in England, but the massacre of the Macdonalds of Glencoe, and his conduct towards the promoters of the Darien scheme are two blots on his reputation which his most thorough- going apologists have been unable to efface. In addition to the above- mentioned services to the English nation it may be mentioned that during his reign the Bank of England was founded, the modern system of finance introduced, ministerial responsibility recognised, and the liberty of the press secured. His manner was wholly Dutch, and even among his own countrymen he was thought blunt. In his theological opinions he was decided but not illiberal. See Trevor, *Life and Times of William III *(Lond. 1835-36, 2 volumes); Vernon, *Court and Times of William III *(ibid. 1841, 2 volumes); Macaulay, *History of England *(1849-55); Ranke, *Englische Geschichte vornehmlich im *17. *Jahrhundert *(1859-67, 6 volumes; Engl. transl. 1875).

William of Aria a goldsmith of Paris, flourished about the beginning of the 13th century. He stood forth as a preacher of the sect of the Holy Ghost, and announced the coming of judgments on a corrupt Church, and the inauguration of a new era in which the Holy Ghost was to permeate all. See Neander, *Hist. of the Church, *4:448.

William of Auvergne (also called OF PARIS), a French prelate and theologian, was born at Aurillae about the close of the 12th century. He succeeded Barthelemy as bishop of Paris in 1228. He took a large part in the civil affairs of. Louis X. At the same time he too deeply interested himself in the controversies of the day respecting benefices, combating the abuses with great vigor. He also erected several churches and monastic institutions. , He died at Paris March 30, 1248. His works, which consist of many mystical treatises, were published by Leferon (Orleans, 1674, 2 vols. fol.). See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Géneralé, *22:888.

William of Auxerre a French theologian of the early part of the 13th century, became professor of theology in Paris, where he acquired a great reputation for learning. He died at Rome in 1230, leaving a *Summa Theologica, *written at Paris about 1216, of which Denis of Chartreux eventually published an abridgment. See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Géneralé, *22:697.

William of Champeaux (Lat. *Campellensis), *a French scholastic, was born in the village of Champeaux, near Melun, about the close of the 11th century. He studied at Paris under Anselm of Laon, became archdeacon of Notre Dame, and taught dialectics in the cathedral school for many years. Among his scholars was the famous Abelard, who eventually eclipsed him. In 1105 Champeaux retired to a suburb of Paris, and there founded, in 1113, the Abbey of St. Victor. He soon opened a school of philosophy, rhetoric, and theology, and was next raised to the episcopacy of Chalonssur-Marne. He became involved in the papal quarrel of the investitures (q.v.), and died in 1121. His principal published works are two treatises entitled *Moralia Abbreviata *and *De Ofigine Animae, *together with a fragment on the eucharist, contained in Mabillon's edition of St. Bernard's *Works. *For these philosophic speculations. see Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Géneralé, *9:626.

William Of Conches a philosopher of the 12th century, was a native of Conches, Normandy, and instructed at the cathedral-school of Chartres. William was famous as a grammarian, but took part in theological questions. His work, entitled *Philosophia, *in which he espoused Abelard's doctrine of the Trinity, was attacked after his master's condemnation by William of St. Thierry, and the author did not hesitate to recant his errors. William of Conches died in 1154. His *Philosophia *was published three times, with different titles, and under the name of three different authors: **1. ***Philosophicarum et Astrono-micarum Institutionum Guilielmi, Hirsangiensis Olim Abbatis, Libri Tres *(Basle, 1531); **2. ***sive Elementorum Philosophiae Libri IV, *in Beda's *Opera, *2:311-343 (Basle 1563); 3. *De Philosophia Mundi, *by Honorius of Autun, in the *Maxima Bibliotheca Patrum, *volume 20 (Lyons, 1667). Another work of William is *Dragmaticon, *in which he rejects the errors expressed in his *Philosophia. *The *Dragmaticon, *too, is extant under at least six different titles. William also wrote a commentary on Boethius's *De Consolatione Philosophiae. *See Werner, in *Sitzungsberichte der philosophisch- historischen Classe der kaiserlichezn Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien *(1873), 75, page 311 sq.; Haureau, in *Comptes*-*Rendus de l'Academie des Inscriptions et des Belles-Lettres *(eod.), 3d series, 1:75 sq.; Prantl, *Geschichte der Logik, *2:127; Reginal L. Poole, *Illustrations of the History of Mediaeval Thought, *and the same in Plitt-Herzog, *Real- Encyklop. *s.v. (B.P.)

William of Corbeuil archbishop of Canterbury, is generally supposed to have been a Frenchman. His first appearance in history is as one of the clerks of Ralph-Flambard, bishop of Durham. William was selected by the bishop of London to be prior of St. Osyth. He was consecrated archbishop of the see of Canterbury in 1123. In 1128.he officiated at the coronation of king Stephen. His conduct in so doing has been severely censured. One important event connected with' the history of archbishop William was the completion and consecration of the church commenced by Lanfranc and carried on by Anselm. This occurred May 4,1130. "A dedication so famous," says Gervas, "was never heard of on earth, since the dedication of the Temple of Solomon." The archbishop died in 1136. See Hook, *Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury, *2, 302 sq.

William of Malmesbury *SEE MALMESBURY*.

William of Modena a Roman Catholic bishop of the 13th century, was sent by pope Honorius III as a legate to Livonia about 1224. He was of great service to both the natives and their recent conquerors, the Germans, by exhorting the one to bear the yoke in submission, and charging the other to lay on the shoulders of their subjects no intolerable burdens. See Neander, *Hist. of the Church,* 4:41.

William of Newbury *(Newburgi, *or *Newbridge), *a canon of the monastery of Newbury, Yorkshire, was born in 1136, probably at Bridlington, Yorkshire, and died in 1208. He left a valuable history of England, extending from the Norman Conquest to the year 1197, entitled *Gulielmi Neubrigensis Rerumn Anglicaruns Libri V *(Antwerp, 1567).

William of Nogaret *SEE NOGARET*.

William of Ramsey a monk of Croyland, of the time of Richard I, is known as a biographer of English saints, particularly in *Chroniques Anglo Normandes. *See Wright, *Biog. Brit. Lit. *(Anglo-Norman Period), p. 424.

William of Rebrugius *SEE RUYSBROEK*.

William Of St. Alban's, flourished about 1170, and is known chiefly for a Latin prose life of St. Alban, said to be a translation from an English life of that saint. The work has never been printed, but a copy of the MS. is in the Cottonian Library, and another in the library of Magdalen College, Oxford. See Wright, *Biog. Brit. Lit. *(Anglo-Norman Period), p. 213.

William of St. Amour in Burgundy, doctor of the Sorbonne, and a famous defender of the Paris University in the 13th century against the mendicant orders, which claimed the right to occupy regular chairs of theology in the university without consenting to be governed by its rules. Pope Innocent IV had seen the necessity of putting down the monks before his death, but under Alexander IV they obtained full control of the university. Under these circumstances, St. Amour attacked them, ridiculing their doctrine that manual labor is criminal, and that prayer will reap greater harvests from the soil than labor. He was summoned before the bishop of Paris, but acquitted because his accusers did not appear (1254). Alexander, nevertheless, issued three bulls in behalf of the Dominicans in 1255. In 1256 William published his book *De Periculis Novissimoruma Temporum, *which, without specifying the orders endorsed by the pope, charged monks generally with being ignorant intruders into the pulpit and the teacher's chair, and also self-seeking proselyters, as well as professional beggars, liars, flatterers, and calumniators. It asserted directly that perfection consists in labor, in the performing of good works, and not at all in begging. St. Amour achieved great popularity in consequence, and found many imitators among the common people in ridiculing the monks, though the book was condemned by the pope, and its author was banished despite the ingenious defense he interposed at Rome. A French version of the work had already been put into circulation, however, and with such effect that men like Thomas Aquinas and Bonayentura felt constrained to write in defense of mendicancy. The victory achieved over St. Amour enabled the orders to pursue their arbitrary methods without restraint, until the accession of popes Urban IV and Clement IV restored the rules of the university to some degree of honor. St. Amour was thereupon permitted to return, and was not again molested by the Dominicans. His death occurred probably in 1272. See Bulaeus, *Hist. Universit. Palis. *3, 260; Dupin, *Nouv. Bibl. des* *Auteurs Eccl. *vol 10; Schröckh, *Kirchengesch. *27:458 sq.; *Hist. Lit. de la France, *vol. 19; Herzog, *Real Encyklop. *s.v.

William of St. Thierry a Belgian theologian, was born at Liege about the end of the 11th century. He studied in the abbey of St. Nicaise at Rheims, of which he was made prior in 1112, and eight years afterwards he became abbé of St. Thierry in the same vicinity. In 1134 he retired to the monastery of Ligny, and died in 1150. He was a great friend of St. Bernard, an admirer of Abelard. He wrote a number (if doctrinal, practical, and historical discussionsa for which see Hoefer, *Noun. Biog. Géneralé, *22, 665.

William of Tyre a prominent ecclesiastic and judicious historian, lived in the time of the Crusades. He was born in Syria about A.D. 1130, and reared at Antioch or Jerusalem. About 1160 he visited Italy and France as a student of the liberal arts, and on his return to Jerusalem, after an absence of several years, he became the friend and instructor of king Amalric (reigned 1162- 1173). In 1167 he became archdeacon of Tyre, and in the same year was employed by Amalric to negotiate a league with the emperor Manuel I at Constantinople, with a view to the invasion of Egypt. Soon afterwards some unpleasantness arose between his archbishop, Frederic of Tyre, and himself, in consequence of which he visited Rome; and immediately after this Amalric gave him charge of the education and training of his son, the prince Baldwin. In the summer of 1170 a terrible earthquake convulsed the East, destroying many ancient towns and numerous lives, and overthrowing several strong towers in Tyre. King Amaltic died July 11, 1173, and his successor, Baldwin, called William to the post of chancellor; about the same time the archbishop Frederic died, and William was given the vacant see, being the sixth incumbent of that diocese since the founding of the kingdom of Jerusalem. In this capacity he was present, in 1178, at the third Lateran synod at Rome, and on his return wrote out the decisions of the synod, together with a list of the names and titles of all participants in its business, in a work which he deposited in the archives of the principal church at Tyre. He spent seven months in Constantinople in the transaction of business for his see, then visited Antioch on a mission from the emperor Manuel. and, after an absence from home of one year and ten months, returned to Tyre. So much may be gathered from his own writings, which form the almost exclusive source for his life. An ancient French writer adds the statement that William was poisoned through the agency of the patriarch of Jerusalem, Heraclius, at Rome, whither he had gone to effect the deposition of that prelate. Another tradition states instead that William acted as a commissioner to the West after the taking of Jerusalem by Saladin in 1188, and was appointed legate in matters pertaining to crusades by pope Gregory VIII, being present as such at a meeting of Philip Augustus of France and Richard of England, which took place between Gisors and Trie. William of Tyre composed two historical works, one of which contained the history of Eastern princes from Mohammed to his own time, a period of five hundred and seventy years *(Gesta Principium Orientalium). *It was based upon Arabic sources which were placed at his disposal by the liberality of king Amaric. This work is no longer extant. The other work contains the history of the Crusades, from A.D. 1100 to 1184, in twenty- three books, the last of which is unfinished *(Historia Rerum in Partibus Transmarinis Gestarum a Tempore Mahumeth usque ad A.D. *1184). It, was drawn from documentary sources and from his personal observations and carefully managed inquiries among his contemporaries. Its learning is very great as respects natural, political, and ecclesiastical conditions in both the East and West, and the literatures of the Arabic, Syriac, Greek, and Latin languages. Its matter also is very full, and its tone, upon the whole, impartial, and little affected by the credulous belief of his age in wonders. Its style, finally, is that of animated description, such as best harmonizes with the portrayal of events in which the military element plays a principal part. It earned for its author the reputation of being one of the foremost historical writers of the Middle Ages. The oldest edition of this work extant is that of Basle (1549 fol.; 2d ed. 1560). Other editions are by Bongarsius (1564), in *Gesta Dei per Francos, *1:625 sq.; G. du Preau (in French, Paris, 1573 fol.). The continuation of the work to 1285, by an unknown writer, is given in Martene, *Thesaur. *5:581. An abridgment is given in Bernhard, *Thesaurus, *with continuation, in French, to 1284; in Latin, by the Dominican Pippin (1320), in Muratori, *Thesaurus, *7:657 sq. A German edition was issued in 1844 at Stuttgart, by Kausler, with the title, *Gesch. d. Kreuzzuge u. d. Konigreichs Jerusalem. *Comp. Bongarsius, *Praef.; *Vossius, *De List. Lat. *page 53; Fabricius, *Bibl. Lat. Medii AEvi, *s.v.; Wahler, *Handbuch d. Gesch. d. Literatur *(2d ed. Leipsic, 1823), 2:222; Herzog, *Real-Encyklop. *s.v.

William of Waynflete *SEE WAYNFLETE*.

William of Wycumb an English clergyman of the 12th century, became prior of Lathony, and chaplain of Robert de Betun, bishop of Hereford. After the death of that prelate (1149) he wrote a sketch of his life, which is published in Wharton's *Anglia Satcrra, *2, 293 sq. See Allibone, *Dict. of Brit and Amer. Author, *s.v.

William of Wykeham *SEE WYKEHAM*.

William the Trouvère translated into Anglo-Norman verse accounts of miracles of the Virgin and legends of the saints. See Wright, *Biog. Brit. Lit. *(Anglo-Norman Period), p. 464.

Williamites an order of monks deriving their name from a hermit, who, after conversion from a licentious life, had made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem by the advice of hermits and pope Eugenius III, and had then, in 1153. established a hermitage in a desert of Tuscany, near Pisa. Disorderly followers destroyed all prospect of retirement here, and he sought a new refuge in the depths of a forest on Monte Pruno. New disciples gathered about him, who, in time, became offended with him and expelled him from their society. He returned to his original retreat on the island of Lupocavia, but found the community unimproved, and therefore journeyed until he discovered a stony vale containing a cave, in the bishopric of Grosseto, in Siena. Here he settled in 1155 and began all ascetical life, whose rigor was somewhat relieved by the lord of Buriano, who built him a cell. In the following year Albert became his associate, and a year later Rainald arrived, though only in time to assist at the burial of William, who had died February 10, 1157., These two men remained at the place, which was at first called Stabulum Rhodis, and afterwards Malavalle, and which became the original of all the congregations of hermits which adopted the name of Williamites. Such congregations extended over the whole of Italy and beyond, to Germany, the Netherlands, and France. The institutions of their founder, together with a description of his life, had been transmitted from Albert. They maintained a perpetual fast. Gregory IX gave them the rule of Benedict, and permitted them to wear shoes. Innocent IV issued a bull in 1248 touching the election of a general prior, and conferring privileges on the order. Alexander IV ordered its incorporation with an order of Augustinian eremites, but recalled his bull of April 13, 1256, in view of the violent protest raised against the scheme, though matters had progressed so far as to occasion serious difficulties in the order, which involved the loss of a number of monasteries in 1266. In 1435 the Couficil of Basle confirmed the privileges possessed by the order, which then covered the three provinces of Tuscany, Germany, and Flanders and France. At the beginning of the 18th century only twelve convents remained to the order, all of which were in Flanders, and by the end of the century they too were extinct. An order of knights of St. William has been spoken of, but is entirely apocryphal. See Bolland, *Acta Sanctorum, *February 10, with Henschen's *Diss.; *and Helyot, *Hist. d. Ordres Monast. Relig. et Militaires,* 1:250; 3:13; 6:142-152; also Herzog, *Real-Encyklop. *s.v.

Williams, Aaron, D.D. a Presbyterian minister, was born at Leetsdale, Pennsylvania, November 20, 1807. He graduated from Jefferson College, and in the first class at the Western Theological Seminary at Allegheny. He served with eminent ability as professor of languages *in *the Ohio University, and subsequently filled the same chair in his alma mater at Cannonsburg, Pennsylvania, being at the time a member of the Presbytery of Allegheny. He died at Leetsdale, December 31, 1878. (W.P.S.)

Williams, Alvin P., D.D. a Baptist minister, was born in St. Louis County, Missouri, March 13, 1813. At the age of seventeen he was publicly set apart as his father's assistant in the ministry, and afterwards labored as an evangelist. Among his pastorates were Lexington, Miami, Bethel, St. Joseph, and Glasgow, in Missouri. He died at Glasgow, November 9, 1868. He was conspicuous among the most able ministers of his denomination in the South-west. "His sermons, expositions, and essays before the association for twenty-five years mark him as a man of extraordinary ability, a second Andrew Fuller." See Cathcart, *Baptist Encyclop. *page 1247. (J.C.S.)

Williams, Charles P., D.D. a Protestant Episcopal clergyman, was a teacher for many years in a classical school in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and died in that city, June 12, 1859, aged sixty-seven years. *See Prot. Episc. Almanac, *1860, page 93.

Williams, Charles S., D.D. a clergyman of the Protestant Episcopal Church, was born June 11,1791, in the County of Kent, England (where his father, Rev. William Williams, was rector of a parish). He entered the army when young, and passed some time in India; on his return from India he joined the Dragoons, and served with them during a part of the Peninsula War. At Toulouse he was severely wounded, and was left all night among the dead and dying on the field. He graduated at St. John's College, Cambridge, and was ordained' in 1820. In 1823 he came to the United States, and became rector of St. John's Church, York, Pa. For about eight years he was president of Baltimore College, having charge, at the same time, of the parish at Elk Ridge. During the last twenty-two years of his life he resided in-Philadelphia, devoting himself to the cause of education, and officiating almost constantly for his brethren of the clergy. He died there, June 12, 1859. See *Amer. Quar. Church Review, *1859, p. 534.

Williams, Daniel, D.D. an eminent English Presbyterian divine, was born at Wrexham, Denbighshire, in North Wales, about 1644. His early educational advantages seem to have been rather limited, but he was admitted a preacher among the Presbyterians in 1663. To avoid the penalties of the law against Dissenters, he went to Ireland, where he became chaplain to the countess of Meath. Some time after, he was called to be pastor to a congregation of Dissenters assembling in Wood Street, Dublin, where he continued for nearly twenty years. During the troublous times in the latter end' of the reign of James II, he found it necessary to' return to London in 1687, where he continued to reside. Her he was often consulted by William III in reference to Irish affairs, and did great service in behalf of many who fled from Ireland — He became pastor of a numerous congregation at Hand Alley, Bishopsgate Street, in 1688, and in 1691 succeeded Richard Baxter as preacher of the Merchants'. Lecture at Pinner's Hall, Broad Street. On account of clashings in the lectures, he, with others of the incumbents, withdrew, and established another lecture at Salter's Hall, on the same day and hour. This led to a sharp controversy between the two parties, and a great deal of bitter feeling. He died Jan. 26, 1716. The bulk of his estate he bequeathed to a great variety of charities. The most important of these charities was the founding of the Red Cross Street Library. He ordered a convenient building to be obtained for the reception of his own library, and the curious collection of Dr. Bates, which he purchased for that purpose. Accordingly, several years after his death, a commodious building was erected (1727) by subscription among the wealthy Dissenters in Red Cross Street, Cripplegate, where the books were deposited, and by subsequent additions the collection has become a considerable one, containing more than 20,000 volumes. It is also a depository for paintings of Nonconformist ministers, manuscripts, and other matters of curiosity or utility. It is here that the Dissenting ministers meet for the transaction of all business relating to the general body. Registers of births of the children of Dissenters are also kept here with accuracy, and have been allowed equal validity in courts of law with parish registers. Dr. Williams was the author of, *The Vanity of Childhood and Youth; in Several Sermons. *(1691): *-Gospel Truth Stated and Vindicated *(1692): — *A Defense of Gospel Truth *(1693): *— Man Made Righteous by Christ's Obedience; Sermons *(1694): — *Discourses on Several Important Subjects *(1738-50): — *and Tractatus Selecti, ex Anglicis Latine Versi, et Testamenti sui Jussu Editi *(1760).

Williams, Eliphalet, D.D. a Congregational minister, son of Solomon Williams, D.D., of Lebanon Conn., was born Feb. 21, 1727. He graduated at Yale College in 1743; was ordained minister in East Hartford in March, 1748; and died June 29, 1803. See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *1, 323.

Williams, Griffith, D.D. an English divine, was born at Carnarvon, in North Wales, about 1589. He entered Oxford University in 1603, but two years later entered Jesus College, Cambridge, where he graduated and entered into holy orders. He became curate of Hanwell, Middlesex; rector of Foscot, Buckinghamshire; and lecturer of St. Peter's, Cheapside, London; was suspended by the bishop of London in 1615; received the living of Llanllechid, in the diocese of Bangor; became domestic chaplain to the earl of Montgomery, and tutor to his children; was promoted to be chaplain to the king, and prebendary of Westminster; was instituted dean of Bangor, March 28, 1634; was consecrated bishop of Ossory, Ireland, in 1641, but was obliged to fly to England on the breaking-out of the Irish Rebellion, in less than a month after taking possession; endured great hardships for many years on account of his attachment to the crown; regained his bishopric at the Restoration and died at Kilkenny, March 29,1672. Among his published works are, *The Delights of the Saints *(1622):*Seven Golden Candlesticks *(1627): *— 'The True Church (1629): — The Right Way to the Best Religion *(1636): — *Vindicia Regum *(1643): — *The Discovery of Mysteries *(eod.): *— Discourse on the Only Way to Preserve Life *(1644): *— Jura Majestatis *(eod.): *— The Great Antichrist Revealed (1660): — Description and Practice of the Four Most Admirable Beasts *(1663): — *The Persecution of John Bale and of Griffith Williams *(1664): — Sermons *and* *Treatises.(1665). *See Chalmers, *Biog. Dict. *s.v. Williams, John (1), D.D., a distinguished English prelate, was born at Aber-Conway, Carnarvonshire, Wales, March 25, 1582. He was admitted to St. John's College, Cambridge; in 1598; graduated there in 1602, and was made fellow; took holy orders in 1609, and was appointed to a small living near Bury St. Edmund's, upon the borders of Norfolk; was presented to the rectory of Grafton-Regis, Northamptonshire, in 1611; appointed chaplain to lord Egerton the same year, by whom he was promoted to the rectory of Grafton-Underwood, Northamptonshire; made precentor of Lincoln in 1613; rector of Waldgrave, Northamptonshire, in 1614, and between that year and 1617 was made prebendary and residentiary in the Church of Lincoln, prebendary of Peterborough, of Hereford, and of St. David's, and secured a sinecure in North Wales. On the accession of Francis Bacon as lord-keeper, he was made justice of the peace for Northamptonshire, and chaplain to the king at the same time; became dean of Salisbury in 1619, and of Westminster in 1620; was made lord-keeper of the great seal of England July 10,1621, and in the sane month bishop of Lincoln; was removed from his post as lord-keeper by Charles I in October, 1626; in 1636 convicted of subornation of perjury when tried for betraying the king's secrets, fined £10,000, suspended from his offices and imprisoned in the Tower, where he remained three years and six months; was released, and resumed his seat in the House of Lords in 1640, and by command of the king had all the records of proceedings against him cancelled; became archbishop of York in 1641; retired to his estate at Aber-Conway in July, 1642, and fortified Conway Castle for the king. After the death of Charles I, he spent the remainder of his days in sorrow, study, and devotion, and died March 25, 1650. He published several *Sermons, *and *The Holy Table, Name and Thing more Anciently, Properly, and Literally Used under the New Testament than that of Altar *(1637).

Williams, Isaac an English clergyman, was born in Wales in 1802. He graduated from Trinity College, Oxford, in 1826, and became a fellow there in 1832; entered into holy orders in 1831, and was curate of Windrush, St. Mary the Virgin's, Oxford, and Bisley, in succession; wrote tracts Nos. 80, 86, and 87 of the Pusey *Tractarian *series; contributed to the *Lyra Apostolica, *and spent his later years in retirement at Stinchcombe, Gloucestershire, where he died, May 1, 1865. He was a voluminous writer, and we name the following among his numerous works: *The Cathedral; or, The Catholic and Apostolic Church of England *(1838): — *Hymns, translated from the Parsian Breviary *(1839): — *Thoughts in Past Years *(1842): — *Harmony and Commentary on the Whole Gospel Narrative *(1842-45; new ed. 1869- 70): — The *Baptistery; or, The Way to Eternal Life *(1842-44): — *Christian Scholar *(1849): — *The Altar; or, Meditations in Verse on the Great Christian Sacrifice *(eod.): — *The Seven Days; or, The Old and the New Creation *(1850): — *The Apocalypse, with Notes and Reflections *(1852):*The Characters of the Old Testament *(1856): — *Female Characters of the Holy Scriptures, *in a series of sermons (1859): — *Beginning of the Book of Genesis *(1861): — *The Psalms Interpreted of Christ *(1864-65).

Williams, James Alfred, D.D. a Protestant Episcopal clergyman, was born at Orange, N.J., September 6, 1809. He graduated from Columbia College in 1831, and from the General Theological Seminary in 1836; became rector of St. Mark's Church, Orange, in 1837, and continued there until his death, September 2, 1883. He was president of the standing committee of his diocese for many years.

Williams, John (1) an English missionary, called "the Apostle of Polynesia" and "the Martyr of Erromanga," was born at Tottenham, near London, June 29, 1796. At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to an ironmonger, and acquired a knowledge of mechanism which was afterwards of great service to him. He was ordained in 1816, and sent by the London Missionary Society to Eimeo, one of the Society Islands, where he learned the language and began to preach to the natives in two months. From Eimeo he soon removed to Huaheine, and afterwards to Raiatea, where lie was eminently successful in introducing Christianity and, at the same time, the arts of civilization. In 1823 he removed to Raratonga, the chief of the Hervey Islands, where he established a mission that was remarkably successful, the population of the entire group having embraced Christianity under his influence. He employed native teachers, and prepared the New Test. and other books *in *the Raratongan language. Being in want of a vessel to journey from island to island, he resolved to build one. He made all the necessary tools, and completed the vessel, which was sixty feet long by eighteen wide, in about fifteen weeks. The sails were of native matting, the cordage of the bark of the hibiscus, the oakum of cocoa-nut husks and banana stumps. With the aid of this vessel he extended his labors during the next four years as far as the Samoa Islands. In 1834 he returned to England, and remained nearly four years, employing himself in the publication of his Raratongan New Test. (by the Bible Society) and in raising £4000 for the purchase and outfit of a missionary ship for the South Sea Islands. In 1838 he returned to the scene of his labors, and in the following year visited the New Hebrides for the purpose of planting a mission, but was killed on the shore of the island of Erromanga, and most of his body eaten by the savage natives, November 20, 1839. Besides his New Test., above mentioned, he was the author of, *A Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands *(1837): — *Missionary's Farewell *(1838). See Prout, *Life of the Reverend John Williams, Missionary to Polynesia; Compiled from his Journals, Correspondence, and other Authentic Sources *(1843).

Williams, John (2) (called *Ab Ithel), *a Welsh clergyman, was born at Llangyhafel, Denbighshire, North Wales, in 1811. He graduated from Jesus College, Oxford, in 1834; was ordained in the Established Church, and stationed successively at Llanfor, Nerguis, and Llanymowddwyn; and preferred by the bishop of Bangor to the rectory of Llanenddwyn, Merionethshire, a few months before his death, which occurred August 27, 1861. He published, *The Church of England Independent of the Church of Rome in All Ages:* — *Ecclesiastical Antiquities of the Cymry *(1844): — *Glossary of Terms Used for Articles of British Dress and Armor. *(1851): — *Ancient Welsh Grammar *(1856): — *Brut y Twysogion; or, The Chronicle of the Princes *(1860): — *Barddas, or Bardism: a Collection of Original Documents Illustrative of the Theology, Discipline, and Usages of the Bardo-Druidic System of the Isle of Britain; with Translation and Notes *(1862).

Williams, John (2), D.D. an eminent English divine, was born in Northamptonshire in 1634. He entered as a commoner of Magdalen Hall, Oxford, in 651, where he completed his degrees in arts, and was ordained in 1658; was made rector of St. Mildred-in-the-Poultry, London, in 1673; prebendary of Reymere, in St. Paul's, in 1683; became chaplain to William and Mary after the Revolution; was preferred to a prebend of Canterbury, and was Consecrated bishop of Chichester in December, 1696, where he died in 1709. He was the author of, *Hist. of the Gunpowder Treason *(1679): *—* *Brief Exposition of the Church Catechism *1690): *— Twelve Sermons Preached at the Boyle Lectures concerning the Possibility, Necessity, and Certainty of Divine Revelation *(1695-96) and other works.

Williams, John (3), LL.D. a Socinian minister, was born at Lampeter, Cardiganshire, Wales, in 1726. He was pastor of a Church at Sydenham, Kent, from 1758 until his death, at Islington, in 1798. He published, *A Concordance to the Greek Testament, with the English Version- to each; Word, *etc. (1767): *— Thoughts on Subscription to the-Thirty-nine Articles: — Free Inquiry into the Authenticity of the First and Second Chapters of St. Matthew's Gospel (1771): — Clerical Reform *(1792): and other works, including *Sermons.*

Williams, John Aetheruld, D.D. a Canadian Methodist minister, was born at Carmarthen, Wales, December 19, 1817. In 1833 he removed to Canada, and in 1850 entered the ministry of the Methodist Church. In 1874 he was elected president of the London Conference, and fraternal delegate to the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1876. In 1883 he was president of the United General Conference for the Uhioni of the Methodist Churches in Canada. In 1884 he was the representative of the Methodist Church of Canada at the Centennial Conference in Baltimore. In the following year he was appointed general superintendent of his church. He died December 17, 1890. See Simpson's *Cyclopaedia of Methodism,. *page 950.

Williams, Joshua, D.D. a Presbyterian divine, was born in Chester County, Pa., Aug. 8,1767. He pursued his preparatory studies in Gettysburg; graduated at Dickinson College in 1795; studied theology privately; was licensed to preach by the Presbytery of Carlisle Oct. 4, 1797, and was ordained and installed pastor of the united congregations of Derry and Paxton, Oct 2, 1799. In April, 1802, he became pastor of the Congregation of Big Spring, where he continued to labor for twenty-seven years; during which period, as appears from his church register, he admitted to communion four hundred and twenty-six persons. In April, 1829, on account of bodily infirmities, he resigned his charge, but continued to preach as his health permitted and opportunity offered until his death, Aug. 21, 1838. Dr. Williams was a man of vigorous and comprehensive mind, learned and able in his profession; as a preacher, sound, evangelical, and instructive. His only publication, besides occasional contributions to periodicals, was a *Sermon on the Sinner's Inability. *See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *4:186; Nevin, *Churches of the Valley; *Allibone, *Dict. of Brit and Amer. Authors, *s.v. (J. L. S.)

Williams, Nathan, D.D. a Congregational minister, son of Stephen Williams, D.D., of Longmeadow, Mass., was born Oct. 28,1735. He graduated at Yale College in 1755; was ordained pastor of the Church in Tolland, Conn., April 30, 1760; from 1788 to 1808 was a member of the Corporation of Yale College, and died April 25, 1829. He published, *A Dialogue on* *Christian Baptism and Discipline *(2d ed. 1792). See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *1, 287.

Williams, Peter, D.D. an English clergyman, was born during the latter part of the 18th century, and became archdeacon of Merioneth in 1802. He published, *A Short Vindications of the Established Church *(1803): —*First Book of Homer's Iliad, Translated into Blank Verse (1806): — Remarks on Britain Independent of Commerce *(1808): — and *Remarks on the Recognition of Each Other in the Future State *(1809).

Williams, Philip, D.D. an English clergyman of the 18th century, became a fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, in 1730, and was rector of Starston and Barrow. He published a volume of *Observations *(1733), some controversial works, and a number of *Sermons.*

Williams, Robert was one of the earliest Methodist ministers in America. Previous to his leaving England, Mr. Wesley had given him permission to preach under the direction of the regular ministers. He first labored for a time in New York city. Under date of Nov. 1,1769, Mr. Pilmoor, then in Philadelphia, writes, "Robert Williams called, on his way from New York to Maryland. He came over about business, and being a local preacher in England, Mr. Wesley gave him a license to preach occasionally under the direction of the regular preachers." He afterwards speaks of him as "very sincere and zealous." Williams spent the greater part of his time in Maryland, where he was instrumental in commencing a great work. In 1772 he passed south into Virginia, where his labors were greatly blessed. Early in 1775 he located, and Sept. 26, 1775, he died. Bishop Asbury says of him, "*He *has been a very useful, laborious man, and thee Lord gave him many souls to his ministry. Perhaps no man in America has ministered to awakening so many souls as God has awakened by him." It has been said of him that he was the first traveling preacher in America that married, located, and died. See Bangs, *Hist. of the M. E. Church, *1, 73, 76, 89; Simpson, *Cyclop. of Methodism, *s.v.; Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *7:11.

Williams, Roger the founder of the colony of Rhode Island, was born at Conwyl Cayo, Wales, in 1599. In his youth he went to London, and attracted the attention of Sir Edward Coke by his short-hand notes of sermons and speeches in the Star Chamber, and was sent by him to Sutton's Hospital (now the Charterhouse School) in 1621. On April 30,1624, he entered Jesus' College, Oxford, where he obtained an exhibition. According to some authorities, he was admitted to Pembroke College, Cambridge, Jan. 29, 1623, and matriculated pensioner July 7, 1625, graduating A.B. in January, 1627. He studied Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, and Dutch, and took orders in the Church of England. He soon, however, became an extreme Puritan, with tendencies towards the views of the Baptists, who were rapidly rising in England at that time. To avoid the persecution then rife in his own country, he immigrated to New England, arriving at Boston Feb. 5, 1631, accompanied- by his wife, Mary. He refused to join the congregation at Boston, because the people would not make public declaration of their repentance for having been in communion with the Church of England. He therefore went to Salem, to become the assistant to pastor Skelton; but the general court remonstrated against his settlement there, on account of his attitude towards the Boston congregation; and, further, that he had declared his opinion that the magistrate might not punish Sabbath-breaking and other religious offenses, as belonging to the first table of the law. His ministry at Salem was brief. Before the close of the summer, persecution drove him to Plymouth, where for two years he was assistant to the pastor, Ralph Smith. At the close of this period he was invited to return to Salem as assistant to Skelton, and, after the latter's death, became pastor. In a short time he had very generally indoctrinated the people with his peculiar views. In the autumn of 1635 the general court banished him from the colonly with orders to depart within six weeks, because he had called in question the authority of magistrates in respect to two things-one relating to the right of the king to appropriate and grant the lands of the Indians without purchase, and the other to the right of the civil power to impose faith and worship. On the first of these questions he had written a paper in which he defended the right of the natives to the soil; but on the interference of the court he put in an explanation, and consented to the burning of the MS. when they were somewhat more leniently disposed towards him. But on-the other question he reiterated and amplified his views; and while oppressed by his opponents, frankly declared his opinion that the magistrate ought not to interfere "even to stop a church from apostasy and heresy," and that the office of civil magistrate "extends only to the bodies and goods and outward estates of man." He was the first to assert fully the doctrine of entire liberty of conscience, the right of every person to worship in what manner he pleased, or to refrain from public worship altogether without interference on the part of the civil magistrate. In reply to the charges against him, and in defense of his views, he published a pamphlet entitled *Mr. Cotton's Letter Examined and Answered *(printed in 1644). Winter being at hand, the period for his departure was extended until spring; but he persisted in preaching, and the people flocked to hear him. It became generally understood that many had decided to go with him to found a new colony not far distant, and the court decided to send him at once to England, regarding him as a dangerous person in the colony. A small vessel was dispatched to Salem to convey him away; but he was forewarned, and fled before its arrival. Leaving family and friends in midwinter, he was "for fourteen weeks sorely tossed in a bitter season, not knowing what bread or bed did mean." But he had learned the Indian language while at Plymouth, and was kindly received and sheltered by the savages. He selected a site for his new colony on the shores of the Narraganset; and, after purchasing lands on the eastern shore of the Seekonk River, and planting his corn, he learned that he was within the limits of the Plymouth colony. He therefore set out, with five companions, to make new explorations. They proceeded in a canoe to the spot which. Williams fixed upon as his home. He said that he had "made covenant of, peaceable neighborhood with all the sachems and nations round about;" and having, of a sense of God's merciful providence "to them in their distress, called the place Providence, he "desired it might be for a shelter for persons distressed for conscience." Here, he was joined by others who sympathized with his opinions, and even people from England flocked thither in considerable numbers. Roger Williams was the founder, the lawgiver, and the minister of the infant colony, but he did not aim to be its ruler. His purpose was to found a commonwealth in the form of a pure democracy, where the will of the majority should govern, but only in civil affairs, leaving matters of conscience to be settled between the individual and his God. The original constitution, which all were required to sign, was in these words: "We whose names are hereunder, desirous to inhabit the town of Providence, do promise to subject ourselves, in active or passive obedience, to all such orders or agreements as shall be made for the public good of the body, in an orderly way, by the major consent of the present inhabitants, masters of families, incorporated together in a town of fellowship, and others whom they shall admit into the same, only in civil things." With this foundation for a civil government, Williams went on to organize the Church in accordance with his own views. Having adopted the belief in baptism of adults by immersion only, he was baptized by Ezekiel Holliman, a layman, in March, 1639; and then he baptized Holliman and about ten others. He soon entertained doubts as to the validity of the proceeding, and early withdrew from the Church thus organized. The colony remained for some years a pure democracy, transacting its business in town-meetings; but the time was coming for a more systematic organization. Accordingly, in 1643, Williams was sent to England to procure a charter. He was treated with marked respect by the Parliament, and a charter incorporating the settlers on Narraganset Bay, with "full power and authority to govern themselves," was granted. Williams returned the following year, and was received in triumph by the inhabitants of Rhode Island. On his voyage to England he had prepared a *Key to the Languages of America, *including also observations on the manners, habits, laws, and religion of the Indian tribes. This work he published in London; and about the same time *The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution for Cause of Conscience Discussed in a Conference between Truth and Peace *(Lond. 1644; new ed. Providence, 1867). Upon his return to Rhode Island, he refused the office of president of the colony; but when the rights granted by the charter were about to be infringed, he was sent to England again in 1651 to secure a confirmation of the rights of the colony, and was entirely successful. While in England the second time he published *The Bloudy Tenent yet More Bloudy, by Cotton's Endeavor to Wash it White in the Blood of the LaMabe, *etc. (1652): *— The Hireling Ministry None of Christ's; *or, *A Discourse Touching the Propagating the Gospel of Jesus Christ, *etc. (eod.): — and *Experiments of Spiritual Life and Health and their Preservatives *(eod.). He also engaged in teaching languages by the conversational method, and thus became acquainted with John Milton, Oliver Cromwvell, Sir HenryVane, and other persons of eminence. In 1654 he returned to Rhode Island, and was elected president of the colony, which post he held two years and a half. He refused to persecute the Quakers, but met some of their ablest preachers in public debate; and in 1672 published a work in opposition to the sect entitled. *George Fox Digged out of his Burrows, or an Offer of Disputation on Fourteen Proposals, made this Last Summer, *1672 *(so called), unto G. Fox, then Present in Rhode Island in New England, *etc. By his constant friendship with the Indians he was of great service to the other colonies; but they refused to remove their ban, or to admit Rhode Island into their league. He died in 1683, and was buried in his family burying-ground, near the spot where he landed. *Memoirs *of the life of Roger Williams have been written by James D. Knowles (Boston, 1833), William Grammell (ibid. 1846), and Romeo Elton (Lond. 1852). His works have been reprinted by the Narragansett Club in 6 vols. folio, (Providence, 1866-75). Among the works not already named -is *Letters from Rodger Williams to John Winthrop, and John Winthrop, Jr., Govern-or of Connecticut *(Boston; 1863). A tract by Roger Williams, recently discovered, is in the John Carter Brown Library at Providence. See also Dexter, *As to Roger Williams and his Banishment from the Massachusetts Plantation, with a Few Further Words concerning the Baptists, Quakers, and Religious Liberty *(ibid. 1876); and Arnold, *History of Rhode Island *(vol. 1, 1860).

Williams, Rowland, D.D. an English clergyman, was born at Halkin, Flintshire, Wales, Aug.:16, 1817. He was educated at Eton and at King's College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1841; was chosen fellow, and -in 1842 elected tutor of his college; took orders; and became identified with the reform movement at Cambridge and with the Broad Church movement, which was headed by Arnold and Maurice; became vice-principal and professor, of Hebrew in the Welsh Theological College of St. David's at Lampeter, and chaplain to the bishop of Llandaff, in 1850; was appointed select preacher to, the University of Cambridge in 1854; became vicar of Broad Chalk, Wiltshire, in 1859; was one of the authors of the famous volume of *Essays and Reviews. *(1860), for which act he was prosecuted in the Court of Arches, and condemned in December, 1862, but obtained a reversal of' the judgment in February, 1864; resigned his professorship, in 1862, and thereafter resided at his vicarage in Broad Chalk, near Salisbury, where he died Jan. 18, 1876. His principal published works are, *Lays from the Cimbric Lynre: — Account of St. David's College, Lanpefer: — Rational Godliness (1855): — Christianity and Hinduism *(1856): — *Christian Freedom in the Council of Jerusalem *(1857): *The Hebrew Prophets Translated Afresh *(1868-71, 2 vols.): *— Broad Chalk Sermon Essays on Nature, Mediation, Atonement, and Absolution (1867): — Owen Glendower, a Dramatic Biography, and Other Poems *(187,0): and *Psalms and Litanies *(1872), edited by his widow, who also published his *Life and Letters *(1874).

Williams, Samuel Wells, LL.D. a distinguished Chinese scholar, was born at Utica, N.Y., September 22, 1812. He graduated from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, learned printing, and in 1833 went to Canton, China, as printer for the American mission, where he assisted in editing *The Chinese Repository. *In 1837 he visited Japan, learned the language, and translated Matthew and Luke into Japanese. Returning to China, he edited many works; became interpreter to commodore Perry's Japan expedition in 1853, and in 1855 to the United States legation. In 1860 he revisited the United States, and in 1875, after various public services in China, permanently settled in New Haven, Connecticut, where, he acted as lecturer on Chinese, until his death, February 16, 1884, at which time he was president of the American Bible Society. He is the author of many works on China, especially *The Middle Kingdom *(N.Y. 1848, 1857).

Williams, Samuel Wells, LL.D. a missionary, was born in Utica, N.Y., September 22, 1812. While attending the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, he accepted a proposal to go to China and take charge of a printing-office recently established there by the American Board of Missions. He arrived at Canton, October 25, 1833, and joined with E.C. Bridgmal as editor of the *Chinese Repository, *which he both printed and edited until it ceased in 1851. He contributed about one hundred and thirty articles to this magazine. In 1835 he removed his office to Macao, in order to complete the printing of Dr. Medhurst's *Hokkeen Dictionary. *During the winter of 1837-38 he began to print the *Chinese Chrestomathy, *to which he contributed one half, and he also devoted his attention to learning Japanese. In 1844 he returned to the United States, but went to China again in the same year. In 1853-54 he accompanied Commodore M.C. Perrv in two expeditions to Japan, and gave material aid in concluding the treaty. In 1855 he was appointed secretary and interpreter to the United States legation in China. He resigned his connection with the American Board in 1857. In 1862 he went to Pekin and resided there for several years, completing here, besides his official duties, *A Syllabic Dictionary of the Chinese Language. *In order to superintend the printing personally, he spent the year 1873 at Shanghai, where it was stereotyped and published. His health being broken, he returned to the United States in 1875, but went back to China in 1876 to close up his affairs there. During his service he had acted as charge d'affaires nine times, which amounted to about five years of service as acting minister. In 1877 he was appointed professor of Chinese in Yale College. In 1881 he was elected president of the American Bible Society, and in the same year president of the American Oriental Society. He died February 16, 1884. Outside of his philological work he published the *Middle Kingdom *(2 volumes 1883). See his *Life and Letters, *by his son (N.Y. 1888).

Williams, Samuel, LL.D. a Congregational minister, son of Reverend Warham Williams of Waltham, Massachusetts, was born there, April 23, 1743. He graduated from Harvard College in 1761; was selected by professor Winthrop to accompany him, the same year, to Newfoundland, to observe the transit of Venus taught school at Waltham, and pursued his theological studies; was licensed to preach October 11, 1763; preached at Concord and Bradford, Mass., and was ordained in the latter place November 20, 1765. In May 1780, he was installed in the Hollis professorship of mathematics and natural philosophy in Harvard College. He was a member of the Meteorological Society of Mannheim, Germany, and of the Philosophical Society of Philadelphia; also of the Academy of Arts and Sciences in Massachusetts. In 1786 he went to Penobscot Bay to observe a total eclipse of the sun, in a galley fitted out by the General Court of Massachusetts. The same year the government of Massachusetts appointed him to assist in running the line of jurisdiction between that state and New York. He resigned his professorship in 1788, and removed to Rutland, Vermont, preaching there as a stated supply from January 1789, to October 1795. Subsequently he preached at Burlington more than two years. He died at Rutland, January 2, 1817. In 1794 he published *The Natural and Civil History of Vermont *(8vo). which was republished in two volumes in 1809. In 1805 governor Tickenor appointed him to ascertain the boundary of the state of Vermont. A course of lectures was delivered by him in the University of Vermont soon after its establishment. Many MSS. on astronomical, philosophical, and mathematical subjects of great value are among his literary remains. See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *1:595.

Williams, Solomon, D.D. a Congregational minister, son of the Rev. William Williams, of Hatfield, Mass., was born June 4, 1700. He graduated at Harvard College in 1719, and was ordained pastor of the Church in Lebanon, Conn., Dec. 5, 1722. In 1746 he became involved in a controversy on the nature of justifying faith with the Rev. Andrew Croswell, and in 1751 in another with his cousin, the elder Jonathan Edwards, concerning the Christian sacraments. In the extensive revival of 1740 he showed himself a decided friend to Whitefield, whom he repeatedly welcomed to his pulpit. He died Feb. 29,1776. He published, *Substance of Two Discourses on the Occasion of the Death by Drowning of Mr. John Woodward and of the Deliverance of Mr. Samuel Gray *(1741): *— A Vindication of the Gospel Doctrine of Justification by Faith. *(1746), *being an answer to the Rev. Andrew Croswell's book, "On Justifying Faith"— The True State of the, Question concerning the Qualifications Necessary to Lawful Communion in the Christian Sacraments *(1751), being an answer to the Rev. Jonathan Edwards's "*Humble Inquiry,*" etc., and several occasional *Sermons. *See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *1, 321.

Williams, Stephen (2) a Congregational minister, son of the preceding, and father of the Rev. Stephen Williams of Fitzwilliam, N. H., was born at Longmeadow, Mass., Jan. 26,1722. He graduated at Yale College in 1741, studied theology with his father, was ordained first pastor of Woodstock (West) in 1747, and continued in charge until his death, April 20, 1795. He was a good classical scholar, a practical preacher, and much esteemed by his people. See *Cong. Quar. *1861, p. 355; Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *1, 287.

Williams, Stephen (I), D.D. a Congregational minister, son of the Rev. John Williams of Deerfield, Mass., was born May 14. 1693. When in his eleventh year, he was taken captive by the Indians, with all his father's family except one brother, and subjected to great suffering on the journey to Canada. Having been separated from the rest of the family, he did not meet any of them again for fourteen months. He was released at Quebec through the intercession of friends in New England, and arrived in Boston, Mass., Nov. 21, 1705, nearly twenty-one months from the beginning of his captivity. In 1713 he graduated at Harvard College, and then taught school at Hadley for one year. After preaching at Longmeadow for about two years, he was ordained there Oct. 17, 1716. During three campaigns he served as chaplain in the army at Cape Breton, in 1745, under Sir William Pepperell; went to Lake George in 1755, under Sir William Johnson; and in the year following was under General Winslow. He was an important agent in establishing the mission in 1734 among the Housatonic Indians in Stockbridge. He died June 10, 1782. His only publication was *A Sermon at the Ordination of John Keep *(1772). See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *1, 284.

Williams, Thomas, D.D. a Methodist Episcopal minister, was born in the city of Durham, England, July 6,1811. He was converted in 1835 graduated at Hoxton in 1840, joined the British Wesleyan Conference and was appointed to Glasgow. Three years later he removed to Edinburgh, where he formed a close friendship with the famous Dr. Chalmers, and from thence he removed to the Stockport North Circuit, where he published his *Defense *of the British Wesleyan Conference against the *Fly-sheets Vindicated. *In 1849 lie was appointed to the Leeds First Circuit, where he published his *Address *to the Methodist societies. In 1852 he was appointed to City Road, London (First Circuit); and in 1854 emigrated to America, joined the Rock River Conference, and .was stationed at Indiana Street Church, Chicago, where he continued three years. Mr. Williams was 'transferred in 1858 to the Missouri Conference, and was appointed pastor of Ebenezer Church, St. Louis. On the death of the president of the University of Missouri, at Jefferson City, Mr. Williams was elected to fill the vacancy. Failing health in 1861 caused him to travel East for its restoration. He stopped at Saratoga, and there died the same year. See *Minutes of Annual Conferences, *1862, p. 5.

Williams, William called the "Watts of Wales," was born in 1717, in the parish of Llanfair- ary-Bryn, Carmarthenshire, Wales. His conversion he traced to the preaching of Howel Harris. He left the Established Church at the age of thirty-two, and connected himself with the Methodists, among whom he was recognized as one of their most popular preachers. Gifted with poetical talents of a high order, like Charles Wesley, he consecrated his genius to the cause of his Master. He published the following works: *Alleluia *(Bristol, 174547, 6 pts.): *— The Sea of Glass: — Visible* *Farewell: — Welcome to Invisible Things: — and An Elegy on Whitefield, *dedicated to the countess of Huntingdon. His death occurred in 1791. Mir. Williams was the author of the hymn "O'er the gloomy hills of darkness,' etc. His best-known hymn--one that is found in so many collections of hymns-is that commencing with the words "Guide me, O thou great Jehovah." The history of this hymn is thus given: Lady. Huntingdon having read one of Williams's books with much spiritual satisfaction, persuaded him to prepare a collection of hymns, to be called the *Gloria in Excelsis, *for especial use in Mr. Whitefield's Orphans House in America. In this collection appeared the original stanzas of "Guide me, O thou great Jehovah." In 1774, two years after its publication in the *Gloria in Excelsis, *it was republished in England in Mr. Whitefield's collections of hymns. Its rendering from the Welsh into English is attributed to W. Evans, who gives a translation similar to that found in the present collections of hymns. The hymn was taken up by the Calvinist Methodists, embodying, as it did, a metrical prayer for God's overcoming strength and victorious deliverance in life's hours of discipline and trial, expressed in truly majestic language, in harmony with a firm religious resilience and trust, and a lofty experimental faith. It immediately became popular among all denominations of Christians, holding a place in the affections of the Church with Robinson's "Come, thou Fount of every blessing." The fourth verse is usually omitted: ***"Musing on my habitation, Musing on my heavenly home, Fills my heart with holy longing— Come, Lord Jesus, quickly come. Vanity is all I see,** **Lord, I long to be with thee."*** See Butterworth, *Story of the Hymns, *p. 30-34. (J. C. S.)

Williams, William Frederick, D.D. a Presbyterian minister, was born at Utica, N.Y., January 7, 1818. For a time he studied at Yale College; graduated in 1847 from Auburn Theological Seminary; in 1848 was licensed, and ordained by the Presbytery of Utica; the same year commissioned by the American Board, and sailed for Syria, his first station being at Beyrout. Thence he was transferred to Mosul, and next was called to Mardin, East Turkey, where he died, February 14, 1871. For some years he was especially engaged in training native helpers and preachers.

Williams, William R., D.D., LL.D. an eminent Baptist divine, was born in New York city, October 14, 1804, being the son of Reverend John Williams (1767-1825), pastor of the Oliver Street Baptist Church for twenty-seven years. He graduated from Columbia College in 1823, studied law and practiced it one year, entered the ministry in 1831, and the ensuing year became pastor of the Amity Street Church, a relation which continued until his death, April 1, 1885. Dr. Williams was an elegant writer, and the author of several valuable works on Baptist history and literature, for which see Allibone, *Dict. of Brit. and Amer. Authors, *s.v.

Williams, William, D.D., LL.D. a Baptist minister, was born at Eatonton, Putnam County, Georgia, March 15, 1821. He united with the Church in 1837; graduated from the University of Georgia in 1840, and from the law-school of Harvard University in 1847; became pastor at Auburn, Alabama, in 1851; professor of theology in Mercer University in 1856; professor of ecclesiastical history, etc., in the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in 1859, and in 1872 of systematic theology, which office he held until his death, at Aiken, S.C., February 20, 1879. See Cathcart, *Baptist Encyclop. *page 1255. (J.C.S.)

Williamson, Isaac Dowd, D.D. a Universalist clergyman, was born at Pomfret, Vt., April 4, 1807. He had no better early educational advantages than a district school, and learned the clothier's trade; but force of character and thirst for knowledge made amends for lack of external aid, and in 1827 we find him preaching in Springfield. Subsequently he labored as supply ill Langdon, N.H.; as pastor, in 1828, at Jeffrey; in 1829 at Albany, N. Y., where he lived seven years, and published his first book, *An Argument for Christianity; *removed to Poughkeepsie in 1837; to Baltimore in 1839; to New York city in 1841; to Mobile, Ala., three years later; to Memphis, Tenn., two years later; to Lowell, Mass., in 1850; to Louisville, Ky., in 1851; to Cincinnati, O., in 1853; and in 1856 to Philadelphia, where he spent three years. He died in Cincinnati, Nov. 26, 1876. Dr. Williamson was largely engaged during' his ministerial career as editor and publisher of the *Gospel Anchor, *in Troy, N.Y., in 1830; the *Religious Inquirer, *in Hartford, Conn.; the *Herald and Era, *in Louisville, Ky., in *1852; *and for ten years was connected with the *Star in the West *as joint proprietor and editor. Besides the above-named *Argument for Christianity, *he published *An Exposition- and Defense of Unriversialism *(1840, 18mo): — *An Examination of the Doctrine of Endless Punishment *(1847, 18mo): *— Sermons for the Times and People *(1849, 18mo): — *The Philosophy of Universalism, or Reasons for our Faith *(1866, 12mo): — besides other valuable works. He was essentially a pioneer, emphatically a self-made man, a man of strong convictions and robust intellect, and a prominent member of the Odd-fellows Society. He was logical, sincere, lucid, ingenious, and magnetic. See *Universalist Register, *1878, p. 82.

Williamson, Samuel, D.D. a Presbyterian minister, was born in York District, S.C., June 12, 1795. He graduated from South Carolina College in 1818, and studied theology under Reverend James Adams; became pastor at Providence in 1822, professor in Davidson College in 1840, its president from 1841 to 1854, and pastor at Washington and Columbus, Arkansas, from 1857 to 1876. He died March 12, 1882. See Nevin, *Presbyterian Encyclop. *s.v.

Willibald, St. and first bishop of Eichstiadt, was a steadfast supporter of Boniface in the work of Christianizing the Germans. He was born about A.D. 700, in England, of noble Saxon parents; and in his third year, during a severe sickness, was dedicated to the service of the Church. In his fifth year abbot Egbald, of Waltheim, undertook his education. In 720 he undertook a pilgrimage to Rome, in company with his father and brother (Wunnebald). From Rome he went, accompanied by two friends, on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, which extended over seven years and exposed him to many dangers and adventurous experiences. On his return he spent ten years in monastic retirement at Monte Cassinlo (*729-739*)*. *' He then accompanied a. Spanish priest to Rome, and there, as it would seem, made the acquaintance of Boniface, whose kinsman he was In 740 he came to Germany, and entered on his apostolic work at Eichstidt. In the same year he was consecrated to the priesthood, and in the following year (Oct. 21 or 22) to the bishopric. In *742 *he was present as bishop of Eichstadt, at a council held by Carloman, duke of the Eastern Franks. But little is known as respects the details of Willibald's activity. Descriptions of his career speak in general terms of the eradication of heathenism, the subduing of the soil, the maintenance of worship at stated times the regular preaching of the Gospel, and the multiplication of convents, under the rule of St. Benedict, in his diocese. His brother Wunnebald and his sister Walpurgis came to his assistance, as did other missionaries and he was thus able to multiply his labors and extend their area. In 765 he attended a synod at Attigny, held by Pepin. He attained to a great age and outlived most of the pupils and companions of Boniface. Reports of the 11th century fix the date of his death on July 7, 781; but a donation to Fulda, from his hand, is dated 786; and it might accordingly be more nearly correct to suppose that he died in 786 or 787. The principal source for Willibald's life is the *Vita Willibaldi, *also entitled *Hodaeporicum, *written by a nun of Heidenheim, who terms herself his kinswoman, and states that she obtained many of the facts she records from his own lips. This *Vitat *was copied in Canisius, *Lect. Antiq. *3,1, 105; Holland us, is *Acta. SS. *July, 2, 301; Mabillon, *Acta SS. Ben. *3, 2,117; and in Falckenstein, *Cod. Diplom. Nordgav. *p. 445. A second *Life *is copied in Canisius, *ut sup. *p. 117; Bollandus, p. 512; and Mabillon, p. 383; which, however, is merely an abridgment of the first. A third *Life, *which, for no special reason, is usually ascribed to bishop Reginald (died 989), is given by Canisius alone. Abbot Adelbert, of Heidenheim, furnished a brief biography of Willibald, in connection with a historical sketch of his monastery, in the 12th century; and another was drawn up by bishop Philip of Eichstadt in the 14th century, both of which were published in Gretser, *De Divis Tutelaribus *(Ingolst. 1617). See Rettberg, *Kirchengesch. Deutschl. *2, 348 sq.; Wright, *Biog. Brit. Literaria *(Anglo-Saxon Period); p 335; Herzog, *Real-Encyklop. s.v.*

Willibrod (or Willibrord) *SEE WILBRORD, ST*.

Willigis, archbishop of Mayence was a statesman and primate of the German Church in the period of the Saxon emperors. His origin is unknown and was probably obscure. His birthplace was, it may be assumed, the town of Schoningen, in Saxony. He was a canon at Hildesheim, when Volcold, tutor of the young Otto II, whose friendship he had been fortunate enough to gain, recommended him to notice, with the result that he was transferred, about A.D. 970, to the imperial chapel and received into the number of imperial councillors. On January 13, 975, he became archbishop of Mayence and archchancellor and metropolitan of Germany, by the appointment of emperor Otto II and the confirmation of the pope, Benedict VII. The papal bull provided that he should have pre-eminence over all prelates in Germany and Gaul in ecclesiastical matters, and particularly on the occasion of royal coronations and in respect to the holding of synods at places to be chosen by himself. He took part in all the important affairs of the empire until other favorites temporarily usurped his place, but was not a participant in Otto's Italian campaign, A.D. 980. When Otto suffered defeat in Calabria, July 13, 982, Willigis accompanied other German princes to the imperial camp, and at the diet of Verona, where the infant son of Otto was chosen king and successor to his father, he appeared invested in all his former honors. Otto II died December 7, 983, at Aix-la-Chapelle. Willigis officiated at the coronation of the new king as the representative of the transalpine peoples, and in the dispute respecting the guardianship of the young emperor he was the head of the Saxon party and the most terrible opponent of duke Henry of Bavaria, who had seized the prince and had attempted to secure the throne. During this dispute, which closed in 985, Willigis was the constant companion of the empress. When the empress-mother died, June 15, 991, a commission was appointed to assist the grandmother. Adelheid, in exercising care over the prince, and of this commission Willigis was a member. Later authorities even confer upon him a regency of the empire during a period of three years. The education of young Otto was also the peculiar charge of Willigis, and was by him intrusted to his protege, Bernward, and later bishop of Hildesheim. Willigis prepared the first Roman expedition of his pupil and guided him over the Alps Easter 996, was celebrated at Pavia, and a delegation announcing the death of John XV and asking the king to choose a new pope was received in the same place. Willigis, more than any other person, determined Otto to choose his own cousin, Bruno, the son of the duke of Carinthia; and, in connection with Hildibald, chancellor and bishop of Worms, he escorted Bruno to Rome, and was present at his election by the clergy and people, and his enthronement as Gregory V, May 3, 996. Before leaving Rome he induced the pope to convoke a synod, through which he secured the return of Adalbert, bishop of Prague, to the diocese which that prelate had twice abandoned, though the return was not desired by the emperor, the pope, or Adalbert himself. The next important affair in the life of Willigis was his dispute with bishop Bernward, of Hildesheim, respecting the right to exercise jurisdiction over the nunnery of Gandersheim, where Sophia, the emperor's sister, was about to take the veil. The emperor sided with Bernward, and Sophia with Willigis. The dispute was finally brought before a synod at Rome, which sent a legate to Gandersheim to forward the interests of Bernward. Willigis refused to obey this authority, and was accordingly suspended from his offices by the legate, and cited to appear before the pope. He nevertheless persisted in the exercise of his episcopal functions, and. found numerous supporters among the German clergy, as is evident from the large attendance of bishops at a synod convoked by him at Frankfort, August 20, 1002. Bernward's entrance at Gandersheim, on the other hand was resisted by its inmates with force of arms. The opposition against both pope and emperor was everywhere, whether in Rome or Germany, so strong as to make it possible for Willigis to despise the wrath of either. The emperor's death, followed by the accession of Henry II, occasioned a truce, during which Willigis consecrated Sophia as abbess of Gandersheim; and in 1007 a peace was negotiated, by the renunciation, on the part of Willigis, of jurisdiction in the disputed territory. Otto's idea of establishing a universal empire, in which Bernward and his coadjutors were his principal supporters and Willigis his principal opponent, had, however, been defeated, and papal intervention in the affairs of the German Church had been effectually rebuked, in the course of a quarrel which seemed to concern local matters only, but which, because of the prominence of the persons engaged, involved issues of the gravest importance for the entire Western Church. On the accession of Henry II, he found in Willigis, the most prominent supporter of his claims as against those of margrave Eckard of Meissen and of duke Hermann of Suabia. Willigis, assisted by his suffragans, anointed and crowned the emperor, June 6 or 7, 1002, at Mayence, and the empress Kunigunde, August 10, at Paderborn. He accompanied the emperor to Aix- la-Chapelle, where the latter was recognised as sovereign by the assembled princes, and to Bruchsal, where the duke of Suabia made a voluntary surrender of his claims. He was present also at a synod held at Theonville, and was the influential personage who caused the punishment of death, denounced upon count Ernest of Austria, for rebellion, to be changed into the imposition of a fine. Everything in the records thus reveals Willigis as the counsellor and influential friend of the emperor. His power is evidenced in numerous documents, and in many ecclesiastical provisions and arrangements of the time. He was incessantly, energetically active in the affairs of both Church and State. Several churches in the city of Mayence, a number of bridges and other public works, and various works of art, were among the permanent relics of his administration. He died February 23, 1011. Literature. — Historical works, like Giesebrecht, *Gesch. d. deutschen Kaiserzeit; *Gfrorer, *Allgem. k. Gesch. *3:3, 4; and monographs, e.g. *De Willigisi Archicancellarii Regna Germ. et Archiepisc. Mogunt. Vita et Rebus Gestis, *by Ossenbeck (Monasterii, 1859); Euler, *Erzbischof Willigis von Mainz, *etc. (Naumburg, 1860). See also Thietmar, *Chronic. *passim.; Pertz, *Monum. Germi. Script. *2-7, etc.; Guden, *Cod. Diplom.; Monum. Boica, *31; *Origg. Guelficae, *4; Schunnat, *Hist. Fuldens. *150, etc.; Bohmer, *Font. Rer. Germ. *3; Thangmar, *Vita Bernwardi Episc., *Canaparius, *Vita S. Adalbert; *and Herzog, *Real-Encyklop. *s.v.

Willis, Henry one of the early Methodist preachers in America, was a native of Virginia. He entered the ministry in 1779, and was one of the most dominant spirits of the times, energizing, by his irrepressible ardor, the work of the Church throughout two thirds of its territory. He labored mightily for the West, as if conscious of its prospective importance in the State and the Church. He filled the following stations Roanoke, 1779; Mecklenburg, 1780; Talbot, 1781; Dorchester, 1782; New Hope, 1783; Holston, 1784. In 1785 he was in charge as presiding elder of a district, comprehending most of North Carolina; 1786, Charleston, S.C.; 1787, New York city; 1788, presiding elder of New York District; 1789, of a district which extended from Philadelphia to Redstone and Pittsburgh; 1790, located; 1791-95, supernumerary in Philadelphia; 1796, he reappears in Baltimore with John Haggerty, Nelson Reed and other worthies. Here he seems to have remained till 1800, when he became a supernumerary, doing what service he could-mostly on the Frederick Circuit, near his home-till his death, in .1808, near Strawbridge's old church on Pipe Creek. Mr. Willis was naturally of a strong mind, and this he had diligently improved. Quin, who knew him in the Redstone country, describes him as about six feet in stature, slender, a good English scholar, well read, an eloquent man, mighty in the Scriptures, and a most profound and powerful reasoner. He became feeble in the prime of life, retired from the itinerant field, married, and settled on a farm near Frederick County, Md. The Baltimore Conference sat in his parlor in April, 1801. He was the most endeared to Asbury of all the itinerants of that day. See *Minutes of Conferences, *1808, p. 157; Stevens, *Hist. of the M.E.F. Church, *2, 51-53, 134, 298, 347; 3, 17, 287; 4:240; Bangs, *Hist. of the M.E. Church, *1, 225; 2, 254. (J. L. S.)

Willis, Michael, D.D., LL.D. a minister of the Scotch Presbyterian Free Church, was born in Scotland in 1798. He was ordained and installed pastor of Renfield Presbyterian Free Church, Glasgow, and labored with great success and usefulness for twenty-five years. In 1847 he received a call from Canada West to the presidency and professorship of theology in Knox College, Toronto. He was well known to English Presbyterians, and took a great interest in everything pertaining to the welfare of the Church. In some respects he was peculiar, was regarded as very eccentric, and was noted for his pungent remarks on the preachers to whom he chanced to listen. Though pointed, his criticisms were not bitter or intended to wound. Fifty-seven years of his life were spent in preaching and teaching. He died at Aberlour, Scotland, in September, 1879. Dr. Willis published a *Funeral Sermons, *on his father: — *A Discourse on Popery *(1829): — *A Defense of Church Establishments *(1833): *— A Biography of Two Brothers *besides several *Pamphlets. *See Morgan, *Celebrated Canadians *(Quebec, 1862, 8vo), p. 465. (W. P. S.)

Willis, Richard, D.D. an English bishop, was born in 1663. He became prebendary of Westminster in 1695; prebendary and dean of Lincoln in 1701; bishop of Gloucester Jan. 16, 1714; bishop of Salisbury in 1721; bishop of Winchester in 1723; and died in 1734. He was the author of, *The Occasional Paper, in Eight Parts *(*1697*)*: — Speech in the House of Lords on the Bill against Francis *(*late*)*, Bishop of Rochester *(1723), and a number of single *Sermons.*

Willis, Robert, F.R.S., F.G.S. an English clergyman and scientist, was born in London in 1800. He graduated at Caius College, Cambridge, in 1826, and gained a fellowship, which he subsequently vacated; took orders in the Church of England; was early distinguished for his researches in physical science, particularly acoustics and the physics of oral language, the philosophy of mechanism and machinery, and the mathematical and mechanical philosophy of ancient architecture; became a fellow of the Royal Society April 22, 1830; was appointed Jacksonian professor of natural and experimental philosophy at Cambridge in 1837; made a tour of France, Germany, and Italy for the study of architecture in 1832-33; and became a profound architectural historian. He was a member of many scientific associations, before which he delivered many addresses; invented several philosophical instruments; and died at Cambridge, Feb. 28,1875. As a lecturer in his own department he was unrivalled. He was the author of numerous works on scientific subjects, among which may be mentioned, *Remarks on the Architecture of the Middle Ages, Especially of Italy *(*1835*)*: — Report of a Survey of the Dilapidated Portions of Hereford Cathedral in the Year 1841: — Principles of Mechanism for Students *(1841): *— Architectural History of Canterbury Cathedral *(1845): *— Architectural History of Winchester Cathedral *(eod.): *— Architectural History of York Cathedral *(1846): *— Architectural History of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher at Jerusalem *(1849): — and *Architectural History of Glastonbury Abbey *(1866).

Willis, Thomas, D.D. an English clergyman of the 17th century. He was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge; became minister of Kingston upon Thames, in Surrey, about 1667; and died in 1692. He published, *The Key to Knowledge, *and several single *Sermons *(1659-76).

Willison (or Willisone), John a divine of the Church of Scotland, was born in 1680; became minister at Brechin in 1703, and in 1716 at Dundee, where he remained until his death, May 3, 1750. He was the author of, *Examples of Plain Catechising* (1737): — Sac*ramental Directory; or, a Treatise Concerning the Sanctification of *a *Communion Sabbath *(1745): — *Afflicted Man's Companion *(1755): — *Sacramental Meditations and Advices *(1769): — *Sacramental Catechism*: — *Christian Scripture Directory: *— *Free and Impartial Testimony to the Church of Scotland. *and other works. An edition of his *Works *was published in Aberdeen in 1769, and other editions have since appeared, including his later publications. See *Fasti Eccles. Scoticanae, *3:693, 813; Allibone, *Dict. of Brit. and Amer. Authors, *s.v.

Williston, PAYSON, D.D. a Congregational minister, was born at West Haven, Connecticut in 1763; graduated at Yale College in 1783; studied theology at New Haven; became pastor at Easthampton, Massachusetts, in 1789 where he remained until 1833. He died there January 30, 1856. He published a *Sermon *in 1799, a *Half-century Sermon *in 1839, and contributed several articles to Sprague's *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit *(volumes 1 and 2).

Williston, Seth, D.D. a Presbyterian minister, was born at Suffield, Conn., April 4, 1770. He studied at Dartmouth College, where he graduated in 1791. Having applied himself to the study of theology, he was licensed to preach Oct. 7. 1794, and was afterwards employed for some months in supplying, temporarily, several churches in Connecticut. After several years spent as a missionary in Vermont and New York, he was finally, in 1803, installed pastor of the Church of Lisle, N.Y., which he had, however, supplied for the preceding three or four years. Having in July, 1810, become pastor of the Presbyterian Church at Durham, he remained there eighteen years, when he received a dismission, at his own request, Dec. 22, 1828; and during the rest of his life he preached at various places, chiefly in New York state. After a life remarkable for earnestness and activity, he died at Guilford Center, Chenango Co., N.Y., March 2, 1851. Dr. Williston published the following volumes: *An Address to Parents *(*1799*)*: — Sermons on Doctrinal and Experimental Religion *(1813): — *A Vindication of Some of the Most Essential Doctrines of the Reformation *(1817); *Sermons on the Mystery of the Incarnation, *etc. (*1823*)*: — Sermons Adapted to Revivals *(1828): — *Harmony of Divine Truth *(*1836*)*: — Discourses on the Temptations of Christ *(*1837*)*: — Christ's Kingdom Not of this World *(1843), three discourses: — *Lectures on the Moral Imperfection of Christians *(1846): — *Millennial Discourses *(1848): — and a number of *Pamphlets. *See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *4:141.

Willm, JOSEPH a Protestant pedagogue and philosopher, was born at Heiligenstein in 1792. In 1821 he was professor at the gymnasium in Strasburg, in 1826 professor of philosophy at the seminary, and died in 1853. He published, *De l'Education du People *(1843): — *Histoire de la Philosophie Allemande Depuis Kant *(1844), which received the prize from the French Academv of Sciences. From 1844 to 1850 he was one of the contributors to the *Dictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiques, *published by Hachette. See Bruch, *Discours Necrologique *(Strasburg, 1853); Lichtenbrerger, *Encyclop. des Sciences Religieuses, *s.v. (B.P.)

Willow is the rendering, in the A. V., of the two following Heb. words: עֶרֶב*, ereb *(only in the plur. עֲרָבַים, Sept. ἰτέα, ἄγνος), is apparently a generic term for the willow, like the *Arabic gharab. *Willows are mentioned in Le 23:40, among the trees whose branches were to be used in the construction of booths at the Feast of Tabernacles; in Job 40:22, as a tree which gave shade to Behemoth ("the hippopotamus"); in Isa 44; Isa 4, where it is said that Israel's offspring should spring up "as willows by the watercourses;" in the Psalm (Ps 137:2) which so beautifully represents Israel's sorrow during the time of the Captivity in Babylon, "We hanged our harps upon the willows in the midst thereof." With respect to the tree upon which the captive Israelites hung their harps, there can be no, doubt that the weeping willow (*Salix Babylonica*) is intended. This tree grows abundantly on the banks of the Euphrates, in other parts of Asia as in Palestine (Strand, *Flora Palaest. *No. 5 and 6), and also in North Africa. Bochart has endeavored to show (*Phaleg, *, 3) that the same country is spoken of, in Isa 15:7, as "the Valley of Willows." This, however, is very doubtful. Sprengel (*Hist. Re. Heb. *1, 18, 270) seems to restrict the *ereb *to the *Salix Babylonica; *but there can scarcely be a doubt that the term is generic, and includes other species of the large family of *Salices, *which is probably well represented in Palestine and other Bible lands, such as the *Salix alba, S. vinminalis *(osier), *S. Egyptiaca, *which latter plant, however, Sprengel identifies with the *safsaf *of Abul fadli, cited by Celsius (*Hierob. *2, 108); but this latter word is probably the same as **2. **צִפצָפָה, *tsaphtsaphah, *which occurs only in Eze 17:5, "He took also of the seed of the land, and planted it in a fruitful field; he placed it by great waters, and set it as a *willow-tree.*" Celsius, however, thinks that the word means *locus planis, planities, *although he at the same time gives all the evidence for the willow. First, the rabbins consider it to mean a tree, "et quidem *salix;*" R. Ben Melech says it is "species salicis, Arabibus *tziphtzaph *dicta;" while "Avicenna hoc tit. dicit *tziphtzaph esse chilaf." *Travelers also give us similar information. Thus Paul Lucas: "Les Arabes le nomment *safsaf *qui signifie en Arabe *saule.*" Rauwolf (*Travels, *1, 9), speaking of the plants he found near Aleppo, remarks, "There is also a peculiar sort of willow-trees called *safsaf; *etc.; the stems and twigs are long, thin, weak, and of a pale-yellow color; on their twigs here and there are shoots of a span long, like unto the Cypriotish wild fig-trees, which put forth in the spring tender and woolly flowers like unto the blossoms of the poplar-tree, only they are of a more drying quality, of a pale color, and a fragrant smell. The inhabitants pull of these great quantities, and distil a very precious and sweet water out of them." This practice is still continued in Eastern countries as far as Northern India, and was, and probably still is, well known in Egypt. Hasselquist (*Trav. p. *499), under the name of *calaf, *apparently speaks of the same tree; and Forskal (*Descript. Plant. *p.1 26) identifies it with the *Salix Egyptiaca, *while he considers the *safsaf *to be the *S. Babylonica.* Various uses were no doubt made of willows by the ancient Hebrews, although there does not appear to be any definite allusion to them. The Egyptians used "flat baskets of wickerwork, similar to those made in Cairo at the present day" (Wilkinson, *Anc. Egypt 1, *43). Herodotus (1. 194) speaks of boats at Babylon whose framework was of willow; such coracle- shaped boats are represented in the Nineveh sculptures (see Rawlinson, *Herod. *1, 268). Of Biblical willows by far the most interesting is the weeping willow, or willow of Babylon (*S. Babylonica*)*. *With its long lanceolate, finely serrated, and pointed leaves, with its smooth, slender, purplish, drooping branches, it has in all modern times been the symbol of sorrow. Before the Babylonian Captivity the willow was always associated with feelings of joyful prosperity. "It is remarkable," as Mr. Johns (*Forest Trees of Britain,* 2, 240) truly says, "for having been in different ages emblematical of two directly opposite feelings at one time being associated with the palm, at another with the cypress."' After the Captivity, however, this tree became the emblem of sorrow, and is frequently thus alluded to in the poetry of our own country; and "there can be no doubt," as Mr. Johns continues, "that the dedication of the tree to sorrow is to be traced to the pathetic passage in the Psalms." "The children of Israel," says lady Callcott (*Scripture Herbal, *p. 533), "still present willows annually in their synagogues, bound up with palm and myrtle, and accompanied with a citron."

Willows, Brook Of (נִחִל הָעֲרֶבַים**, ***Ndchal ha-Arabim; *Sept. ἡ φάραγξ ῎Αραβας*; *Vulg. *torrens salicum), *a wady mentioned by Isaiah (15:7) in his dirge over Moab. Over this name Jerome takes a singular flight in his *Commentary on Isaiah 15:*7, connecting it with the *Orebim *(A.V. "ravens ") who fed Elijah during his seclusion. The prophet's language implies that this brook was one of the boundaries of the country — probably, as Gesenius *(Jesaia.* 1:532) observes, the southern one. It is possibly identical with a wady mentioned by Amos (6:14) as the then recognized southern limit of the northern kingdom (Furst, *Handwb.; *Ewald, *Propheten). *This latter appears in the A.V. as "the river of the wilderness" (נִ8 הָעֲרָבָה***, **Nachal ha- Arabah; *Sept. ὁ χείμαῥῤος τῶν δυσμῶν*; *Vulg. *torrens deserti). *Widely as they differ in the A.V., it will be observed that the names are all but identical in the original, the only difference being that it is plural in Isaiah and singular in Amos. In the latter it is *ha-Arabah. *the same name which is elsewhere almost exclusively used either for the valley of the Jordan, the *ghor *of modern Arabs, or for its continuation, the great Arabah, extending to the gulf of Akabah. If the two are regarded as identical, and the latter as the accurate form of the name, then it is probable that the Wady el-Ahsy is intended, which breaks down through the southern part of the mountains of Moab into the so-called Ghor es-Safieh, at the lower end of the lake, and appears to form a natural barrier between the districts of Kerak and Jebal (Burckhardt, *Syria, *August 7). This is not improbably also the brook Zered *(nachal-Zered) *of the earlier history. The Targum Pseudojonathan translates the name Zered by "osiers," or "baskets." Should, however, the *Nachal ha-Arabimn *be rendered "the Willow- torrent" — which has the support of Gesenius *(Jesaia) *and Pusey *(Comm. on Amos, *6:14) — then it is worthy of remark that the name *Wady Sufsaf, *"Willow Wady," is still attached to a part of the main branch of the ravine which descends from Kerak to the north end of the peninsula of the Dead Sea (Irby, May 9). Burckhardt *(Syria, *page 644) mentions a fountain called *Ain Safsaf, *"the Willow Fountain" (Catafago, *Arabic Dictionary, *page 1051). The Reverend Mr. Wilton, in his work on *The Negeb, or South Country of Scripture, *endeavors to identify the *Nachal ha-Arabah *of Amos with the Wady el-Jeib, which forms the main drain by which the waters of the present Wady Arabah (the great tract between Jebel Sherah and the mountains of et-Tih) are discharged into the Ghor es-Safieh at the southern end of the Dead Sea. This is certainly ingenious, but cannot be accepted as more than a mere conjecture, without a single consideration in its favor beyond the magnitude of the Wady el-Jeib, and the consequent probability that it would be mentioned by the prophet.

Willow-Sunday is a local term to designate *Palm-Sunday *in some parts of England; so called because boughs of the willow-tree are used instead of palms.

Wills The subject of testamentary disposition is, of course, intimately connected with that of inheritance, and little need be added here to what will be found there. *SEE HEIR*. Under a system of close inheritance like that of the Jews, the scope for bequest in respect of land was limited by the right of redemption and general re-entry in the Jubilee year. *SEE JUBILEE*; Vow. But the law does not forbid bequests by will of such limited interest in land as was consistent with those rights. The case of houses in walled towns was different, and there can be no doubt that they must, in fact, have frequently been bequeathed by will (Le 25:30). Two instances are recorded in the Old Test., under' the law, *of *testamentary disposition — **1. **Effected in the case of Ahithophel (2Sa 17:23); **2. **Recommended in the case of Hezekiah (2Ki 20:1; Isa 28:1); and it may be remarked in both that the word "set in order"(צַוָּה; Sept. ἐντέλλομαι*; *Vulg. *dispono. *צִוָּאָה *in *Rabbinic is a will. See Gesen. *Thesaur. *p. 1155), marg. "give charge concerning," agrees with the Arabic word "command," which also means "make a will"(Michaelis, *Laws of Moses, *art. 80). Various directions concerning wills will be found in the Mishna, which imply disposition of land (*Baba Bathr*. 8:6, 7). *SEE TESTAMENT*.

Wills, John, D.D. a Church of England divine, was born at Seaborough, Somersetshire, in 1740. He graduated M.A. in 1765 at Wadham College, Oxford; succeeded to the wardenship of that college in 1783; served the office of vice- chancellor from 1792 to 1796, and held the rectorships of Seaborough, and of Tydd St. Mary, Lincoln, in the gift of the crown. Dr. Wills died May 16, 1806, very rich, leaving numerous benevolent bequests. See (Lond.) *Annual Register, *1806, page 535.

Wills, Samuel, D.D. an English Baptist minister, youngest son of Reverend Alexander Wills, of Ashley, was born at Salisbury in April 1808. He united with the John Street Church, London, at seventeen. In early manhood he was engaged for several years in preaching in the neighborhood of London; in 1833 opened a boys' boarding-school in Dorking, Surrey, preaching on the Sabbath, chiefly at Mortlake; in 1840 became pastor of a Church in Gosport, remaining till 1846, and then returned to London; in 1847 emigrated to the United States, and in New York established an open-communion church, of which he was the pastor for a time. Besides his ministerial work, he prepared several volumes for the press, which had a large circulation in this country. Among these were, *Daily Meditations *(4 volumes); *The Seven Churches in Asia: *— *Christian Ordinances: *— *A Commentary on the Prophet Daniel. *In 1853 he returned to Engarn, and was pastor at Upper Norwood, then at Vernon Chapel, King's Cross, and of West Row, Suffolk. His last settlements, which was of brief duration, were at Winchester and Milford, Hants. Resigning his pastoral work, he retired to Thornton Heath, Surrey, where he died, April 12, 1873. See (Lond.) *Bapt. Hand-book, *1874, page 296. (J.C.S.)

Willson, James McLeod, D.D. an eminent Presbyterian divine, and son of the distinguished divine Rev. James R. Willson, D.D, was born at the Forks of Yough, near Elizabeth, Allegheny Co., Pa., Nov. 17, 1809. From childhood he was apt in the acquisition of learning, and diligent in his studies. His preparatory education was prosecuted under his father's instruction. So thorough had been his previous training, and so advanced his scholarship, that on entering college he took high rank at once in the senior class. He graduated at Union College, Schenectady, N. Y., in 1829; then spent some years in teaching, first in an academy at Belair, Md., then at the village of Schodack, N. Y., and lastly as principal of the High-school in Troy, N.Y.; studied theology until 1834, when he was licensed to preach by the then Southern Presbytery; and ordained and installed pastor of a church in Philadelphia, Pa., Nov. 27,1834, where he labored with great success until 1862. In' 1859 he was appointed by the Synod to a professorship in the Theological Seminary, Allegheny City, Pa., a position for which he was eminently qualified, and which he, filled with great industry and zeal for three successive sessions, while still retaining his pastoral relation to his congregation. In 1862, his pastoral relation was dissolved, and he removed to Allegheny, where he continued to perform the duties of his professorship, until the day, of his death, Aug. 31, 1866. Coincident with his pastoral and professional duties, he performed an amount of other work equal to the whole power of a man of ordinary gifts. For more than seventeen years he was sole editor of the *Covenanter*, as ably conducted and efficient monthly, and co-editor with Dr. Thomas Sproull for four years more after its union with the *Reformed Presbyterian. *He was also the author of several treatises, viz., *The Deacon *(1840): — *Bible Magistracy: — Civil Government; *also a little treatise on *Psalmody. *Dr. Willson was a diligent, kind, and faithful pastor; a plain, logical, and eminently instructive preacher; a successful editor and author; a distinguished theological professor. His controversial powers were of a high order; his knowledge of history was both extensive and accurate. In the Theological Seminary he was in his element. He was an "Israelite indeed, in whom was no guile." His whole life gave evidence of this. See Wilson, *Presb. Hist. Almanac,* 1867, p. 387.

Willson, James Renwick, D.D. one of the most learned, able, and eloquent divines of the Reformed Presbyterian Church in his day, was born near Pittsburgh, Pa., April 9, 1780. He early gave indications of great mental ability, and, when only twelve years of age, was well known as an eager student of theology. He graduated at Jefferson College, Pa., with first honors, in 1806; was licensed to preach in 1807; and was principal of Bedford, Pa., 1806-15, and of a classical school in Philadelphia for two and a half years. His labors as a teacher were highly successful, some of the most prominent gentlemen of the country having been trained by him. In 1817 he became pastor of the congregations of Newburgh and Coldenham, N.Y. At that time Newburgh was notorious for its infidelity; but his advent was a new sera in the village. The town collected to hear him; it was gradually reformed, and the oldest inhabitants still ascribe very much to his sermons. In 1823 the congregation of Coldenhan asked and received all his services until 1830, when he removed to Albany, as pastor of a church there. As early as 1820 he began educating young men for the ministry; in 1822 he began to edit the *Evangelical Witness, *a monthly magazine, the first ever published by a Covenanter as a distinctive denominational magazine it was discontinued in 1826. He afterwards commenced and continued for two years *The Christian Statesman, *a small paper, 8vo, of eight pages. In 1831, about the time when the abolition movement began, and also a movement within the Reformed Presbyterian Church respecting certain national privileges, lie took a leading part in all this conflict, and from its earlier appearance had begun the publication of *The Albany Quarterly. *From 1840 until 1845 he was senior professor in the Reformed Presbyterian Seminary, Allegheny, Pa.; from 1845, when the Seminary was removed to Cincinnati, O., he was sole professor until 1851, when, owing to ill-health, he retired with the title of emeritus professor. He died Sept. 29, 1853. Dr. Willson, in intellectual reach, and comprehension- and acuteness, ranked among the first of men. He had a wide-spread reputation as an eloquent preacher. There were moments when he was overwhelming in the majesty of his descriptions and in the awful character of his denunciations. He was pre- eminently a man of prayer; faithful to his convictions; a man of unwavering integrity. He published, *A Historical Sketch of Opinions on the Atonement, *etc. (1817): — *Alphabetical. Writing and Printing *(1826): — *Prince Messiah's Claim to Dominion, *etc. (Albany, 1832, 8vo): *— The Written Law *(1840); also a number of occasional sermons, addresses, etc. See Wilson, *Presb. Hist, Almanac, *1866, p. 293; Allibone, *Dict. of Brit and Amer. Authors, *s.v.;' Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *9:40. (J. L. S.)

Willstadter, Elias a Jewish rabbi of Germany, was born in the year 1796, at Carlsruhe. In 1821 he attended the lectures at the Wurzburg University, and in 1824, after due examination, was enrolled among the rabbinical candidates of Baden. In 1837 he was appointed to fill the vacancy of the rabbinate at Carlsruhe, and died November 14, 1842. He published, *Abriss der gesammten judischen Theologie *(Carlsruhe): — *Predigten bei verschiedenen Gelegenheiten *(ibid. 1829). Together with some other rabbis he edited an edition of the Old Test. for the use of schools (ibid. 1836-38). See Farst, *Bibl. Jud. *3:516; Kayserling, *Bibliothek. judischer Kanzelredner, *1:351 sq. (B.P.)

Willymott, William, LL.D. an English clergyman, was born at Royston about 1675. He was admitted a scholar at King's College, Cambridge, in 1692; became usher at Eton; was tutor in King's College; became rector of Milton in 1735; and died in 1737. He published numerous school books, and *Coliection ofDevotions *for *the Altar, *etc. (1720). See Chalmers, *Biog. Dict. *s.v.

Wilmeid in Norse mythology, is the progenitor of all the magicians. He is the originator of the sciences of medicine. magic, and fortune-telling.

Wilmer, Joseph Pere Bell, D.D. a bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, was for a number of years rector of St. Mark's Church in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, after which, about 1864, he removed to Virginia, residing in Scottsville. In 1866 he was consecrated bishop of Louisiana, in Christ Church, New Orleans, and died December 2, 1878, aged about sixty-five years. See *Prot. Episc. Almanac,* 1879, page 168.

Wilmer, William H., D.D. a Protestant Episcopal clergyman- was born in Kent County, Md., Oct. 29,1782. He graduated at Washington College, Md., and immediately engaged in mercantile pursuits, but eventually abandoned them to study theology. In 1808 he was ordained, and, then appointed to Chester Parish, Md. The convention of the diocese named him one of the standing committee in 181l. The following year he received a call to St. Paul's Church, Alexandria, Va., and, after his removal to this charge, became one of the standing. committee of the diocese of Virginia. He was one of the originators in 1818 of the Education Society of the District of Columbia, designed to aid theological students at the seminary in Fairfax County. Until his removal from Alexandria he was president of this association. When St. John's Church in Washington, D.C., was erected in 1816 he was chosen its first minister, but did not accept the office though he supplied the Church until a rector: was secured. Of the *Washington Theological Repertory, *a periodical begun in 1819, he was one of the editors until 1826. After removing to Virginia, until the close of his life, he was a delegate of every general convention; and was president of the House of Clerical and Lay Deputies in 1820, 1821, 1823, and 1826. When the Theological Seminary of Virginia opened its sessions in Alexandria in 1823 he became professor of systematic theology, ecclesiastical history, and church polity. In the spring of1826 he was chosen assistant rector to bishop Moore, in the Monumental Church at Richmond, Va., but was induced by the friends of the seminary to decline the call. A few months after, however, he was elected president of William and Mary College, and rector of the Church at Williamsburg. Before the expiration of a year from the time of his entrance upon these duties he died there July 24, 1827. His preaching was characterized by great simplicity; and although his manner was not considered oratorical, it was fervent. See Sprague, *— Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *5, 515.