Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological & Ecclesiastical Literature

Paaneah *SEE ZAPHNATH-PAANEAH*.

Pa'arai (Heb. *Paaray', *פִּעֲרִי*, open; *Sept. Φαραεί*, *v.r. Φααραϊv and [by union with the following word] Οὐραιοεχί; *Vulg. Pharai*)*, *"the Arbite," one of David's warriors (2Sa 23:35); elsewhere (1Ch 11:37) more correctly called NAARAI *SEE NAARAI *(q.v.).

Pabisch, Francis Joseph, D.D., LL.D. an eminent Roman Catholic scholar and divine, was born at Zlabings, Moravia, March 30, 1825. In his fourteenth year he was sent to the grammar-school of Znaim, and from there to the high-school of Briinn; in 1843 entered the University of Vienna; and in 1847 the archiepiscopal seminary in the same city. In March 1850, he was ordained priest, and was given a chaplaincy near Vienna. In 1851, on the invitation of Archbishop Purcell, of Cincinnati, he came to America, and was placed in charge of Whiteoak, seven miles from Cincinnati. In 1853 he began to give a few hours a week to teaching ecclesiastical history and German in the Seminary of Mount St. Mary's of the West. Later, he studied theology and canon law at the College of the Propaganda in Rome. He was appointed chaplain to the Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, and after four years of arduous study graduated doctor of theology and doctor of civil and canon law. From 1858 to 1860 he practiced as a jurist to the congregation of the Council of Trent. In 1861 Dr. Pabisch returned to the United States, and on his arrival at Cincinnati was given the chair of ecclesiastical history and canon law at the Seminary of Mount St. Mary's, and in 1863 succeeded to the rectorship. On the financial downfall of that institution, his intellect gave way, and he was taken to the Mount Hope Retreat, near Baltimore, where he died, October 2, 1879. In connection with Reverend Thomas S. Byrne, Dr. Pabisch translated Alzog's *Universal Church History *from the German (Cincinnati, 1874, 1876, 1878, 3 volumes 8vo), with additions on the history in England and America. See (N.Y.) *Cath. Annual, *1881, page 93.

Pablo, Christiani a Dominican monk, who flourished in the middle of the 13th century, but of whose early life nothing is known, is noted for his remarkable attainments. In Jewish history and literature Pablo was a party in the famous disputation at Barcelona with the learned Moses Nachmanides (q.v.), which lasted for four days (July 20-24, 1263). This public disputation took place by a decree of James I, king of Aragon, in order to put. a stop to the daily disputes that occurred between the Jews and those Dominican friars who had studied Hebrew and Arabic. The Dominicans were encouraged by their general, Raymund de Penaforte, whose attention was always directed towards the conversion of Jews .and Mohammedans. That Pablo was a convert from Judaism appears from a letter written by pope Clement IV to the king of Aragon, in which he says: "Ad haec autem dilectus filius noster *Paulus, *dictus *Christianus *reditur non modicum profuturus, *quia ex Judceis trahens originem, *et inter eos literis. Hebraeis instructus, linguam novit . . . et legem et errores illorum." The disputation referred to was first published, with omissions and interpolations, and a bad Latin translation, by Wagenseil, *Tela ignea Satanae *(Altorf, 1681). It was then published in the collection of polemical writings entitled מלחמת חובה, where it is the first of the series, and is called הרמבן עם פראי פולו וכוח, *The Discussion of Ramban with Fra Paolo *(Constantinople, 1710); and recently again by Steinschneider, *Nachmanidis Disputatio publica pro fide Judaica *(Berlin, 1860), with notes by the editor. Pablo also obtained a decree from the king of Aragon, by which the Jews were enjoined to open to him the doors of their synagogues and houses to dispute with them, to furnish him with all the books necessary to convince them, and to pay the expense of the cartage of his library, by deducting what they disbursed from the tribute they paid to the king. See Basnage, *Histoire des Juifs, *p. 660 (Taylor's translation); Gratz, *Gesch. d. Juden,* 7:131-136, 149; Lindo, *History of the Jews, *p. 68; Da Costa, *Israel and the Gentiles, *p. 301 sq; Wolf, *Bibl. Hebr. *i, 965; iii, 910 sq.; Schmucker, *History of the Modern Jews, *p. 149; Kalkar, *Israel u. die Kirche, *p. 24; *Jewish Expositor *(Lond. 1826), p. 364 sq.; Frankhel's *Monatsschrift fur Geschichte u. Wissenschaft des Judenthums *(Breslau, 1865), 14:308 sq.; Huie, *History of the Jews *(Edinburgh, 1841), p. 126 sq.; Depping, *Les Juifs dans le Moyen Age *(Bruxelles, 1844), p. 231 sq. (B. P.)

Pacareau, Pierre a French prelate of Jansenistic tendency, was born at Bordeaux. Sept. 2, 1716; and after excellent educational advantages, having made himself master of the Romance, the classical, and the Shemitic tongues, he took holy orders. He became at once a popular preacher, and was honored with a canonicate in the metropolitan church of his native place. An earnest sympathizer with the Jansenists, he greeted the changes which the approaching revolution wrought in Church and State, and was elected bishop March 14, 1791, under the new constitution. He took no part in state affairs, and but rarely had occasion to perform the duties of his ecclesiastical office. He died Sept. 5, 1797, at Bordeaux. He was much prized by his contemporaries for his kindness and benevolence. He wrote *Nouvelles considerations sur l'usure et le pret az l'interet *(Bord. 1787, 8vo).

Pacatia'na (Πακατιανή*, *of Lat. origin), the western district of Phrygia (1 Timothy 6, *subscr. *[spurious]). *SEE PHRYGIA*.

Pacaud, Pierre a French pulpit orator, was born in Bretagne near the opening of the 17th century, and was early admitted into the Congregation of the Oratory. He very soon became noted as a preacher, and the churches in which he preached were always thronged. In 1745 he published, under the title of *Discours de pilet *(Paris, 3 vols. 12mo), a series of sermons anonymously. The heretical opinions which they contain made them objectionable to the ecclesiastics, and as soon as it was learned that Pacaud was their author he was sent into the country and subjected to severe treatment. He died May 3, 1760.

Pacca, Bartolomeo an Italian prelate of note in secular and ecclesiastical history, was born at Benevento Dec. 15, 1756, of a noble family. After studying at the college in Naples and at the Clementine College in Rome, he entered in 1778 the ecclesiastical school which Pius VI had just then founded. Pacca here gained not only the esteem of his teachers, but he was brought to the notice of the pope, who became so much interested in him that he was ordained archbishop *in partibus *of Damietta, and was despatched to Cologne as papal nuncio. Abroad the same capacity which distinguished him at school was manifest, and he was frequently instrumental in strengthening papal influence at a time when it was difficult to stay the tide of its decline. In 1794 he returned to Rome, only, however, to assume at once the papal novitiate at Lisbon, and there he remained until 1802. His services to the papal chair in this quarter were so great that in 1801 he was created a cardinal by pope Pius VII, and in 1808 was made a papal minister of state, as successor to Consalvis. In this new position Pacca proved an enthusiast. He urged the pope to unbending resistance against Napoleon, and would suffer the pontiff to listen to no proposals except the most favorable for Rome. When Napoleon gained possession of Rome Pacca was therefore arrested, together with the pope, and imprisoned as a rebel, July 6, 1809. After the Concordat at Fontainebleau in 1813, Pacca was suffered to go free, but his counsel to publish a bull of excommunication made his reimprisonment a necessity, and he was banished to Uzes, until the fall of Napoleon set him free again. He entered Rome May 14, 1814, in the same carriage with the pope, whom he had served so faithfully. In 1815 he was again the companion of the pontiff in his flight from the Eternal City. After the pope's return to Rome Pacca became a member of the Congregation for Missions in China, and in 1816 was sent on a special mission to Austria. In 1821 he was made bishop of Porto and St. Rufinus. In 1830 he was given the sees of Ostia and Velletri, and was made prodatarius of the holy see, and archpriest of the Basilica of St. John of Lateran. He died April 19, 1844. He was actuated to the last by a strong desire to re-establish the. papacy in its former glory, and was convinced that the power of the pope could be secure only by a firm adherence to the ecclesiastical rights which obtained in the Middle Ages. He was also a great friend of the Jesuits, and it was his influence with the pope that caused their restoration. Pacca narrated his experiences in a most agreeable and skilful manner, under the title *Memorie istoriche, *etc. (2d ed. Rome, 1830, 3 vols.). He also wrote *Relazione del viaggio di pope Pio VII *(Rome, 1833), etc. His complete works were published and translated into French and German. See *Biographie Universeile, vol. *76, s.v.; *Ami de la Religion, *Mai, 1844 (Paris); *L'Univers *(Paris, 1844); Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v.; *Biographie Univ. et portat. des Contemporains, *vol. v, s.v.

Paccanarists *SEE BACCANARISTS.*

Pacchiarotto, Jacopo one of the most distinguished of the old Italian masters in art, was born at Siena in the latter part of the 15th century. He lived at Siena until 1535, when, owing to his participation in a conspiracy of the people against the government, he was compelled to flee. Lanzi says that he would certainly have been hanged had he not been protected by the Osservanti monks, who concealed him for some time in a tomb. He succeeded in making his escape, and joined II Rosso in France, where he in all probability ended his days not very long afterwards, as nothing further is known of him, and he does not appear to have left any works in France. There are still several excellent paintings, both in oil and in fresco, by Pacchiarotto in Siena. There is a beautiful altar-piece in San Cristoforo, and some excellent frescos in Santa Caterilna and San Bernardino. Speth takes particular notice of these frescos in his *Art in Italy, *and terms Pacchiarotto the second hero of the Sienese school — Razzi, called Sodoma, being the first. Pacchiarotto is also highly praised by Lanzi. In Santa Caterina is the *visit of Saint Catharine of Siena to the Body of Saint Agnes of Montepulcian, *in which are heads and figures worthy of Raphael. According to Speth these works can be justly compared with Raphael's alone; and he adds that designating Pacchiarotto as of the school of Perugino is only magnifying the injustice he had already undergone in having his works long reported as the works of Perugino. If therefore he were the pupil of Perugino, "what Perugino supplied was only the spark," says Speth, "which in Pacchiarotto grew into a flame." Pacchiarotto has suffered the same misfortune that many other excellent masters have undergone by reason of their omission by Vasari. About 1818 the king of Bavaria purchased two beautiful small easel pictures in oil and on wood, now in the Pinakothek at Munich, which are recognised as Pacchiarotto's extant masterpieces. The one represents *St. Francis d'Assisi, *with two angels in the background, and the other the *Madonna and her Child, *with four angels in the background. They are pronounced two of the best pictures in that rich collection. His works much resemble those of Pietro Perugino; at the same time they are more fully developed in form and are of wonderful force of coloring; in expression also many of his heads are admirable. See Lanzi, *Storia Pittorica, *etc.; Speth, *Kunst in Italien, *vol. 2; Spooner, *Biog. Hist. of the Fine Arts,. *vol. 2, s.v.; *English Cyclop. *s.v*.*

Paccori, Ambroise a French theologian, was born at Ceaulce in 1649, of very humble parentage. Ambitious as a youth, he made his way to collegiate training in the high school of his native place, and he finally became its director. In 1706 he removed to Paris, and gave himself to authorship. He died at Paris Feb. 12, 1730. He wrote a large number of works, principally on practical religion and education. A list of his principal works is given in Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v.

Pace (צִעִד, *tsa'ad, *a *step, *as elsewhere rendered), not a formal measure, but talent in a general sense (2Sa 6:13).

Pace Haut is the name sometimes given to a broad step before an altar.

Pace, Richard a very learned English prelate, was born about 1482, at or near Winchester. He was educated at the charge. of Thomas Langton, bishop of that diocese, whom he served as amanuensis. The bishop, pleased with his proficiency, particularly in music, sent Pace to study at Padua, where he met with Cuthbert Tonstal, afterwards bishop of Durham, and William Latimer, by whose instructions Pace was much profited. Upon his return home he settled at Queen's College in Oxford, of which his patron Langton had been provost; soon after he was taken into the service of Dr. Christopher Bainbridge, who about this time became a cardinal, and later Pace was summoned to court. His accomplishments rendered him very acceptable to Henry VIII, who seems to have made him secretary of state, or at least employed him in matters of high concern. Though much engaged in political affairs, he went into orders: in the beginning of 1514 he was admitted a prebendary in the church of York, and the same year was promoted to the archdeaconry of Dorset. These preferments were conferred upon him while he was employed by the king in a foreign embassy to Vienna. He then persuaded Maximilian to intervene in Italy, and procured for the emperor the alliance of the Swiss cantons. Upon the death of Colet, in 1519, he was made dean of St. Paul's. London. He was also made dean of Exeter about the same time; and in 1521 prebendary in the church of Sarum. At the death of Leo X, Wolsey, who aspired to the tiara, sent Pace to Rome to plead his cause before the sacred college; but Adrian VI was elected before his arrival there. Being employed not long afterwards as ambassador to Venice, he fell under the displeasure of Wolsey. The reasons for this are that he had shown a willingness to assist Charles, duke of Bourbon, with money, and that he had not forwarded the cardinal's designs for the papal chair. Wolsey used every means to bring him into disfavor with the king. He accused him of treason **- **and deprived Pace for the space of two years of all royal advice as to the pleasure of his mission. and of all allowances for his maintenance. This severe treatment threw Pace into temporary insanity. After recovery Pace studied the Hebrew language with the assistane of Robert Wakefield. Being introduced to the king at Richmond, Henry expressed much satisfaction at his recovery, and admitted him to a private audience, in which Pace remonstrated against the cardinal's cruelty to him. Wolsey, urged by the king to clear himself from the charge, summoned Pace before him, and, with the duke of Norfolk and others, condemned the unfortunate prelate, and sent him to the Tower of London. After two years' confinement he was discharged by the king's command. He resigned the deaneries of St. Paul and Exeter, and lived in retirement at Stepevy, near London. He died there in 1532. Pace was a skilful diplomatist, and not less distinguished for his amiability and his great learning. Leland eulogizes Pacs highly; and it appears that he was much esteemed by the learned men of his time, especially by Sir Thomas More and Erasmus. The latter admired Pace for his candor and sweetness of temper, addressed to him more letters than to any other of his friends, and could never forgive the man that caused his misfortunes. Stow gives him the character of a very worthy man, and one that gave in council faithful advice: "learned he was also," says that antiquary, "'and endowed with many excellent parts and gifts of nature; courteous, pleasant, and delighting in music; highly in the king's favor, and well heard in matters of weight." There is extant a remarkable letter of his to the king, written in 1527, wherein he very freely gives his opinion concerning the divorce; and Fiddes observes that he always used a faithful liberty with the cardinal, which brought him at last to confinement and distraction. Pace published a number of works. The most important is, *Defructu qui ex doctrina percipitur liber *(Basle, 1517), dedicated to Dr. Colet. It was written at Constance, while Pace was ambassador in Helvetia; but, inveighing much against drunkenness as a great obstacle to the attaining of knowledge, the people there, supposing him to reflect upon them,, wrote a sharp answer to it. Erasrmus was also highly incensed at some passages in it, and calls it an indiscreet performance; or a silly book, in which Pace had, between jest and earnest, represented him as a beggar, hated alike by the laity and clergy. He. bids Sir Thomas More exhort Pace. since he had so little judgment, rather to confine himself to the translation of Greek writers than to venture upon works of his own, and publish such mean and contemptible stuff (Erasm. *Epist. *275, and *Epist. *287): — *Epistolae ad Erasmum, *etc. (1520). These epistles are in a book entitled *Epistole aliquot eruditorum virorum. *Pace also wrote a book against the unlawfulness of the king's marriage with Catharine in 1527, and made several translations: among others, one from English into Latin, *Bishop Fisher's Sermon, *preached at London on the day upon which the writings of Martin Luther were publicly burned (Camb. 1521). He made a translation from Greek into Latin of Plutarch's work, De *commodo ex inimicis capiendo. *See *General Biog. Dict. *s.v.; Hook, *Eccles. Biog. *s.v.; Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s*.*v.

Pachacamac the supreme god of the Peruvians. This deity had a magnificent temple in a valley called Pachacama, built by the Incas or emperors of Peru. Such immense treasures had been laid up in this temple that Pizarro found 900,000 ducats in it, though four hundred savages had taken away as much as they could carry. The Peruvians had so great a veneration for this deity that they offered him whatever they esteemed most precious, and so great was their awe of him that they durst not look upon his image. Even their priests and kings entered his temples with their backs towards his altar, and came out again without daring to turn.

Pachamama a name of the goddess of the earth among the ancient Peruvians,

Pacheco, Francisco a noted Spanish painter, was born at Seville in 1571, of a good and influential family. An uncle of his was canon of the cathedral of Seville, and is distinguished as a divine and poet. Afforded all the advantages of culture which his country could command, Pacheco started out in life with unusual fitness for an artistic course. His very earliest works attracted general attention, and in 1598 he was one of the principal painters employed on the great decorations or catafalque of Philip II. In 1600 he was appointed, together with Alonzo Vazquez, to paint a series of large pictures illustrating the life of St. Ramon for the cloister of the convent of the Merced. In 1603 he executed some works in distemper in the palace of Don Fernando Henriquez de Ribera, third duke de Alcala, from the story of Daedalus and Icarus. In 1611 he visited Toledo, Madrid, and the Escurial, and saw the great works of Titian and other celebrated Italian and Spanish masters, and was so forcibly impressed with the varied and incessant application requisite to make one a great painter that on his return to Seville he opened a systematic academy of the arts, as well for his own improvement as for the benefit of the rising artists of Seville. The improvement he himself acquired is shown by his great picture of the *Last Judgment. *an altar-piece finished in 1614 for the nuns of the convent of St. Isabel, and by himself described at great length in his treatise on painting. In 1618 Pacheco was appointed by the Inquisition one of the guardians of the public morals, i.e. he was made censor of all the pictures which were exposed for sale in Seville; nakedness was prohibited, and it was his business to see that no pictures of the naked human form were sold. It is to such formal morality as this that the Spanish school of painting owes its characteristic ponderous sobriety, and is so directly unlike Italian painting. Prudery was carried so far in Spain that in the time of Ferdinand VII. even all the great Italian works which could be reproached with nudities were removed from the galleries, and were condemned to a distinct set of apartments called the Galeria Reservada, and only opened to view to those who could procure especial orders. In 1623 Pacheco visited Madrid, and among many other works executed was one which hardly accords with the present notions of the occupation of a great painter, though it has been the practice of great artists from very early ages to paint their statues. *SEE NICIAS*. Pacheco dressed, gilded, and painted (estofo) for the duchess of Olivares a statue, probably of wood, of the *Virgin, *by Juan Gomez de Mora. What this process exactly was it is not evident from this mere mention; but the object generally in these painted. wooden images appears to have been to obtain an exact imitation in the minutest detail — perpetual facsimiles. The effect of such images, called "Pasos," must be experienced to be comprehended. The Spaniards dress them as well as paint them. Their churches were crowded with such works; but most have now been removed to museums. Mr. Ford gives some curious details about the toilets of these Spanish images. No man is allowed in Spain to undress the "Paso," or "Sa'grada Imagen," of the Virgin; and some images had their mistresses of the robes ("camerera mayor"), and a chamber ("camerin") where their toilet was made. The duty has, however, now devolved upon old maids; and "Ha quedado para vestir imagines" (She has gone to dress images) has become a phrase of reproach. Pacheco died at Seville in 1654. "His works, though not vigorous, are correct in form, effective in light and shade, studied in composition, and simple in attitude; but they have little color, are dry, and rather feeble or timid in their handling. These defects are more apparent when his pictures are seen together with the works of other Andalusian painters, who have generally made coloring their principal study, and have comparatively neglected purity of form. Besides his many religious pictures, he painted or drew in crayons nearly four hundred portraits." He also wrote *Arte de Pintura, su Antigiiedad, y Gerandeza *(Seville, 1649, 4to), a remarkably scarce book, considered an indispensable guide by the painters of the school of Seville; it is a work of great learning on the subject, and is held throughout Spain to be the best work on painting in the Spanish language: it is in three parts —history, theory, and practice. The Jesuits of Seville were his most intimate associates, and greatly assisted him in writing his work. They were indeed the authors of that part which is devoted to sacred art. His works are seldom seen out of Seville, and he is even very inadequately represented in the splendid gallery of the Prado at Madrid. The altar-piece of the *Archangel Michael expelling Satan from Paradise, *which was in the church of San Alberto at Seville, was regarded his masterpiece. There are still at Seville an altar-piece of the *Conception of San Lorenzo, *two pictures of *San Fernando *in San Clementi, and a picture in San Alberto. See Antonio, *Bibliotheca Scriptor. Hispanioe, *3, 456; Ticknor, *Hist. Spanish Lit. *3, 19; Spooner, *Biog. Dict. of the Fine Arts, *s.v.; *English Cyclop. *s.v.

Pachmann, Theodor a Roman Catholic theologian of Austria, for some time professor of canon law at the university in Vienna, who died February 2, 1881, doctor of theology, is the author of *Lehrbuch des Kirchenrechtes *(Vienna, 1853, 3 volumes; 3d ed. 1863-66). See Zuchold, *Bibl. Theol. *2:969. (B.P.)

Pachomius (Παχώμιος), as Socrates and Talladius write the name, or PACHUMIUS (Παχούμιος) (1), or "THE ELDER," according to the author of *Vita Pachumii, *was an Egyptian ascetic of the 4th century, and one of the founders, if not pre-eminently the founder, of the regular cloister life. *SEE* *MONASTICISM*. "The respect which the Church entertains at present," says Tillemont (*Memoires, *7:167), "for the name of St. Pachomius is no new feeling, but a just recognition of the obligations which she. is under to him as the holy founder of a great number of monasteries; or, rather, as the institutor not only of certain convents, but of the conventual life itself, and of the holy communities of men devoted to a religious life." Pachomius was born in the Thebaid of heathen parents, and was educated in paganism; and while a lad, going with his parents to offer sacrifice in one of the temples of the gods, was hastily expelled by the order of the priest as an enemy of the gods. The incident was afterwards recorded as a prognostic of his subsequent conversion and saintly eminence. At the age of twenty he was drawn for military service under the tyrant Maximin against Constantine and Licinius. The conscripts were embarked in a boat and conveyed down the Nile; and being landed at Thebes were placed in confinement, apparently to prevent desertion. Here they were visited by the Christians of the place, and a grateful curiosity led Pachomius to inquire into the character and opinions of the charitable strangers. Struck with what he had heard of them, he seized the first opportunity of solitude to offer the simple and touching prayer, "God, the creator of heaven and earth, if thou wilt indeed look upon my low estate, notwithstanding my ignorance of thee, the only true God, and wilt deliver me from this affliction, I will obey thy will all the days of my life, and will love and serve all men according to thy commandments." He was, however, obliged to accompany his fellow-conscripts, and suffered many hardships during this period of enforced service: but when the settlement of the contest released him he hastened back into the Thebaid, and was baptized in the church of Chenoboscia, near the city of Diospolis the Less: and aspiring at pre- eminent holiness, led an ascetic life, under the guidance of Palemon (q.v.), an anchoret of high repute. After a time he withdrew with Palemon to Tabenna, an island in the Nile, near the common boundary of the Theban and Tenthyrite nomes. Some time after this removal his companion Palemon died, but Pachomius found a substitute for his departed companion in his own elder brother, Joannes or John, who gladly became his disciple. In A.D. 325, directed by what he regarded as a divine intimation, Pachomius invited men to embrace a monastic life; and obtained first three disciples, and then many more, formed them into a community and prescribed rules for their guidance, and as the community grew in number he appointed the needful officers for their regulation and instruction. He built a church as a place of worship and instruction for the shepherds, to whom, as there was no other reader, he read the Scriptures. So successful were his labors for the propagation of Christianity that the bishop of Tenthyra would have gladly raised him to the rank of presbyter, and even requested Athanasius, patriarch of Alexandria, when visiting the Thebaid, to ordain him; but Pachomius, being aware of the design, hid himself until the patriarch had departed. His refusal of the office of presbyter did not, however, diminish his reputation or influence; new disciples flocked to him, of whom Theodorus or Theodore was the most illustrious. *New *monasteries sprung up all around his own. Of these several communities he was himself visitor and regulator-general, or archimandrite, each cloister having besides a separate superior and a steward; thus, e.g., his disciple Theodore was superior of the monastery of Tabenna. Pachomius's residence was now at the monastery of Proii, which was made the head of the monasteries of the district. He died there of a pestilential disorder which had broken out among the monks, probably in A.D. 348, a short time before the death or expulsion of the Arian patriarch Gregory and the restoration of Athanasius. Some, however, place the death of Pachomius in A.D. 360. The monastic communities which he had founded had been so regularly constituted as bodies that the continuity of their existence was not interrupted: by his own death or that of other individuals. Even before Pachomius's death (348) his community numbered eight or nine cloisters in the Thebaid, and 3000 (according to some 7000) members; a century later it counted no less than 50,000. The mode of life was fixed by a strict rule of Pachomius, which, according to a later legend, an angel communicated to him, and which Jerome translated into Latin. The formal reception into the society was preceded by a three-years' probation. Rigid vows were not yet enjoined. With spiritual exercises manual labor was united — agriculture, boat-building, basket-making, mat and coverlet weaving — by which the monks not only earned their own living, but also supported the poor and the sick. They were divided, according to the grade of their ascetic piety, into twenty-four classes, named by the letters of the Greek alphabet. They lived three in a cell. They ate in common, but in strict silence, and with the face covered. They made known their wants by signs. The sick were treated with special care. On Saturday and Sunday the monks partook of the communion. Pachomius also established a cloister of nuns for his sister, whom he never admitted to his presence when she would visit him, sending her word that she should be content to know that he was still alive. Pachomius, after his conversion, never ate a full meal, and for fifteen years slept sitting on a stone. Tradition ascribes to him all sorts of miracles, even the gift of tongues and perfect dominion over nature, so that he; trod without harm on serpents and scorpions, and crossed the Nile on the backs of crocodiles! There are various writings extant under the name of Pachomius: **(1.) **two *Regular Monasticoe.* **(a.) **The shorter of these, preserved by Palladius, is said to have been given to Pachomius by the angel who conveyed to him the divine command to establish monasteries. This rule is by no means so rigid as the monastic rules of later times. Palladius says that the monasteries at Tabenna and in the neighborhood subject to the rule contained 7000 monks, of whom 1500 were in the parent community first established by Pachomius; but it is doubtful if this is to be understood of the original monastery of Tabenna or that of Proii. **(b.) **The longer *Regula, *said to have been written in the Egyptian (Sahidic?) language, translated into Greek, is extant in a Latin version made from the Greek by Jerome. It is preceded by a *Prefatio, *in which Jerome gives an account of the monasteries of Tabenna as they were in his time. Cave (*Hist Litter. *ad ann. 340, in 1, 208 [ed. Oxf. 1740-1743]) disputes the genuineness of the *Regula, *and questions not only the title of Pachomius to the authorship of it, but also the title of Jerome to be regarded as the translator. He thinks that it may embody the rule of Pachomius as augmented by his successors. It is remarkable that this *Regula, *which comprehends in all one hundred and ninety-four articles, is divided into several parts, each with separate titles; and Tillemont supposes, therefore, that they are separate pieces collected and arranged by Benedictus Anianus. This *Regula *was first published at Rome by Achilles Statius, A.D. 115, and then by Petrus Ciacconus, also at Rome, A.D. 1588. It was inserted in the *Supplementum Bibliothecae Patrum *of Morellus (Paris, 1639), vol. 1; in the *Bibliotheca Patrum Ascetica *(ibid. 1661), vol. 1; in the *Codex Regularum *of Holstenius (Rome,ῥ1661); and in successive editions of the fathers. **(2.) ***Monita, *extant in a Latin version, first published by Gerard Vossius with the works of Gregorius Thaumaturgus (Mayence, 1604), and given in the *Bibliotheca Patrum *(ut supra). **(3.) ***SS. PP. Pachomii et Theodori Epistole et Verba Mystica. *Eleven of these letters are by Pachomius. They abound in incomprehensible allusions to certain mysteries contained in or signified by the letters of the Greek alphabet. They are extant in the Latin version of Jerome (*Opera, *l.c., and *Bibliotheca Patrum, *l.c.), who subjoined them as an *Appendix *to the *Regula, *but without explaining, probably without understanding, the hidden signification of the alphabetical characters, apparently employed as ciphers, to which the-correspondents of Pachomius had the key (comp. Gennadius, *De Viris Illustr. *c. vii; *Sozomen, Hist. Eccles. *3, 14). (4.) Ε᾿κ τῶν ἐντολῶν τοῦ ἁγίου Παχουμίου*,Praecepta S. Pachomii s. Pachumnii, *first published in the *Acta Sanctorum *(MIaii, vol. 3), in Latin in the body of the work, p. 346, and in the original Greek in the *Appendix, *p. 62, and reprinted in the *Bibliotheca Patrum *of Galland (vol. 4), where all the extant works are given. There is a prolix life of Pachomius, entitled βίος τοῦ ἁγίου Παχουμίου*, Vita S. Pachumim *barbarous Greek, the translation perhaps of a Sahidic original, by a monk of the generation immediately succeeding Pachomius; there is also a second memoir, or extract, either by the writer of the life, or by some other writer of the same period, supplementary to the first work, and to this the title *Paralipomena de SS. Pachomio et Theodoro *has been prefixed; and there is an account of Pachomius in a letter from Ammon, an Egyptian bishop, to Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, Ε᾿πιστολὴ Α᾿μμῶνος ἐπισκόπου περὶ πολιτείας καὶ βίου μερικοῦ Παχουμίου καὶ θεοδώρου*, Epistola Ammonis Episccpi de Conversatione ac Vitce Parte Pachumii et Theodori. *All these pieces are given by the Bollandists, both in the Latin version (p. 295-351) and in the original (*Appendix, *p. 25- 71), in the *Acta Sanctorum *(Maii, vol. 3), with the usual introduction by Papebroche. See *Acta Sanctorum, *sub Mai. 14; Tillemont, *Memoires, *7:167-235; Schaff, *Church Hist. *2, 195-198; Neander, *Church Hist. *vol. 2; Gennadius, *De Viris Illustribus, *cap. 7; Smith, *Dict. of Greek and Roman Biogr. and Mythol. *vol. 2, s.v.; Ceillier, *Hist. Ginerale des Auteurs Sacres et Eccles.* 3, 357 sq. *Stud. u. Krit. *1864, No. 1; Milman, *Hist. of Christianity; *Mosheim, *Eccles. Hist. *vol. 1; Lea, *Hist. of Sacerdotal Celibacy. SEE MONASTERY; SEE MONASTICISM; SEE MONK*; and the literature on early MONASTICISM.

Pachomius (2), distinguished as "THE YOUNGER." Among the histories published by Herbert Rosweyd (*Vitce Patrum *[Antw. 1615, fol.], p. 233) is one of a certain Posthumius of Memphis, father (i.e. abbot) of five thousand monks. The MSS. have *Pachomius *instead of *Posthumius. *The truth of the whole history is, however, strongly suspected by the editors of the *Acta Sanctorum, *who have nevertheless printed it in the introduction to the account of Pachomius of Tabenna. See Smith, *Dict. of Greek and Roman Biog. and Mythol. *s.v.

Pachomius (3), an Eastern monastic, is supposed to have flourished in the 7th century either in Egypt or Syria, some time after the subjugation of these countries by the Saracens. He is regarded as the author of *Pachomii Monachi Setmo contra Mores sui Sceculi et Providentie Divinue Contentum, *published by V. E. Loescher in the appendix to his *Stromatea, s. Dissertationes Sacri et Litterarii Argumenti *(Wittenberg, 1723). See Fabricius, *Bibl. Grceca,* 9:313.

Pachymeres, Georgius (Γεώργιος ὁ Παχυμερής), one of the most important of the later Byzantine writers, was born in or about A.D. 1242 at Nicaea, whither his father, an inhabitant of Constantinople, had fled after its capture by the Latins in 1204. Hence Pachymeres sometimes calls himself a Constantinopolitan. Fitted out with a careful and learned education, he left Nicaea in 1261, and took up his abode in Constantinople, which had then just been retaken by Michael Palaeologus. Here Pachymeres became a priest. It appears that besides divinity, he also, according to the spirit of the time, studied the law, for in after-years he was promoted to the important posts of Πρωτέκτικος*, *or advocate-general of the Church of Constantinople, and Δικαιοφύλαξ, or chief justice to the imperial court, perhaps in ecclesiastical matters, which, however, were of high political importance in the reigns of Michael Paleeologus and his successor. Andronicus the elder. As early as 1267 he accompanied, perhaps as secretary, three imperial commissioners to the exiled patriarch Arsenius, in order to investigate his alleged participation in a suspected conspiracy against the life of Michael Palaeologus. They succeeded in reconciling these two chiefs of the state and the Church. The emperor Michael having taken preparatory steps towards effecting a union of the Greek and Latin churches, Pachymeres sided with the patriarch Joseph, who was against the union; and when the emperor wrote in defence of the union, Pachymeres, together with Jasites Job, drew up an answer in favor of .the former state of separation. When the emperor Andronicus repealed the union, Pachymeres persuaded the:patriarch Georgius Cyprius, who was for it, to abdicate. It seems that Pachymeres also devoted some of his time to teaching, because one of his disciples was Manuel Phile, who wrote aniambic poem on his death. Pachymeres probably died shortly after 1310; but some believe that his death took place as late as 1340. There is a wood-cut portrait of Pachymeres prefixed to Wolf's edition of Nicephorus Gregoras (Basle, 1562). Pachymeres wrote several important works, the principal of which are: *Historia Byzantina, *a history of the emperors Michael Paleologus and Andronicus the elder, in thirteen books, six of which are devoted to the life of the former, and seven to that of the latter. This is a most valuable source for the history of the time, written with great dignity and calmness, and with as much impartiality as was possible in those stormy times, when both political and religious questions of vital importance agitated the minds of the Greeks. The style of Pachymeres is remarkably good and pure for his age: — Καθ᾿ ἑαυτόν*, *a poetical autobiography of Pachymeres, which is lost. Were this work extant, we should know more of so important a man as *Pachymeres: — Epitome in universam fere Aristotelis Philosophiam: — Epitome Philosophice Aristotelie: — *Περὶ ἀτόμων γραμμῶν*, *a paraphrase of Aristotle's work on indivisible lines, formerly attributed to Aristotle himself: *-*Παράφρασις εἰς τὰ τοῦ ἁγίου Διονυσίου τοῦ Α᾿ρεοπαγίτου εὑρισκόμενα: *— De Processione Spiritus Sancti, *a short treatise: — ῎Εκφρασις τοῦ Αὐγουστεῶνος*, *a description of the column erected by Justinian the Great, in commemoration of his victories over the Persians, in the church of St. Sophia in Constantinople: — several minor works. See Leo Allatius, *Diatriba de Georgus; *Haw. kins, *Scriptura Byzantia; *Fabrietus, *Bibl. Graeca, *7. 775.

Paci, Ranieri called *del Pace, *an Italian painter, was a native of Pisa, and studied under Antonio Domenieo Gabbiani, whose manner he adopted. According to Morrona, he executed some works for the churches of his native city in a reputable manner. Lanzi says that by carelessness and inattention he degenerated into a complete mannerism. He flourished in 1719.

Pacian *SEE PACIANUS*.

Pacianus a Spanish prelate of the 4th century, who among the Church writers of the West previous to Augustine figures not inconspicuously, is supposed to have become bishop about A.D. 350, and to have died at an advanced age under Theodosius (about 390). For information regarding the personal history of Pacianus we rely mainly on Jerome (in cap. 106 and 132 of his *Lib. de Viis illustrisbus *— also *contr. Ruffin. *t. i, c. 24). He describes Pacianus as the descendant of a noble family, and married in early life, for Pacianus had a son, Flavius Dexter, a friend of Jerome, who dedicated to him his work *De Viris Illustribus. *About the time Ambrose of Milan became an ecclesiastic Pacianus entered the service of the Church, and soon rose to positions of influence. He finally became bishop of Barcelona. Pacianus was especially renowned for his chastity and eloquence. Jerome says also that Pacianus wrote several works, of which he expressly mentions those against the Novatians, and one entitled κέρβος*. *A work of Pacianus against the Novatians is still extant in the form of three letters addressed to a Novatian of the name of Sympronianus, or Sempronianus as some read it. The work called by Jerome κέρβος*, *that is *cervus, *is no longer extant. But Pacianus tells us, in a treatise of his which has come down to us, and which is entitled *Parcenesis sive Exhortatorius Libellus ad Panitentiam, *that he had written a book called *Cervulus. *We also possess a sermon by Pacianus on baptism (*Sermon de baptismo*)*, *intended for the use of catechumens. The style of all these writings, so far as extant, prove Pacianus to have been a master of the Latin language, and Jerome's estimate of Pacianus as "Scriptor eloquens" is not overdrawn. But there is not much evidence of great scholarship or originality, nor anything striking in the writings of Pacianus. What we still possess of them were first brought out by Tilius (Paris, 1537, 4to). Next came Galland in his *Bibliotheca Patrum, *7:257-276; and likewise the *Bibl. Patr. maximna Lugdunensis, *vol. 4, and Migne, 13:1051 sq. See, besides Jerome's works referred to above, *Acta Script. Boll. ad *9 *Mart. *p. 44; Cave, *Scriptor. ecclesiasticorum hist. liter. *i, 234; Tillemont, *Memoires, *8:539; Ceillier, *Hist. des Auteurs Sacrgs et Eccles. *v, 156 sq.; Alzog, *Patrologie, § *61; Smith, *Dict. of Greek and Roman Biog. and Mythol. s.*v.

Paciaudi, Paolo Maria, an Italian ecclesiastic, antiquary, and historian, was born at Turin in 1710. He studied at Bologna, became professor of philosophy at Genoa, and in 1761 settled at Parma as librarian to the. grand-duke, who also -appointed him his. antiquary and director of some public works; besides which he was historiographer of the Order of Malta. He died in 1785. His principal works of interest to us are, *De cultu S. Joannis Baptistce antiquitates Christiance *(1754, 4to), a masterpiece full of *information: — Monumenta Peloponnesiaca *(2 vols. 4*to*): *— Memoirs of the Grand Masters of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem *(3 vols. 4to). See Fabroni, *Vitce Italiorum, *vol. 14 s.v.; Leneys, *Life of Paciaudi prefixed to his Letters to M. de Caylus; *Tipaldo, *Biog. degli Italiani illustri, *vol. 10, s.v.

Pacification, Edicts of a name given to certain edicts issued by sovereigns of France, intended, under special circumstances, to afford toleration to the Reformed Church of that country. The first edict of this kind was granted by Charles IX in 1562, tolerating the Reformed religion in the vicinity of all the cities and towns of the realm. March 19, 1563, the same king granted a second edict at Amboise, permitting the free exercise of Protestant worship in the houses of gentlemen and lords high-justiciaries (or those that had the power of life and death) to their families and dependents only, and allowing other Protestants to have their meetings in such towns as they had them in before March 7. Another, called the Edict of Longumeau, sanctioning the execution of that of Amboise, was published March 27,1568. Afraid of an insurrection of the Huguenots, Charles revoked these edicts in September, 1568, forbidding Protestantism, and commanding all its ministers to leave the kingdom in fifteen days. But on Aug. 8, 1570, he retracted, and published an edict on the hallowing the lords high-justiciaries to have sermons in their houses for all who chose to attend. He likewise gave them four towns, viz. Rochelle, Montauban, Cognac, and La Charite, as places of security for them during the space of two years. Nevertheless in August, 1572, he authorized the St. Bartholomew massacre, and at the same time issued a declaration forbidding the exercise of the Protestant religion, and thereby proved clearly that the successive edicts which he had granted the Protestants, instead of intending their relief, had simply sought to lull them into a false and deceitful security, in order to give time and opportunity to that cruel monarch for his preparation. of the massacre of St. Bartholomew (q.v.). In April, 1576, Henry III made peace with the Protestants, and the edict of pacification was published in Parliament, May 14, permitting them to build churches. .But the faction of the Guises began the famous league for defence of the Catholic religion, which became so formidable that it obliged the king to assemble the states of the kingdom at Blois in December, 1576; where it was enacted that there, should be but one religion in France, and that the Protestant ministers should all be banished. In 1577 the king. to secure peace, published an edict in Parliament, Oct. 5, granting the same liberty to the Reformed which they had before. However, in July, 1585, the league obliged him to publish another edict, revoking all former grants, and ordering all Protestants to leave the kingdom in six months, or conform. Henry IV, on his coronation, abolished, July 4, 1591, the edicts against the Protestants. This edict was verified in the Parliament of Chalons, but was never fully acted out. The most famous edict of pacification, however, was the Edict of Nantes, issued by Henry in 1598. It proved the most effectual measure of relief "which the French Protestants had ever enjoyed. By this edict of toleration they were allowed the free exercise of their religion, declared to be eligible to all public offices, and placed in all respects on a footing of equality with their Roman Catholic fellow-subjects. This edict was confirmed by Louis XIII in 1610, and by Louis XIV in 1652. But the latter in 1685. abolished it entirely. *SEE HUGUENOTS; SEE NANTES, EDICT OF*.

Pacificators a name assumed by the imperial party who supported the Henoticon (q.v.) of Zeno in the year 482.

Pacificus a noted Itaian mediaeval ecclesiastic, was born at Verona in 776, and after having entered the service of the Church, was made archdeacon of the cathedral in his native town. He had great mechanical skill, and considerably promoted all inventive labors. He died in 844. He left glosses on several books of the Old and New Testament Scriptures, but they have never been collected for publication. His learning and piety in those early mediaeval days were the subject of common remark, and his name deserves to be honorably mentioned in all Christian literary undertakings. See Muratori, *Antiquitates Itrali medii oevi, *3, 837; Maffei, *Verona Illustrata, *s.v.

Pack, Otto Von the noted chancellor of duke George of Saxony, deserves our attention as the discoverer of a plot made in 1527 to eradicate all traces of Protestantism in Germany by a united effort of the Romish princes of the country. A careful investigation failed to reveal the necessary proof of such a plot, and Pack was obliged to leave his native country, and .while seeking an asylum in Belgium is said to have suffered imprisonment and decapitation. At the time Pack was generally believed to have had no evidence. for his revelations, but the subsequent favorable compacts of king Philip with the episcopal princes betray a more intimate alliance than was claimed. Probably the attack on Protestantism had been intended, but the revelation came before the plot was fully matured. See Keim, *Schwab. Refornsationsgesch.; *Hortleben, *Von den Ursachen des ddeutschen Krieges, *vol. 1; Neudecker, *Urkunden aus derReformationszeit; *Ranke, *Deutsche Gesch. *vol. 3. (J. H.W.) Packard, Prederick Adolphus, LL.D., a prominent American educational writer and philanthropist, was born in Marlborough, Middlesex County, Mass., Sept. 25, 1794. He graduated at Harvard-College in 1814; read law at Northampton, Mass.; then practiced law at Springfield, Mass., from 1817 to 1829, where he also edited the *Hampden Federalist *for ten years. He was besides a member of the state legislature from 1828 to 1829. He removed to Philadelphia in 1829, and assumed the editorial charge of the publications of the American Sunday- School Union, which position he retained until his death, Nov. 11, 1867. For nearly forty years he was engaged almost exclusively in Sunday-school work in its various branches. Between 1829 and June, 1867, Dr. Packard edited more than two thousand different works issued by the American Sunday-School Union in their regular series, more than forty of which he himself wrote or compiled; edited the *Sunday-School Magazine, *the *Sunday-School Journal, *and the *Youth's Penny Gazette; *prepared from 1829 to 1835 inclusive, and from 1838 to 1867, most of the society's annual reports; published tracts and occasional papers on Sunday-school subjects, and pamphlets on educational and other subjects, including a *Letter on Christian Union *(1850) to bishop Potter, of Pennsylvania. He also published, in 1850, *A Reply to an Article in Forbes's Psychological Journal *(London) *on Diseases of the Mind. *He edited eleven of the thirteen volumes of the Philadelphia *Journal of Prison Discipline, *and contributed to the other two volumes; issued several pamphlets on. the same subject; and wrote for the *Princeton Review, the New-Englander, *and other periodicals. In July, 1849, he was elected president of Girard College in Philadelphia, but declined the appointment. Packard was a man of untiring zeal and 'energy, estimable in all the relations of life, and in the highest sense of the phrase a national benefactor. Among the most important of his publications, all of which lack his own name, are, *The Union Bible Dictionary *(Phila. 1837): — *The Teacher Taught *(1839), reprinted in London under the title of *The Sunday-School Teacher's Handbook: — An Inquiry into the Alleged Tendency of the Separation of Convicts one from the other to Produce Disease and Derangement, by a Citizen of Pennsylvania *(1849): — *The Teacher Teaching *(1861): *— The Rock *(1861; Lond. 1862): — *Life of Robert Owen *(Phila. 1866): *— The Daily Public School of the United States *(1866), a vigorous protest against the inefficiency of the system. See Allibone, *Dict. of Brit. and Amer. Authors, *s.v.; Drake, *Dict. of Amer. Biog. *s.v.; Index to the *Princeton Review, vol. *2, s.v.

Packard, Alpheis Spring, D.D. a Congregational minister and educator, was born at Chelmsford, Mass., December 20, 1799, and was the son of Reverend Dr. Hezekiah Packard. He studied at the Phillips Academy of Exeter, and graduated from Bowdoin College in 1816. He was elected tutor of the college in 1819, and, in 1824, professor of languages and classical literature; from 1842 to 1845 filled a vacancy in the chair of rhetoric and oratory; in 1864 was called to the chair of the Collins professorship of natural and revealed religion; and in 1883 and 1884 was acting president. He was chosen a member of the Maine Historical Society in 1828, and was long its secretary and librarian. He died suddenly at Squirrel Island, Boothbay Harbor, Me., July 13, 1884. His sermons, lectures, and contributions of various kinds to the press were numerous. See *Boston Advertiser, *July 14, 1884. (J.C.S.)

Packard, Hezekial. D.D., a Unitarian minister, was born at North Bridgewater, Mass., in 1761. He graduated at Harvard College in 1787; was minister at Chelmsford, Mass., from 1793 to 1802; at Wiscasset Me., from 1802 to 1830; and at Middlesex Village, Mass., from 1830 to 1836. He died in 1849. He published single *Sermons, *etc. (1795-1816). See Sprague, *Annals, Unitarian, *8:281; Allibone, *Dict. of Brit. and Amer. Authors, *s.v.

Packard, Theophilus D.D. a Congregational minister, was born March 4, 1769, at North Bridgewater, Mass. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1796, and was ordained pastor in. Shelburne, Mass., Feb., 20, 1799, where he remained until his death, which occurred Sept. 17, 1855. He published *Sermons *in 1806, 1808; 1813, and 1815; and in 1820 the *Life and Death of *(his son) *Isaac T. Packard.; *See Sprague, *Annals, *2. 408; Allibone, *Dict. of Brit. and Amer. Authors, *s.v.

Packer, David, M.D., a minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born in Newark, Vt., Feb. 20, 1808; was converted in Burke in 1823; received an exhorter's license in 1832; and began preaching in the Vermont Conference in 1839, where he remained until 1864. His health failing, he attended a course of medical lectures in Philadelphia in 1865, where he graduated as M.D. In 1866 Packer took a superannuated relation in his conference, and entered upon the practice of his newly acquired profession at Lowell, Mass.; but he was prostrated by sickness in 1867, and removed to Chelsea, hoping the change of climate might improve his health. A shock of apoplexy in 1873, however, and another in 1874, left him a physical wreck; and, after a year's residence in Minnesota he died in Chelsea, Mass., Dec. 1, 1875. He was successful both as a minister and a physician.

Pa'dan (Heb. *Paddan', *פִּדָּן*, field; *Sept.,.in full, Μεσοποταμία τῆς Συραίς; *Viulg. Mesopotamia*) occurs in Ge 48:7, for PADAN-ARAMI.

Pa'dan-A'ram (Heb. *Paddan 'Aram', *פָּדִּןאּארֲָם, the *field *[or flat country] *of Syria, *i.e. Mesopotamiaonly in Genesis; Sept. ἡ Μεσοποταμία Συρίας*, *Ge 25:20; Ge 28:6-7; Ge 33:18; ἡ M. Ge 28:2,5; Ge 31:18; M. τῆς Συρ*.* Ge 35:9,26; Ge 46:15; Alex. ἡ M. Ge 25:20; Ge 28:5,7; Ge 31:18; ἡ M. Συρ*. *Ge 28:2; Ge 33:18, Vulg. *Mesopotamia *Ge 25:20; Ge 31:18; *M. Syrice, *Ge 28:2,5-6; Ge 33:18; Ge 35:9,26; Ge 46:15; *Syria,* Ge 26:15); once called Padan simply (Ge 48:7); the tableland of Aram,'' a name by which the Hebrews designated the tract of country which they otherwise called ARAM-NAHARAIM, "Aram of the two rivers," the Greek MESOPOTAMIA (Ge 24:10), and "the field (A.V. country) of Aram" (Ho 12:12). The term was perhaps more especially applied to that portion which bordered on the Euphrates, to distinguish it from the mountainous districts in the north and north-east of Mesopotamia. Rashi's note on Ge 25:20 is curious: "Because there were two Arams, Aram-naharaim and Aram Zobah, he (the writer) calls it Paddan-Aram; the expression 'yoke of oxen' is in the Targums פִדִּן תּוֹרַין, *paddan torin; *and some interpret Paddan-Aram as 'field of Aram,' because in the language of the Ishmaelites they call a field *paddan." *In Syr. *pidono *is used for a "plain" or "field;" and both this and the Arabic word are probably from the Arab root *fadda, *"to plough," which seems akin *tofid in fidit, *from *findere. *If this etymology be true, *Paddan-Aram *is the arable land of Syria: "either an upland vale in the hills, or a fertile district immediately at their feet" (Stanley, *Sin. and Pal. *p. 129, note). *Paddan, *the ploughed land, would thus correspond with the Lat. *arvum, *and is analogous to Eng. field, the *felled *land, from which the trees have been cleared. *SEE ARAM*. Padan-Aram plays an important part in the early history of the Hebrews. The family of their founder had settled there, and were long looked upon as the aristocracy of the race, with whom alone the legitimate descendants of Abraham might intermarry, and. thus preserve the purity of their blood. Thither Abraham sent his faithful steward (Ge 24:10), after the news had reached him in his southern home at Beersheba that children had been born to his brother Nahor. From this family alone, the offspring of Nahor and Micah, Abraham's brother and niece, could a wife be sought, for Isaac, the heir of promise (Ge 25:20), and Jacob the inheritor of his blessing (Genesis 28). *SEE MESOPOTAMIA*.

Paddle (יָתֵד, *yathed' *a *pin *[as often rendered], especially a *tent-pin, *Jg 4:21; Sept. πάσσαλος; *Vulg. passillus*)*, *the implement required by the Mosaic law to be carried by Jews for the purpose of covering their ordure with earth (De 23:13), evidently a common stake or peg of wood, sufficient to scratch the ground with.

Paddock, Benjamin Green a pioneer preacher of the Methodist Episcopal Church, is noted for his valuable Christian labors in the territory now known as the Wyoming Conference, and covering those portions of the great states of Pennsylvania and New York situated near the much celebrated valley of the Woming. He was born in Bennington, Vt., Jan. 24, 1789. His mother is still remembered as a woman of deep piety. For eighty-five years she lived a holy life. An abiding moral influence was thus exerted upon the domestic circle, and Benjamin was one of the first of a numerous household to give his heart to God. At the age of sixteen he was converted under the Rev. Benjamin Bidlack, and joined the Methodist Church. He entered the itinerant ranks in 1810, when his name. first appears upon the Minutes of Conference. He had labored the preceding year on Westmoreland Circuit under the Rev. James Kelsev. Paddock's work was chiefly in the Wyoming valley and its adjacent mountain region. He had a voice of uncommon sweetness and power, and the effect with which he sang for Jesus is still remembered in that section. Later he was stationed at the important charges of Utica, Canandaigua, and Auburn, and also filled the office of presiding elder for many years. In 1843 he was superannuated, and he never after resumed the active work of the ministry. He took up his residence first at Clinton, where he educated his children at college, and later he lived at Rome, New York. His long life of usefulness closed at last at Metuchen, N.J., Oct. 7, 1872, whither he had gone to enjoy the attentions of his children residing there. His dying hour was most tranquil and joyous. His salutation to his brother, the Rev. Z. Paddock, who reached him the evening previous to his death, while it was characteristic, was most exultant. His last words were, "Farewell; Halleluia, all is well!" Like most of the pioneer preachers of Methodism, Mr. Paddock's early educational advantages had been meagre, and he was dependent upon his own industry for the culture he secured. He studied much and wrote some, but he never became pre-eminent among his fellows for commanding intellect, to judge from his productions as published in the *Memoir *cited below. "He was a man of magnificent heart. He judged things from the emotions, and to him the *good *was the test of the *true" *(Dr. Whedon, in *Meth. Qu. Rev. *April, 1875, p. 348). See the Rev. Z. Paddock, *Memoir of the Rev. B. G. Paddock *(New York, 1875, 12mo); *Min. of Annual Conferences, *1874, p. 52.

Paddock, James H. a minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born in Sussex Co., N.J., Aug. 28, 1839. We are unable to gather any authentic information concerning his early life. In 1859 he experienced religion, and joined the Methodist Protestant Church. His conversion was remarkable. He immediately began to exhort sinners to repentance; and success attended his efforts, attracting. the attention of the Church. He was soon licensed to preach, and entered the travelling connection of that Church. He labored on Albany, Canaan, Sterling, and Auburn circuits, serving each charge with acceptability. In 1872 he joined the Wyoming Annual Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and was stationed at Stoddardsville, a laborious circuit full of care. But he did his work well. In 1873 he was stationed at Newport, but he did not live to see the end of his conference year. He died March 30, 1874, from the effect of an accidental pistol-shot. J. H. Paddock was a kind, companionable, and good Christian minister. See *Minutes of Annual Conferences; *1874.

Paddock, Zacariah, D.D. a Methodist Episcopal minister, was born in Northampton, N.Y., December 20, 1798. He was converted at the age of eighteen, licensed to preach in 1818, and the same year entered the Genesee Conference. His most responsible appointments were: Ridgeway, Clarence, Batavia, French Creek, Westmoreland, Buffalo, Rochester, Auburn, Cazenovia, New York Mills, Sauquoit, Ithica, Binghamton, Oxford, Utica, Wilkesbarre, Honesdale, and Chenango; upon most of which he was eminently successful. He took a superannuated relation in 1870, and died, a member of the Wyoming Conference, at his home in Binghamton, N.Y., July 4, 1879. Dr. Paddock's name in American Methodism in his declining years became a synonym for gentleness, sweetness, and purity. He published several small volumes, and wrote quite extensively for the Church papers and periodicals. See *Minutes of Annual Conferences, *1880, page 86.

Paderborn a German city, the seat of several important ecclesiastical councils, and till 1803 ranking as a free imperial bishopric, owes its foundation to Charlemagne, who nominated the first bishop in 795. During the Middle Ages it was one of the most flourishing of the Hanseatic cities, while it was also numbered among the free imperial, cities. In 1604 it was forcibly deprived by the prince-bishop, Theodor of Furstenberg, of many of the special rights and prerogatives which it had enjoyed since its foundation, and was compelled to acknowledge the Roman Catholic as the predominant Church, in the place of Protestantism, which had been established during the time of Luther. The last prince-bishop was Francis Egon, of Furstenberg, 1789-1803. At that time Paderborn was, in accordance with a decree of the imperial commissioners, attached as a hereditary principality to Prussia, which had taken forcible possession of the territory; and, after being for a time incorporated in the kingdom of Westphalia, it was restored to Prussia in 1813, and is now the chief town of a district in the Prussian province of Westphalia. It is situated in 51° 43' N. lat., and 8° 45' E. long., in a pleasant and fruitful district, is built at the source of the Pader, which bursts forth from below the. cathedral with sufficient force to drive mills within twenty paces of its point of exit, and has a population of 11,279. The city has narrow, dark, old-fashioned streets, presenting no special attractions, although it has some interesting buildings, as, for instance, the fine old cathedral, completed in 1143, with its two magnificent fagades, and containing the silver coffin in which are deposited the remains of St. Liborins. It continues to be the seat of a Roman bishop and chapter. There are as yet but few Protestants in Paderborn. The Gustavus Adolphus Society has established and aids several Protestant societies. The most important of the councils held at Paderborn was that of A.D. 777, called under the government of Charlemagne to confirm the newly baptized Saxons in the faith. It was ordered by the emperor, who aimed at a centralization of power in his vast possessions, that all should take an oath to abide forever in the Christian faith; and they that refused to do so were punished with the loss of all their property. See *Labbe, Concil.* 6:1823; Hefele Conciliengesch. iii, 580, 583, 593; Milman, *Hist. Latin Christianity, *ii, 479; Giefers, *Die Anfange des Bisthums Paderborn *(1860); Bessen, *Gesch. des Bisthums Paderborn *(1820, 2 vols. 8vo).

Padilla, Francesco De a Roman Catholic theologian, for some time professor of theology at Seville, who died at Malaga, May 15, 1607, canon and doctor of theology, is the author of *Historia Ecclesiastica de Espanna *(Malaga, 1605, 2 vols, fol.). See Winer, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *1:816; Jocher, *Allgemeines Gelehrten Lexikon, *s.v. (B.P.)

Pa'don (Heb. *Padon', *פָּדוֹן*, deliverance; *Sept. Φαδών), head of one of the families of Nethinim who returned from Babylon (Ezr 2:44; Ne 7:47). B.C. ante 520.

Padova, (Maestro), Angelo an Italian painter who flourished at Padua about 1489, and painted in the refectory of the monastery of Santa Giustina a picture of *The Crucifixion, *which Lanzi says is designed in a grand style, and executed with great spirit. He was a close imitator of the style of Andrea Mantegna.

Padova, Girolamo da, called also *Girolamo dal Santo, *an Italian painter, was born at Padua in 1480, and died about 1550. He was celebrated in his day for his small pictures of historical subjects, which he decorated with bas-relief sarcophagi and other antique ornaments, with inscriptions copied for the most part from the Paduan marbles. On the death of Bernardo Parentino, in the year 1531, Padova was commissioned to continue the admirable works executed by that master in a cloister in the monastery of Santa Giustina. In these Lanzi says Padova showed himself greatly inferior to Parentino in design and expression; but Lanzi commends Padova's elegant accessories, designed from the antique.

Padovanino, Francesco an Italian painter, was born at Padua in the year 1552. It is not known with whom he studied, but he painted history with considerable reputation. He possessed inventive genius, and was a correct and graceful designer. He painted some works for the churches, one of the best of which is a picture in the church of La: Madonna del Carmine at Venice, representing a saint interceding for two criminals condemned to death. He excelled in portraits, which were admired for their truth, dignity, and excellent coloring. He died in 1617.

Padovano, Antonio And Giovanni two old painters, probably brothers, to whom Morelli attributes the works in the church of S. Giovanni Battista (see the next article). In his *Notizia, *Morelli says that formerly there was the following inscription on one of the gates, "Opus Johannis et Antonii de Padua;" for which reason Morelli conjectures that they were the painters of the whole building.

Padovano, Giusto an old Italian painter who lived at Padua, was a native of Florence. His real name was *Giusto Menabuoi; *but he was called *Padovano *from having been eventually a citizen of Padua, where he chiefly resided, and died in 1397 at an advanced age. Vasari says Padovano was a disciple of Giotto, and attributes to him the very extensive works which adorn the church of S. Giovanni Battista in that city. In the picture over the altar are represented various histories of St. John the Baptist; on the walls various scriptural events and mysteries of the Apocalypse; and in the cupola is a choir of angels, where we behold, as in a grand consistory, the Blessed, seated upon the ground, arrayed in various garments. Lanzi says the composition of these works is very simple, but they are executed with a remarkable degree of diligence and felicity.

Padua is the name of an Italian province formerly in Austrian Italy, *SEE ITALY*, and of the capital of that province. This city is noted in ecclesiastical history as the seat of several Church councils, of which the most important was held there in the spring of 1350 by cardinal Guy d'Auvergne, legate of pope Clement IV, and which intended to effect the reformation of morals and the general purifying of the Church. Padua, it may be stated here also, is noted as the seat of one of the oldest universities in Europe. It was celebrated as early as 1221. It now supports forty-six professorships, and is attended by about 2000 students. A pretty full account of the ecclesiastical history of Padua the reader will find in Wetzer u. Welte, *Kirchen-Lexikon,* 12:916-920. For the councils, see Labbe, *Conc. *11:1918.

Pae Atua is the name of a general exhibition of the gods among the South Sea Islanders.

Paean (Παιάν) is the name in the Homeric mythology of the physician of the Olympic gods. It was also applied as a surname to *Asclepius, *the god of healing.

Paean (παιἀν), a hymn anciently sung in honor of Apollo, who is therefore sometimes also called Paean. The hymn was of a mirthful, festive character, sung by several persons under a skilful leader as they marched in procession. It was used either to propitiate the favor of the god or to praise him for a victory or deliverance obtained. It was sung at the *Pyacinthia,* and in the temple of the Pythian Apollo. Paeans were usually sung among the ancient Greeks, both at the commencement and close of a battle, the first being addressed to Ares, and the last to Apollo. In latter times other gods were also propitiated by the singing of paeans in their honor, and at a still later period even mortals were thus honored. The practice prevailed from a remote antiquity of singing peans at the close of a feast, when it was customary to pour out libations in honor of the gods.

Paedagogics (Gr. παιδαγωγικά*, *from παῖς, παιδός*, a boy, *and ἄγειν*, to lead, guide; *ἀγωγός*, leading*) is a technical term for the scientific presentation of educational principles, as distinguished from education itself — the latter signifying the application of means by which the mature mind seeks to develop in the immature the formation of an independent character. Pmedagogics, or as it is generally Anglicized *Pedagogics, *is therefore related to education as *theory *is to *practice. *As a science it is, from its very nature, related to philosophy and theology, and we therefore make room here for a brief consideration of it. Philosophy must rest upon a scientific apprehension of the nature of social life, with its permanent laws and its ideals, and also of the means to be employed that the laws may be fulfilled and the ideals realized — in other words, philosophy must be based on *ethics. *It follows from this that the most important prerequisite for philosophy is *psychology, *the science that is specially concerned with the laws of man's spiritual nature; neither philosophy nor psychology may, however, justly disregard the results obtained by scientific inquiry in the department of man's physical nature. The relation of pedagogics to *theology *rests on the principle that the highest object to be sought in all training of youth is correct moral or, better, religious guidance; for education is not merely the imparting of knowledge and of facility in its use, but, before and above all else, it is the development of conscience — the moral consciousness — and of the sense of responsibility. Now all morality has its ultimate ground in the relation sustained by man to God. Even philosophers, like the sceptic Lotze (comp. Ueberweg, *Hist. of Philos. *2, 312-321), concede that the moral life will never find a surer platform nor a superior inspiration than is afforded by the principle of love to God. As this is the very cardinal principle of Christianity, pedagogics must be regarded as entering into vital relations with theological ethics; while catechetical instruction in religion, which constitutes an element of popular education among Christian nations generally, brings it into external connection with practical theology also. Pedagogics, however, is not by any means a mere branch of theological instruction, but rather an independent science, which employs those referred to simply as helps, and, in general, derives its matter from the results obtained in every branch of knowledge. In pedagogical method, all systems of education admit of substantially the same division into a *theoretical *part, which treats of the principles of intellectual and moral training, and a *practical, *which discusses the application of such principles to particular objects. If the history of pedagogics be included, Stoy's division into philosophical, historical, and practical pedagogics may be adopted. The science must, at any rate, first present a history of pedagogics, then lay down its own principles of training, and, finally, show what character the education is to assume in the particular departments of life. **1. ***The History of Education *(see Waitz, *Anthropologie der Naturvolker *[Leipsic, 1859 ], vol. i). Education, in any proper sense; does not exist among savages. Their life is wholly sensual, and the training they receive accordingly develops only the senses to trustworthiness and keenness, and that merely for the purpose of self-preservation. With nations that have begun to rise above the merely natural state, it consists simply in transmitting what physical skill and intellectual attainments the family or tribe may possess. Among such peoples we may class the negro tribes of Africa, the tribes of South America, and, of the historical peoples, such semi-barbarous nations as the Huns, Mongols, etc. Education in the higher sense is found only among *civilized *nations, the oldest of which, as is well known, belong to Asia. These manifest in their methods of education the same extraordinary diversities that distinguish the Asiatic nations generally from each other. When our acquaintance with the *Chinese *begins. their condition is the result of a national development that has progressed through many centuries, and whose internal character is but little known. The absolutism of the state is reflected in the educational system also. Its ideal is the inculcation of reverence for parents and superior authority, and the rod affords the only inducement for application to study for old or young. The Chinese therefore always remain in a state of childhood, despite their continual study and examinations, or, rather, even because of them; and their progress consists merely in their becoming full-grown children (comp. Ed. Biot, *Essai sur l'histoire de l'instruction publique, en Chine, *etc. [Paris, 1845]; Carriere, *Die Affiinge d. Clltur, u. das oriental. Alterthum *[Leipsic, 1863]). In *India *a different system prevails, which is connected with the system of religion, but in a manner quite unlike that which unites education and the wholly external idolatry of the Chinese world. Brahminism and the caste system have a determining influence. The people are educated into submission to the superior or Brahminic caste, as being the highest revelation of the deity unto be lost in which is the religious ideal of Brahminism. The method of instruction is mild; the symbolic language of legends, traditions, and fables affords the means by which a pious abnegation of self towards Brahma and ultimate dissolution in the deity are inculcated. Women are considered incapable of culture, as in China (comp. Lassen, *Indische Alterthumskunde *[Bonn, 1847-57]; Dursch, *Die alteste praktische Padadogoik d. heidnischen Alterthums. *etc. [Tiibingen, 1853]. On the educational ideas of Japan, so very much akin to China, until the reforms of our day by virtue of the American influence on the Japanese, see Johnson's *Cyclop. *1, 1485 sq.). In ancient *Persia *the life of the individual was conditioned by the omnipotence of the state; hence self-assertion and selfdevelopment for the service of the despot, the representative of the state, rather than the annihilation of self and its dissolution in the deity, were the objects sought. Public instruction was therefore in harmony with the pedagogical idea. Women occupied a higher place than in India and China, and received some training in their homes. The Zend-Avesta contains regulations for the training of the priesthood only (comp. Spiegel, *Avesta, die heil. Schriften d. Parsen *[Leipsic, 1852- 1859]; also Herodotus, i, 132-140; Plato, *De Legg. *3, 694; *Alcib. *1, 121; Xenophon, *Anab. *1, 9, 3; *Cyropedia; *Strabo, 15:733). Among the later Persians the luxuriousness and weakness of the, nation, as a whole, brought with them a corresponding degeneracy in its education. We lack definite information with regard to the systems of education among the *Shemitic nations of Hither Asia; *but the overpowering and almost fiendish influence of their cruel and licentious systems of nature- worship (Baal, Moloch, Astarte, etc.) prevented most of them from 'attaining' to a superior social culture. Certain departments of learning were taught, however, as drawing, arithmetic, and astrology, among the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Syrians; and an estimate of the culture of the Phoenicians may be formed from their commercial character. In *Egypt *all learning and culture was in the hands of the priests, who. maintained schools for the sacerdotal class, to which no: others were admitted, with the exception of such persons from the warrior-class as were heirs to the throne. The common people were educated merely to be expert and extremely exact in the arts of which the caste to which they belonged made use in the prosecution of its particular calling. That the moral element was not overlooked, however, appears from the tribunal for the dead, *SEE EGYPT*, § 12: *SEE OSIRIS*, and from the belief in a purifying transmigration of souls, *SEE METEMPSYCHOSIS*, i.e. a belief in an unending individual life in a sensible form. In later times, when the influence of Greece became powerful in Egypt, education was more generally diffused, and more method was applied to its promotion. Musical culture and a preference for exact studies then prevailed. The earnestness of former times, however, gave way to frivolity (comp. Diod. 1, 80; Herod. 2, 79, 166; Plato, *De Legg. *656 sq.; Bunsen, *Aegypten's Stelle in d.* *Weltgeshichte *[Gotha, 1845-56]). In the *Hebrew *character the religious tendency was especially prominent, and the Hebrew nation was chiefly important as being the people of God. The system of education in vogue aimed, in strict harmony with this idea, to secure the energetic assertion of a nationality whose essence consisted in the principle of faithfulness to the covenant of God. Education was, in short, a corollary of religion, and the teaching was therefore wholly religious, and involved instruction in the law, the customs, and the symbolical observances of the nation, as well as the narration of its history, in illustration of these subjects. This training was committed to the family;' but from the age of twelve years the Jew was admitted to the synagogue, in order to his further advancement, by listening to the reading of the sacred books and their explanation, and by sharing in the religious conversation of the congregation. Women are mentioned as holding public positions among the Jews (Deborah), and as being more respected than was usual among Eastern nations; but the Old Testament contains no trace of special provisions made for the education of females. Of course the Hebrews were a universally educated people, or the parent could not have conducted the intellectual training of his child. Besides, we learn from the sacred Scriptures that they were able to *read *and *write, *and had quite a knowledge of astronomy, and consequently of mathematics. Theological schools came into being after the Babylonian captivity (the so called *schools of the prophets *[q.v.], which flourished in earlier times, are outside of the field covered by the history of general education). Talmudic Judaism provided an organized system of schools for the rabbins. From these were developed real schools of learning, and facilities of a remarkable pedagogical order were afforded by them for the different so-called learned professions, *SEE SURA, SEE PUMBUDITA*, etc. During the Middle Ages such Jewish schools flourished prominently in Spain and France, until the general persecutions inaugurated against them made their maintenance any longer an impossibility. In modern times the culture of the Jews partakes more and more of the character of that which prevails among the civilized nations among whom they live (comp. Worman, *Hebrews, their Education in Ancient and Modern Times, *in Kidder and Schem's *Cyclop. of Education; *Palmer, *Die Paiidagogik des A.T., *2 Schnidt's *Encykl. d. gesammt. Erziehungs- u. Untterrichtswesens *[Gotha, 1866]; id. *Gesch. der Pidcgogikl, *vol. i; Weber and Holtzmann, *Gesch. d. Volkes Israel *[Leips. 1867], 2, 156 sq.). *SEE EDUCATION *(HEBREW). The influence of *Western nations *upon the progress of civilization is of a more recent date, that of the *Greeks *being first. They held, on the one hand, the conviction that the individual is of no importance in himself, but only as a member of the state; but, on the other hand, they manifested an active spirit that refused to be controlled by nature, seeking rather to subdue it and reduce it to harmony. These characteristics gave shape to education among them, first in the course of practical experiment during many ages, and afterwards as a subject of legislation and philosophy. The political tendency referred to predominated in the systems of the Doric tribes, while the broader recognition of manhood was the leading principle among the lonians. The result was that popular education was more generally diffused among the former; while among the latter (at Athens) it was rather the privilege of the superior class. Slaves, however, were everywhere excluded from the privileges of learning. The Doric system sought to cultivate a manly, independent spirit, that should yet devote itself to the interests of the state. The means employed were gymnastics and music, and, at a later period, reading and writing. Youthful females likewise made use of these, for the cultivation of firmness and love of country. This spirit, ennobled and strengthened by philosophy, appears likewise in the school of Pythagoras, B.C. 569-470. He founded institutions for the purpose of promoting the health and purity of both body and soul. [For his philosophy, *SEE PYTHAGORAS*.] The Ionian system, which made no provision whatever for the education of females, sought to attain καλοκαγαθία*, *'the beautiful and the good.' The home and public training were complementary of each other; but the influence of the former was not, as a general thing, beneficial, owing to the authority exercised by the nurses and house-slaves (παιδαγωγοί). The public gymnasia taught reading, penmanship, grammar, arithmetic, music, and gymnastics, to which the use of weapons was afterwards added. The scepticism of the Stoics, and the exalted ideals of social culture entertained by Plato and Aristotle, do not seem to have exercised any important influence over the education of the people generally — which is true of all the various systems of philosophy. The influence of Plato's zealous opposition to the godlessness and licentiousness of the popular religion of the Greeks, however. was felt in the gradual undermining of the latter. Down to the time of Plato the real instructor of the Greeks was Homer; from that period his works were subjected to the process of allegorical interpretation (comp. Hochheimer, *System d. griech. Erziehung *[Gott. 1785-1788]; Gross, *Die Erziehungswissensch. nach d. Grundsitzen d. Gr. u. Romer *[Ansbach, 1808]; Jacobs, *Erz. d. Hellenen zur Sittlichkeit; *Jager, *Die Gymnastik d. Fellenen, *etc. [Esslingen, 1850]; Krause, *Gesch. d. Erz. u. d. Unterrichts bei d. Griechen, Etruskern u. Romern *[Halle, 1851]; Kirkpatrick, *The University *[Lond. 1857, 12mol, p. 93-241; Ohler. *Lectures on Education *[ibid. 1874, 12mo], p. 4-30). Among the *ancient Romans *the object of religious and social training, if considered apart from the elements introduced by the Sabine and Etruscan influence, was to fit the people for citizenship. Both domestic and public instruction were employed for this end. Seminaries were provided, though not in considerable number before the period when Grecian culture began to assert its claims; while in the family the influential pedagogues came gradually to occupy the place of the parent. Reading, writing, and the memorizing of authors belonged to the course of study. Rhetorical practice was confined to the philosophical schools, and does not date farther back than the empire. Organized elementary schools became very numerous from that period; new facilities for instruction were added to those already in use; and the higher learning was extended, after the Alexandrian model, to embrace the circle of the *artes liberales-gram*mar, dialectics, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music. In time a demand for practical schools, of jurisprudence made itself felt; and subsequently (from A.D. 425) the need of schools of medicine, philosophy, grammar, and rhetoric was recognised, giving rise to universities with faculties. Educational theorists were Portius Cato, M. T. Varro, Cicero, Seneca, Tacitus, Quintilian — the *professor eloquentice — Plutarch, *and also M. Aurelius (comp. Bernhardy, *Grundriss d. Riom. Literatu *[Halle, 1850]; Lange, *Rom. Alterth. *[Berlin, 1863]; Niemeyer, *Originalstellen der Griech. u. Rom. Classiker iib. d. Theorie d. Erziehung u. des Unterrichts *[Halle and Berlin, 1813]). *Christianity *has a different ideal in education. Instead of giving a one-sided attention to the intellectual political, and national relations sustained by man, it seeks to cultivate a complete character, that shall be developed in every direction, and that receives its profoundest moral determination from the conscious relation sustained by man towards that God who is revealed in the New Testament. It must be admitted, however, that this ideal was only gradually apprehended by the Christian world. The family was naturally the only school, at first. The Greek Church was the first to provide catechetical schools, of which that at Alexandria from the middle of the 2d century became the most famous. The object of these schools was simply the preparation of adults for baptism, though philosophical questions that had a bearing upon Christianity also received consideration. *SEE ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS*. The Greek schools of philosophy, however (first of all that at Athens, then also that at Alexandria and the academies of the Neo-Platonists), continued to be the chief centres of learning in early Christianity, until, in A.D. 529, Justinian closed the school at Athens. The Alexandrian school had succumbed to the fanaticism of the monks and the hierarchy a century before; and the migrations of the nations rendered a renewal impossible. The clergy, who became the sole depositaries of learning in the West, contented themselves. with merely guarding the treasures that had hitherto been acquired. The scientific impulse which took its rise from Mohammedanism led to the advance of culture, especially in Spain, where important contributions to learning were made by the Saracens and the Jews, more particularly in the field of the exact sciences, but also in natural philosophy and the philosophy of religion. (On the school at Cordova, after the 9th century, translations from Aristotle, etc., comp., among others, Erdmann, *Gesch. d. Philosophie, *1, 307 sq.; Lewes, *Hist. of Philos. *vol. 1; *Christian Schools and Scholars to the Council of Trent *[Lond. 1867, 2 vols. 8vo], vol. 1.) The churches in Germany at the beginning of the Middle Ages, had only schools for the training of the clergy, with a practical and rather narrow aim. The most conspicuous seat of learning in the early Middle Ages was that of Bede and his followers, at York, dating from the 8th century; but it did not go beyond the purely traditional course of studies, whose sources and authorities were found in Augustine, Cassiodorus, Boethius, and Isidore of Seville, From this school came forth Alcuin (q.v.),one of the principal supporters of learning in the Carlovingian age, who deserves, at the same time, the highest credit for the reform of the cathedral and convent school system, which was carried through by Charlemagne. This reform had, of course, no intention of promoting popular education in the modern sense. Charlemagne, incited thereto by Alcuin, sought first of all to train a cultured clergy that should be able to teach every individual the *credo, *the *pater-noster, *and similar things, in the vernacular. The diocese of Orleans alone in those times had incipient schools for the people. A century later Raban Maurus ("primus preceptor Germanise"), the founder of the convent-school at Fulda. conceived the idea of educating the people generally, and in England Alfred the Great sought practically to realize the same end. The increased number of universities led, from the 12th century, to a decline of interest in the cathedral and convent schools; and as early as the time of Innocent III (1198-1216) they had become mere representatives of the illiberal and hierarchical culture of the Church, which the papacy sought, but in vain, to favor at the expense of the more liberal and untrammelled tendencies of the universities. The latter, however, by the opening of the 14th century, experienced the effects of the general decay, which began with the opposition to the papacy of Avignon, and increased as the idea of the *state *was developed and the cities and commercial interests rose into importance, until, in the 15th century, it produced the overthrow of scholasticism. But a new spirit of inquiry, of independent thought and incipient criticism, that had escaped ecclesiastical control, was already at work, having appeared in connection with the revival of learning that began with Petrarch (1304-1374), and that had, by. the 15th century, aroused a general interest in the study of classical antiquity and of the ancient languages. *SEE RENAISSANCE*. The beginnings of popular education in the modern sense are to be credited to the "Brothers of the Common Life," who established schools in Holland and along the Rhine in the 15th century. They discarded scholasticism, and devoted their attention to the Scriptures, the study of the fathers (Augustine, St. Bernard, etc.), and the languages, not for the purpose of preparing for an office in the Church, but in order to instruct the people. The earliest representatives of exclusively humanistic. learning were trained in these schools, e.g. Agricola, Al. Hegius, and Spiegelberg. These were soon followed by other humanists, whose circles extended over all Germany (Busch, J. Wessel, Wesel, Conrad Celtes, Mutian, Rufus, etc.; compare Voigt, *Die Wiederherstellung der Wissenschaften *[1861]). Reuchlin and Erasmus were influential in promoting the study of languages, the former devoting himself more especially to the Hebrew, the latter to the Greek. Schools for such advanced studies were, however, established only in the larger and more favored towns; and the great majority of towns, as well as the entire open country, was without facilities for education, excepting those afforded by the discouraging labors of strolling scholars (comp. Raumer, *Gesch. d. Padagogik, *vol. 1. On education generally in the Middle Ages, consult Ruhkopf. *Gesch. d. Schul u. Erziehungswesens in Deutschland *[Bremen, 1794], vol. 1; Hahn, *Das Unterrichtswesen in Frankrseich *[Breslau, 1848]; and *Christian Schools and Scholars, *already referred to). Luther, with his profound sense of what the people needed, was the first to raise the school for the people to the position of a national institution, and thereby to become the founder of the common-school system of Germany (comp. his excellent address to the German nobility in 1520. *Schrift an die* *Rathsherren aller Stidte Deutschl., *etc. [1524]; and the art. *SEE PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS*. He demanded that the people should receive instruction, not only in the family, but also in the school; that the children of citizens should be compelled to attend the schools, and that the town- schools should give special attention to the study of Latin, while music and physical training should not be neglected. Melancthon and the other leading Reformers of the 16th century seconded his efforts. Bugenhagen, Brenz, Zwingli, and Calvin all gave attention to this work (comp. Schenk, *Joh. Calvin in seiner padagog. Wirksamkeit *[1864]). Many practical difficulties arose, of course, especially in North Germany, and only the mere beginnings of a school system could be realized. The dogmatic disputes of the 16th and the miseries of the 17th century followed, and prevented any further development (Schenkel, *Allgem. kirchl. Zeitschr. *[1863]). The superior schools were conducted in the humanistic spirit, the most important services in this direction being rendered in Strasburg by Joh. Sturm, who was the leading schoolman of his time. The schools of the Jesuits, which controlled the education of the 17th century, had only the appearance of scientific institutions, whose sole object was to bind thought to an authoritative formalism: by means of the Latin language, and at the same time to strengthen the Romish element (comp. Weicker, *D. Schulwesen d. Jesuiten nach d. Ordensgesetzen dar;qestellt *[Halle, 1863]). The empiricism which Bacon introduced into philosophy gradually asserted itself in the sphere of pedagogics also. Michael Montaigne (1533-1592) demanded first of all a knowledge of the world; W. Ratich, of Holstein (1571-1635), became a fanatical exponent of the Baconian ideas; and John Amos Comenius (1592-1671), bishop of the Bohemian Brethren, applied them in a more considerate and commendable way, among Roman Catholics, but little was done for education at this time. The only name we can mention is that of Carlo Borromeo (1538-1584), archbishop of Milan. Nor was anything of importance accomplished within that Church during the century that followed the peace of Westphalia. The reformatory efforts in this direction — by the Jansenists, the Port-Royalists, the Fathers of the Oratory, and Fenelon, who wrote, among other subjects of this nature, on the education of females were all directed against the Jesuits. A renewed interest in Germany for popular education was produced by the pietism of Spener and Aug. Herm. Francke (1663-1727), the latter of whom, especially, aimed. to develop the man into the Christian (comp. reports of the *Pedagogium, Latin School, *and *School for German Citizens *in the Orphan House at Halle). The Moravians are especially prominent as pedagogical missionaries. The revolution in pedagogics, which had resulted in a direct contrast to all former, and especially all churchly, systems of education, is illustrated in the theories of Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712- 1778). His principle of a "return to nature" involved, as the ideal to be sought in education, the complete unfolding of the natural man; and it suggested, as the means to this end, the isolation of the individual, his separation from a world that is ruined by culture (comp. his *Contrat Social; Emile: La Nouvelle Heloise; *also the biography by Venedey [Berlin, 1850] and by Morley [Lond. and N.Y., 1874, 2 vols. 8vo]). The first of the so-called *Realschulen *was founded at this time (1739) by Semler (q.v.) at Halle, and others rapidly followed. Their founders had been pupils of Francke, and the influence of these men saved the schools from Rousseau's enthusiasm for the natural man. Basedow (1723-1790), however, was seized by it, and developed it into an external utilitarianism, which he sought to reduce to practice in the *Philanthropinum *at Dessau (1774). He held that the promotion of the physical well-being and the enlightening of the understanding are infallible means for developing children "into Europeans who shall be harmless, valuable to the community, and contented." The institutions founded by Bahrdt served merely to caricature the utilitarian tendency; but the writings of Campe, Salzmann, and others show the real service Basedow rendered in: directing attention to the study of the physical sciences (geography; natural philosophy, etc.). The false prevalent cosmopolitanism, the inclination to give attention solely to immediate practical wants and the vapid philosophies, indicate clearly the faults of this realistic theory of pedagogics; but it must be credited with having exerted a vast influence over the education of the world. The latest aera in the history of pedagogics begins at the opening of our own century with Pestalozzi (q.v.), who advocated the idea that the people should be educated on the method that is implanted in human nature, according to which education must begin with immediate study of the object, and proceed from this starting-point to the development of the various intellectual and physical powers. This is still the determining idea in modern education; but Pestalozzi himself, who, while filled with love for the people, was yet a thoroughly unpractical man, could only seek its realization, but not attain it. It was taken up by others, however, and applied to the work of education in, the most diversified forms. It finds expression in the form of schools for the indigent, of institutions for the blind and deaf-mutes, of houses of refuge, of orphan asylums, etc. The prevalent theories of education were, of course, not without influence upon the philosophical and ethical views of the great poets, and especially the philosophers. The influence of Kant, with his "categorical imperative" (the good is to be sought for its own sake), was especially powerful in the field of ethics. Fichte declared that the individual must be trained to become a useful member of society (for his views on public education, comp. his: *Reden a. d. deutsche Nation*)*; *Schelling maintained (*Vorlesungen uber d. akadem. Studium*) that the great object sought in teaching should be to bring the individual into right relations to the human race and the divine law, so that the latter may be actualized in him; Hegel held that the moral character of the individual is to be developed by leading him to disregard the particular, and causing him to give attention and effort to the promotion of the general good (comp. Thaulow, *Hegels Ansichten iib. Erziehung u. Unterricht *[Kiel, 1854]); and Schleiermacher taught that the individuality of each person must be developed, that he may be fitted to fill his proper place, as a member of the whole, in the family, Church, and State (comp. Hagenbach, *Ch. Hist. of the *18*th and *19*th Centuries, *ii, 145 sq.; Hurst, *Hist. of Rationalism, *p. 184 sq.). An attempt to lay a *psychological *sub-basis for modern education has been made by Johann Friedrich Herbart (each soul a monad and unchangeable; the educator merely changes its conditions), and by Zeller, Waltz, and Stoy, who teach the analogous doctrine that each pupil is to be regarded simply as an individual. Friedr. W. Beneke (*Erziehungs u. Unterrichtslehre *[Berl. 1835- 36, 2 vols. 8vo; 2d ed. 1842]), conceiving of psychology as a natural science, seeks to frame a methodology of the physical sensations, upon which to ground a system of education. Niemeyer, and especially Diesterweg, have also rendered meritorious service in this department. The latter has now many adherents, and they regard as the aim (*Ziel*) of pedagogics, development of man for self-activity in the interests of the true, the good, and the beautiful. In England there are several prominent thinkers of our century who have earnestly labored to propagate ideas akin to the German. Oftentimes they have risen to a nobler ambition, and have striven for a union of the Church and the School, recognising the impossibility of training the head without the heart, and yet appreciating the unfitness of the secular teacher for the cultivation of man's emotional nature. Lord Brougham and Dr. Matthew Arnold were especially active in causing the English people to take hold of this idea, and they succeeded so well that it became the common language of all those who deemed that the frame and temper of society needed an extensive renovation, and that this renovation must begin with the young. The presumptuous turn of mind, the reliance on intellectual ability, supposed to result from instruction addressing itself to the intellect alone, were to be corrected by a strong diversion in favor of a more subjective course of study. The student was to be imbued with principles and tastes rather than positive acquirements. The main object of the instructor was to be the formation of moral character by habit, not the imparting of what is commonly called learning. Nay, much was to be unlearned — much rubbish taken down before men could begin afresh on the old foundations — much of the sciolism of recent centuries removed; natural science and literary acquirement were to be brought down from that undue exaltation to which they had been raised in modern times by generations wanting in the habits of reverence and earnestness of feeling Catholic (i.e. Protestant, of course) theology and moral philosophy, "in accordance with catholic doctrine, were to be the main foundation of the improved education of these newer days; science and literature were not, indeed, to be neglected, but to be cultivated in subordination only to these great architectonic sciences, and discarded wherever they could not be forced into subjection. Thus anew generation was to be trained in which inferiority in respect to mere objective knowledge, if such should really ensue, was to be far more than compensated by the higher cultivation of the immortal part, the nobler discipline of piety and obedience. Such aspirations may be traced in most of the many writings on the university system which the crisis near the beginning of the second quarter of this century (about 1833) brought out; while those who are acquainted with the practical details of the subject know full well how deep a picture has been introduced into the actual studies and habits of both universities, but especially of that of Oxford, by the prevalence of views such as these, expressed by energetic men, in language at once startling and attractive. In the United States, men of intellectual ability have worked for the general diffusion of knowledge through a common-school system, but there has never been any pronounced effort for the training of the young-religiously. Indeed, in our day the cry is for mental development independent of spiritual care; and while in rationalistic Germany there is provision for the religious training of every youth up to the highest class in the gymnasia, where the pupils are often over twenty years of age, in this country there is no public provision for the moral or religious training of the child. Diesterweg's notion (see above) is gradually coming to prevail. In our higher schools, i.e. the colleges and seminaries, in so far as they are under denominational control, ample provision for religious training now exists; but should the state-college idea continue to grow in favor, the time may come when the Sabbath-school will afford the only opportunity for the religious training of coming American generations. True, chancellor Kent (*Commentaries, *2, 187 sq.) has laid down the maxim that under our form of government the parent should be held responsible for the moral training of the child; but the chancellor ignored the fact that we are largely *a floating *population, constantly amalgamating with different races of different educational grades and various religious notions, and that in a republic which acknowledges the Christian civilization as its guide and base. the state should so educate the coming citizen that he' may rot only be able to interpret the law and have a head to understand, but a heart to cherish and observe it. **2. **The second part of pedagogical science relates to the development of a *system *of education, on the basis of the foregoing history. Its first duty would be, perhaps, to describe the *end *sought, which must be the cultivation of the ethical principle, after which attention must be given to the *subject *who is to be trained — the pupil; and, finally, it must indicate the *means *by which the desired end may be attained. Without entering on the details of modern systems of pedagogics, it may be said, that the result of all recent discussions has been to demonstrate that the general training in schools should not aim at a direct preparation for practical life, but, in its intellectual aspects, should rather seek to lay a broad foundation of general culture upon which may afterwards be based the training required for any particular calling in life; and, further, that the grand object should be the harmonious development of the whole man, particularly in point of character and manly independence, This conclusion demonstrates that the victory of the opponents of all religious instruction in secular school can only be secured at the expense of morality and general culture. **3. **The third part of this science has to deal with the relations of education to the constitution of society — in other words, it must treat of the organization of education and its relation to the other organizations of the country, both secular and ecclesiastical. It would lead us beyond the scope of this work to enter into the details of this branch of the subject. The outline of the discussion, however, is suggested by the above historical review, and many points will be found touched upon in various appropriate articles elsewhere given. *Literature. — *On the history of education we mention, besides the works already referred to, Mangelsdorf, *Fers. einer Darstell. dessen was seit Jahrhunderten in Betreff d. Erziehunqgswesens gesagt u. gethan worden ist *(Leipsic, 1779); *Werhof, Polyhistor *(Lubeck, 1732); Schwarz,. *Gesch. d. Erz. n. ihrenz Zusammenhange unter d. Volkern, von alien Zeiten bis anzf d. neueste *(Leips. 1813, 1829). the first attempt at a complete review of the entire subject; Niemeyer, *Ueberblick d. all. Gesch. d. Erz. *(Halle, 1824, 2d ed.); Pustkuchen-Glanzow, *Kurzgefasste Gesch. d. Padagogik* (Rinteln, 1830); Cramer, *Gesch. d. Erz. u.d. Unterrichts *(Elberfeld, 1832, 1838); V. Raumer, *Gesch. d. Paddgogik *(Stuttgard, 1861, 4 vols.); Anhalt, *Gesch. d. Erziehungswesens, *etc. (Jena, 1846); Wohlfahrt, *Gesch. d. gessammten Erz. u. Unterrichtswesens *(Quedlinburg and Leipsic 1853, 1855); Schmidt, *Gesch. d. Pidagogik *(2d ed. Kothen, 1868-70, 4 vols. 8vo); Palmer, *— Evangelische Padagogik *(4th ed. Stuttg. 1869, 8vo); Baur, *Grundziige d. Erziehunngslehre *(2d ed. Giessen, 1849); Stoy, *Encykl. Methodologie, u. Literatur d. Padagogik *(Leips. 1861); Schmidt, *Encykl. d. gesammt. Erziehunsqswesens, *etc. (Gotha, 1859, etc., 5 vols. 8vo).

Paedobaptism (from παῖς, παιδός, *a child, *and βαπτισμός*, baptism*) is applied to the baptism of children or infants in the Christian Church, or what is popularly termed *infant baptism. *Under the general subject of baptism, it is that part which relates especially to the *proper subjects of baptism. SEE BAPTISM*. **I. ***Historical View of the Introduction and Prevalence of Infant Baptism. — *The early history of this, as of any other Christian rite, involves, naturally and necessarily, two things: — the *idea *expressed in the rite, and the *rite *itself. Each of these must be traced in its historical connection, since, a rite or ordinance is the outgrowth of some idea which it is intended to symbolize. In this instance, the rite is the application of water in a certain way to a child; the idea is a certain relation of children to the Church, namely, that the children of Christian parents, by virtue of their parentage, are brought into such a relation to the Church that they are regarded as in a certain sense within its membership, i.e. just as there is a visible and invisible Church, *SEE CHURCH*, so there should be recognised a visible and invisible membership; the former being acquired by actual public admission after profession, the latter being acquired by virtue of the descent, and holding good only until the persons enjoying such a membership reach the age of independent action, when it becomes of non- effect unless supplemented by the *visible *connection. Those entitled to invisible membership are consequently recognised by the Church as fit candidates for baptism, and therefore the rite is administered by the Church when asked for. This historical view of the idea and the rite in the early Church will naturally be taken by two periods — the New Testament *or *apostolic period, and the period of the fathers. **1*. ****The Idea and the Rite in the New Testament.* **(a) **The religion of the New Testament is historically, organically, and spiritually connected with the religion of the Old Testament, through the birth, the person, the position, the teaching, and the life and death of Christ. Christ was a Jew, "the son of David, the son of Abraham." He came "not to destroy the law or the prophets, but to fulfil." Many of the religious ideas which Christ proclaimed and fulfilled have their roots in the Old Testament. The idea which is necessarily involved in infant baptism is plainly a prominent one in the Old Testament, in this form, that the children of Jewish parents were members of the religious organization of the Jewish people. The whole people, as the seed of Abraham, were a divinely constituted religious organization. The nation felt itself to be a religious organization in covenant with God. This caused what we call Church and State to be one, making a theocracy, in which what corresponds to Church and to State with us actually existed, though in union. They were "a Church in the form of a nation." It is a historical fact that infant children of Jewish parents were regarded as members of this religious, national organization by virtue of their parentage. The conception of the family in the Old Testament brought children within the covenant which God made with Abraham and his family, and which was continued with all the families of his descendants through Isaac and Jacob, when they became a nation. As a sign of this covenant the children were circumcised. This idea of the family, bearing so plainly in the Old Testament the mark of divine origin and approval, appears also in the New Testament, and, in the transitional fulfilment of the Old Testament in the religion of Christ, it passed into Christianity and the Christian Church also. It appears at first, of course, because John the Baptist and Christ and his apostles were Jews, and were circumcised in accordance with the old Jewish idea and custom. In the very persons of Christ and his apostles themselves this idea was illustrated in their families, and as they grew up it would naturally become a part of the system of opinions which would be formed by their Jewish education. After the baptism of Jesus, and the descent of the Holy Spirit upon him, and after the day of Pentecost, when the apostles were under the full enlightenment of the Holy Ghost, we do not find this idea rejected explicitly as an unauthorized tradition of the elders, but implied in their actions and utterances, though it had been perverted. As evidence of this, Paedobaptist writers refer to the following incidents and utterances: In Mt 19:1-15, the evangelist has brought together two incidents touching family relations in the kingdom of heaven, as Christ viewed them. One relates to husband and wife, the other to children. In Christ's blessing little children and saying, "Of such is the kingdom of heaven," the chief idea present, especially in Mark and Luke, is its illustration of the true Christian disposition. But, at the same time, in .the bringing of the children to him by the mothers, the chief idea on their part is that of some peculiar good coming to their children by persons of saintly character or of high ecclesiastical position putting their hands upon them and blessing them. So thought they of Jesus. In his act and in his words there is a response on his part to this belief of theirs, and in this response there is a recognition, strongly apparent in Matthew, of a peculiar position of children as such in the kingdom of heaven. Calvin well remarks, "Tam parvuli, quam eorum similes." It is a manifestation, on the part of those bringing them, of the long-prevalent idea of children as a part of the theocracy, and Christ recognises it in his kingdom of heaven. Its bearing upon infant baptism lies *chiefly *in the fact that in this symbolical action of Christ we have a recognition of a principle that is also the basis of baptism. Says Meyer, in his *Commentary *upon Matthew, "this blessing is a justification of infant baptism." The language of Jesus regarding Zaccheeus contains the same conception of the family as a whole participating in salvation through its head: "This day is salvation come to his house (οἴκῳ*, *"the family of this house," Meyer), forasmuch as he also is a son of Abraham." Similar also is his language in his directions to his disciples (Mt 10:12-15): "And if the house be worthy, let your peace come upon it" (comp. Lange, ad loc.). This peculiar theocratic and religious relationship of children, or of posterity in general, if this be assumed as the true sense, suggests doubtless Peter's expression (Ac 2:39), For the promise is unto you and to your children." Again he says, in rehearsing the words of the angel to Cornelius (Ac 11:14): "Who shall tell thee words whereby thou and all thy house shall be saved." In the same way Paul and Silas say to the jailer: "Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and thou shalt be saved, and thy house" (Ac 16:31). Later than this, in the time of Paul's epistles, when the Church was more fully organized, most commentators are of opinion that this peculiar relationship of children to Christ and to the Church is contained in Paul's language in his epistles. Thus in Eph 6:1, when he says, "Children, obey your parents in the Lord," as Alford says, "he regards both parents and children as in the Lord" — that is, as being within the sphere of that peculiar fellowship with Christ which this so frequent phrase signifies. This at least is certainly implied, while most commentators think that the reference here is really to baptized children, and that the apostle regards them as belonging to the Church. So Braune and Riddle in Lange, Hofmann, Stier, Schaff, and others. Meyer rejects any reference to baptism, but considers the passage to contain this peculiar relationship of Christian parents and their children: "The children of Christians, even without baptism, were ἃγιοι (see 1Co 7:14; Ac 16:15) through their vital fellowship with their Christian parents" (*Com. ib. Eph.*)*. *In 1Co 7:14, this idea is very plainly expressed. There Paul says that the children of parents of which only one is a believer are holy and not unclean-that is, they "are not outside of the theocratic fellowship and divine covenant; they do not belong to the unholy κόσμος" (Meyer). They are ἃγιοι*, *holy-that is, not subjectively sanctified, but consecrated, standing within the fellowship and covenant of the Christian body, just as children under the old Jewish religion were within the fellowship and covenant of the divinely constituted Jewish body. This results: from the union which exists by birth and in the family life between the children and their Christian parents. They are thus included in the fellowship of the Church in a certain real sense, and that without any personal holiness or faith on their part. The manner in which the apostle uses this in his argument shows that it was the established, universally acknowledged view among them at the time. It is, in fact, the conception *and *relation which existed under the Jewish economy continued in the New-Testament Church. While touching upon this passage, we may notice its value as evidence of the actual practice of infant baptism at the time. Meyer, Kling, and some other modern German writers find in it evidence more or less strong against such practice in the apostolic Church. It is said by Meyer that "if the baptism of children had been in existence, Paul would not have argued as he did, because then the ἁγιότης of the children of believers would have had another ground" — that is, baptism itself, instead of their descent and fellowship in the family. But to this it is replied that it reverses the relation between the rite and the ἁγιότης*, *or holiness. The Jewish child was circumcised because he was holy, not to make him holy; and if children were baptized at the time, it was because they were holy, or consecrated by their birth in the believing *family, *not to make them holy; so that, even though children were baptized, their baptism would not be the ground of their holiness, and hence would not be used by Paul in his argument. It may, indeed, be justly said, as does Kling in Lange, that "had such a practice existed. it would be fair to presume that the apostle would have alluded to it here. That he did not affords some reason for concluding that the rite did not exist." But with a true view of the ground and purpose of the argument the reason for such a conclusion becomes much weaker than might otherwise appear. In further proof of the prevalence in the apostolic Church of the idea upon which infant baptism is based, it is evident from Ac 21:21, that Jewish Christians in Paul's time circumcised their children, and probably also for some time after him. Paul in all probability did not oppose it; and the charge brought against him of teaching that they ought not to circumcise their children was "certainly false" (Meyer). It thus appears from the thought and language of the New Testament that the idea of the peculiar covenant relationship of children of believing parents, so prominent in the Old Testament from Abraham to Christ, passed into the conception of Christianity which Christ and the apostles have given us. The family was an organic unity; the family, as a family, through its head came into the religious organization of the Jews as they stood in covenant with God; the children were members of it at birth, and participators, according to their capacity as they grew up, in the blessings of the covenant which God had made with them. The theocracy of the Old Testament corresponds in its religious ideas and life, and in its organization and rites, with the Church of the New Testament. The Church of Christ is essentially the fulfilment and continuation of the theocracy of the Old Testament. They are one and the same Church. This connection, continuation, and fulfilment are expressed in the genealogies of the New Testament, in Christ's language, as in the Sermon on the Mount, and in Paul's writings, especially in the epistles to the Romans and Galatians, in which he insists on the fulfilment and continuance among believers in Christ of the Abrahamic covenant. Accordingly the family came, as a family could, into that form of the Church which succeeded under Christ, the Messiah. Formerly the children were circumcised as a sign and seal of this fact; subsequently, when baptism became the sign of entrance into the Church, and circumcision fell into disuse, the children would be baptized. This correspondence between circumcision and baptism is mentioned by Paul, Col 2:11-12, in which passage, "buried with him in baptism" (ver. 12) is explanatory of "ye are circumcised," and of "the circumcision of Christ" (ver. 11) (Meyer). *SEE CIRCUMCISION*, and the citations there made from Justin Martyr, evidently alluding to this passage of Paul, and from Tertullian and others of the fathers, showing that this was their understanding of the New Testament *in *regard to the relation of the two rites. *Whether, *therefore, in the instances of baptism recorded in the New Testament, children were actually baptized or not, its language clearly contains the idea and principle from which the practice so soon originated, and upon which it is based in the evangelical churches to-day. **(b) **We come now to consider the evidence in the New Testament of the actual baptism of children, of the actual performance of the *rite, *which is a sign and seal of the *idea and fact. *Excluding the baptisms by John the Baptist, we have eleven particular instances of baptism mentioned, namely, of two individuals at different times: **[1] **the *eunuch *(Ac 8:38); **[2] **Saul (Ac 9:18); then households explicitly mentioned: **[3] ***Lydia *"and her household" (Ac 16:15); **[4] **the jailer "and all his" (Ac 16:33); **[5] **"the household of Stephanas" (1Co 1:16); the remaining instances are: **[6] **Crispus and Gaius (1Co 1:14); **[7] **"many of the Corinthians" (Ac 18:8); **[8] **Cornelius and those with him (Ac 10:48); **[9] **"they that gladly received his word" (Ac 2:41) on the day of Pentecost; **[10] **"both men and women" by Philip in Samaria (Ac 8:12); **[11] **certain disciples who had been baptized "unto John's baptism" (Ac 19:5). In the first two instances there could have been no children. In the next three the baptism of "a household" is explicitly mentioned, the phrase "all his" being synonymous with household. In the case of Crispus, Paul says (1Co 1:14) that he baptized him; and in Ac 18:8, it is said that "he believed on the Lord with all his house." We have in this instance the inclusion of the household or family with its head in their belief, at least, and most probably they were baptized as the household of Stephanas was. Of Cornelius it is said (Ac 10:2) that he was "one that feared God with all his house." It is not probable that infant children were among the company gathered together to hear Peter speak, nor can we say it is probable that on the occasion of the immediate baptism of those who "heard the word," and upon whom "the Holy Ghost fell," that children were baptized. But this new religious relation of Cornelius would take his house with him, according to the universal conception, as it had done in his devotion to Judaism; and as we have express mention of the baptism of households, as if it were a common custom, it follows with great probability that if there were children in this family, they were baptized, and that it was an instance of "household baptism," as assumed by Schaff (*Apost. Church, *p. 571). Peter's language on the day of Pentecost has already been noticed in its bearing upon the idea connected with the rite. It has some force also as evidence of the actual practice of infant baptism, from the fact of its being part of an exhortation "to repent and be baptized." In the remaining two instances, of the baptism of "men and women" by Philip, and of the disciples of John the Baptist, there is no implication of the faith or baptism of a family. We have then three instances certainly, and most probably five, out. of eleven instances of baptism in the New Testament, in which households or families were baptized. That οικος and οἰκία and οἱ αὐτοῦ πάντες include children in their general meaning there is no question. That there certainly were children in any of these families cannot be asserted it is only a probability, but in the nature of the case a very strong one, amounting almost to certainty. And when "we reflect that the mention of these households, with nothing to intimate that their baptism was strange or exceptional, implies the baptism of other households besides those mentioned, the question of Bengel expresses no more than the real strength of probability: "Who can believe that in so many families not one infant was found, and that the Jews, accustomed to circumcision, and Gentiles to the lustration of infants, should not have also brought them to baptism?" Conybeare and Howson say, "We cannot but think it almost demonstratively proved that infant baptism was the practice of the apostles." So Lange, Hodge, Schaff, and others. **(c) **The presence of the *idea or principle *upon which infant baptism is grounded, we may say, is an indis*putable fact *in the New Testament; the evidence of the *actual practice *of infant baptism can only be said to amount to a *very strong probability *or a *moral certainty. *All Baptists assert that there is no ground for this probability. Some eminent historians and critics. also, who are nevertheless paedobaptist in principle, declare that the evidence is against the practice in apostolic times. Thus Neander (*Plant. and Training, p. *162) says, "It is in the highest degree probable that the practice of infant baptism was unknown at this period." Meyer also remarks (*Con. uber die Apostelgesch. *p. 361) that there is no trace of infant baptism to be found in the New Testament. But it is to be noted that while these eminent scholars do not find sufficient evidence of. the actual practice of the rite in the New Testament history, yet both affirm that the conception of the family there actually present was the idea from which it naturally grew, or which logically and historically justifies it. Neander, for example, in speaking of 1Co 7:14, says, "In the point of view here taken by Paul, we find (although it testifies against the existence at that time of infant baptism) the fundamental idea from which the practice was afterwards developed, and by which it must be justified to agree with Paul's sentiments: an intimation of the pre-eminence belonging to children born in a Christian community; of the consecration for the kingdom of God thereby granted them, and of an immediate sanctifying influence which would communicate itself to their earliest development" (*Plant. and Train. *p. 164). Similarly Kling in Lange, *Com. on Corinthians, *and Meyer. We should observe that certain circumstances of the time would affect the practice itself, and the mention of it in historical records. Christianity being preached as a new faith, or as a renewal or revolution of an old faith, it must begin mainly with adults; the work of spreading it would be missionary work, and baptism of adults would be most important and most numerous. It was characteristic of Christians to insist with emphasis upon a living, personal faith in their converts, in contrast to the formal, perverted faith in Abrahamic descent among the Jews, and a formal, superstitious faith among the Gentiles. This makes it appear in most instances as if this personal adult faith were the indispensable condition of entering into the Church in any way, and of baptism. Again, Jewish Christians, as we have noticed, continued to circumcise their children; and although baptism and circumcision were regarded, as we have. seen, as analogous, and as having the same signification, yet there would naturally be some time before this would take full possession of the Jewish mind, and it would be some time also before baptism would entirely supersede circumcision. Further, the idea in accordance with which children would be baptized was so thoroughly inwrought into Jewish thought, and passed so naturally into the thought of the New Testament, that we should not expect to find either the idea or the rite spoken of with that prominence and explicitness which would certainly have been the case had they been something new. **2*. ****Historical Testimony in the Post-Apostolic Church. *— The first unquestionably explicit reference to infant baptism in Christian literature occurs in Tertullian's *De Baptismo, *written about A.D. 202. That this at least is such a reference is universally allowed by Baptists themselves in opposing the practice. Earlier fathers, whose writings are quoted as testifying to infant baptism, are Justin Martyr and Irenseus; but it is disputed by opponents of paedobaptism that the passages quoted imply its existence. In the doubtful and scanty remains of other early writers, as the Epistle of Barnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas, the Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians, the epistles of Ignatius and of Clement of Rome, there are no references to the baptism of children. This silence is looked upon by Baptists as evidence that the practice was unknown; by Paedobaptists as evidence that infant baptism was so generally accepted as not to have been disputed at the time. We present in what follows the passages from Justin Martyr, Irenmus, and Tertullian. Justin Martyr (born about A.D. 100, died A.D. 166), in his *First Apology for the Christians, *addressed to the emperor Antoninus Pius, written about A.D. 138, says; "Many persons among us of both sexes, some sixty, some' seventy years old, who were discipled to Christ *from childhood *(οἵ ἐκ παίδων ἐμαθητεύθησαν τῷ Χριστῷ), continue uncorrupted." Ε᾿κ παίδων may mean from *very early childhood, or from infancy, *as in Mt 2:16, "from two years old and under." The phrase "were discipled" is the one used by Christ in connection with the word *baptizing *in the commission in Mt 28:19, the participle βαπτίζοντες expressing the means by which they were made disciples (Meyer, Lange, Alford, Schaff). If, as is most probable, baptism continued to be implied as the means of the μαθητεύειν*, *then the persons spoken of must have been baptized as παῖδες, perhaps as infants, and that too in the time of some of the apostles. Allusion has already been made to Justin Martyr's association of circumcision and baptism. Writing at so short an interval after the apostles, his association of the two is strong evidence that they were regarded as corresponding in the apostolic Church, as indicated in Col 2:11-12, and evidence that baptism was performed upon children as circumcision had been. In his *Dialogue with Trypho the Jew, §* 29, he says, "What then is circumcision to me, who have a testimony from God? what is the use of *that baptism *to one that is baptized with the Holy Ghost?" Also § 43: "We have not received that circumcision which is according to the flesh, but a spiritual circumcision; and we have received it by baptism." In § 61 of his *Apology, *he explains to the emperor "the manner in which we have consecrated ourselves to God." This is an account of baptism, and apparently of adult baptism only. This would lead us to think that infant baptism was not common, but the omission of allusion to it in the account does not give us reason to assert that it was not practiced. Irenaeus (about A.D. 125-190), a disciple of Polycarp, who was a disciple of the apostle John, in his *Adversus Hoereses, *lib. 2, 22, 4, says: "Omnnes enim yenit per semet ipsum salvare; omnes, inquam, qui per eum *renascuntur in Denum, *infantes, et parvulos, et pueros, et juvenes, et seniores" (For he came to save all by himself; all, I say, who through him are born again unto God-infants, and little children, and boys, and old men). The testimony of Irenmeus depends upon the meaning of *renascuntur in Deum. *Paedobaptist writers affirm that lie includes baptism in the meaning as a part of the means by which they are *born again; *for not only with Ireneus, but with Justin Martyr and others of the fathers, baptism is connected with regeneration as having some mystical, magical, or spiritual agency in effecting it. It is the beginning of baptismal regeneration, resulting from their interpretation of Joh 3:5, "Except a man be, born of water and of the Spirit," and Tit 3:5, "the washing of regeneration." So inseparably associated with regeneration had baptism become; that the word regeneration almost always, included it. Regeneration had come to mean commonly that change which takes place in and through baptism. In proof of baptism being alluded to in the passage quoted, reference is made to another, *Adv. Haer. *3, 17, 1: "Et iterum potestatem regenerationis in Deum dans discipulis, dicebat iis, 'Euntes docete omnes gentes, baptizantes eos in nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti'" (Giving them the power of regeneration to God, he said to them, Go and teach all nations, baptizing them, etc.). Again, 3, 18: "Baptismus tribuit regenerationem" (Baptism imparts regeneration). He used also the phrases "baptism of regeneration," and "bath of regeneration." The conclusion seems to be well founded that Irenaeus in the phrase quoted refers to baptism in speaking of the regeneration of infants. Neander admits no trace of infant baptism earlier than this father, and on this passage remarks, "It is difficult to conceive how the term regeneration can be employed in reference to this age (i.e. infancy), to denote anything else than baptism." The Baptist view of this passage may be seen in the following extract from an article by the Rev. Irah Chase, D.D., in the *Bibliotheca Sacra, *November, 1849: "According to Irenaeus, Christ, in becoming incarnate, and thus assuming his mediatorial work, brought the human families into a new relation under himself, and placed them in a condition in which they can be saved. In this sense he is the Saviour of all. He became, so to speak, a second Adam, the regenerator of mankind. Through him they are regenerated unto God ('per eum renascuntur in Deum')." Comp. also the *Christian Review, *June, 1838. But, though this may have been a view of Irenseus, the preponderance of critical opinion is very decidedly in favor of the view that this term in the passage in question, and generally, includes baptism in its meaning. Tertullian (A.D. 160-240), in his *De Baptismo, *has, as we have already mentioned, an unmistakable reference to infant baptism as being practiced, which very few Baptist writers are disposed to dispute. This treatise was written A.D. 202. The reference is as follows, in c. 18: "Itaque pro cujusque personae conditione ac dispositione, etiam'aetate, cunctatio baptismi'utilior est: prsecipue tamen circa parvulos. Quid enim necesse est, sponsores etiam periculo ingeri? quia et ipsi per mortalitatem destituere promissiones suas possunt et proventu malse indolis falli. Ait quidem Dominus: Nolite illos prohibere ad me venire (Mt 19:14), veniant ergo, dum adolescunt, veniant dam discunt, dum, quo veniant, docentur; fiant Christiani quum Christum nosse potuerint. Quid festinat innocens aetas ad remissionem peccatorum?" (Therefore, according to every one's condition and disposition, and also their age, the delaying of baptism is more profitable, especially in the case of little children. For what need is there that the godfathers should be brought into danger? because they may either fail of their promises by death, or they may be deceived by a child's proving of a wicked disposition. Our Lord says, indeed, "Do not forbid them to come to me;" therefore let them come when they are grown up; let them come when they understand, when they are instructed whither they are to come. Let them become Christians when they are able to know Christ. Why should their innocent age make haste to the forgiveness of sin?) Tertullian thus advocates the delay of baptism in general, and in the case of little children especially. But he speaks of their baptism in such a way as to imply that it was a common practice to baptize them as well as others. It is to be noted that he does not oppose the baptism of infants on the ground of its being an innovation, and not of apostolic origin, but on the ground of its not being profitable or expedient. If he could have spoken of it as an innovation, it is quite certain from the nature of the case, and from his frequent use of this argument in other matters, that he would have done so. If it was a frequent practice at that time, it must have been practiced at least some time before, and must have been regarded as legitimately involved in apostolic teaching and tradition. From the time of Tertullian's *De Baptismo, *references to the baptism of children are frequent and unequivocal, establishing the fact that it was a recognised rite in the Church at the time, and was a common though not universal practice. Origen (A.D. 185-253) was himself baptized soon after his birth, and in his homily on Luke 14 he makes this statement, "Infants are baptized for the forgiveness of sins." He also expressly asserts that "the Church derived from the apostles a tradition to give baptism even to infants." Tertullian's opposition seems to have had but little influence. Cyprian, a pupil of Tertullian mentions and advocates infant baptism'. The practice of it is also spoken of by Ambrose, Chrysostom, Gregory Nazianzen, Augustine; and others. From this time until the rise of a sect called the Petrobrusians in France, about A.D. 1130, it existed in the Church without question. This sect opposed infant baptism because infants, as they said, were incapable of salvation. They maintained themselves, however, only about thirty years; and we hear of no body of men rejecting infant baptism until the rise of the German Antipsedo baptists, A.D. 1522. The basis of infant baptism, when it appears in the age succeeding the apostles, seems not to have been so much the organic unity of the family, and the participation of children in the covenant relations with their parents, as the belief in the efficacy of baptism to cleanse from sin and to insure the regeneration of the child. *SEE REGENERATION*. **II. ***Literature. — Richard *Baxter, *Plain Scripture Proof of Infants Church Membership and Baptism *(1656); Wall, *History of Infant Baptism, with Gale's Reflections and Wall's Defence, *edited by Cotton (Oxford, 1836 and 1844, 4 vols.); Lange, *Die kindertaufe *(*Jena, *1834); Walch, *Historia* *Paedobaptismi *(ibid. 1739); Williams, *Antipaedoboptism Examined *(1789, 2 vols.); Dr. Leonard Woods, *Works *(Boston, 1851), vol. iii; Wardlaw, *Dissertation on Infant Baptism *(London); J.W. F. Hofling, *Das Sakrament der Taufe *(Erlangen, 1846, 2 vols.); W. Goode, *Efects of Infant Baptism *(1851); Edwin Hall, *The Law of Baptism *(Presb. Pub. *Com., *Phila.); F. G. Hibbard, *Christian Baptism, its Subjects, Mode, and Oblgation *(*New* York, 1845); Rev. Philippe Wolfe, *Baptism, the Covenant and the Family *(Boston, 1862); Rev. Edward Williams, *Practical Reflections on Baptism *(Charlottetown, P. E. Island, 1863); Rev. I. Murray, *Baptism, its Mode and Subjects *(Cavendish, P. E. Island, 1869); S. M. Merrill, *Christian Baptism, its Suijects and Mode; *H. Martensen, *Die christliche Taufe und die baptistische Frage *(Hamb. 1843); Dr. H. Bushnell, *Christian Nurture *(New York, 1868); Rev. N. Doane, *Infant Baptism briefly Considered *(ibid. 1875); Gray, *Authority for Infant Baptism *(Halifax, 1837); Rev. H. D. Wickham, *Synopsis of the Doctrine of Baptism to the End of the Fourth Century *(Lond. 1850). On Origen on infant baptism, *see Jour. of Sac. Lit.* 1853; *Christian Review *(Dr. Chase), 1854; *Amer. Presb. and Theol. Rev.* 1865; *Presb. Qu. and Princeton Rev. *October, 1873; *Southern Presb. Rev.* 1873; *Amer. Presb. and Theol. Rev. *1867, p. 239, "Irenueus and Infant Baptism." Against Paedobaptism: Gale, *Reply to Wall *(see above); Booth, *Paedobaptism Examined *(Lond. 1829 3 vols.); Hinton, *History of Baptism *(Phila. 1849); Carson, *Baptism in its Mode and Subjects *(Lond. 1844; 5th ed. Phila. 1857); Pengilly, *Scripture Guide tb Baptism *(Phila. 1849); John Gill, *Infant Baptism, a Part and Pillar of Popery *(Phila. Amer. Bapt. Pub. Soc.); J. Torrey Smith, *The New Testament and Historical Arguments for Infant Baptism Examined *(Phila. do.); *The Covenant of Circumcision Considered in Relation to Christian Baptism *(ibid.); *The Baptist Quarterly, *Jan. 1869; *Difficulties of Infant Baptism.* See also the works cited by Malcom, *Theological Index, *s.v. Infant Baptism.

Paedobaptists a name given to most denominations of Christians who baptize children (παῖς and βαριτίζω), in distinction from the self-styled "Baptists," who baptize only adults. *SEE PAEDOBAPTISM*.

Paedothysia (Gr. παῖς, παιδός*, a child, *and θυσία*, a sacrifice*) is a term used among the ancients to denote the sacrifice of children to the gods. *SEE SACRIFICE*.

Paelinck, Joseph an eminent Belgian painter, was born at Oostacker, near Ghent, in 1781. He first studied under professor Verhaegen at the academy in Ghent. He next went to Paris, and entered the school of David. On his return to Ghent he contended for the prize offered by the academy, which he obtained for his *Judgment of Paris, *and he was appointed professor of design in that institution. He shortly afterwards resigned his professorship and went to Rome, where he remained eight years, diligently studying the antique and the works of the great masters. He there distinguished himself by painting a large picture representing the embellishments of Rome by Augustus. On his return to his own country he executed many works for the churches and public edifices, as well as for individuals, which justly rank him among the most eminent of the modern Belgian painters. Among his most esteemed works on sacred subjects are, *The Finding of the Cross, *in the church of St. Michael at, Ghent: — *The Adoration of the Shepherds, *in the convent of La Trappe near Antwerp: — The *Flight into Egypt, *at Malines: — *The Departure of Tobit, *at Opbraekel: — The *Retuirn of Tobit, *from Maria Oudenhoven: — The *Assumption of the Virgin, *at Myuysen: — *The Disciples at Emmaus, *at Everghem: — The *Calvary, *at Oostacker, etc. These works are designed in a grand and elevated style, and display a profound knowledge of art. He is accused of over-fondness of academic display, but this blemish is more apparent in his profane subjects, although those of a sacred character are not entirely free from it.

Paenula *SEE PLANETA*.

Paeonia the healing goddess, a surname of *Athene, *under which she was worshipped at Athens. *SEE MINERVA*.

Paez, Gaspar a Spanish missionary, was born at Covilha, Andalusia, in 1582. He early became a member of the Society of Jesus, and was sent as a missionary first to Goa, then to Abyssinia (in 1628). After the death of the king, Melek-Seghed, in 1632, his son Facilidas, annoyed by troubles caused by the alleged unreasonableness of the missionaries, ordered Paez to leave his states. Paez thought he could elude the decree, and concealed himself for sometime, but was discovered and put to death, April 25, 1635. Some of his letters were published in the *Litterae Annuoe *(1624-1626). See Sotwel, *Bibl. Soc. Jesu.; *Geddes, *Church Hist. of Ethiopia.*

Paez, Pedro another Spanish missionary, was born at Olmedo, a town in New Castile, in 1564. Having completed his studies at the college of the Jesuitical order, which he had joined while yet a youth; he was appointed to the mission at Goa. He sailed for that port in 1587. At that time the numerous Portuguese who had resided in Abyssinia since the invasion of Christoval de Gama, being without a patriarch or spiritual director of any sort, sent to Goa for some priests, when Paez and another Jesuit, named Antonio Montserrat, were despatched by the governor. The two missionaries sailed from Goa in 1588; they touched at Diu, where they made some stay, disguised as Armenians. They then sailed for Muscat on April 5, 1588. From thence they made for the port of Zeila in Abyssinia; but on their passage thither they were boarded by an Arab pirate, in sight of Dofar (Feb. 14, 1589), and carried in irons to the capital of the king of Shael (Xaer in the Portuguese writers). They were at first kindly treated by this sovereign but he himself being a tributary to the Turkish pasha of Yemen, and bound by treaty to send him all the Portuguese who might fall into his hands, Paez and his companion were sent to Sanda, the capital of Yemen and the court of the pasha, where they passed seven years in the most dreadful captivity. At last released by the intercession of the viceroy of India, who obtained their liberty upon the payment of a thousand crowns ransom for each, the two missionaries returned to Goa in 1596. The ardor of Paez seems not to have been damped by his past sufferings; on the contrary, after spending several years at Diu and Camboya, he embarked a second time for Abyssinia, and landed at Masawa in April, 1603. His Arst object was to learn one of the most extensively used native dialects, the Gheez, in which he soon acquired such a proficiency as to be enabled to translate into it the compendium of the Christian doctrine written by Marcos George, and to instruct some native children in the dialogues which that work contains. In 1604 Za- Denghel, the reigning monarch of Abyssinia, hearing of the attainments of Paez and the proficiency of his pupils, ordered him to appear at his court with two of them, that he might judge for himself. Paez was kindly received by the king, who conferred upon him all sorts of honors and distinctions. On the following day a thesis was maintained in his royal presence, when Paez's pupils answered every point that was put to them by their opponents; the mass was next celebrated in conformity with the Romish ritual; after which Paez preached a sermon in Gheez, which so pleased the king that he gave himself a convert to Christianity, and wrote to the pope and to king Philip III, of Spain, praying them to send more missionaries, that all the people might speedily be brought to accept Christianity. No sooner was this royal wish made public than the Abyssinian priests, dreading the ascendency which Paez and his adherents had gained at court, excited a rebellion. The king was killed in battle October, 1604, but his successor Socinos, otherwise called Melek-Seghed, was even more favorable to the Christian cause. Soon after his accession to the throne he summoned to his presence Paez, who celebrated mass and preached before all his court, assembled for the purpose. The king was so much pleased with Paez that he gave him, besides a large piece of ground at Georgia, on a rocky peninsula on the south side of the lake Dembea, to build a monastery for his order, land and material to build a palace for himself. Thereupon, without the assistance of any European, but with the mere help of the natives working under his orders, Paez constructed a building which was the astonishment of those who beheld it. A spring-lock which he fixed upon one of the doors saved the king's life when an attempt was afterwards made to assassinate him. Paez lived in great intimacy with Socinos, whom he accompanied in all his military expeditions. It was on one of these occasions that he visited Nagnina, a town three days' march from the sources of the Nile, and surveyed the neighboring country — a fact which Bruce endeavored to discredit, for the purpose of appropriating to himself the glory of being the first European who visited the source of the Abarvi, then reputed to be the main branch of the Nile. Pedro Paez died in the beginning of May, 1612, just as his missionary labors were crowned with success, having persuaded the king to receive the general confession and repudiate all his wives but one. The Roman Catholic faith, thus introduced into Abyssinia, did not long remain the religion of the state. After the death of Socinos (1632), his successor, Facilidas, persecuted the Jesuits and re-established the old creed, which- was Christianity, though in a corrupt form. Besides the translation of the catechism written by Marcos George, and other tracts, into the native dialect of Abyssinia, Nicolas Antonio (*Bib. Nov. *2, 225) attributes to Paez a treatise *De Abyssinorum Erroribus, *a general history of Ethiopia, which was supposed to exist in manuscript at Rome, and several letters which have been published in the collection entitled *Littere Annuoe. *See *Historia da Ethiopa a altai *by Manoel de Almeida, MS., in the British Museum, No. 9861, fol. 195; Ludolf, *Historia Ethiopica; *Bruce, *Travels; *Salt, *Abyssinia English Cyclop. *s.v.

Paganalia is the name of an annual Roman festival, celebrated by the inhabitants of each of the *pagi *or districts into which the country was divided from the time of Numa.

Paganelli, Niccolo an Italian painter, was born at Faenza in 1538, and died in 1620. It is not known under whom he studied; but, according to Oretti, he was an excellent artist of the Roman school. Lanzi says that some attribute to him a fine picture of St. Martino in the cathedral, supposed to be the work of Luca Longhi, and that his genuine works are recognised by the initials N. X. P. See Spooner, Biog. *Hist. of the Fine Arts, *ii, 641.

Pagani, Gregorio an Italian painter, was the son of Francesco Pagani, and was born at Florence in 1558. He first studied under Santo di Titi, and afterwards with Lodovico Cardi, called Cigoli, whose style he adopted. Lanzi says he was praised by strangers as a second Cigoli, and that he was much employed by them; hence there are only a few of his pictures at Florence. His most celebrated work, the *Finding of the Cross, *in the Carmine, which .has been engraved, was destroyed with that edifice by fire. He painted a few frescos, all of which have perished, except one in the cloister of Sta. Maria Novella, commended by Lanzi, though injured by time. He died in 1605.

Pagani, Vincenzio an Italian painter, was a native of Monte-Rubbiano, in Picenum, of whom there are notices from 1529 to 1553. Colucci, in his *Memorie de Monte-* *Rubbiane, *says he was a scholar of Raphael. He executed many works for the churches in the Roman territory, particularly in his native place, at Fallerone, and at Sarnano. One of his most beautiful works is the *Assumption of the Virgin, *in the collegiate church at Monte-Rubbiano, designed and executed entirely in the manner of Raphael. The Padre Civalli highly extols two of his works in the church of his order at Sarnano. In 1553 he was, employed to paint the altar-piece of the Capella degli Oddi, in the church of the Conventualists at Perugia, which is highly commended. In consequence probably of his secluded life, little is known of this artist except his works, which are of a high character. Lanzi and others doubt whether he was really a scholar of Raphael, but rather think he formed his style by contemplating his works.

Paganism a term synonymous with *heathenism *and *polytheism *(q.v.), is used to denote the non-Biblical religions of the world-that is to say, all those religious notions not *called out *by the revealed Scriptures. Hence the whole human race may be said to be divided into *Jews, Mohammedans, Christians, *and *Pagans.* The word *paganism *comes from the Latin *word pagus, *a country district, a canton, the adjective from which, *paganus, *denoted *pertaining *to such a *pagus; *then *not a soldier; *then *boorish, *or unlearned; and, finally, among the Christian writers, one *not *a Christian, Jew, or Mohammedan. Its application in the last sense, which it now continues to hold, is thus accounted for: When Christianity gradually became the religion alike of the Romans, empire and of the conquerors who embraced its civilization, those who obstinately clung to the old idolatry were called, both in Latin and in the Teutonic speech, by names which in themselves expressed, not error in religion, but inferiority of social state: the worshipper of Jupiter or of Woden was called in Latin mouths a *pagan, *in Teutonic mouths a *heathen. *The two names well set forth the two distinct standards of civilization which were held by those who spoke the two languages. The *paganus *was the man of the country, as opposed to the man of the city. The Gospel was first preached in the towns, and the towns became Christian, while the open country around them still adhered to the old gods. Hence the name of the *pagan, *the rustic, the man who stood outside the higher social life of the city, came to mean the men who stood outside the pale of the purer faith of the Church. In the England of the 6th century, and in the Eastern Germany of the 8th, no such distinction, however, could be drawn. If all who dwelt within the walls of a city had remained without the pale of the Church, the Church would have had few votaries indeed among the independent Teutons. In their ideas the opposition between the higher and the lower stage was not the opposition between the man of the city and the man of the country; it was the opposition between the man of the occupied and cultivated land and the wild man of the wilderness. The cities, where there were any, and the villages and settled land generally, became Christian, while the rude men of the *heath *still served Woden and Thunder. The worshippers of Woden and Thunder were therefore called *heathens. Pagan *and *heathen, then, *alike mark the misbeliever as belonging to a lower social stage than the Christian, But the standard of social superiority which is assumed differs in the two cases. The one is the standard of a people with whom the city is the centre of the whole social life; and the .other is the standard of a people among whom the city, if it was to be found at all, was simply the incidental dwelling-place of a part of the nation which was in no way privileged over those who dwelt beyond its bounds (comp. Gibbon, *Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, *ch. 21; Freeman, *Hist. of the Norman Conquest, *4:415). The relation of the Christian Church to the various forms of paganism, or, better, polytheism, which it has sought to supplant, and continues seeking to supplant, is a subject of great importance to the student of ecclesiastical history. But we have not sufficient room to enter here into a detailed account of paganism. We must content ourselves with saying that the principal pagan religions of the world are briefly defined as follows: Those of Japan, Buddhism and Sintoism; of China, Buddhism and Confucianism; of Tartany, Lamaism; of India, Brahminism. Buddismsm, Thuggism, and the'religion of thb Parsees; of Persia, Mohammedanism and the Zoroastrian religion; of Africa, Feticlism; of Polynesia, image-worship and hero- worship; of the ancient aborigines of Lapland, Greenland, and North America, a peculiar combination of spirit and fetich worship, described under the article INDIANS. For an account of these various forms of paganism, see the articles treating of the different countries mentioned, and of the various religious systems mentioned in that connection. The entire pagan population of the world is estimated in Johnson's *Family Atlas *at 766,342,000, distributed as follows: America 3,899,000 Asia 666,251,000 Africa 94,972,000 Australasia and Polynesia 1,220,000 766,342,000 Against this there is an estimated Christian population, including Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Greek communions, of 369,969,000; a Mohammedan population of 160,823,000; and a Jewish population of 6,000,000. In this place we confine ourselves to that form of paganism with which Christianity came in contact immediately after its organization and propagation, i.e. the paganism of the Roman empire, and those powers organized and controlled by institutions of a like standard of civilization. For the paganism of the remaining world, in its relation to Christianity, *SEE FETICHISM; SEE POLYTHEISM*. **I. ***Pagan Theology. — *The theology of these pagans, according to their own writers, e.g. Scaevola and Varro was of three forms. The first of these may well be called *fabulous, *as treating of the theology and genealogy of their deities, in which they say such things as are unworthy of deity; ascribing to them thefts, murders, adulteries, and all manner of crimes; and therefore this kind of theology is condemned by the wiser sort of heathens as nugatory and scandalous. The writers of this sort of theology were Sanchoniatho, the Phoenician; and among the Greeks, Orpheus, Hesiod, Pherecydes, etc. The second sort, called *physic, *or natural, was studied and taught by the philosophers, who, rejecting the multiplicity of gods introduced by the poets, brought their theology to a more natural and rational form, and supposed that there was but one supreme god, which they commonly made to be the sun — at least this was an emblem of him — but at too great a distance to mind the affairs of the world: they therefore devised certain daemons, which they considered as mediators between the supreme god and man; and the doctrine of these daemons, to which the apostle is thought to allude in 1Ti 4:1, was what the philosophers had a concern with. They treated of their nature, office, and regard to men; as did Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, and the Stoics. The third form, called *politic, *or civil, was instituted by legislators, statesmen, and politicians — such as, first among the Romans, Numa Pompilius: it chiefly respected their gods, temples, altars, sacrifices, and rites of worship, and was properly' an idolatry, the care of which belonged to the priests, and this was enjoined upon the common people, to keep them in obedience to the civil state. Thus things continued in the Gentile world until the light of the Gospel was sent among them. The times before were *times of ignorance, *as the apostle calls them: men were ignorant of the true God, and of the worship of him; and of the Messiah, and salvation by him. Their state is truly described (Eph 2:12) that they were then "without Christ; aliens from the commonwealth of Israel; strangers from the covenants of promise; having no hope, and without God in the world.;" and, consequently, their theology was insufficient for their salvation. **II. ***Paganism combated by Christianity. *— The contest between Christianity and paganism. so far as the circumstances of it are known, was almost as much a contest between the civil authorities of the Roman empire and the religion, as between Christianity and the old religions of the civilized world. Of all that took place with respect to conflicts between the new and old religions in countries adjoining the Roman empire, such as the Parthian empire in the West and the Germanic nations in the North, we know next to nothing. But within the bounds of the Roman empire itself Christianity was a standing, enemy of many existing institutions ill every country, and these institutions being upheld by the state, Christians came to be looked upon, in respect to their religion, as national enemies wherever they existed. It was part of the policy of the Roman empire, as is well known, to tolerate all national religions within the boundaries of the nations which professed them, but this toleration was, suspended when these religions began to exercise a proselyting influence beyond their national boundaries. Now it was an essential characteristic of Christianity that it was a proselyting religion. Its teachers acted under the especial commission, "Go ye into all the world, and make disciples of every creature," and no other religion ever showed such an aggressive nature. Thus Christianity was, in *limine, *a foe to the existing religious institutions of the world, as they were looked at from a statesman's point of view;. But, more than this, Christianity refused to become a peaceable member of any eclectic system. The scepticism of the academies was superseded during the early spread of Christianity by an eclecticism originating with Ammonius Saccas and his disciples, the NeoPlatonists. This system 'became extremely fashionable among the intellectual classes in the more learned regions of the Roman empire. It was an attempt, a last attempt, of heathenism to work itself into an alliance with a foe of whom an inner conviction seemed to say that he would in the end prove too strong for it. But Christianity would not come to terms. It would not even consent to the drawing up of preliminaries for a treaty of peace. The words of its Master were continually illustrated by all Christian missionaries, "I came not to send peace, but a sword." Christianity sought not toleration, not compromise, but universal supremacy. Thus, theoretically at least, the contest between Christianity and paganism was a war which could only end by the extermination of one or the other, and the process of resistance to extermination on the part of paganism was that which constituted the substance of the struggle between it and Christianity. But, apart from this general antagonism between the two religious systems, there was a special institution of the empire, its *official *religion, with which Christians came into fatal conflict almost by accident. This official religion had more of the rising eclecticism in it than of the old decaying polytheism, but it was little concerned with moral or theological principles, its one prominent requirement being the recognition of the emperor as an object of worship. The sacrifice of a few grains of incense to him was the test of religious obedience. To frequent the temples, to offer sacrifices to the gods, to take part in the mysteries, might be parts of religious practice, and every one was at liberty to adopt them as he pleased. But *public *piety, that which established a citizen as, qua religion, a good citizen, was the religious veneration of the emperor. neither more nor less. Thus the religion of Christians when tried by this test. was necessarily open to misconstruction. To burn incense to the emperor was idolatry; not to burn it seemed to be disloyalty and rebellion. They who would gladly have taken an oath of allegiance, if it had been offered to them simply as such, refused with an unyielding firmness to do so when it was presented to them under the form of an idolatrous rite. It seems strange that the astute statesmanship of the empire did not devise some means by which men so really loyal to it as were the early Christians might be permitted to live in peace; but perhaps the explanation is to be found in the fact that the kingship and kingdom of Christ were ideas which entered largely into their religious teaching, and formed a prominent idea in the popular theory of the multitude. Such an idea would look like rebellious rivalry to the mind of a Roman statesman- one who would never be able to appreciate the force of such words as "My kingdom is not of this world"-and thus his only antidote to that worship of Christ which recognised him as the king of the Christians, though an invisible one, would be a repudiation of him by adoption of the visible emperor as their *numen. *If the novel custom of deifying the living emperor had not been invented, the Christians could have declared their allegiance to him without any hesitation, as is shown by the *Apologies; *and in such a case it is not improbable that they might, so far as public authority was concerned, have been tolerated in their religion, provided its proselyting principles had not caused any disturbance of public order. **III. ***Popular Paganism and Christianity. *— At the same time that Christianity was thus opposed to the state religion of the empire, it was also in a position of strongly aggressive opposition to the popular religion of every country within its boundaries, that of the Jews alone being, and that only for a short time, an exception. Whether the popular religion was polytheism or some of the many varieties of fetichism, it was certain to be denounced as false by Christian teachers, and as so entirely false that nothing would satisfy Christianity except the entire abolition of what was denounced. Thus Christians arrayed against themselves a large class in those whose personal interest it was that the old religion should be maintained, and in the bulk of the ignorant among the people at large, whom stolid habits and unreasoning prejudice would enlist against innovators to whom no religion seemed sacred. Such a position of antagonism to the old religions was as essential to Christianity as uncompromising opposition to Baal was essential to Elijah; and even when Christians were not aggressive by positive opposition, their negative opposition was necessarily conspicuous. For the rites of polytheism were not confined to the temples; they pervaded all the customs of social and public life. Christians were prevented from attending the public games by the association of idolatrous rites with them; "the many images, the long line of statues, the chariots of all sorts, the thrones, the crowns, the dresses" by the preceding sacrifices and the procession. "It may be grand or mean," says Tertullian; "no matter, any circus performance is offensive to God. Though there be few images to grace it, there is idolatry in one; though there be no more than a single sacred car, it is a chariot of Jupiter; and anything whatever of idolatry, whether meanly arrayed or modestly rich and gorgeous, taints it in its origin" (*De Spectac. *c. 7). The theatres were equally. forbidden, for "its services of voice and song and lute and pipe belong to Apollos and. Muses, and Minervas and Mercuries, . . . and the arts are consecrated to the honor of the beings who dwell in the names of their founders" (*ibid. *c.x). Even in the intercourse of private life, the Lares and Penates of the hall, the libations. of the dinner-table, the very phraseology with which ordinary conversation was largely decorated, all partook of the nature of idolatry (Tertullian, *De Idol.c. *15 ,17, 21, 22), and the necessities of their anti-idolatrous principles thus secluded Christians from the social assemblies of their heathen acquaintance, and made them in many respects a separate community. Above all, Christianity was the deadly foe of a widespread immorality, the extent of which is almost inconceivable. Polytheism was always a religion of mere ceremony, unassociated, as a religion, with any moral law. Hence the most religious man in the sense of polytheism might be a shameless profligate, emulating the gods to whom he sacrificed in their reputed licentiousness, and guilty (as was Socrates) of crimes against which even nature revolts (id. *Apol.c.* 46). Vices of this class were terribly common among the Romans of early imperial times, and are exposed with scornful indignation by Tertullian in *his Apology. *Something of the extent to which profligacy was carried may also be seen by his denunciation of infanticide, in one bold sentence of which he says: "How many, think you, of those crowding around and gaping for Christian blood; how many even of your rulers, notable for their justice to you and for their severe measures against us, may I charge in their own consciences with the sin of putting their offspring to death?" (*ibid. *c. ix). Against the class of crimes thus indicated, Christianity protested by word and example, Tertullian fearlessly declaring in respect to the latter that Christians were conspicuous for "a persevering and steadfast chastity." Popular habits and customs being thus so contrary to the spirit of Christianity, it could not fail that a very strong opposition must have been offered to its progress; and although vast multitudes were quickly gathered to the standard of the Cross, there was still a large and influential mass of the population in every country of the empire who looked upon it as the sign of an institution which sought the abolition of their cherished customs and habits, which made its disciples bad citizens and bad neighbors, and which was therefore to be hated and, if possible, extinguished. **IV. ***Pagan Philosophy and Christianity. — *Apart from the ruling powers of the empire, and from those classes which formed the bulk of the nations composing it, there was also a considerable class of highly educated men, especially in Rome and Alexandria, on whom old fashioned polytheism had no hold, but who yet set themselves against Christianity. Among such were the Epicurean Celsus, who wrote a comprehensive work, *The Word of Truth *(now known only by Origen's refutation of it), against the new faith; the cynic Crescens *--*φιλοψόφος καὶ φιλοκόμπος *— the boasting* *braggadocio *of Justin Martyr's Apology (Just., Mart. *Apol. *ii, 3; *Euseb.* 4:5); Trypho the Jew, against whom the same apologist wrote an important work, his *Dialogue with Trypho; *and Lucian the satirist, who opposed Christianity as a superstition unworthy of intellectual men (Lucian, *De Morte Peregrin. *c. 11-16). Indeed, the contemptuous manner in which grave writers like Pliny, Tacitus, and Suetonius mention the new faith seems to show that the literary class in general was opposed to it, and did not even think it worth while to make any effective inquiry in regard to its principles. That they gradually learned to feel more respect for it is shown by the rise of the eclectic school of the Neo-Platonists; but even among these there were bitter opponents of Christianity, though there are indeed others who theoretically adopted a large portion of its principles. *SEE ECLECTICISM; SEE NEO-PLATONISM*. **V. ***Persecutions of Christians by Pagans. — *The broadest and most evident form of .the struggle for life and supremacy between paganism and Christianity was that of the continuous attempt of the former to suppress the latter by force. In this the state and. the populace co-operated, and there is no reason to think that the intellectual classes and philosophers held aloof. The first approach to a general persecution was that begun at Rome under Nero (Tertull. *Apol. *c.v). St. Paul's account of his own sufferings (2Co 6:18), his reference to the amphitheatre at Ephesus (1Co 15:32), to actual persecution of Christians (1Co 4:9, and perhaps in Heb 11:35-38), to the position of the apostles as the "off scouring of the earth," to the "much tribulation" through which the faithful entered into rest, to his deliverance "out of the mouth of the lion," all seem to shows that the struggle between paganism and Christianity had begun even in apostolic times. But it is probable that persecution then was of a local kind, arising out of charges made by Jews against Christians, for whom they entertained a deadly hatred. Suetonius mentions, indeed, that the Jews were driven out of Rome by Claudius on account of an insurrection raised by one "Chrestus," probably one of the many false Christs that rose up at this period, and Christians who were not Jews may have been expelled with them, though anything like a Christian insurrection (as the historian's words are sometimes interpreted) was so alien to the spirit of the early Christians as to be beyond probability. After the great fire of Rome in the year 64, Nero, however (who is said by Dion and Suetonius to have been himself the incendiary), accused the Christians of causing it, and brought upon them a terrible stream of indignation from the excited Romans. Tacitus wrote his annals about thirty years after that, and he describes their sufferings in a few graphic words. Nero, invited the citizens to a festival in the imperial gardens (now the Vatican), and the chief spectacle which he then offered them was the martyrdom of their hated neighbors. Some were sewn in the skins of wild beasts, and torn to pieces by dogs; some crucified: some burned to death; some smeared over with inflammable substances, and used as torches or bonfires to light up the gardens after dark. This persecution lasted for four years, and there can be no doubt that it was carried on in other cities as well as at Rome. During the course of it the apostle Peter was one of those who were crucified in the gardens of Nero, and Paul was beheaded a short distance out of Rome. How many others went to make up the grand vanguard of the army of martyrs it is impossible to say, but the words of the heathen historian point to a great multitude rather than to a merely considerable number. It is usual to reckon ten periods of persecution, at intervals, spreading over the latter half of the 1st the 2d, the 3d, and the 4th centuries. But this enumeration is arbitrary, and cannot be supported by historical evidence. During the whole of that time there was persecution going on in some part of the empire, although emperors like Hadrian, Vespasian, Titus, Nerva, and Trajan (Tertull. *Apol. *c.v) were unlikely to give it: any encouragement. Yet Pliny's famous letter to Trajan (Pliny Epp. 10:96) shows that it was difficult to save Christians from the popular cry for their extermination; and the martyrdom of St. Cyprian is another illustration of the same fact. The last and most terrible of the general persecutions was that which immediately preceded the accession of Constantine, when it seemed as if Diocletian had nearly accomplished his object of destroying the very name of Christian. It is not the purpose of this article, however, to go into any details respecting these periods of persecution, and the subject may be dismissed with the following table, which represents the conclusions that may be arrived at from the examination of historical-data: **A. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF PAGAN PERSECUTIONS.** **64-65 **Under Nero: 'Martyrdom of St. Peter and St. Paul (Tertull. *Apol. *v; Euseb. *Hist. Eccl. *ii, 25). **95-96 **Under Domitian: Banishment of St. John (Euseb. *Hist. Eccl. *iii, 17- 18). **104-117 **Under Trajan: Martyrdom of St. Ignatius (Euseb. *Hist. Eccl. *iii, 36). **161-180 **Under Marcus Aurelius: Martyrdom of St. Polycarp and the martyrs of Lyons (Euseb. *Hist. Eccl. *4:15 v, 1). **200-211 **Under Severns: Martyrdom of St. Perpetua and others in Africa (Euseb. *Hist. Eccl. *6:1, 4, 5). **250-253 **Under Decius: Martyrdom of St. Fabian (Euseb. *Hist Eccl. *6:41- 42). **257-260 **Under Valerian: Martyrdom of St. Cyprian (Eu seb. *Hist. Eccl.* 7:10, 11, 12). **303-313 **Under Diocletian, Galerius, and Maximian: Martyrdom of St. Alban (Euseb. *Hist. Eccl. *8:1-17; 9:1-11; Bede, *Hist. Eccl. *i, 6, 7). **VI. ***The Decline of Paganism. — *The long and bitter struggle between the paganism and the Christianity of the Roman empire came to a close with Constantine's victory over Maxentius. As early as A.D. 311 Galerius had been terrified by a shocking and mortal disease to issue a decree, in which he, with the emperors Constantine and Licinius, directed that persecution should cease, that churches should be rebuilt, and that the Christians should be allowed to worship in peace (Eusebius, *Hist. Eccl. *8:17). But the execution of this decree was much hindered by Maximin and Maxentius, and it was only on their defeat by Licinius and Constantine that a real toleration began. After that event (A.D. 313). the emperors immediately published the famous Edict of Milan (Eusebius, *Hist. Eccl. *10:5; Lactantius, *De Mort. Persecut. *48), in which the previous decree was rigidly enforced and all persecutions entirely suppressed. In the year 321 a severe blow was given to expiring paganism by an edict in which the emperor established the Lord's-day as a public festival. and a day of abstinence from labor. When Constantine became sole emperor, in A.D. 324, he issued one in a still more decided tone, in which he exhorted all his subjects throughout the empire to forsake paganism and worship Christ only; and from that time he and his successors ruled the empire as Christian emperors. Before the end of the 4th century paganism had become so much weakened and the Christian population so decidedly predominant that the emperors were able to take measures towards its final suppression. Theodosius (A.D. 381) forbade apostasy to paganism and suppressed its sacrifices, though still tolerating its minor rites (*Cod. Theodos. *16:7), the Western emperors, Gratian and Valentinian, following his example. When Theodosins became sole emperor (A.D. 392), he forbade all kinds of idolatry under severe penalties (*ibid. *10, 12). The last traces of paganism died out in the Eastern empire in the first quarter of the 5th century (*ibid.* 10, 22), and its final extinction in the West was at the same time effected by the supremacy of the Northern invaders. If since that age Christianity has lost its ground, it has not been to the old paganism, but to its Eastern successor, Mohammedanism. The former never revived after the time of its last great effort to gain supremacy in the Diocletian persecution, and for nearly three centuries the empire was wholly Christian. See Kortholt, *De Religione Ethnica; *Rudiger, *De Statu Paganorum; *Tzschirner, *Fall des Heidenthums; *Dollinger, *Judaism and Paganism *Milman, *Hist. of Latin Christianity, *vol. 1; Hardwick, *Church Hist. of the Middle Ages *(see Index); Maclear, *Hist. of Christian Missions, *p. 5 sq.; Merivale, *Conversion of the Northern Nations; *Schaff, *Ch. Hist. *2, 67-71; Pritchard, *Egyptian Mythology *(designed to illustrate the *origin *of paganism).

Pagasaeus is a surname of *Apollo, *derived from Pagasus, a town of Thessaly, where he had a temple.

Page, David Cook, D.D. a Protestant Episcopal clergyman, was, in 1853, rector of a church in Memphis, Tennessee; about 1858 removed to Allegheny, Penn., as rector of Christ Church, and there remained during the greater part of the rest of his life. A short time previous to his death he became rector of Trinity Church, Natchez, Miss. He died in Allegheny City, Pennsylvania, May 7, 1878, aged seventy-six years. See *Prot. Episc. Almanac, *1879, page 170.

Page, Durand one of the French *Illuminati *(q.v.), was born at Aubais, in Languedoc, in 1681. After the suppression of the Camisards in 1705, he submitted to the Church authorities, and was taken across the frontier to Germany, whence he passed to Holland, and in 1706 went to London. He died, probably, in England about the middle of the 18th century, leaving a work entitled *Theatre Sacrs des Cevennes *(Lond. 1707, 12mo); reprinted under the title *Les Prophetes Protestants *(Paris, 1847, 8vo).

Page, Edward a minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born in Burlington County, N. J., April 19, 1787; was converted in 1807; licensed to preach in 1811; and, called of God to the ministry, joined in April, 1817, the Philadelphia Conference which then occupied the entire ground now covered by the Philadelphia, New Jersey, and Newark conferences. From the year 1817 to the year 1852, a period of thirty-five years, Mr. Page travelled as follows: Essex and Staten Island, 1817; Salem Circuit, 1818- 19; Lewiston, Del., 1820-21; Trenton Circuit, 1822; Cumberland Circuit, 1823-24; New Castle, Del., 1825; Cecil Md., 1826; Gloucester Circuit, 1827-28; Chester Circuit, Pa., 1829-30; Bristol, Pa., 1831-32; Camder Circuit, 1833; Moorestown, 1834; Freehold, 1835; New Egypt, 1836; Bargaintown, 1837-38; Freehold, 183940; Columbus, 1841-42; Flemington, 1843; Clinton, 1844; Asbury, 1845-46; Columbus, 1847; Tom's River, 1848-49; Moorestown, 1850-51; then as supernumerary or superannuated he resided at Trenton, N. J. until his death in March, 1867. He was a truly devoted Christian minister, laboring early and late for the flock under his care, and thousands revere his memory as blessed. See *Minutes of the Annual Conferences, *1867. Page; Harlan, a devoted American Christian layman, noted for his philanthropic labors, was born at Coventry, Conn., July 28, 1791. He was the only son of pious parents; received a good education, and was taught by his father the trade of a house-joiner. He was converted in 1813, and united with the Church in 1834. After a further residence of five years in his native town, he removed to Boston, where he remained a short time. He then returned to Coventry, but, after spending three years, he took up his abode in Jewett City; later he engaged in the business of engraving at Andover. In 1825 he was appointed agent of the General Depository of the American Tract Society in New York, which was formed in that year and he held this position till his death in 1834. Harlan Page embraced every opportunity of doing good to his fellow-men, and made use of many instrumentalities. The means which he employed were writing letters, distributing tracts, teaching in or superintending Sabbath-schools, holding prayer-meetings, and personal conversation with those around him. The numerous letters which he wrote to unconverted persons are models of personal exhortation and appeal. Plain, but courteous; pointed, but kind and gentle, they seldom failed to produce lasting impressions and convictions. It is said that he was instrumental in the conversion of more than one hundred persons. See *Memoir of arlan Page *(published by the American Tract Society).

Page, Joseph Rusling, D.D. a Presbyterian minister, was born in New Brunswick, N.J., August 1, 1817. He united with the Methodists at sixteen years of age, studied in Auburn Theological Seminary two years (1841-43); was preacher at Plymouth, N.Y., in 1838, pastor at Perry, from 1839 to 1841, from 1843 to 1857, and from 1859 to 1868; in the interim at Stratford, Connecticut (1857-59), thereafter financial agent of Ingham University; resident at East Avon, N.Y., five years, and pastor at Brightoni from 1875 until his death at Rochester, December 17, 1884. See *Genesis Cat. of Auburn Theol. Sem.* 1883, page 75.

Page, Samuel an English divine who flourished in the first half of the 17th century as vicar of Deptford, and died in 1630, is noted as the author of a number of sermons which are read to this day for their elegance of style. He also wrote several theological treatises.(Lond. 1609-39). See *Athen. Oxon. *(see Index).

Page, William an English divine of note, was born at Harrow-on-the-Hill, in Middlesex, and was educated at Baliol College, Oxford, whence he was elected a fellow of All-Souls. In 1629 he was appointed master of the Free School at Reading, which preferment he retained for almost ten years, when he was deprived of it by the Dissenters and the Revolutionists. He was appointed by his college to the living of East Leaking, Berkshire, and held it until his death in 1663. He wrote *A Treatise in Justification of Bowing at the Name* *of Jesus, *by way of answer to an Appendix against that custom (Oxford, 1631, 4to); and also *an Examination of such considerable Reasons as are made by Mr. Prynne in a Reply to Mr. Widdowes concerning the same Argument, *printed with the former. He was also the author of *Certain Animadversions upon some Passages in a Tract concerning Schism and Schismatics, *by Mr. Hales of Eton (Oxon. 1642, 4to); and the *Peacemaker, or a Brief Motive to Unity and Charity in Religion. *He likewise published a translation of Thomas a Kempis 1639, 12mo), with a large epistle to the reader. See book, *Eccles. Biog. *7:490,491.

Pagendarm, Johann Gerhard a Lutheran theologian of Germany, was born at Lubeck, December 2, 1681. He studied at Wittenberg, and acted for some time as preacher at different places. In 1730 he commenced his academical career at. Jena, and died May 23,1754. He wrote, *De Codice Judeorum Olsnensiun Ebraeo *(Jena, 1730): — *De Hebdomatibus Danielis *(1745): — *De*אבי מלכה *et *אבי יסכה *Genesis 11:*29, in the *Bibliotheca Lubecensis, *6, No. 5. See Doring, *Die gelehrten Theologen Deutschlands, *s.v.; Furst, *Bibl. Jud.* 3:62; Jocher, *Allemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon, *s.v. (B.P.)

Paget *SEE PAGIT*.

Paggi, Giovanni Battista a noted Italian painter, was born of an ancient and noble family at Genoa in 1554. He was the pupil of Luca Cambiaso, and was distinguished chiefly as a painter, though he attained to distinction also as a sculptor and architect. About 1580 he was obliged to flee from Genoa in consequence of an unfortunate homicide which the absurd conduct of a friend brought upon him. Paggi went to Florence, and, under the protection of the grand-dukes Francesco I and Ferdinando, lived there in peace and with reputation. He was recalled through archbishop Sinnasio, afterwards cardinal, to Genoa about 1600, where he executed several excellent works, and gave a great impulse, especially in coloring, to the Genoese school of painting, of which he was the best master in his time. Paggi died in 1627. His masterpieces are two pictures in San Bartolomeo, and the *Slaughter of the Innocents, *belonging to the Doria family, painted in 1606. In 1607 he published a. short treatise on the theory of painting.

Pagi, Anthony a noted French ecclesiastical writer, was born at Rogua, a small town in Provence, in 1624. He took the monk's habit in the convent of the Cordeliers at Arles in 1641. After he had finished the usual course of studies in philosophy and divinity, he preached a while, and was at length made four successive times provincial of his order. These occupations did not hinder him from devoting time to the study of chronology and ecclesiastical history, branches of learning in which he excelled., His most considerable work is entitled, *Critica historico-chronologica in Annales* *ecclesiasticos Baronii, *in which, following that learned cardinal year by year, he has rectified a great number of mistakes, both in chronology and in facts. Pagi published the first volume of this work, containing the four first centuries, at Paris in 1689, with a dedication to the clergy of Francs, who allowed him a pension. The whole work was printed after his death in four volumes folio, at Anvers, or rather at Geneva, in 1705, by the care of his nephew, Francis Pagi, of the same order. It is carried to the year 1198, where Baronius ends. Pagi was greatly assisted in it by the abbe Longuerue, who also wrote the eulogy of our author which is prefixed to the Geneva edition. This *Critique *is of great utility; but the author, too fond of striking out something new, has given a chronology of the popes of the first three centuries which is not approved by the critics, and more or less impeaches his reliability as a historian. His style is simple, but his matter evinces study and care. Pagi was in correspondence with the learned of his time in France and in England. Among his friends were Stillingfleet, Spanheim, Dodwell, cardinal Noris, etc. He died in 1699. See Niceron, *Memoires, *vol. 1 and 17; Ersch u. *Guber, Encyklo. *s.v. (J. H.W.)

Pagi, Francois nephew of the preceding, also a distinguished French ecclesiastic, was born at Lapbesc, in Provence, in 1654. He was educated first by 'the priests of the Oratory at Toulon, and then by his uncle, who inspired the. boy with a desire to serve the Church. Francois entered the Order of the Cordeliers, and, after teaching philosophy for some time, sought further mental development under the guidance of his uncle, and thus became that learned man's assistant in his *Critique *on Baronius's *Annals. *Franois then laid the plan of a work of his own, which he afterwards published under the title *Breviarium Histor. chronol. crit., illustr. pontif. Roman. gesta, concilior. general. acta, nec non comnplura tunm sacror. rituum, turn antiquce eccles. disciplince, capita complectens *(1717-1747). In it Pagi manifests great zeal for ultramontane theology and the exaltation of the papacy. He died at Orange Jan. 21, 1721. See Niceron, *Memoires, *vol. 7. s.v.

Pa'giel (Heb. *Pagiel', *פִּגעַיאֵל, *chance *or *event of God; *Sept. Φαγιήλ*,* Nu 1:13; elsewhere Φαγεήλ), son of Ocran, and chief man of the tribe of Asher at the time of the Exode, appointed with others to command in war (Nu 1:13; Nu 2:27; Nu 7:72,77; Nu 10:26). B.C. 1658.

Pagit (Or Paget), Ephraim an English divine, son of Eusebius, was born in London in 1585, and was educated at Christ Church, Oxford. He obtained the living of St. Edmund the King, in Lombard Street, London, of which he was deprived at the Rebellion. He retired to Deptford, where he died in 1647. Pagit was noted as a linguist. He wrote *Christianographia, or a Description of the Sundrie Sorts of Christians in the World not subject to the Pope, *etc. (London, 1635): — *Hearesiographia, or a Description of the Heresies of Later Times *(1645): *— Sermon on St. Matthew *7:15 (1645). See Allibone, *Dict. of Brit. and Amer. Authors, *s.v.; Hook, *Eccles. Biog. *s.v.

Pagit (Or Paget), Eusebius an English Puritan minister and writer, was born at Crawford, in Northamptonshire, about 1542. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford. After taking holy orders in the Church Establishment he became successively vicar of Orundle and rector of Langton, in his native county; afterwards he removed to the living of Kilhampton, in Cornwall; and lastly to St. Anne and St. Agnes, London, in 1604. He died in 1617. He published some sermons and theological works, of which the following are the best known: *A Harmonie upon the Three Evangelists, Matthew, Mark, and Luke *(London, 1584), translated from Calvin: *The History of the Bible, briefly collected by way of Question and Answer, *printed at the end of several old editions of the Bible. See *Athen. Oxon.; *Brook's *Puritans; *Fuller's *Worthies; *Lloyd's *Worthies; *Strype's *Whitgift; *Allibone, *Dict. of Briit. and Amer. Authors, *s.v.; Thomas, *Dict. of Biog. and Mythol. *s.v*.*; Hook, *Eccles. Biog. *s.v.

Paglia, Francesco an Italian painter, was born at Brescia in 1636. He was a scholar of Guercino, whose manner he Imitated. Lanzi says he was excellent in laying on his colors, admirable in his chiaroscuro, but he displayed little spirit, and his proportions were frequently too long and slender. His best work is an altar-piece in the church of La Carita. He excelled in portraits, which are distinguished for truth of character, great purity of color, and uncommon relief. Orlandi Says he was living in 1700; others, that he died about 1700; and Zani, that he died in 1713.

Pagni, Benedetto an Italian painter, was a native of Pescia, and studied in the school of Giulio Romano at Rome. He accompanied that master to Mantua, where he assisted him in his works. He acquired considerable distinction as a historical painter, and executed some works for the churches. Lanzi says his picture of the *Martyrdom of St. Lorenzo, *in the church of St. Andrea, at Mantua, is worthy of the school of his master. Many pictures are claimed to have been executed by him in his native city, but Lanzi thinks that the *Marriage at Cana, *in the collegiate church, and the facade of the house of the Pagni family, are the only genuine ones. Zani says he painted from 1525 to 1570.

Pagninus, Sanctes an Italian monk, noted as a Hebraist and exegete, by Buxtorf called "Vir linguarum Orientalium peritissimus," was born at Lucca in 1466. He became a Dominican in 1486, and was the pupil of Savonarola and others famous in theology and Oriental learning at Fiesoli, where his rapid progress won the esteem of cardinal de Medici, afterwards Leo X. Having received holy orders, Pagninus devoted himself to the duties of the pulpit, and the persuasive earnestness of his preaching made many celebrated converts under Leo X he was professor of a school of Oriental literature, founded by that pontiff at Rome: but after Leo's decease he accompanied the cardinal-legate to Avignon, and subsequently removed to Lyons, where he became a zealous opponent of the Reformed religion, and was the means of founding a hospital for the plague. He died there in 1541, honored and regretted by rich and poor. The learned works of Pagninus have been highly esteemed by some, severely criticised by others. **(1.) **He published at Lyons, in 1528, *Veteris et novi Testamenti nova translatio, *which had been the labor of thirty years, and was to have been published at the expense of Leo X had he lived to see it finished. In the preface he details the care which he had taken to make the work perfect. It is the first Latin Bible in which the verses of each chapter are distinguished and numbered as in the original, and is remarkable for the extreme closeness with which the Latin is made to follow and take the shape of the Hebrew idiom. Richard Simon charges him with this as a fault, saying that it not only makes his language obscure and barbarous', but sometimes changes the sense of the original. Servetus published a folio edition of this work, which he infected with his own errors, at Lyons in 1642. That of Arias Montanus, in the Antwerp Polyglot, exaggerates the peculiarities of his Latin style. Still the editions of 1599 and 1610-13, in 8vo, which give an inter-linear and word-for-word translation of the Hebrew with the vowel-points, is to this day the most convenient Hebrew Bible for beginners. **(2.) **His *Thesaurus Linguoe Sanctoe *(Lyons, 1529, in folio) is much esteemed. The folio edition of Geneva, 1614, by J. Mercier and A. Cavalleri, is very inferior, and in many places corrupt. There is also a Paris edition, in 4to, of 1548. **(3.) **An abridgment of the *Thesaurus *in 8vo, with the title *Thesauri Pagnini Epitome, *was printed at Antwerp in 1616, and often reprinted. He also published **(4.) ***Isagoges seu introductionis ad sacras litteras liber unus *(Lyons, 1528, 4to; ibid. 1536, fol.). **(5.) ***Hebraicarum institutionum libri quatuor ex Rabbi David Kinchi priore parte fere transcripti *(ibid. 1526; Paris, 1549), both 4tos. **(6.) **An abridgment of this grammar, also in 4to, was published at Paris in 1546 and 1556. — **(7.) ***Catena Argentea in Pentatetuchum *(Lyons, 1536, folio), in six volumes. This is a collection of the comments of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin writers on the five books of Moses. He also produced several other learned works See *Histoire des honmmnes illustres de l'ordre de St. Domique, *by Touron; *Bibliotheca Sancta, *by Sixtus of Siena.

Pagoda (according to some, a corruption of the Sanscrit word *bhagavata, *from *bhagavat, *sacred; but according to others a corruption of *put-gada, *from the Persian *put, *idol, and *gada, *house) is the name of certain Hindu temples, which are among the. most remarkable monuments of Hindi architecture. Though the word itself designates but the temple where the deity — especially Siva, and his consort Durga or Parvati — was worshipped, a pagoda is in reality an aggregate of various monuments, which in their totality constitute the holy place sacred to the god. Sanctuaries, porches, colonnades, gateways, walls, tanks, etc., are generally combined for this purpose, according to a plan which is more or less uniform. Several series of walls form an enclosure; between them are alleys, habitations for the priests, etc., and the interior is occupied by the temple itself, with buildings for the pilgrims tanks, porticos, and open colonnades. The walls have at their openings *gopuras, *or large pyramidal gateways, higher than themselves, and so constructed that the gopura of the outer wall is always higher than that of the succeeding inner wall, the pagoda itself being smaller than the smallest gopura. The extent of the enclosing walls is generally considerable; in most instances they consist of hewn stones of colossal dimensions. placed upon one another without mortar or cement, but with such admirable accuracy that: their joints are scarcely visible. The gateways are pyramidal buildings of the most elaborate workmanship; they consist of several, sometimes as many as fifteen stories. The pagodas themselves, too, are of a pyramidal shape, various layers of stones having been piled upon one another iii successive recession; in some pagodas, however, the pyramidal form begins only with the higher stories, the broad basis extending to about a third of the height of the whole building. The sides of the different terraces are vertical; but the transition from one to the other is effected by a vault surmounted by a series of small cupolas, which hide the vault itself. A single cupola, hewn out of the stone, and surmounted by a globe, generally crowns the whole structure; but sometimes the latter also ends in fantastical spires of a fan- like shape or in concave roofs. The pagodas are covered all over with the richest ornamentation. The pilasters and columns, which take a prominent rank in the ornamental portion of these temples, show the greatest variety of forms; some pagodas are also overlaid with strips of copper, having the appearance of gold. There are pagodas of all sizes in India. Some of them have been erected by wealthy Hindus for the purpose of performing their private devotions in them, and correspond in character to the Western chapels. In the case of the large pagodas, vast endowments in many instances are expended in their support, as well as for the idols they contain and the Brahmins that attend them. "The most celebrated pagodas on the mainland of India are those of Mathura, Trichinopoli, Chalambron, Konjeveram, Jaggernaut, and Deogur, near Ellora. That of Mathura consists of four stories, and is about 63 feet high; its base comprises about 40 square feet, Its first story is made of hewn stones, heavily adorned with copper and gilt; the others are of brick. A great number of figures, especially representing deities, tigers, and elephants, cover the building. The pagoda of Tanjore is the most beautiful monument of this kind in the south of India; its height is 200 feet, and the width of its basis is equal to two thirds of its height. The pagoda of Trichinopoli is erected on a hill elevated about 300 feet over the plain; it differs in style from other pagodas dedicated to Brahminical worship, and exhibits great similarity with the Buddhistic monuments of Tibet. The great pagoda of Chalambron, in Tanjore, is one of the most celebrated and one of the most sacred of India. It is dedicated to Siva and Parvati, and is filled with representations belonging to the mythical history of these gods. The buildings of which this pagoda is composed cover an oblong square 360 feet long and 210 feet wide. At Konjeveram there are two pagodas —the one dedicated to Siva, and the other to Parvati. The pagodas of Jaggernaut, on the north end of the coast of Coromandel, are three; they are erected likewise in honor of Siva; and surrounded by a wall of black stones — whence they are called by Europeans the Black Pagodas — measuring 1122 feet in length, 696 feet in width, and 24 feet in height. The height of the principal of these three pagodas is said to be 344 feet; according to some, however, it does not exceed 120 to 123 feet. The pagoda of Deogur, near Ellora, consists also of three pagodas, sacred to Siva; they have no sculptures, however, except a trident, the weapon of Siva,' which is visible on the top of one of these temples. The monuments of Mavalipura, on the coast of Coromandel, are generally called the Seven Pagodas; but as these monuments — which are rather a whole city than merely temples — are buildings cut out of the living rock, they belong more properly to the cut-rock monuments of India than to the special class of Indian, architecture comprised under the term pagoda." "The pagodas in Burmah," says Mr. Boardman, "are the most prominent and expensive of all the sacred buildings. They are solid structures, built of brick, and plastered. Some of them are gilt throughout, whence they are called *golden *pagodas. The largest pagoda in Tavoy is about fifty feet in diameter, and perhaps one hundred and fifty feet high. That which is most frequented is not so large. It stands on a base somewhat elevated above the adjacent surface, and is surrounded by a row of more than forty small pagodas, about six feet high, standing on the same elevated base. In various niches round the central image are small alabaster images. Both the central and the surrounding pagodas are gilt from the summit to the base, and each one is surrounded with an umbrella of iron, which is also gilt. Attached to the umbrella of the central pagoda is a row of small bells or jingles, which, when there is even a slight breeze, keep a continual chiming. A low wall surrounds the small pagodas, outside of which are temples, pagodas of various sizes, and other appendages of pagoda worship, sacred trees or thrones, sacred bells to be rung by worshippers, and various figures of fabulous things, creatures, and persons mentioned in the Burman sacred books. Around these is a high wall, within which no devout worshipper presumes to tread without putting off his shoes. It is considered holy ground. Outside this wall are perhaps twenty Zayats, and a kyung. The whole occupies about an acre of ground. The total number of pagodas in Tavoy is immense. Large and small, they probably exceed a thousand. Before leaving America, I used to pray that pagodas might be converted into Christian churches. But I did not know that they were solid monuments of brick or stone, without any cavity or internal apartments. They can become Christian churches only by being demolished and built anew." The Dagong pagoda at Rangoon is the most magnificent in Burmah. A description of it is given by Mrs. Judson. See her *Memoir *and the *Christian Offering* The mode of worship in these heathen temples is as follows: When a Hindui comes to a pagoda to worship, he walks round the building as often as he pleases, keeping the right hand towards it; he then enters the vestibule, and if there be a bell in it, as is usually the case, he strikes upon it two or three times. He then advances to the threshold of the shrine, presents his offering to the Brahmin in attendance, mutters inaudibly a short prayer, accompanied with prostration of the body, or simply with the act of lifting his hands to his forehead, and straightway retires. The ceremonies observed by the Hindus in building a pagoda are curious. They first enclose the ground on which the pagoda is to be built, and allow the grass to grow on it. When the grass has grown considerably, they turn an ash-colored cow into the enclosure to roam at pleasure. Next day they examine carefully where the cow, which they reckon a sacred animal, has condescended to rest its body, and having dug a deep pit on that consecrated spot, they place there a marble pillar, so that it may rise a considerable distance. above the ground. On this pillar they place the image of the god to whom the pagoda is to be consecrated. The pagoda is then built quite around the pit in which the pillar is placed. The place in which the image stands is dark, but lights are kept burning in front of the idol. "The term pagoda is, in a loose way, also applied to those Chinese buildings of a tower form which consist of several stories, each story containing a single room, and being surrounded by a gallery covered with a protruding roof. These buildings, however, differ materially from the Hindi pagodas, not only so far as their style and exterior appearance are concerned, but inasmuch as they are buildings intended for other than religious purposes. The Chinese call them *Ta, *and they are generally erected in commemoration of a celebrated personage or some remarkable event; and for this reason, too, they are placed on some elevated spot, where they may be conspicuous, and add to the charms of the scenery. Some of these buildings have a height of 160 feet; the finest known specimen of them is the famous Porcelain Tower of Nankin. The application of the name pagoda to a Chinese temple should be discountenanced, for, as a rule, a Chinese temple is an insignificant building, seldom more than two stories high, and built of wood; the exceptions are rare, and where they occur, as at Pekin, such temples, however magnificent, havre no architectural affinity with a Hindu pagoda." See Williams, *Middle Kingdom, *1, 82, 101, 132; 2, 17; Huc, *Chinese Empire, *2, 166 sq.; Bohn's *India; *Trevor, *India, *p. 89-92.

Pahari Version Of The Scripture The Pahari is spoken by the Paharis, a hill tribe in the Rajmahal district, Bengal, who are supposed to be among the earliest settlers in the country. The Reverend E. Droese, of Bhangalpore, who has spent nearly a quarter of a century among the Paharis, and who is the only European that knows much of their language, has translated the gospel of Luke, which was published by the Calcutta Auxiliary Bible Society in 1881. The same scholar also prepared a translation of the gospel of John, which was published in 1883. These are the only parts of the Scripture which are yet printed. (B.P.)

Pa'hath-Mo'ab (Heb. *Pach'ath Modib', *מוֹאָב פִּחִת, *governor *[lit. *pasha] of Moab; *Sept. Φαὰθ [v.r. Φαλάθ*, *etc.] Μωάβ; Vulg. *Phahath-Moab, *"governor of Moab")on the head of one of the chief houses of the tribe of Judah, who signed his.name to the sacred covenant of Nehemiah (Ne 10:14). B.C. 410. "As we read in 1Ch 4:22, of a family of Shilonites, of the tribe of Judah, who in very early times 'had dominion in Moab,' it may be conjectured that this was the origin of the name. It is perhaps a slight corroboration of this conjecture that we find in Ezr 2:6 that the sons of Pahath-Moab had among their number 'children of Joab;' so also in 1 Chronicles 4 we find these families who had dominion in Moab very much mixed with the sons of Caleb, among whom, in 1Ch 2:54; 1Ch 4:14, we find the house of Joab. It may further be conjectured that this dominion of the sons of Shelah in Moab had some connection with the migration of Elimelech and his sons into the country of Moab, as mentioned in the book of Ruth; nor should the close resemblance of the names עָפרָה (Ophrah), 1Ch 4:14, and , עָרפָּה (O.)pah), Ru 1:4, be overlooked. Jerome, indeed, following doubtless his Hebrew master, gives a mystical interpretation to the names in 1Ch 4:22, and translates the strange word *Jashubi-leem *'they returned to Leem' (Bethlehem). The author of *Quaest. Heb. in Lib. Paraleip. *(printed in Jerome's works) follows up this opening, and makes Jokim (*qui starefecit solemn*) to mean Eliakim, and the men of Chozeba (*viri mendacii*)*, *Joash and Saraph (*securus et incendeons*)*, *to mean Mahlon and Chilion, who took wives (בָּעֲלוּ) in Moab, and returned (i.e. Ruth and Naomi did) to the plentiful bread of Bethlehem (*house of bread*)*; *interpretations which are so far worth noticing, as they point to ancient traditions connecting the migration of Elimelech and his sons with the Jewish dominion in Moab mentioned in 1Ch 4:21. However, as regards the name Pahath Moab, this early and obscure connection of the families of Shelah, the son of Judah. with Moab seems to supply a not improbable origin for the name itself, and to throw some glimmering upon the association of the children of Joshua and Joab with the sons of Pahath-Moab. That this family was of high rank in the tribe of Judah we learn from their appearing *fourth *in order in the two lists (Ezr 2:6; Ne 7:1), and from their chief having signed *second *among the lay princes (Ne 10:14). It was also the most numerous (2818 [2812]) of all the families specified, except the Benjamite house of Senaah (Ne 7:38). The name of the chief of the house of Pahath-Moab:in Nehemiah's time was Hashub; and, in exact accordance with the numbers of his family, we find him repairing *two *portions of the wall of Jerusalem (Ne 3:11,23). It may also be noticed, as slightly confirming the view of Pahath-Moab being. a Shilonite family, that whereas in 1Ch 9:5-7 and Ne 11:5-7, we find the Benjamite families in close juxtaposition with the-Shilonites, so in the building of the wall, where each family built the portion over against their own habitation, we find Benjamin and Hashub the Pahath-Moabite coupled together (Ne 3:23)., The only other notices of the family are found in Ezr 8:4, where two hundred of its males are said to have accompanied Elihoenai, the son of Zerahiah, when he came up with Ezra from Babylon; and in Ezr 10:30 where eight of the sons of Pahath- Moab are named a; having taken strange wives in the time of Ezra's government." *SEE PASHA*.

Pah-kwa a Chinese charm, consisting of eight diagrams arranged in a circular form; it is in most common use in China. The figure is thus formed. The eight diagrams are described by Mr. Cuthbertson, an American missionary to the Chinese, as follows: "They are triplets of lines, whole and broken, the various combinations of which produce eight sets of triplets, each having its peculiar properties. These. by further combinations, produce sixty-four figures, which also possess their peculiar powers. The first set are representative respectively of heaven, vapor, fire, thunder, winds, water, mountains, earth. These mysterious figures embody in some inscrutable manner the elements of all change, the destinies of all ages, the first principles of all morals, the foundation of all actions. They, of course, furnish important elements for the subtle calculations of the diviner. From such a system of calculation the results obtained must depend wholly upon the ingenuity of the practitioner. The figure of the eight diagrams is seen everywhere. It is often worn on the person. It is seen, too, posted in conspicuous positions about houses, chiefly over the door, to prevent the ingress of evil influences." See Doolittle, *China and the Chinese *(N. Y. 1866, 2: vols. 12mo); Nevins, *China and the Chinese *(N. Y. 1869 12mo).

Pa'i (1Ch 1:50). *SEE PAU*.

Paigeoline an Italian engraver, of whom scarcely anything is known, has left a light but spirited etching, bearing his name, after the picture by Paul Veronese, representing *The Mother of Moses brought to Pharaoh's Daughter as a Nurse for her Son, *Zani spells his name *Paigeloine.*

Paila is, according to the Puranas (q.v.), one of the disciples of Vyasa (q.v.), the reputed arranger of the Vedas (q.v.); he was taught by the latter the Rig- Veda, and, on his part, communicated this knowledge to Bashkali and Indrapramati. This tradition, therefore, implies that Paila was one of the earliest compilers of the Rig-Veda.

Pain (MYSTICAL), a certain indescribable agony which has been believed by mystics to be necessary to prepare them for a state of rapture. "This mysterious pain," says Mr. Vaughan (*Hours with the Mystics*)*, *"is no new thing in the history of mysticism. It is one of the trials of mystical initiation. It is the death essential to the superhuman height. With St. Theresa the physical nature contributes it much more largely than usual; and in her map of the mystic's progress it is located at a more advanced period of the journey. St. Francis of Assisi lay sick for two years under preparatory miseries. Catharine of Siena bore five years of privation, and was tormented by devils besides. For five years, and yet again for more than three times five, Magdalena de Pazzi endured such aridity that she believed herself forsaken of God. Balthazzar Alvarez suffered for sixteen years before he earned his extraordinary illumination. Theresa, there can be little doubt, regarded her fainting-spells, hysteria, cramps, and nervous, seizures as divine visitations. In their action and reaction body and soul were continually injuring each other. The excitement of hallucination would produce an attack of her disorder, and the disease again foster the hallucination. Servitude, whether of mind or of body, introduces maladies unknown to freedom." "These sufferings," adds the same writer, "are attributed by the mystics to the surpassing nature of the truths manifested to our finite faculties (as the sun-glare pains the eye); to the anguish involved in the surrender of every ordinary support or enjoyment, when the soul, suspended (as Theresa describes it) between heaven and earth, can derive solace from neither; to the intensity of the aspirations awakened, rendering those limitations of our condition here, which detain us from God, an intolerable oppression; and to despair, by which the soul is tried, being left to believe herself forsaken by the God she loves." *SEE MYSTICISM*.

Paine, James a Presbyterian minister, was born near Londonderry, Ireland, Dec. 25, 1801. He received that early training in spiritual things for which the Presbyterians of the mother country are proverbial. During the year 1820 his parents emigrated to the United States, and became members of Dr. Baxter's congregation in Lexington, Va., where he professed religion, and soon after turned his thoughts to the ministry. He graduated with honor at Washington College, Lexington, Va.; studied theology in the seminary at Princeton, N. J.; was licensed by Lexington Presbytery in 1829, ordained in 1830, and labored as a missionary for several years at Warm Springs and New Monmouth churches, Va. He afterwards took charge of Fairfield and Timber Ridge Churches, Va. It was here that the best years of his life were spent; ever ready to preach, he went in and out before his people, leading them like a true shepherd for twenty-three years. From thence he was called to the Church at Somerville, Tenn., where he continued to labor until his death, April 7, 1860. Mr. Paine, though not an author, often wrote for the press. His preaching was clear and expository; his style free from all affectation or vagueness; his all-conquering desire was a single burning zeal to glorify God in the salvation of souls. See *Wilson, Presb. Hist. Almanac,* 1861, p. 104. (J. L. S.)

Paine, Robert, D.D. a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, was born in Person County; N.C., November 12, 1799, of Baptist parents. In early life. he removed to Tennessee; was converted November 9, 1817; licensed to preach the same year; the next year was admitted into the Tennessee Conference, and after laboring on several circuits and in important stations, was elected president of La Grange College, Alabama, in 1830, a position which he retained until his elevation. to the episcopacy in 1846. He had been a member of every General Conference from 1824, and was active in, the discussion that led to the division of the Methodist Church in 1844. His extensive labors as a bishops closed with his death, October 20, 1882. He was a very able preacher, a ready speaker, and a devoted Christian. He wrote *Life and Times of Bishop McKendree. *See *Minutes of Annual Conferences of the M.E. Church South, *1882, page 147; Simpson, *Cyclop. of Methodism, *s.v.

Paine, Thomas a noted American speculative writer, and prominent political character in the colonial history of this country, whose influence upon his day and generation was unfavorable to Christianity, though. not altogether to civilization, deserves a place here for his repeated attempts to modify the religious thought of this country. *Life*. — Paine was an Englishman by birth, and saw the light of this world Jan. 29,1737, at Thetford, in the county of Norfolk. His father, who was a Quaker, brought him up to his own business, that of a staymaker. At the age of twenty Thomas removed to London, where he worked some time at his business. He then went to Sandwich, in Kent, where, in 1760, he married the daughter of an exciseman, and obtained a place in the excise, but retained it only about a year, and then became an assistant at a school in the neighborhood of London. After leaving this situation he was again employed in the excise, and was situated at Lewes, in Sussex. Here he had gained some reputation by various pieces of poetry, and had been selected by the excisemen of the neighborhood. to draw up *The Case of the Officers of Excise, with Remarks on the Qualifications of Officers, and on the numerous Evils arrising to the Revenue from the Insufficiency of the present Salaries *(1772). The ability displayed in this his first prose composition induced one of the commissioners of excise to give him a letter of introduction to Benjamin Franklin, then in London as a deputy from the colonies of North America to the British government. Franklin was favorably impressed with Paine, and, hoping that his services might prove beneficial to the colonies, advised him to go to America. Paine took the advice, settled at Philadelphia in 1774, and devoted himself to literary works. He became a contributor to various periodical works, and in January, 1775, editor of the *Philadelphia Magazine. *In 1776, at the outbreak of our colonial conflict, he embraced the cause of the colonies, and enlisted as a volunteer in the army. He had previously influenced public opinion in favor of independence from the British throne by an article which he published in the *Pennsylvania Journal *(October, 1775), entitled "Serious Thoughts." In it he declared for political equality, and gave expression to the hope of the ultimate abolition of slavery. He now further encouraged the radical movers for separation by another publication of his, entitled *Common Sense *(Phila. 1776, 8vo). These writings made a profound impression, especially the latter, and contributed in an eminent degree to make the people of this country of one mind. The masses, who had reasoned but little on the subject, were stirred to activity, and thus thousands who would otherwise have been passive, if not opponents to the independence scheme, were brought to the aid of the Revolutionary movement. True, some of his political teachings could not have the endorsement of the moral and religious element; yet the truth cannot be withheld that Thomas Paine was one of the most powerful. actors in the Revolutionary drama, and that, whatever his failings, errors, or vices, his service to his adopted country should not be forgotten. Some writers have denied his political services, and have declared it impossible that, a stranger at the outbreak of the colonial struggle, he could have influenced public opinion in America; but such should remember that the contemporaries of Paine and worthy men many of them certainly were who associated with Paine-judged differently, and not only freely circulated his writings, but gave expression to their worth for political purposes by voting him £500 through their legislators, besides conferring on him the degree of M.A. (Pennsylvania University), and membership in their choicest literary association, the American Philosophical Society. Though in the army, Paine continued to employ his pen. In December, 1776, he published his first *Crisis, *which opened with the phrase, "These are the times that try men's souls." So well was it believed to meet the emergency of those times that it was, by order, read at the head of every regiment, and is pronounced to have done much to rouse the drooping ardor of the people. He continued such publications until the attainment of peace in 1783. In 1777 he was made secretary to the Congressional Committee on Foreign Affairs, but in 1779 he was obliged to resign this post, because he had in an excited encounter divulged the secrets of his office. In 1781 Paine Wyas sent to France with colonel Lawrence to negotiate a loan, in which he was more than successful; for the French government granted a subsidy of six millions of livres to the Americans, and also became guarantee for a loan of ten millions advanced by Holland. On his return to America he was rewarded for his services by being appointed, in 1785, clerk to the Assembly of Pennsylvania; he received from Congress a donation of $3000; and the state of New York bestowed on him the confiscated estate of Frederick Davoe, a royalist, near New Rochelle, in the state of New York, consisting of 500 acres of well-cultivated land, with a good stone house. After the peace between Great Britain and America, Paine employed himself chiefly in mechanical speculations. In 1787 he embarked for France, and, after visiting Paris, went to England, with a view to the prosecution of a project relative to the construction of an iron bridge, of his own invention, at Rotherham, in Yorkshire. This scheme involved him in considerable difficulties; but his writings; in which he foretold, or rather recommended, the change that was approaching in France, brought him a supply of money. On the appearance of Burke's *Reflections on the French Revolution, *Paine wrote the first part of his celebrated *Rights of A Man, *in answer to that work, the most famous of all the replies to Burke, and circulated in innumerable editions, not only in English, but also in foreign versions. The second part was published early in 1792; and on May 21 in that year a proclamation issued against wicked and seditious publications evidently alluded to, though it did not name, the *Rights of Man. *On the same day the attorney-general commenced a prosecution against Paine as the author of that work, because of his outcry against the English. aristocracy, and severe assaults on the British constitution. While the trial was pending he succeeded in making his escape. He set off for France, arriving there in September, 1792. The garrison of Calais were under arms to receive this "friend of liberty," the tricolored cockade was presented to him by the mayor, and the handsomest woman in the town was selected to place it in his hat. Meantime Paine had been declared in Paris worthy of the honors of citizenship, and being chosen member of the National Convention for the department of Calais, he proceeded to Paris, where he was received with every demonstration of extravagant joy. On the trial of Louis XVI he voted with the Girondists against the sentence of death, proposing his imprisonment during the war, and his banishment afterwards. This conduct offended the Jacobins, and towards the close of 1793 he was excluded from the convention on the ground of being a foreigner (though naturalized), and immediately after he was arrested and committed to the Luxembourg. Just before his confinement Paine had finished the first part of his work entitled the *Age of Reason, *and having confided it to the care of his friend Joel Barlow, it was published (see below). On the fall of Robespierre he was released. In 1795 he published the second part of his *Age of Reason; *and in May, 1796, he addressed to the Council of Five Hundred a work entitled *Decline and Fall of the System of Finance in England, *and also published his pamphlet entitled *Agrarian Justice, *being a plan for meliorating the condition of man. Fearful of being captured by English cruisers, he remained in France some years longer. He had, however, written to Mr. Jefferson, who had then but recently been elected president of the United States, and expressed a wish to be brought back to America in a government ship. Jefferson at last replied, offering Paine a passage in the Maryland sloop of war, which he had sent to France for a special purpose'. In his letter, dated March, 1801, Jefferson expresses his high estimate of Paine's services in the cause of American independence in the following words: "I am in hopes you will find us returned generally to sentiments worthy of former times. In these it will be your glory to have steadily labored, and with as much effect as any man living. That you may long live to continue your useful labors, and to reap their reward in the thankfulness of nations, is my sincere prayer." Paine did not embark for America, however, till August, 1802: he reached Baltimore in the following October. His first wife had died about a year after their marriage; he lived about three years with his second, whom he married soon after the death of his first, when they separated by mutual consent, it is said, on account of her physical disability. During his last residence in France he led a dissolute life, and one of the women he supported followed him to this country. He died in the city of New York, June 8, 1809, and, being refused burial by the Quakers, was interred in a field on his own estate near New Rochelle. Cobbett, some eight or nine years afterwards, disinterred Paine's bones and carried them to England, but instead of arousing, as he expected, the enthusiasm of the republican party in that country, Cobbett only drew upon himself universal contempt. Paine's political and religious admirers in America erected in 1839 a showy monument, with a medallion portrait, over his empty grave. There is now a hall in Boston, supported by freethinkers, which is called after him. *Works. — *As a writer Paine has sometimes been compared with Gibbon (q.v.). Both wrote on religion, philosophy, and politics. But these two authors are so very unlike each other that they should be compared only as extremes of the same general school. The freethinker Paine is a character of a very different kind from the freethinker Gibbon. The latter is the polished scholar, the polite man of letters; the former an active man of the world, educated by men rather than books, of low tastes and vulgar tone. Gibbon's religious scepticism is that of high life, Paine's of low. In the treatment of religious topics, the one writer sneers, the other hates. The one is a philosopher, the other a politician. Schooled in the politico- philosophical doctrines of Rousseau, Paine became the exponent of this Frenchman among the lower orders of the Anglo-Saxon family, by combining in his teachings the doctrines of Rousseau with those of the English deists. The language in which he clothes his thoughts betrays, besides, great familiarity with the bitterness of Voltaire. An edition of Paine's *Political Writings *was published at Boston in 1856 (2 vols. 8vo), and at New York (1860, 12mo); and in the same year his so-called *Theological Writings *were issued. In London a complete edition of his works was published in 1861. The two great works of Thomas Paine are, as we have seen above, *The Rights of Man *and *The Age of Reason. *Of the former we have not place to treat here, as the religious views espoused therein reappear, only in a more objectionable form, in the second work. The *Age of Reason *was a pamphlet admitting of quick perusal. It was afterwards followed by a second part, in which a defence was offered against the replies made to the former part. The object of the two is to state reasons for rejecting the Bible (pt. 1, p. 319; pt. 2, p. 8, 83), and to explain the nature of the religion of deism (pt. 1, p. 3, 4, 21-50; pt. 2, p. 83-93), which was proposed as a substitute. A portion is devoted to an attack on the external evidence of revelation, or, as the author blasphemously calls it, "the three principal means of imposture" (p. 44), prophecy, miracles, and mystery; the latter of which he asserts may exist in the physical, but not by the nature of things in the moral world. A larger portion is devoted to a collection of the various internal difficulties of the books of the Old and New Testament, and of the schemes of religion, Jewish and Christian (pt. 2, p. 10-83). The great mass of these objections are those which had been suggested by English or French deists, but are stated with extreme bitterness. The most novel part of this work is the use which Paine makes of the discoveries of astronomy, in revealing the vastness of the universe and a plurality of globes, to discredit the idea of interference on behalf of this insignificant planet — an argument which he wields especially against the doctrine of incarnation (pt. 1, p. 37-44). But no part of his work manifests such bitterness, and at the same time such a specious mode of argument, as his attack on the doctrine of redemption and substitutional atonement (p. 20). The religion which Paine proposed to substitute for Christianity was the belief in one God as revealed by science; in immortality as the continuance of conscious existence; in the natural equality of man; and in the obligation of justice and mercy to one's neighbor (pt. 2, p. 3, 4, 50). As a writer, Paine must be granted to possess a vigorous and clear style; though somewhat coarse and simple, it is enlivened with comparisons and illustrations which render it very popular and attractive. He saw clearly the weak points of any object against which he directed his attack, and accordingly he was a vigorous assailant; but he was unqualified, either by competent knowledge or by habits of patient investigation, for the examination of the diversified subjects he attempted; certainly not in all their bearings. He was truly a bold and original thinker, but he lacked the amount of knowledge necessary for inquiry and criticism; hence he proved but a feeble and ignorant foe of Christianity. He assailed it without understanding it, and condemned without careful examination. His own testimony must forever settle his incompetency. He declared his belief in the existence of a God and a future life, but decried the sacred Scriptures as contradictory, though he had not a copy of the Bible at his command while criticising. Thus while he stated some of the common difficulties which really exist in the Gospel history acutely, he frequently exposed himself for want of sound knowledge, when he thought that he was exposing the sacred writers. But, besides all this, the grossness and scurrility of his language-in his satire and blasphemous ribaldry he is a fit parallel to Voltaire-reasonably shock the religious feeling of all Christians. Yet all his failings may easily be accounted for, and his attacks on Christianity forgiven him, or should at least be covered with the mantle of charity, when we consider that Paine was soured by the incongruities of the English Establishment in which he had been reared; and then, influenced by the shallow infidelity of the French Revolutionists, quarreller with the Bible, when it was only a quarrel with bishops. Of what Christianity really is, in its highest and broadest catholic sense, we do not believe that he had the remotest idea; and so far has the world advanced in Bible knowledge that the *Tribune *(N. Y., March 25, 1876) says truly: "His best arguments, if they may be so called, would not, if first published today, attract the slightest attention, nor would anybody think them worthy of serious refutation. The opponents of Christianity are now men of larger calibre, greater knowledge, and more respectable method. They perhaps do less mischief than he did, because fewer people understand them. He was an infidel without science, erudition, or philosophy. He was simply a sharp debater, a caviller, and a technical disputant. As such he was immensely admired by minds of the same class, but it is a class for which we cannot entertain the highest respect, and to whose guidance methodical thinkers in these days will not resign themselves." A book so easily confuted as Paine's *Age of Reason *did not, of course, remain long unanswered. Bishop Watson's and Thomas Scott's responses are now the best known; but we may add to these names those of J. Achincloss, Elias Boudinot, John Disney, Samuel Drew, J. P. Estlin, David Levi, W. McNeil, Thomas Meek, Michael Nash, Uzal Ogden, John Padman, William Patten, J. Priestly, T. Shame, David Simpson, Thomas O. Summers, Robert Thompson, John Tytler, W. Wait, G. Wakefield, E. Wallace, and T. Williams, and still leave the list unexhausted. When Robert Hall was asked his opinion of the *Age of Reason, *he replied, "My opinion of it, sir? Why, sir, it is a mouse nibbling at the wing of an archangel." See, on Paine and his literary productions, *Salmagunda *(Lond. ed.), 1, 134; Dibdin, *Sunday Library, *6:335; Lowndes, *British Libr. *p. 1761; *Lond. Month. Rev. *(1794), p. 96; *Brit. Rev. *June, 1811; *Edinb. Month. Rev. *3, 434; *Blackw. May. *10:701; 13:49; 17:198; 26:816, 866; 29:764; 30:637; 34:501; 35:406; 38:361, 366; Niles, *Register, *30:397; Carey, *Museum, *1, 20; 9:179; *Spirit of the Pilgrims, *4:338; *Living Age, *16:169; *Hist. Mag. *(N.Y.), July, 1857, p. 206; *Lond. Quar. Rev. *July, 1858; *Atlantic Monthly, *July, 1859: Allibone, *Dict. of Brit. and Amer. Authors, *vol. 2, s.v.; Watson, *Men and Times; *Randall, *Jefferson; Memoirs of S. Grellet; Address on Paine, *by W. A. Stokes (1859, 8vo). The principal biographies of Paine are: Francis Oldys's (George Chalmers) (Lond. 1791, 8vo); James Cheetham's (N. Y. 1809, 8vo); Sherwin's (1819, 8vo); G.Valse's (N. Y. 1841, 8vo); by the editor of the *National *(Lond. 1850, 12mo); by the editor of *Paine's Political Writings *(Bost. 1850, 2 vols. 8vo); by the author of *The Religion of Science *(N. Y. 1860,12mo). We hardly know whether to name in this connection the recent publication entitled *Light from the Spirit World: the Pilgrimage of Thomas Paine and Others to the Seventh Circle in the Spirit World,. *by Rev. C. Hammond (Medina, N. Y., 1852, post 8vo).

Paine, William Pomeroy, D.D. a Congregational minister, was born at Ashfield, Massachusetts, August 1, 1802. He studied at Ashfield Academy; in 1827 graduated from Amherst College, and in 1832 from Andover Theological Seminary; from 1829 to 1831 he was tutor in Amherst College. His only pastorate was of the Church at Holden, Mass., where he was regularly ordained and installed, October 24, 1833. He resigned this charge in February 1875, but remained pastor emeritus until his death, November 28, 1876. See *Cong. Quarterly,* 1877, page 421.

Paint is the rendering of the A.V. in Jer 22:14 of the Heb. מָשִׁח, *mashach', *properly *to anoint, *as in Ge 31:13; Da 9:24. In Eze 23:40 the original is כָּחִל, *kachal', to smear. *In 2Ki 9:20, and Jer 4:30, the Heb. word is פּוּך, *puek, *of uncertain etymology; but, according to First, akin to Sanscrit *pig, *Latin *pingo, fingo. *It denoted a mixture of burned or pulverized antimony and zinc, which was softened with oil, and applied to the eyes by a pencil or short, smooth style of ivory, silver, or wood, which was drawn between the closed eyelids. By this process a black ring was formed around the eyelids (see Hartmann, A*ufklarungen iiber Asien, *ii, 446 sq.; id. *Hebruerin, *ii, 149 sq.; 3, 198 sq.; S. Grand in the *Museum Hagan. *3, 175 sq.). The allusion in Wisdom of Solomon 13:14 is to the custom, which prevailed especially among the Romans, of painting with red colors the cheeks of idols on holidays. A similar custom to that of the Hebrew women, mentioned above, still prevails in the East, where the women paint not only their cheeks, but their eyebrows, and the inner surface of the eyelids (comp. Shaw, *Travels, *p. 294; Niebuhr, *Bedouin, *p. 65; *Travels, *1, 292; Joliffe, *Travels, *p. 187; Rosenmuller, *Morgenl. *4:269 sq.; Hartmann, *Ideal weibl. Schinh. *p. 65 sq., 307 sq.; Ruppell, *Arab. *36:65) (Winer). The use of cosmetic dyes has prevailed in all ages in Eastern countries. We have abundant evidence of the practice of painting the eyes both in ancient Egypt (Wilkinson, 2, 342) and in Assyria (Layard, *Nineveh, *2, 328); and in modern times no usage is more general. It does not appear, however, to have been by any means universal among the Hebrews. The notices of it are few; and in each instance it seems to have been used as a meretricious art, unworthy of a woman of high character. Thus Jezebel "put her eyes in painting" (2Ki 9:30, margin); Jeremiah says of the harlot city, "Though thou rentest thy eyes with painting" (Jer 4:30); and Ezekiel again makes it a characteristic of a harlot (Eze 23:40; comp. Joseph. *War, *4:9, 10). The expressions used in these passages-are worthy of observation, as referring to the mode in which the process was effected. It is thus described by Chandler (*Travels, *2, 140): "A girl, closing one of her eyes, took the two lashes between the forefinger and thumb of the left hand, pulled them forward, and then thrusting in at the external corner a bodkin which had been immersed in the soot, and extracting it again, the particles before adhering to it remained within, and were presently ranged around the organ." The eyes were thus literally "put in paint," and were "rent" open in the process. A broad line was also drawn around the eye, as represented in the accompanying cut. The effect was an apparent enlargement of the eye; and the expression in Jer 4:30 has been by some understood in this sense (Gesen. *Thes. *p. 1239), which is without doubt admissible, and would harmonize with the observations of other writers (Juv 2, 94, "Obliqua *producit *acu;" Pliny, *Ep. *6:2). The term used for the. application of the dye was, as above noted, *kachdl, *"to smear;" and Rabbinical writers described the paint itself under a cognate term (Mish'na, *Sabb. *8:3). These words still survive in *kohl, *the modern Oriental name for the powder used. The Bible gives no indication of the substance out of which the dye was formed. If any conclusion were deducible from the evident affinity between the Hebrew pik, the Greek φῦκος*, *and the Latin *fucus, *it would be to the effect that the dye was of a vegetable kind. Such a dye is at the present day produced from the henna plant (*Lawsonia inermis*)*, *and is extensively applied to the hands and the hair (Russell, *Aleppo, *1, 109, 110). But the old versions (the Sept., Chaldee, Syriac, etc.), agree in pronouncing the dye to have been produced from antimony; the very name of which (στίβι*, stibium*) probably owed its currency in the ancient world to this circumstance, the name itself and the application of the substance having both emanated from Egypt. This mineral was imported into Egypt for the purpose. One of the pictures at Beni Hassan represents the arrival of a party of traders in stibium. The powder made from antimony has always been supposed to have a beneficial effect on the eyesight (Pliny, 33:34). Antimony is still used for the purpose in Arabia (Burckhardt, *Travels, *1, 376) and in Persia (Morier, *Second Journey, *p. 61), though lead is also used in the latter country (Russell, 1, 366); but in Egypt the *kohl *is a soot produced by burning either a kind of frankincense or the shells of almonds (Lane, 1, 61). The dye-stuff was moistened with oil, and kept in a small jar, which we may infer to have been made of horn, from the proper name Keren-happuch, "horn for paint" (Job 43:14). The probe with which it was applied was made either of wood, silver, or ivory, and had a blunted point. Both the probe and the jar have frequency been discovered in Egyptian tombs (Wilkinson, 2, 344). In addition to the passages referring to eye-paint already quoted from the Bible, we may notice probable allusions to the practice in Pr 6:25, and Isa 3:16, the term rendered "wanton" in the last passage bearing the radical sense of painted. The contrast between the black paint and the white of the eye led to the transfer of the term *puk *to describe the variegated stones used in the string courses of a handsome building (1Ch 29:2; A.V. "glistering stones," lit. *stones of eye-paint*)*; *and, again, the dark cement in which marble or other bright stones were imbedded (Isa 54:11; A.V. "I will lay thy stones with fair colors"). Whether the custom of staining the hands and feet, particularly the nails, now so prevalent in the East, was known to the Hebrews, is doubtful. The plant, *henna, *which is used for that purpose was certainly known (Song 1:14; A.V. "camphire"), and the expressions in Song 5:14 may probably refer to the custom (Smith). With reference to this custom of "painting the eyes" in the East, Thomson remarks: "The ladies blacken the eyelids and brows with *kohl, *and prolong the application in a decreasing pencil, so as to lengthen and reduce the eye in appearance to what is called *almond shape. *It imparts a peculiar brilliancy to the eye, and a languishing, amorous cast to the whole countenance. Brides are thus painted, and many heighten the effect by application to the cheeks of colored cosmetics. The powder from which the *kohl is *made is collected from burning almond- shells or frankincense, and is intensely black. Antimony and various ores of lead are also employed. The powder is kept in vials or pots, which are often disposed in a handsome cover or case; and it is applied to the eye by a small probe of wood or ivory, or silver, called *meel, *while the whole apparatus is called *mukhuly" *(*Land and Book, 2, *184, 185); *SEE EYE*.

Painter, George a Presbyterian minister, was born in Shenandoah Co., Va., Feb. 14, 1795; graduated at Greenville College, Tenn.; studied divinity at the South- Western Theological Seminary, Maryville, Tenn.; was licensed by Marion Presbytery Sept. 24, 1823, and ordained April 16, 1824. In addition to his labors as a minister, he taught school till 1832 in Wythe Co., Va. About that time he took charge of the congregation of Anchor and Hope and Draper Valley, and afterwards New Dublin, Va., and remained with these three churches till his death, Feb. 20,1863. Mr. Painter was a man of sterling worth and great personal influence. He was one of the pioneers of Presbyterianism in that part of Virginia. As such he practiced great self- denial in the work of the Master — his labors being constant and devoted in teaching and preaching. See Wilson, *Presb. Hist. Almanac, *1867, p. 448. (J. L.S.)

Painting We have no means of knowing what progress the art of painting made among the ancient Hebrews, as it is generally supposed that all pictures and images were forbidden by the Mosaic law (Le 26:1; Nu 33:52). In later times their principal houses were beautifully painted with vermilion (Jer 22:14). Among the ancient Assyrians this art appears to have been cultivated, as mention is made in Eze 23:14-15, of "men portrayed upon the wall, the images of the Chaldaeans portrayed with vermilion, girded with girdles upon their loins, exceeding in dyed attire upon their heads, all of them princes to look to." This description of the interior of the Assyrian palaces completely corresponds with and illustrates tie monuments of Nimruid and Khorsabad, as brought to light by Mr. Layard. "The walls were of sun-dried bricks, and where they rose above the sculptured slabs they were covered with paintings." *SEE ASSYRIA*. Among the Egyptians, from the employment of hieroglyphics, it is supposed that the art of the painter was generally associated with that of the scribe. The painter held his brush in one hand, and his palette or saucer of color in the other. From the representation given of two artists engaged on a painting, it will be observed that though the easel stands upright, they had no contrivance to support or steady the hand; hence the Egyptian painters appear to have been very careful in tracing their outlines with chalk, which they effaced if any imperfection were discovered. It is evident that the manufacture of images and painted toys was carried to a remarkable extent, as well as the decoration. of mummy-cases. Wilkinson gives the following account of the ancient art: "Mention is made of an Egyptian painting by Herodotus, who tells us that Amasis sent a portrait of himself to Cyrene, probably on wood, and in profile; for the full face is rarely represented either in their paintings or bas- reliefs. The faces of the kings in the tombs and temples of Egypt are unquestionably portraits, but they are always in profile; and the only ones in full face are on wood, and of late time. Two of these are preserved in the British Museum, but they are evidently Greek, and date, perhaps, even after the conquest of Egypt by the Romans. It is therefore vain to speculate on the nature of their painting, or their skill in this branch of art; and though some of the portraits taken from the mummies may prove that encaustic painting with wax and naphtha was adopted in Egypt, the time when it was first known there is uncertain, nor can we conclude, from a specimen of Greek time, that the same was practiced in a Pharaonic age. "Fresco painting was entirely unknown in Egypt; and the figures on, walls were always drawn and painted after the stucco was quite dry. But they sometimes coated the colors with. a transparent varnish, which was also done by the Greeks; and the wax said by the younger Pliny to have been used for this purpose on the painted exterior of a house at Stabia may have been a substitute for the usual varnish, which last would have been far more durable under a hot Italian sun. "Pliny states, in his chapter on inventions, that Gyges, a Lydian, was the earliest painter in Egypt; and Eluchir, a cousin of Daedalus according to Aristotle, the first in Greece; or, as Theoprastus thinks, Polygnotus the Athenian. But the painting represented in Beni Hassan evidently dates before any of those artists. Pliny, in another place says, 'The origin of painting is uncertain: the Egyptians pretend that it was invented by them 6000 years before it passed into Greece — a vain boast, as every one will allow. It must, however, be admitted that all the arts (however imperfect) were cultivated in Egypt long before Greece existed as a nation; and the remark he afterwards makes, that painting was unknown at the period of the Trojan war, call only be applied to the Greeks, as is shown by the same unquestionable authority at Beni Hassan, dating about 900 years before the time usually assigned to the taking of Troy. "It is probable that the artists in Egypt who painted on wood were in higher estimation than mere decorators, as was the case in Greece, where 'no artists, were in, repute but those who executed pictures on wood, for neither Ludius nor any other wall painter was of any renown.' The Greeks preferred movable pictures, which could be taken away in case of fire, or sold if necessary; and, as Pliny says, 'there was no painting on the walls of Apelles's house (or no painting by Apelles on the walls of a house). The painting and decoration of buildings was another and an inferior branch of art. The pictures were put up in temples, as the works of great masters in later times in churches; but they were not dedications, nor solely connected with sacred subjects and the temple was selected as the place of security, as it often was as a repository of treasure. They had also picture galleries in some secure place, as in the Acropolis of Athens. "Outline figures on walls were in all countries the earliest style of painting; they were in the oldest temples of Latium; and in Egypt they preceded the more elaborate style, that was afterwards followed by bas-relief and intaglio. In Greece, during the middle period, which was that of the best art, pictures were painted on wood by the first artists, and Raoul-Rochette thinks that if any of them painted on walls, this was accidental; and the finest pictures, being on wood, were in after-times carried off to Rome. This removal was lamented by the Greeks as 'a spoliation,' which having left the walls bare, accounts for Pausanias saying so little about pictures in Greece. Historical compositions were of course the highest branch of art, though many of the greatest Greek artists, who seem to have excelled in all styles, often treated inferior subjects, and some (as in later times) combined the two highest arts of sculpture and painting. "In the infancy of art, figures were represented in profile; but afterwards they were rare in Greece; and art could not reach any degree of excellence until figures in a composition had ceased to be in profile; and it was only in order to conceal the loss of an eye that Apelles gave one side of the face in his portrait of Antigollus. The oldest paintings were also, as Pliny admits, *monochrome, *or painted of one uniform color, like those of Egypt; and, indeed, statues in Greece were at first of one color, doubtless red like those of the Egyptians, Romans, and Etruscans. For not only bas-reliefs were painted, which, as parts of a colored building, was a necessity, but statues also; and as art advanced they were made to resemble real life. For that statue by Scopas, of a Bacchante, with a disemboweled fawn, whose cadaverous hue contrasted with the rest, at once shows that it was *painted, *and not of a *monochrome *color; and the statues of Praxiteles, painted for him by Nicias, would not have been preferred by that sculptor to his other works if they had merely been stained red. The blue eyes of Minerva's statue; the inside of her shield painted by Pannaeus, and the outside by Phidias (originally a painter himself), could only have been parts of the whole colored figure; Pannaeus assisted in painting the statue of Olympian Jupiter: and ivory statues were said to have been prevented turning yellow by the application of color. "If the artists of Greece did not paint on walls, it was not from any mistaken pride, since even the greatest of them would paint statues not of their own work; and those in modern days who study decorative art will do well to remember that to employ superior taste in ornamental composition is no degradation, and that the finest specimens of decorative work in the Middle Ages were executed by the most celebrated artists." *Anc. Egyptians, *2, 277 sq. For a detailed account of Greek and Roman painting, as an art, see Smith's *Dict. of Class. Antiq. *s.v. *SEE COLOR; SEE PICTURE*.

"Painting The Eyes," or rather the eyelids, is more than once alluded to in Scripture, although this scarcely appears in the Authorized Version, as our translators, unaware of the custone, usually render "eye" by "face," although eye is still preserved in the margin. So Jezebel "painted her eyes," literally "put her eyes in paint," before she showed herself publicly (2Ki 9:30). This action is forcibly expressed by Jeremiah (Jer 4:30), "Though thou rentest thine eyes with painting." Ezekiel (Eze 23:40) also represents this as a part of high dress: "For whom thou didst wash thyself, *paintedst thy eyes, *and deckedst thyself with ornaments." The custom is also, very possibly, alluded to in Pr 6:25: "Lust not after her beauty in thine heart, neither let her take thee *with her eyelids." *It certainly is the impression in Western Asia that this embellishment adds much to the languishing expression and seducement of the eyes, although Europeans find some difficulty in appreciating the beauty which the Orientals find in this adornment. (See Hartmann's *Hebraerim, *2:149 sq.) The following description of the process is from Lane's *Modern Egyptians *(1:41-43): "The eyes, with very few exceptions, are black, large, and of a long almond form, with long and beautiful lashes, and an exquisitely soft, bewitching expression: eyes more beautiful can hardly be conceived: their charming effect is much heightened by the concealment of the other features (however pleasing the latter may be), and is rendered still more striking by a practice universal among the females of the higher and middle classes, and very common among those of the lower orders, which is that of blackening the edge of the eyelids, both above and below the eyes, with a black powder called *kohl. *This is a collyrium, commonly composed of the smoke-black which is produced by burning a kind of *libam *— an aromatic resin — a species of frankincense, used, I am told, in preference to the better kind of frankincense, as being cheaper and equally good for the purpose. Kohl is also prepared of the smokeblack produced from burning the shells of almonds. These two kinds, though believed to be beneficial to the eyes, are used merely for ornament; but there are several kinds used for their real or supposed medical properties, particularly the powder of several kinds of lead ore, to which are often added sarcocolla, long pepper, sugar-candy, fine dust of a Venetian sequin, and sometimes powdered pearls. Antimony, it is said, was formerly used for painting the edges of the eyelids. The kohl is applied with a small probe of wood, ivory, or silver, tapering towards the end, bit blunt: this is moistened, sometimes with rose- water, then dipped in the powder and drawn along the edges of the eyelids: it is called *mirwed; *and the glass vessel in which the kohl is kept, *mulholah. *The custom of thus ornamenting the eyes prevailed among both sexes in Egypt in very ancient times: this is shown by the sculptures and paintings in the temples and tombs of this country; and kohl-vessels, with the probes, and even with the remains of the black powder, have often been found in the ancient tombs. I have two in my possession. But, in many cases, the ancient mode of ornamenting with the kohl was a little different from the modern. I have, however, seen this ancient mode practiced in the present day in the neighborhood of Cairo, though I only remember to have noticed it in two instances. The same custom existed among the Greek ladies, and among the Jewish women in early times." Sir J.G.Wilkinson alludes to this passage in Mr. Lane's book, and admits that the lengthened form of the ancient Egyptian eye, represented in the paintings, was'probably produced by this means. "Such," he adds, "is the effect described by Juvenal *(Sat. *2:93), Pliny *(Ep. *6:2), and other writers who notice the custom among the Romans. At Rome it was considered disgraceful for men to adopt it, as at present in [most parts of] the East, except medicinally; but, if we may judge from the similarity of the eyes of men and women in the paintings at Thebes, it appears to have been used by both sexes among the ancient Egyptians. Many of the kohl-bottles have been found in the tombs, together with the bodkin used for applying the moistened powder. They are of various materials, usually of stone, wood, or pottery; sometimes composed of two, sometimes of three or four separate cells, apparently containing each a mixture, differing slightly in its quality and hue from the other three. Many were simple round tubes, vases, or small boxes; some were ornamented with the figure of an ape or monster, supposed to assist in holding the bottle between his arms, while the lady dipped into it the pin with which she painted her eyes; and others were in imitation of a column made of stone, or rich porcelain of the choicest manufacture" *(Ancient Egyptians, *3:382). *SEE PAINT.*