Schaff-Herzog Religious Encyclopaedia

**BREED, DAVID RIDDLE:** Presbyterian; b. at Pittsburg, Pa., June 10, 1848. He was educated at the Western University of Pennsylvania, Hamilton College (B.A., 1867), and Auburn Theological Seminary (1870), and was pastor of the House of Hope Presbyterian Church at St. Paul, Minn., from 1870 until 1885, when he organized the Church of the Covenant, Chicago, of which he was pastor until 1894. In the latter year he accepted a call to the First Presbyterian Church of Pittsburg, and since 1898 has been professor of practical theology in the Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa. In theology he is conservative. In addition to numerous pamphlets, he has written *Abraham, the Typical Life of Faith * (Chicago, 1886); *History of the Preparation of the World for Christ * (1891); *Heresy and Heresy * (1891); and *The History and Use of Hymns and Hymn Tunes * (1903).

**BREITHAUPT,** brait'haupt, **JOACHIM JUSTUS:** First professor of theology at Halle; b. at Nordheim (12 m. n. of Göttingen), Hanover, Feb. 1658; d. at the monastery of Berge (Kloster Bergen, s. of Magdeburg; the site is now a public park) Mar. 16, 1732. He studied at Helmstädt, became conrector in Wolfenbüttel in 1680, and went thence to Kiel, where he continued theological studies under Christian Kortholt and became privat-docent. Then he lived for some time in Frankfort and came completely under Spener's influence. He returned to Kiel as professor of homiletics; became court preacher at Meiningen in 1685, went to Erfurt in 1687 as preacher at the Dominican Church and became professor of theology in the university. His Pietistic tendencies aroused much opposition, and in 1691 he removed to Halle, where with August Hermann Francke and Paul Anton he gave the theological study of the new university its peculiar character and direction. In 1705 he added to his other duties those of superintendent of the duchy of Magdeburg and in 1709 was made abbot at the monastery of Berge (then transformed into a school). He was a man of much faith, prayerful, and took a deep interest in poor students. Besides minor writings, he published *Institutiones theologicæ * (2 vols., Halle, 1694; 2d enlarged ed., 1723; vol. iii, *Institutiones theologiæ moralis, * 1732); *Theses credendorum et agendorum fundamentales* (1700). He was not without poetic talent and published a collection of *Poemata miscellanea * (Magdeburg, 1720). Some of his hymns are still found in the German hymn-books. (GEORG MÜLLER.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Memorial, ed. G. A. Francke, Halle, 1736, contains the *Lebensbeschreibung* by C. P. Leporin and Baumgartens *Memoria incomparabilis theologi J. J. Breithaupt. * Consult also A. Ritschl, *Geschichte des Pietismus,* iii, 385 et passim, Bonn, 1884; Julian, *Hymnology,* pp. 169-170; W. Schrader, *Geschichte der Friedrichs-Universität zu Halle,* vol. i, passim, Halle, 1894; *ADB,* iii, 291.

**BREITINGER,** brai'tin-ger, **JOHANN JAKOB:** Swiss theologian; b. at Zurich Apr. 19, 1575; d. there Apr. 1, 1645. Not until his seventeenth year did his spiritual gifts begin to manifest themselves, but from 1593 to 1598 he studied at Reformed seminaries in Germany and Holland, and in 1597 became a member of the clergy of his native city. His prominence during the pestilence of 1611 proved him worthy of the appointment of deacon to the church of St. Peter. Two years later he was made pastor of the *Grossmünster, * thus becoming the most important clergyman in Zurich, and in 1614 he was appointed school-rector. His importance was not due, however, to his religious or theological originality, but rather to his political intelligence and practical skill in organization and execution, combining shrewd circumspection and patience with a versatile initiative. His sermons, though not deep, were characterized by warmth of feeling, clearness, pithiness, and charm. The most important of his works are his synodical addresses, in which he sought to exalt the position of the clergy. These sermons, delivered at the semiannual sessions of the synod and collected by him in the latter years of his life, are models of pastoral wisdom, and received practical application in Breitinger's own activity. The status of the preachers was revolutionized on the basis of two of his speeches before the council in 1628, and he secured the general adoption of music in the churches, which Zurich had lacked altogether until 1598. He likewise enriched the liturgy with sections which are still in use, as with the prayer for the dead and the morning prayer after the sermon of 1638. Breitinger also successfully urged the need of religious instruction of the young, as is shown by repeated ordinances of 1613, 1628, 1637-1638, and 1643. He was, likewise, the ultimate author of the custom by which the Swiss Confederations celebrate the days of thanksgiving, repentance, and prayer at the same time, and it was he who introduced the rule of making a public announcement of marriage. In 1634 he introduced into the churches of Zurich and eastern Switzerland the use of parochial registers, which were to be returned every three years to the head of the clergy and thus served as a sort of census-report. Four years later he instituted parochial visitations, and finally established the ecclesiastical archives of Zurich. Breitinger was deeply interested in education, and was also active in the establishment of scholarships for poor students. He was no less enthusiastic in his patronage of charity, and prepared statistics of the poor as early as 1621, while in 1623, at the request of the mayor, he published *Gutachten der Bettler und Armen halber. * Three years later, on the basis of further studies, Breitinger made noteworthy proposals for houses of correction for neglected youth, and was also active in the improvement of prisons and hospitals. Ever watchful over the morals of the people, he opposed lack of refinement and excess, and sought to obviate the evil influences of the war in the neighboring kingdom, in addition to restricting lavish expenditure in clothing (1616, 1628), and in weddings and funerals (1621, 1628, 1640), as well as the drinking of toasts (1632), and occasionally even the stage and the cultivation of art. A watchful opponent of the hopes and propaganda of Catholicism and Anabaptism, he refrained from excessive hostility, contenting himself with remaining a constant protector of the Reformed. His personal preeminence and his interest in his church frequently involved him in political problems, and during the Thirty Years' War he was the leader of a Swedish party in Zurich. The fortification of the city was due, strictly speaking, to him, and had he had his way, Switzerland would have been involved in the struggle. (EMIL EGLI.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: The chief work is by J. C. Mörikofer, *J. J. Breitinger und Zürich,* Leipsic, 1874. Consult also G. R. Zimmermann, *Die Zürcher Kirche,* pp. 143-184, Zurich, 1877-78.

**BREMEN:** A free city and state of the German Empire. The city is situated on the Weser, about forty-six miles from its mouth and 215 miles by rail w.n.w. of Berlin. The state includes also the harbor-cities of Vegesack and Bremerhaven and about ninety-nine square miles of contiguous territory. The total population in 1900 was 224,697, of whom 163,292 belonged to the city of Bremen. Ninety-four per cent. are reported as Evangelical Protestants, 4.9 per cent. as Roman Catholics; the number of Jews is about 1,000. Of the Protestants nearly one-third are Reformed. The Protestants have no ecclesiastical organization, the government standing at the head of the Church and managing its affairs through a commission, which is also the school board. The various congregations are independent one of the other, but, individually, take a warm interest in missionary and benevolent work. BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. von Bippen, Geschichte der Stadt Bremen, 2 vols., Bremen, 1892-98; *Jahrbuch für bremische Statistik,* ib. 1905.

**BREMEN, BISHOPRIC OF:** A former diocese of Germany, whose foundation belongs to the period of the missionary activity of Willehad on the lower Weser. He was consecrated July 15, 787, at Worms, on Charlemagne's initiative, his jurisdiction being assigned to cover the Saxon territory on both sides of the Weser from the mouth of the Aller, northward to the Elbe and westward to the Hunte, and the Frisian territory for a certain distance from the mouth of the Weser. Willehad fixed his headquarters at Bremen, though the formal constitution of the bishopric took place only after the subjugation of the Saxons in 804 or 805, when Willehad's disciple, Willerich, was consecrated bishop of Bremen, with the same territory. The diocese was probably at that time ecclesiastically subject to Cologne. When, after the death of Bishop Leuderich (838-845), it was given to Ansgar, it lost its independence (see ANSGAR), and from that time was permanently united with Hamburg. The new combined see was regarded as the headquarters for missionary work in the north, and new sees to be erected were to be subject to its jurisdiction. Ansgar's successor, Rimbert, the "second apostle of the north," was troubled by onslaughts first of the Normans and then of the Wends, and by renewed claims on the part of Cologne. The see of Bremen attained its greatest prosperity and later had its deepest troubles under Adalbert (see ADALBERT OF HAMBURG-BREMEN). The next two archbishops, Liemar and Humbert, were determined opponents of Gregory VII. Under the latter the archbishopric of Lund was erected, and Bremen had suffragan sees only in name, the Wendish bishoprics having been destroyed. Schisms in Church and State marked the next two centuries, and in spite of the labors of the Windesheim and Bursfelde congregations, the way was prepared for the Reformation, which made rapid headway, partly owing to the fact that the last Roman Catholic archbishop, Christopher of Brunswick, was also bishop of Verden and resided there. By the time he died (1558), nothing was left of the old religion outside of a few monasteries and the districts served by them. The title of archbishop, with the secular jurisdiction, was borne for a time by Protestant princes. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) secularized it and made it (with Verden) a duchy and an appanage of the crown of Sweden. In 1712 it passed into the possession of Denmark, and three years later was sold to Hanover, to which it was restored in 1813 after the Napoleonic disturbances. Its former territory was distributed ecclesiastically at this time among the neighboring dioceses of Hildesheim, Osnabrück, and Münster, the imperial city of Bremen and the surrounding district being administered by the vicar-apostolic of the northern missions.

**BRENDAN, SAINT, OF CLONFERT** (called "the Navigator"); Irish saint; b. at Tralee (on Tralee Bay, west coast of Ireland, County Kerry) 484; d. at the monastery of his sister, Brigh, at Annadown (on the east shore of Lough Corrib, County Galway), 577. After studying with the most distinguished Irish masters, he was ordained presbyter, and then undertook the expedition or expeditions which form the basis of "The Navigation of St. Brendan," one of the most popular legends of the Middle Ages. In 552 or 553 (according to others in 556 or 557) he founded the monastery of Clonfert (in the barony of Longford, County Longford) and ruled it for twenty years, during which time it was the most famous school in West Ireland. He is said also to have founded a monastery in Brittany. A visit to Columba on Hinba Island, near Iona, is recorded, which must have been after 563, and he is last heard of in 570, when he acted as bard at the inauguration of the first Christian king of Cashel. According to an Irish life of St. Brendan, when he was ordained he pondered on the words in Luke xviii, 29-30, and determined to forsake country and brethren and seek a mysterious unknown land which he saw in visions. Under angelic guidance he set forth in a coracle of wicker work and hides, but after seven years was directed to return, as work was waiting for him at home. Some years later the impulse to travel again sent him forth, this time in a fine ship, fully equipped, and with a crew of sixty. "The whole story of the saint's adventures bears neither repetition nor criticism: but in the midst of much crude fiction we find occasional touches which have evidently been derived from the reports of genuine voyagers. In the course of their seven years' adventures they visit the Isle of Sheep, a full fair island full of green pasture: another fair island, full of flowers, herbs, and trees, where they thank God of his good grace: a little island wherein were many vines full of grapes: they meet with great tempests, in which they are greatly troubled long time and sore forlaboured; at other times calm airs and water so clear that they might see all the fishes that were about them, whereof they are full sore aghast: again they behold an hill all of fire and a foul smoke and stink coming from thence: and finally reach an attemperate land, ne too hot ne too cold, the fairest country that any man might see, in which the trees are charged with ripe fruit and flowers. Here they walk forty days, but find no end thereof, and at length lade their ships with its fruits and return home" (E. J. Payne, *History of the New World,* i, Oxford, 1892, 106-107). The story was known in France, Spain, and Holland in the eleventh century, and was very popular with all classes. It exists in translation into eight languages. Some of its incidents are derived from classical sources; others resemble the *Arabian Nights. * An expedition to the Hebrides and northern islands may have furnished the basis of fact. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lanigan, *Eccl. Hist.*, ii, 28-38; *St. Brandan,* a metrical and a prose life, in English; ed. T. Wright, in Percy Society Publications, vol. xiv, London, 1844; W. J. Rees, *Lives of the Cambro-British Saints,* pp. 251-254, 575-579, Llandovery, 1853; W. Reeves's *Adamnan's Life of St. Columba, * p. 221, Dublin, 1857; C. Schröder, *Sanct Brandon, ein lateinischer und drei deutsche Texte, * Erlangen, 1871; A. P. Forbes, *Kalendars of Scottish Saints,* pp. 284-287, Edinburgh, 1872; F. Michel, *Les voyages merveilleux de S. Brandan,* Paris, 1878; J. Healy, *Insula sanctorum et doctorum,* pp. 209 sqq., Dublin, 1890: D. O'Donoghue, *Brendaniana, * Dublin, 1893; T. Olden, *The Church of Ireland,* pp. 63-64, London, 1895; C. Plummer, *Some New Light on the Brandon Legend, * in *Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie, * v (1904), 124-141; J. O'Hanlon, *Lives of the Irish Saints, * v, 389-472, Dublin, n.d.

**BRENT, CHARLES HENRY:** Protestant Episcopal missionary bishop of the Philippines; b. at Newcastle, Ont., Apr. 9, 1862. He was graduated at Trinity College, Toronto, in 1884, and was ordered deacon in 1886 and priested in 1887. He was then curate of St. Paul's Cathedral, Buffalo, N. Y., 1887-88, and of St. John the Evangelist, Boston, 1888-91, and associate rector of St. Stephen's, in the same city, 1897-1901, being also a member of the editorial staff of *The Churchman * from 1897 to 1900. In 1901 he was consecrated first bishop of the missionary district of the Philippine Islands. On May 6, 1908, he was elected bishop of the diocese of Washington. He has written *With God in the World * (New York, 1899); *The Consolations of the Cross * (1902); *The Splendor of the Human Body* (1904); and *Liberty and Other Sermons * (1906).

### BRENZ, JOHANN. Early Advocacy of the Reformation (§ 1). Activity in behalf of the New Movement (§ 2). Opposed by the Emperor (§ 3). Activity, 1550-53 (§ 4). Controversies (§ 5). Later Years (§ 6). Johann Brenz, the German theologian and Swabian Reformer, was born at Weil (8 m. s. of Stuttgart) June 24, 1499; d. at Stuttgart Sept. 11, 1570. He received his education at Heidelberg, where, shortly after becoming magister and regent of the Realistenbursa in 1518, he delivered philological and philosophical lectures. He also lectured on the Gospel of Matthew, only to be prohibited on account of his popularity and his novel exegesis, especially as he had already been won over to the side of Luther, not only through his ninety-five theses, but still more by personal acquaintance with him at the disputation at Heidelberg in Apr., 1518. In 1522 Brenz was threatened with a trial for heresy, but escaped through a call to the pastorate of Hall. In the spring of 1524 he received a strong ally in his activity as a Reformer in Johann Isenmann, who became pastor of the parish-church at Hall. The feast of corpus Christi was the first to be discarded, and in 1524 the monastery of the Discalced Friars was transformed into a school. In the Peasants' War, on the other hand, Brenz deprecated the abuse of evangelical liberty by the peasants, pleading for mercy to the conquered and warning the magistracy of their duties. At Christmas the Lord's Supper was administered in both kinds, and at Easter of the following year the first regulations were framed for the church and the school. Brenz himself prepared in 1528 a larger and a smaller catechism for the young, both characterized by simplicity, warmth, and a childlike spirit. He first attained wider recognition, however, when he published his *Syngramma Suevicum * on Oct. 21, 1525, attacking Œcolampadius, and finding the explanation of the creative power of the word of Christ in the theory that the body and blood of Christ are actually present in the sacrament. Henceforth Brenz took part in all the important conferences on the religious situation. In Oct., 1529, he attended the Colloquy of Marburg, and in the following year, at the request of the Margrave George of Brandenburg, he was present at the diet in Augsburg, where he seconded Melanchthon in his efforts to reach an agreement with the adherents of the ancient faith, but refused all association with the followers of Zwingli. In 1532 he collaborated in the church-regulations of Brandenburg and Nuremberg, and furthered the Reformation in the margravate of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Dinkelsbühl, and Heilbronn, while three years later Duke Ulrich of Württemberg called him as an adviser in the framing of regulations for the church, visitations, and marriage. In Feb., 1537, he was at Schmalkald, and two months later undertook the difficult but successful task of the reformation of the University of Tübingen. He likewise attended the conference on the use of images held at Urach, Sept., 1537, where he urged their abolition. Brenz returned to Hall in April of the following year, in June, 1540, attended the conference at Hagenau, was at Worms in the latter part of the same year, and in Jan., 1546, was at Regensburg, where he was obliged to deal with Cochlæus, although, as he had foreseen, he was unsuccessful. He devoted himself with great zeal to his pastoral duties, and side by side with his sermons was evolved a valuable series of expositions of Biblical writings. After the last remnants of the ancient regulations of the church of Hall had been abolished, his new rules appeared in 1543. Calls to Leipsic in 1542, to Tübingen in 1543, and to Strasburg in 1548 were declined in favor of his position at Hall. Brenz had long opposed the adherence of Hall and the margrave to the Schmalkald League, since he regarded resistance to the temporal authorities as inadmissible. Gradually, however, 3 his views changed, through the hostile attitude of the emperor. In 1538 Hall entered the League, and after its defeat Charles V came to the city (Dec. 16, 1546), and obtained possession of papers, letters, and sermons of Brenz, who, despite the bitter cold, was obliged to flee, although he returned Jan. 4, 1547. The new Interim of the emperor (see INTERIM), which Brenz called *interitus* ("ruin"), recalled him to the scene of action, and he earnestly opposed its adoption. The imperial chancellor, Granvella, demanded his surrender, and Brenz, warned by a note reading: "Flee, Brenz, quickly, more quickly, most quickly!" escaped on the evening of his forty-ninth birthday, June 24, 1548. He hastened to Duke Ulrich, who concealed him in the castle of Hohenwittlingen near Urach, where, under the pseudonym of Joannes Witlingius, he prepared an exposition of Ps. xciii and cxxx. As the emperor was everywhere searching for him, Ulrich sent him by way of Strasburg to Basel, where he was kindly received and found time to write an exposition of the prophecy of Isaiah. Duke Christopher called him to Mömpelgard, where, in Jan., 1549, Brenz was notified of the death of his wife. The condition of his children induced him to go to Swabia, but owing to the pursuit of the emperor, he was often in great danger, and the duke sheltered him in the castle of Hornberg near Gutach. There he spent eighteen months under the name of Huldrich Engster (Encaustius), always active for the welfare of the Church, both by his advice to the duke and his theological labors. He declined calls to Magdeburg, Königsberg, and England. In Aug., 1549, he ventured to go to Urach, where his friend Isenmann was now minister, in order to take counsel with the duke, his advisers, and Matthæus Alber, regarding the restoration of the evangelical divine service. In the autumn of 1550 he married for his second wife Catherine, the oldest daughter of Isenmann. After Ulrich's death Brenz was asked to prepare the *confessio Wirtembergica* for the Council of Trent, and with three other Wittenberg theologians and Johann Marbach of Strasburg, he went to Trent, Mar., 1552, to defend his creed (see BEURLIN, JAKOB). Great was the surprise of the fathers of the council, but they refused to be instructed by those who were to obey them. The Interim was abolished. Brenz who had thus far lived at Stuttgart, Tübingen, Ehningen, and Sindelfingen as counselor of the duke, was made provost of the Cathedral of Stuttgart, Sept. 24, 1554, and appointed ducal counselor for life. He was now the right hand of the duke in the reorganization of ecclesiastical and educational affairs in Württemberg. The great church order of 1553-59, containing also the *confessio Wirtembergica,* in spite of its dogmatism, is distinguished by clearness, mildness, and consideration. In like manner, his *Catechismus pia et utile explicatione illustratus* (Frankfort, 1551) became a rich source of instruction for many generations and countries. The proposition made by Kaspar Leyser and Jakob Andreä, in 1554 to introduce a form of discipline after a Calvinistic model was opposed by Brenz, since he held that the minister should have charge of the preaching, the exhortation to repentance, and dissuasion from the Lord's Supper, whereas excommunication belonged to the whole church. At the instance of the duke, Brenz moved in 1553 to Neuburg, to arrange the church affairs of the Palatinate. The Osiandric controversy about the doctrine of justification, in 1551 and the following years, which caused a scandalous schism in Prussia, was a cause of much annoyance and defamation to Brenz, who saw in this controversy nothing but a war of words. In 1554-1555 the question of the Religious Peace of Augsburg occupied his mind; in 1556 the conference with Johannes a Lasco, in 1557 the Frankenthal conference with the Anabaptists and the Worms Colloquy; in 1558 the edict against Schwenckfeld and the Anabaptists, and the Frankfort Recess; in 1559 the plan for a synod of those who were related to the Augsburg Confession and the Stuttgart Synod, to protect Brenz's doctrine of the Lord's Supper against Calvinistic tendencies; in 1563 and 1569 the struggle against Calvinism in the Palatinate (Maulbronn Colloquy) and the crypto-Calvinistic controversies. The attack of the Dominican Peter a Soto upon the Württemberg Confession in his *Assertio fidei* (Cologne, 1562) led Brenz to reply with his *Apologia confessionis* (Frankfort, 1555). In 1558 he was engaged in a controversy with Bishop Hosius of Ermland. The development of the Reformation in the Palatinate led the aged man to a vehement renewal of his negotiation with Bullinger, with whom he had been forced into close relation through the Interim. The question concerned the doctrine of the Lord's Supper and also involved a peculiar development of Christology, which was opposed by the Lutheran theologians outside of Württemberg, since Brenz carried to its logical conclusion the concept of "personal union," thus favoring an absolute omnipresence (ubiquity) of the body of Christ, which did not begin with the ascension but with the incarnation. Brenz took a lively interest in the Waldensians and the French Protestants. But all efforts in behalf of the latter, the journey of the Württemberg theologians to Paris to advise King Antony of Navarre in 1561 (see BEURLIN, JAKOB), the meeting of the duke and Brenz with Cardinal Guise of Lorraine at Zabern, the correspondence and the sending of writings, all ended in bitter disappointment. The Protestants of Bavaria, who had to suffer under Albert, also had his full sympathy. To the citizens of Strasburg Brenz expressed his doubts as to the advisability of following the procession with the monstrance and advised them not to attend mass. He was also deeply interested in the Protestants in Austria, for whom the first Slavic books were then printed at Urach. His last Reformatory activity was the correspondence with Duke William of Jülich and Julius of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (1568-69). In addition to this he continued his exposition of the Psalms and other Biblical books, which he had commenced at Stuttgart. In 1569 he was paralyzed, and his strength was broken. He was buried beneath the pulpit of the cathedral; but the Jesuits demolished his grave. G. BOSSERT. BIBLIOGRAPHY: An index of the works, printed and in MS., of Brenz, and of works about him is furnished in W. Köhler, *Bibliographia Brentiana, * Berlin, 1904. There is no complete ed. of Brenz's productions, though selected works, in 8 vols., were published, Tübingen, 1576-90. The letters are given in T. Pressel, *Anecdota Brentiana,* ib. 1868, and in *Beiträge zur bayerischen Kirchengeschichte,* ed. T. Kolde, i, 273, ii. 34. The earliest sketch of his life is by J. Heerbrand, *Oratio funebris,* Tübingen, 1570. For later accounts consult: J. Hartmann and C. Jäger, *Johann Brenz, * 2 vols., Hamburg, 1840-42 (still the best account); J. Hartmann, *Johann Brenz,* Elberfeld, 1862; G. Bossert, *Das Interim in Württemberg,* Halle, 1895; E. Schneider, *Württembergische Geschichte,* Stuttgart, 1896. On the theology of Brenz consult: H. Schmid, *Der Kampf der lutherischen Kirche um Luther's Lehre vom Abendmahl im Reformationszeitalter,* Leipsic, 1868; A. Hegler, *J. Brenz und die Reformation im Herzogtum Wirtemberg, * Freiburg, 1899; C. W. Kügelgen, *Die Rechtfertigungslehre des J. Brenz,* Leipsic, 1899; G. Traub, *Beitrag zur Geschichte des Rechtfertigungsbegriffs,* in *TSK,* lxxiii, 1900.

**BRÈS,** brê, **GUY DE (Guido de Bray):** Reformer in the Netherlands; b. at Mons 1522; executed at Valenciennes May 31, 1567. He was brought up strictly by his Roman Catholic mother, but before his twenty-fifth year had become a thorough Protestant. When persecution broke out in 1548, he fled to England, where he spent four years. Then he came back and settled at Ryssel (Liége), where he won great popularity as a preacher. In 1556 his congregation was dispersed by a fresh persecution, and he was obliged to flee, going apparently for a while to Ghent, then to Frankfort, and probably to Switzerland. Early in 1559 he returned to the southern Netherlands, with Tournai for his headquarters, but serving also Ryssel and Valenciennes, and visiting Antwerp and Mons in the cause of his religion, often in disguise for safety's sake. The public singing of Marot's psalms in Sept., 1561, gave rise to a judicial investigation, which exposed Brès to fresh danger. Undaunted, he undertook to secure justice for his comrades by laying before the authorities his confession of faith (known as the Belgic Confession, in thirty-seven articles, on the model of that adopted by the French Reformed churches in 1559. This modest, sober, positive statement, which he hoped would show the authorities that his friends were not revolutionary Anabaptists, failed to stop the persecution; but the frequent editions of it show that it met with popular approval; it won thousands to the cause of the Reformation, and was soon recognized as a standard formula. Once known, however, as its author, the Reformer was obliged to escape from Tournai to Amiens, and thence possibly to Antwerp. In 1564 he was in Brussels for a conference with William of Orange, and took part in the negotiations at Metz for a union of the Lutherans and Calvinists. Then he found a refuge at Sédan with Henri Robert de la Marck, Sieur de Bouillon, but was called back to a post of danger in the summer of 1566 by the consistory of Antwerp. In August he settled at Valenciennes, where by this time more than two-thirds of the inhabitants were in sympathy with the Reformation. At first he preached in the open air, but after the iconoclastic outbreak of Aug. 24 took possession of St. John's church. The governor's attempts to suppress the movement led to the siege of the city in December, and its surrender in the following March. Once more Brès was forced to flee, but he and his fellow preachers were captured a few hours later at Saint-Amand, and sent as prisoners to Tournai and then back to Valenciennes. The letters which he wrote to comfort his wife and his aged mother give an insight into his faith and the nobility of his character. He was sentenced to be hanged in front of the town hall, and thus ended a life full of toil and peril, which is one of the glories of the Reformation in the southern Netherlands. (L. A. VAN LANGERAAD.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. A. van Langeraad, *Guido de Bray; zyn leven en werken. Bydrage tot de geschiedenis van het zuid-Nederlandsche Protestantisme, Zierikzee,* 1884; W. C. van Manen, *Guy de Bray; opsteller van de Belydenisse des geloofs der gereformeerde Kercken in Nederland,* Amsterdam, 1885.

**BRESLAU, BISHOPRIC OF:** A diocese which is shown to be already in existence at the date of the foundation of the archbishopric of Gnesen (1000). Probably it was established not long before that date, presumably not by Otto III, but by Duke Boleslav Chrobry of Poland. The original extent of the diocese can not be determined, but in later times it was nearly coextensive with the present province of Silesia, including also the Meissen district on the western side of the Queis. (A. HAUCK.) A line of unusually excellent bishops administered the see with success until the sixteenth century; but Jacob von Salza (1520-39) was too weak to stand against the rising tide of the Reformation, and his successor, Balthasar von Promnitz, was even inclined to Lutheran doctrines. From 1608 to 1664 the see was occupied by three archdukes of Austria and a prince of Poland, who had little care for religion, and when Silesia came under Frederick II of Prussia Protestantism was still more encouraged. In 1821 the diocese, which is now partly in Germany and partly in Austria and numbers about two million souls, was made an exempt bishopric.

**BRETHREN, BOHEMIAN; BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE,** and similar titles. See BOHEMIAN BRETHREN; COMMON LIFE, BRETHREN OF THE, etc.

**BRETSCHNEIDER**, bret'shnai"der, **KARL GOTTLIEB:** German theologian; b. at Gersdorf (40 m. e. of Dresden), Saxony, Feb. 11, 1776; d. at Gotha Jan. 22, 1848; studied at Leipsic; appointed minister at Schneeberg, 1807, superintendent at Annaberg, 1808, and superintendent-general at Gotha, 1816. He was a prolific writer and took an active part in controversies. Among his principal works may be mentioned: *Lexicon manuale Græco-Latinum in libros Novi Testamenti * (Leipsic, 1824; 3d ed., 1840); *Systematische Entwickelung aller in der Dogmatik vorkommenden Begriffe * (1805; 4th ed., 1841); *Handbuch der Dogmatik * (1814; 4th ed., 1838). He founded the series of reprints called the *Corpus reformatorum * (Halle, 1834 sqq.), in which the works of Melanchthon and Calvin have appeared, to which Zwingli will be added. His standpoint was that of the so-called rational supernaturalism—a rather untenable ground between rationalism and supernaturalism. BIBLIOGRAPHY: K. G. Bretschneider, *Aus meinem Leben; Selbstbiographie, * ed. H. Bretschneider (his son), Gotha, 1852.

**BREVIARY:** The name of the Roman Catholic service-book containing what is called the "divine office" or the services for the canonical hours, as distinguished from the missal, which contains the altar-service, and the ritual, which has the rites for the administration of the sacraments, etc. It is a practically arranged, well-divided collection of prayers with numerous brief extracts from Scripture, and the Fathers and ancient hymns. From the subdeacon upward every Roman cleric is bound to recite the whole office daily. ### The Canonical Hours. The breviary is based on the idea of realizing, in the spirit of the Church, at least symbolically, the apostolic command to "pray without ceasing"; the whole life of the Christian is to appear as a continuous prayer, not only in heart and works, but also in words; at all hours and places of the earth the prayer of the Church is to ascend to God. The custom of the synagogue (Dan. vi, 10, 13; Ps. iv, 18) in regard to morning and evening hours (I Chron. xxiv, 30) as well as other times of prayer (Ps. cxix, 62, 64) was taken as a standard. At first there were the three hours, the third, sixth, and ninth, or 9 A.M., noon, and 3 P.M. (cf. Acts ii, 15, 46; iii, 1; x, 9). To these were added midnight, the hour when Paul and Silas prayed in the prison (Acts xvi, 25), and the beginning of the day and the night. This arrangement of prayer is mentioned in Tertullian, Cyprian, Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, and the Apostolic Constitutions. In the fourth century, Athanasius (*De virginitate,* xii-xx) knows of seven hours; Gregory Nazianzen speaks with approval of the nightly vigils and the antiphonal singing. All these hours were adopted in the monasteries especially, as Jerome (*Epist.,* vii, cviii, cxxx), Basil, and Augustine attest. From the monasteries these hours of prayer (called canonical as a part of canonical life) spread to the cathedral and collegiate chapters. Benedict added the seventh (compline, *completorium*), and since the sixth century the order and number of hours have not varied. The day-hours are prime (normally at 6 A.M.), terce (9 A.M.), sext (noon), none (3 P.M.), and vespers (6 P.M.); nowadays compline and lauds are usually reckoned with them. (See the articles under these titles.) Matins, answering to the three Roman vigils, is divided into three nocturnes, and was originally followed by the present lauds. ### Sources and Revisions of the Breviary. The bulk of the prayers for all these hours was taken from the Psalms, to which antiphons were added, giving the psalms a special meaning appropriate to the occasion. Afterward collects were added, which were intended to prevent distraction and excite devotion, and are accordingly brief. The posture varied between standing, sitting, and kneeling. The whole structure was enriched and completed by the addition of other prayers, responsories, versicles, etc. The musical element was provided for by official books known as antiphonaries, especially that composed under Gregory I, and the so-called *Micrologus* (twelfth century). Cassian attests that each three psalms at matins were followed by three lessons, taken from Scripture, on Sunday only from the New Testament; later on the lives of the saints and exegetical passages from the most prominent teachers of the Church were inserted. The introduction of metrical hymns was long opposed (Council of Braga, 553), especially in Rome. So many arbitrary additions made the offices too long, and Gregory VII reduced them; other revisions were made under Gregory IX, Clement VII, who had the assistance of the Franciscan general, Cardinal Quignonez (1536), Clement VIII (1602), and Urban VIII (1631). The late Vatican Council also introduced some changes. ### Contents of the Roman Breviary. At present the Roman breviary, which has at last succeeded in supplanting the many local or diocesan uses, consists of four parts, corresponding to the four seasons of the year. Each part again has four divisions: (1) The psalter, or ordinary week-day service for each day and hour; (2) the "proper of the season," the service for the festivals of Christ and the Sundays of the various seasons; (3) the "proper of saints," the special service for the festivals of particular saints; and (4) the "common of saints," providing, under separate classes, services for those saints who have no special one. Appendices contain the office for the dead, the gradual and penitential psalms, prayers for the dying and for travelers, and grace before and after meals. The analogous service-book in the Greek Church is called *Horologium*. In the Evangelical Church a similar service was often retained in cathedral and collegiate chapters, for which Luther's suggestions of 1523 and 1526 furnished a basis. The matins and vespers were especially retained. Attempts have lately been made, with varying success, to restore the other hours; but the problem can not be considered as solved. The Anglican Church, in its Book of Common Prayer, has made skilful use of important portions from the ancient order. M. HEROLD. The calendar of the Roman breviary is a complicated affair, especially since the multiplication of festivals in the last two or three centuries. These are classed as double or simple. The simple form the lowest class, and have no second vespers. The double (so called from the antiphons being doubled, or recited entire both before and after the psalms and canticles at lauds and vespers) are classed in order of importance as doubles of the first class (with or without an octave), second class, greater, and lesser. Where two feasts occur, i.e., fall on the same day, or concur, i.e., the first vespers of one conflict with the second vespers of the other, the difficulty is met, according to detailed rules based on the rank of the feasts, either by "transferring" the less important to the first unoccupied day, or by "commemorating" it with the recitation of its chief antiphon, versicle and response, and collect, after the collect for the day at lauds and vespers. BIBLIOGRAPHY: A complete Eng. transl. of the Roman Breviary was made by John Marquess of Bute, 2 vols., London, 1879. Consult also: C. H. Collette, *The Roman *Breviary, * London, 1880; G. Schober, *Explanatio critica . . . breviarii Romani, * Regensburg, 1891; S. Bäumer, *Geschichte des Breviers, * Freiburg, 1895, Fr. transl., Paris, 1906; P. Batiffol, *Histoire du bréviaire Romain, * Paris, 1893, Eng. transl., London, 1898; Bingham, *Origines, * book xiii, chap. 9; J. Baudot, *Le Bréviaire romain, ses origines, son histoire, * Paris, 1906. On the Scripture reading consult E. Ranke, *Das kirchliche Perikopensystem aus den ältesten Urkunden der römischen Liturgie, * Berlin, 1847. On the hymns consult: F. Probst, *Brevier und Breviergebet, * Tübingen, 1868; J. Kayser, *Beiträge zur Geschichte und Erklärung der alten Kirchenhymnen,* 2 vols., Paderborn, 1881-86; Julian, *Hymnology,* pp. 170-181. A rich bibliography of Breviaries is to be found in the *British Museum Catalogue,* s.v. Liturgies.*

**BREWER, LEIGH RICHMOND:** Protestant Episcopal bishop of Montana; b. at Berkshire, Vt., Jan. 20, 1839. He was educated at Hobart College (B.A., 1863) and the General Theological Seminary (1866), and was ordered deacon in 1866 and ordained priest in the following year. He was successively rector of Grace Church, Carthage, N. Y. (1866-72), and Trinity Church, Watertown, N. Y. (1872-80), and in 1880 was consecrated missionary bishop of Montana.

**BREWSTER, CHAUNCEY BUNCE:** Protestant Episcopal bishop of Connecticut; b. at Windham, Conn., Sept. 5, 1848. He was educated at Yale College (B.A., 1868) and Berkeley Divinity School, Middletown, Conn. (1872). He was a tutor at Yale in 1870-71, was ordered deacon in 1872, and was advanced to the priesthood in the following year. He was curate of St. Andrew's, Meriden, Conn., in 1872, and was then rector in succession of Christ Church, Rye, N. Y. (1873-81), Christ Church, Detroit, Mich. (1881-85), Grace Church, Baltimore (1885-88), and Grace Church, Brooklyn Heights (1888-97). In 1897 he was consecrated bishop-coadjutor of Connecticut, and became bishop in 1899. His theological position is that of a High-churchman with liberal sympathies. He has written *The Key of Life * (New York, 1894); *Aspects of Revelation * (1901; the Baldwin lectures for 1900); and *The Catholic Ideal of the Church * (1904).

**BREWSTER, WILLIAM:** Leader of the "Pilgrim Fathers"; b. of good family probably at Scrooby (37 m. s. of York), Nottinghamshire, England, 1560; d. at Plymouth, Mass., Apr. 10, 1644. He matriculated at Peterhouse, Cambridge, but apparently did not graduate. From 1584 till 1587 he was in the service of William Davison, ambassador to the Low Countries and afterward secretary of state. About 1587 he retired to Scrooby, where he lived in the manor-house and was keeper of the post, a position of considerable importance at that time. He was a prominent member of a separatist congregation of which Richard Clifton was pastor, holding its meetings regularly at Brewster's house. Because of persecution in England they made an unsuccessful attempt to flee to Holland in 1607, and in 1608 escaped to Amsterdam with John Robinson as "teacher" and Brewster as "elder." In 1609 they settled at Leyden, where Brewster, having exhausted his means, gave lessons in English and also set up a printing-press. He favored the emigration to America, was influential in securing a grant of land in 1619, and sailed with the first company in the *Mayflower, * Sept., 1620. He continued as elder of the congregation at Plymouth, and preached regularly until the first ordained minister, Ralph Smith, came in 1629, but as he was not ordained, he never administered the sacraments. See CONGREGATIONALISTS, I, 1, §§ 5-7; 4, § 1. BIBLIOGRAPHY: *Memoir, * written by his colleague, William Bradford, the governor and historian of the Plymouth colony (b. 1590; d. 1657), in Young's *Chronicles of the Pilgrims, * Boston, 1841, and in the *Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, * series 5, vol. iii; A. Steele, *Chief of the Pilgrims. Life and Time of W. Brewster,* Philadelphia, 1857; J. Savage, *Genealogical Dictionary of the First Settlers of New England, * 4 vols., Boston, 1860-62; W. Walker, *History of Congregational Churches,* pp. 56, 59, 61-74, 77, 227, New York, 1894; *DNB,* vi, 304-305.

**BREYFOGEL,** brai'fo-gel, **SYLVANUS CHARLES:** Bishop of the Evangelical Association; b. at Reading, Pa., July 20, 1851. He was ordained to the ministry of the Evangelical Association in 1873, was elected presiding elder of the same organization in 1886, and has been bishop since 1891. In this capacity he has made tours of inspection throughout the United States, Canada, and Europe, as well as China, and Japan. He is chancellor of the Correspondence College of the Evangelical Association at Reading, Pa., has lectured frequently before the Ocean Grove School of Theology, the Winona Assembly, and similar summer assemblies, and has written *Landmarks of the Evangelical Association * (Cleveland, 1887).

**BRICONNET,** brî"sen"nê', **GUILLAUME:** French prelate; b. at Paris 1470; d. at Esmans (near Montereau, 20 m. e.s.e. of Melun) Jan. 24, 1534. He was a descendant of a noble family of Touraine, and, after completing his theological studies at the college of Navarre, was appointed bishop of Lodève and was also made abbot of St. Germain-des-Près in 1507. Four years later he attended the Council of Pisa, and during his absence a spirit of licentiousness spread among his monks, whom he was unable to control. Francis I then appointed him bishop of Meaux and sent him on a mission to Rome, where he remained two years. On his return, he sought to improve the morals and customs of his diocese, and accordingly convoked several synods, and also extended invitations to a number of evangelical preachers, such as Lefèvre, Roussel, and Farel, who preached in thirty-two different places in his diocese, and introduced French translations of the Gospels and Epistles. When Farel attacked Rome, however, Briconnet deprived him of his office and convoked two synods, the first condemning the teachings of Luther and forbidding the purchase or the reading of his works, and the second prohibiting all heterodox interpretations of the Gospel. Briconnet found himself between two factions; one turning against Rome by denying the authority of the pope, the worship of the Virgin and of the saints; and the other clinging to the old traditions. In his effort to avoid extremes, he published certain proclamations between Dec., 1524, and Jan., 1525, threatening to excommunicate those who had burned the bull of Clement VII and destroyed images of the Virgin. Notwithstanding this, he was charged by the Cordeliers before the Parliament of Paris with being in sympathy with the Lutherans (Mar., 1525–Oct., 1526), whereupon a commission ordered that Lefèvre's translations be burned, and forbade evangelical preaching. The preachers accordingly fled to Strasburg, although Briconnet himself was acquitted. Taking advantage of the absence of Francis I, who was held captive in Madrid, the Cordeliers renewed their charges, and two of the new preachers, Jacobus Pauvan and Matthæus Saunier, were convicted of heresy by the Sorbonne and burned at the stake. Briconnet wrote a letter of submission to the Parliament, and Francis quashed the case. His works were as follows: *Synodalis oratio * (Paris, 1520); *Synodalis oratio* (1552); and a correspondence with Margaret of Navarre, some of which, with other fragments, is contained in Génin, *Lettres de Marguerite d'Angoulême * (1841) and *Nouvelles lettres de la reine de Navarre * (1842), and Herminjard, *Correspondance des réformateurs * (Geneva, 1878). G. BONET-MAURY. BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Bretonneau, *Histoire généalogique de la maison des Briconnet, * Paris, 1620; M. T. C. Duplessis, *Histoire de l'Église de Meaux, * ib. 1731; V. Duruy, *Histoire de France,* i, 575 sqq., ib. 1856; A. L. Herminjard, *Correspondance des réformateurs,* vol. i, ib. 1878; E. and É. Haag, *La France protestante, * ed. H. L. Bordier, ib. 1877 sqq.; Lichtenberger, *ESR,* ii, 423-429; S. Berger, in *Bulletin de la société du protestantisme français, * 1895.

**BRICTINANS** (Brittinans, Brittinians, so named from S. Blasius de Brictinis, a desolate region not far from Fano in Umbria): An Italian hermit-society founded during the pontificate of Gregory IX, who confirmed it in 1234 by an edict, enjoining upon the members the most rigorous asceticism, especially as to fasting and the total abstinence from flesh in any form between Sept. 14 and Easter of every year. Innocent IV sought, apparently with success, to merge them, as well as the anchorite orders of the Williamites and John-Bonites, in the new order of the Augustinians. A bull of Alexander IV, however, dated in 1260 (Potthast, *Regesta, * no. 17,915), assures them the right of independent existence. O. ZÖCKLER.

**BRIDAINE (BRYDAINE), JACQUES:** French Roman Catholic preacher; b. at Chusclan (15 m. n.n.w. of Avignon), Department of Gard, Mar. 21, 1701; d. at Roquemaure, near Avignon, Dec. 22, 1767. He studied at the Jesuit College and the Mission Seminary of St. Charles de la Croix in Avignon; visited as a missionary preacher or evangelist nearly every city and village of France, producing a profound impression by his somber and vehement sermons. He almost always preached extemporaneously, appealed to the emotions of his hearers, and sought to terrify them. He prepared a volume of *Cantiques spirituels * (Montpellier, 1748), which has passed through fifty editions. Certain works have been published from his manuscripts, including *Lectures et méditations * (Avignon, 1821); *Réglement de vie pour une pieuse demoiselle * (1821); and five volumes of sermons (1823). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abbé Carron, *Le Modèle des prêtres, *Paris, 1804.

**BRIDEL,** brî"del', **PHILIPPE LOUIS JUSTIN:** Swiss Protestant; b. at Lausanne Nov. 27, 1852. He was educated at the Academy (now the University) of his native city and in the theological faculty of the Free Church of the same institution, being graduated from the former in 1870 and from the latter in 1876. He also studied at the University of Göttingen, and after the completion of his education held successive pastorates in the Canton of Vaud (1875-78), Paris (1879-87), and Lausanne (1887-94). Since 1894 he has been professor of philosophy and the history of theology in the theological faculty of the Free Church at Lausanne. He has been associate editor of the *Revue de théologie et de philosophie * since 1895 and of the *Liberté chrétienne * since 1898. In theology he is, to a certain extent, a follower of C. Secrétan and A. R. Vinet, and has written *La Philosophie de la religion d'Immanuel Kant * (Lausanne, 1876); *La Palestine illustrée * (4 vols., 1888-91); *Roger Holland, pasteur à Paris * (1902); and *Charles Renouvier et la philosophie * (1905).

**BRIDGE, WILLIAM:** Puritan; b. in Cambridgeshire about 1600; d. at Clapham, near London, Mar. 12, 1670. He was a fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and, as rector at Norwich, was silenced by Bishop Wren for nonconformity (1637), and excommunicated; he remained in Norwich, however, till the writ *de excommunicato capiendo * came out against him, when he fled to Holland and became pastor of the English Church at Rotterdam, succeeding Hugh Peters and associated with Jeremiah Burroughs; he returned to England in 1642 and was a member of the Westminster Assembly; was minister at Great Yarmouth till ejected in 1662, and spent the rest of his life at Clapham. He was an Independent (Congregationalist) and Calvinist, a learned man, and had a library rich in the Fathers and schoolmen. His collected works in three volumes were published at London, 1649, and, with memorial, in five volumes, 1845.

**BRIDGET (Brigit, Brigida, Bride), SAINT, OF KILDARE:** Patron saint of Ireland; b. at Fochart (Faugher, 2 m. n. of Dundalk), Leinster, c. 453; d. at Kildare (30 m. w.s.w. of Dublin) Feb. 1, 523. She was the daughter of a certain Dubhthach and his bondmaid or concubine named Brotsech. At the age of fourteen she received the veil in Meath from the hand of Bishop Machille (Mel), and during a long life won renown for piety and benevolence, and as a founder of monasteries. Her first and most important foundation was Kildare (*cill dara,* so named from a large oak under which her cell was first placed), which was followed by Breagh in Meath, Hay in Connaught, Cliagh in Munster, and others. She was buried at Kildare, where the nuns of her monastery (the "fire-house") kept the so-called "St. Bridget's fire" continually burning in her honor till 1220, when the bishop of the time ordered it extinguished to make an end of the many superstitions connected with it. Thus far the notices of her life are well authenticated; but in very early times legend began to associate marvels of the wildest sort with her name—a tendency not unknown to her oldest biographers. An aged seer foretold her future greatness to her mother before she was born. While still a child Bridget prophesied her coming spiritual rule over Ireland by stretching her arms over the green fields and crying "it will be mine." As nun and monastery-head she performs numerous miracles of benevolence and love like those of Elijah at Zarephath and Jesus in feeding the multitude. The milk which she gives to a poor man, instead of making it into butter, is restored in a wondrous way; so likewise the bacon which she gives to a hungry dog instead of cooking it. She gives seven sheep, one after the other, to a beggar who comes to her in seven different forms, but the number of her flock is not diminished. She changes the water drawn from a spring for a sick man into a delicious liquor. She satisfies a whole company of episcopal guests with the milk of a single cow which had already been milked three times the same day. Some of her dream-miracles and visions are more credible; but here, on the one hand, a Roman-clerical tendency is easily recognized—as when she finds herself transported to Rome and hears a mass read there which awakens in her the desire to transplant the same to Ireland—and, on the other hand, we meet with characteristics of a benevolent nature-deity, which the legends mentioned above also indicate by ascribing to her manifold miracles connected with the giving of food and drink. It is thus not unlikely that the old heathen nature-goddess Ceridwen (the Ceres of the Celts), transformed into a Christian saint, survives in Bridget. The fire also which was kept burning in her honor at Kildare speaks for this supposition. It is said that the foundations of a temple of Ceridwen, with great vaults for the storing of fruits, have been found beneath the chapel of the monastery (cf. *Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy,* iii, 1789, *Ant.*, 75-85). In old Irish legend and song, Bridget is likened to the Virgin Mary, or even extolled as the Mary of the Irish by expressions such as "mother of Christ," "mother of the Lord," and the like. A hymn, attributed to Bishop Ultan (d. 656) and in any case very old, calls her "beloved queen of the true God," and the old *Officium S. Brigidæ * (printed at Paris, 1622) speaks of her as "another Mary," "like to Mary," etc. The monasteries, churches, and villages named after her are almost without number. O. ZÖCKLER. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The three oldest lives (by Brogar Cloen, Cogitosus, and Ultan), dating from the sixth and seventh centuries, with three later lives, from the ninth to the twelfth centuries, were published by J. Colgan in his *Trias thaumaturga,* pp. 515-626, Louvain, 1647; the *ASB* gives three of these lives with two others and a preface, Feb., i, 99-185. The life by Cogitosus is in *MPL, * lxxii. For later presentations consult J. Lanigan, *Ecclesiastical History of Ireland,* i, 68, 335, and chaps. viii and ix, passim, Dublin, 1829; J. H. Todd, *The Book of Hymns of the Ancient Church of Ireland,* i, 64-70, Dublin, 1855; idem, *St. Patrick,* pp. 10-26, Dublin, 1864; A. P. Forbes *Kalendars of Scottish Saints,* pp. 287-291, Edinburgh, 1872; J. Healy, *Insula sanctorum,* pp. 106-121, Dublin, 1890; T. Olden, *The Church of Ireland,* pp. 38-48, London, 1895; J. O'Hanlon, *Lives of the Irish Saints,* ii, 1-224, Dublin, n.d.

### BRIDGET, SAINT, OF SWEDEN AND THE BRIGITTINE ORDER. Bridget's Early Life (§ 1). Bridget's Revelations and Later Life (§ 2). Her Works (§ 3). The Brigittine Order (§ 4). ### 1. Bridget's Early Life. Bridget, the famous Scandinavian mystic and monastic founder, was born probably at Finstad, not far from Upsala, in 1303; d. in Rome July 23, 1373. Her father, Birger Persson, was one of the principal landowners of the district, and charged with both administrative and judicial functions. Her family on both sides had been distinguished for religious devotion, and the child received a careful education in spiritual things. Her imagination, nourished on the lives of the saints, brought her her first vision at the age of seven. Others followed, the reality of which neither she nor her parents doubted. After her mother's death, Bridget was entrusted to an aunt at Aspanäs, whose strict discipline laid the foundation of her asceticism and strength of will. In 1316 she was married, in pursuance of her father's political plans, to Ulf, son of the governor of the province of Nerike, and took up her residence at Ulfåsa in that province, where she acquired great influence by the renown of her piety and unselfishness. By degrees she collected around her a group of devout and learned men—Nicolaus Hermanni, renowned as a Latin poet, and later bishop of Linköping, who was the instructor of her children; Matthias, her confessor, the foremost theologian of the time in Sweden; Prior Peter of Alvastra; and another Peter, who succeeded Matthias as her confessor. Through Matthias, who was the author of a commentary on Revelation, she gained an insight into the religious movements and the rich apocalyptic literature of the day. After King Magnus Ericsson's marriage with Blanche of Namur, Bridget became chief lady-in-waiting to the queen, and soon acquired a great influence at the court. ### 2. Bridget's Revelations and Later Life. No remarkable visions of revelations seem to have marked this period. When, however, she was approaching the age of forty (probably between 1341 and 1343), she and her husband made a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. James at Compostella (see COMPOSTELLA). On the way back, Ulf fell ill at Arras; and as she watched by his bedside, she thought she saw St. Denis, the protector of France, who told her that she was under the special care of heaven. Her husband's recovery, which was indicated as a sign of this, was only temporary. He died in 1344, and Bridget believed the last tie which bound her to earth had been broken. Not long afterward, she thought she saw Christ himself, who said to her: "Thou art my spouse, and the link between me and mankind; thou shall see and hear marvelous things, and my Spirit shall be upon thee all thy days." This was her first revelation, strictly so called. She and those around her were fully convinced of the reality and the divine origin of these revelations. She used to write or dictate them in Swedish; later they were somewhat freely put into Latin by Matthias, by Prior Peter, and after 1365 by the Spanish prelate Alphonsus, formerly bishop of Jaen. Bridget felt herself called to be a divine instrument for the religious and moral awakening of her age. Soon she was convinced that she should found a new order in honor of the Savior, and dictated to Peter the rules revealed to her. King and nobles joined in building and endowing a home for the order; the approval of the archbishop of Upsala was secured. To obtain that of the pope, Bridget undertook the long journey to Rome in 1349, arriving in the jubilee of the following year. Here she spent the rest of her life, except for pilgrimages, in works of mercy and in warning great and small against sin. She did not gain the papal sanction for her order until 1370, when her rule was confirmed by Urban V. A pilgrimage to Palestine in 1372 was the last notable event in her life. She was canonized by Boniface IX in 1391. The connection between Sweden and the South was much furthered by her fame and by the permanent use of her Roman house by monks from her convent of Vadstena (on the east shore of Lake Vettern, 110 m. s.w. of Stockholm); its head in the Reformation period was Peter Magnus, who, after his return to Sweden, consecrated the Lutheran bishops there, affording a basis for a claim to apostolic succession. ### 3. Her Works. The authorized edition of Bridget's works contains eight books of revelations, besides another of *Revelationes extravagantes, * or supplement, from the collection of Prior Peter, with his own notes; the rule of her order; and a collection of edifying readings for the community, with certain prayers (known as the *Quattuor orationes*). The works were first printed at Lübeck in 1492 from the official copy preserved at Vadstena; the Roman edition of 1628 is considered the best. The "Revelations" have been translated into most European languages and into Arabic. With much that is superstitious and fantastic, they contain a pure mysticism, rich in thought, and marked by deep insight into the inner mysteries of the devout life. Bridget's views are of course medieval and those of a submissive daughter of the Roman Catholic Church. None the less, they show traces of admirable anticipations of Reformation ideas. The conception of the universal priesthood appears here and there; in her personal devotion, she goes back to the eternal source of life and truth; and her rule commends the preaching of the Word to the people in the vernacular. ### 4. The Brigittine Order. The Brigittine Order (*Ordo Sancti Augustini sancti Salvatoris nuncupatus*) was intended by her as an instrument for spreading the Kingdom of God upon earth. Its convents (as, e.g., at Fontévraud) were for both monks and nuns, though their dwellings were separate. The age of entrance was twenty-five for men and eighteen for women. The convent was to be ruled by an abbess selected by the community. Originally the monks were governed by a prior independent of the abbess, but before long the pope subjected them also to her rule, the former prior being called only confessor-general. At the same time they were placed under immediate papal jurisdiction, though provision was made for a yearly visitation by the bishop. They were strictly cloistered; silence was observed, except at certain hours, but the rule of fasting was not rigorous. The monks were admitted to the nuns' convent only to administer the sacraments to the dying or to carry out the dead. The rich endowments of the convent of Vadstena, which remained the mother house, show the popularity of this national foundation among all classes. Not a few Brigittine convents, however, sprang up in other countries, prominent among which were Nådendal in Finland, Munkaliv near Bergen, Mariendal near Revel, Marienwald near Lübeck, Marienkron near Stralsund, and Sion House, Richmond, near London. The importance of the order during the later Middle Ages for the civilization of the North, and especially of Sweden, can hardly be overestimated. Vadstena has been called the first high-school of the North; on it and on its daughter house at Nådendal the literary life of Sweden before the Reformation depended. Vadstena had the largest library in Sweden; and here were made the first attempts toward a complete Swedish version of the Bible. In 1495 a printing-press was set up; but it was destroyed by fire the same year, and published nothing so far as known. The order was so deeply rooted in Sweden that it survived the Reformation, though with diminished strength. Not even Gustavus Vasa's hatred of the "popery" of the Brigittines could entirely destroy the devotion of all classes to them. During the sixteenth century his wife, sons, and daughters, and many others of the highest nobility, as well as numbers from other classes are found among the benefactors of Vadstena, which, however, was suppressed by Duke Charles in 1595. The Reformation abolished most of the houses outside of Sweden, but an attempt was made to revive it in the Counterreformation, to which period belong the *Fratres novissimi Birgittini * in Belgium, confirmed by Gregory XV, and the reformed order for women introduced only into Spain by the visionary Marina de Escobar (d. 1633) and confirmed by Urban VIII. This is said to have a few houses in Spain now; and four convents of the original order still exist—at Altomünster in Bavaria, St. Bridget's Abbey in Devonshire, and two in Holland. (HERMAN LUNDSTRÖM.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: The two earliest lives, by the two confessors of Bridget in the year of her death, were published by Dr. C. Annerstedt in *Script. rerum Svecicarum medii ævi*, III, ii, 188-206, Upsala, 1876. The *Vita sive chronicon * by Margareta Clausdota was published in *Script. Suscici medii ævi, * ed. J. E. Rietz, pp. 193-240, Lund, 1844. Early material is found also in *ASB,* Oct. 4th, pp. 368-560. The best modern accounts are in H. Schück, *Svensk Literaturhistoria,* pp. 129 sqq., Stockholm, 1890, and in *Illusterad Svensk Litteraturhistoria,* i, 84 sqq., ib. 1896. Consult also L. Clarus, *Das Leben der heiligen Birgitta,* Regensburg, 1856; J. B. Schwab, *Johannes Gerson,* pp. 364 sqq., Würzburg, 1858; F. Hammerich, *St. Birgitta, die nordische Prophetin und Ordensstifterin, * Gotha, 1872 (Germ. transl. from the Swedish); Bettina von Rinsgeis, *Leben der heiligen Birgitta, * Regensburg, 1890; G. Binder, *Die heilige Birgitta von Schweden und ihr Klosterorden, Munich, 1891; Comtesse Flavigny, *Ste. Brigitte de Suède, * Paris, 1892; A. Brinkmann, *Den hellige Birgitta,* Copenhagen, 1893.* For the order consult: *Rerum Suevicarum script. medii ævi,* ed. E. M. Fant, I, i, 1818 sqq., Upsala, 1818; *History of the Eng. Brigittine Nuns, * Plymouth, 1886; *Gesammelte Nachrichten über die einst bestandenen Kloster vom Orden der heiligen Birgitta, * Munich, 1888; Binder, ut sup., and *Geschichte der bayrischen Birgitten-Klöster,* ib. 1896; Helyot, *Ordres monastiques,* ii, 146 sqq., Currier, *Religious Orders,* pp. 185-187; Heimbucher, *Orden und Kongregationen,* i, 440, 505-510.

**BRIDGETT, THOMAS EDWARD:** English Roman Catholic; b. at Derby (35 m. n.n.e. of Birmingham), Derbyshire, Jan. 20, 1829; d. at Clapham (a suburb of London) Feb. 17, 1899. His parents were Baptists, but in 1845 he was baptized into the Church of England. Two years later he matriculated at St. John's College, Cambridge, but just before taking his degree in 1850 he refused to take the oath of supremacy and was received into the Roman Catholic Church. He then studied for six years on the Continent, and was ordained priest in 1856, after having joined the Redemptorist Order. His life-work lay in the mission field to which his order is particularly devoted, and in 1868 he established the Confraternity of the Holy Family connected with the Redemptorist church at Limerick, Ireland. In addition to his activity as a missioner, he wrote *The Ritual of the New Testament * (London, 1873); *Our Lady's Dowry, or, how England Gained and Lost that Title * (1875); *The Discipline of Drink* (1876); *History of the Holy Eucharist in Great Britain * (2 vols., 1881); *Life of Blessed John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester * (1888); *The True Story of the Catholic Hierarchy Deposed by Queen Elizabeth. * (in collaboration with T. F. Knox; 1889); *Blunders and Forgeries: Historical Essays * (1890); *The Life and Writings of Sir Thomas More * (1891); and *Sonnets and Epigrams on Sacred Subjects * (1898). He likewise edited a number of works, of which the most important were Bishop T. Watson's *Sermons on the Sacraments * (London, 1876); R. Johnson's *The Suppliant of the Holy Ghost * (1878); Cardinal W. Allen's *Souls Departed * (1886); *The Wit and Wisdom of Blessed Thomas More * (1892); *Lyra Hieratica: Poems on the Priesthood * (1896); *Poems on England's Reunion with Christendom* (1896); and *Characteristics from the Writings of Nicholas Cardinal Wiseman * (1898).

**BRIDGEWATER TREATISES:** A series of books written in accordance with the will of Francis Henry, eighth earl of Bridgewater (d. Feb. 11, 1829), who left eight thousand pounds to the Royal Society, to be paid to one or several authors, selected by the president, for writing a treatise "On the power, wisdom, and goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation." The following eight authors were selected, and their treatises published (12 vols., London, 1833-36): (1) Thomas Chalmers, *The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Condition of Man; * (2) John Kidd, *The Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man; * (3) William Whewell, *Astronomy and General Physics considered with Reference to Natural Theology;* (4) Charles Bell, *The Hand, its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing Design; * (5) Peter Mark Roget, *Animal and Vegetable Physiology considered with Reference to Natural Theology; * (6) William Buckland, *Geology and Mineralogy considered with Reference to Natural Theology; * (7) William Kirby, *The Habits and Instincts of Animals with Reference to Natural Theology; * (8) William Prout, *Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion considered with Reference to Natural Theology.*

**BRIDGMAN, ELIJAH COLEMAN:** Congregational foreign missionary; b. at Belchertown, Mass., Apr. 22, 1801; d. in Shanghai, China, Nov. 2, 1861. He was graduated at Amherst College in 1826 and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1829 and that year on October 14 sailed for Canton under the appointment of the American Board. He arrived there on Feb. 25, 1830, and lived there till 1847, when he removed to Shanghai to supervise the translation of the Bible. In 1832 he began, as a labor of love, the valuable monthly *The Chinese Repository * and was its editor till 1851. In 1841 he brought out his Chinese chrestomathy. In 1844 he was one of the two secretaries of legation to Hon. Caleb Cushing when on his special mission to China and rendered important services. In February, 1852, he left Shanghai for a visit to America, arrived there June 16; on his return he left New York on October 12, and arrived at Shanghai on May 3, 1853. BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. G. Bridgman, *Life of E. C. Bridgman, * New York, 1864.

**BRIEFS, BULLS, AND BULLARIA:** Written mandates of the pope, differing in form, the bull being more solemn than the brief; bullaria are collections of both kinds of documents. At first the Roman bishops sealed documents with a ring, but from the end of the sixth century seal-boxes or seal-forms (*bullæ*), usually of lead, began to be attached to all public documents, whereas for the others the signet stamped in wax by the ring was used. Since the thirteenth century it has borne the same device, the apostle Peter casting a net into the sea (Matt. iv, 18, 19), whence it is known as the "ring of the fisherman" (*annulus piscatoris,*). The oldest *bullæ * have on one side the name of the pope, on the other the word *Papa.* The present form has on the obverse the heads of Peter and Paul with the distinguishing inscription S. P. A.—S. P. E. (i.e., *Sanctus Petrus* or *Paulus Apostolus, Sanctus Petrus* or *Paulus Episcopus*); on the reverse, the name of the pope with his number. The string by which they are attached is of red and yellow silk or hemp. From designating the seal, the word *bulla * passed to the document itself. The bull is written upon strong parchment; the brief on thin parchment or paper. Instead of having the seal attached to it, it is issued *sub annulo piscatoris,* which to-day is only a stamp on the paper. Both begin in an invariable form with the name of the pope and a salutation. In the brief the number is added to the name, in the bull the title *Episcopus servus servorum Dei* takes the place of the number. At the close of the brief merely the place and date are given; the bull gives the date according to both the ancient Roman and the Christian calendars and the year of the pope's reign. The most solemn form is used for bulls issued in the consistory ( *bullæ consistoriales*). They are signed by the pope and the cardinals, and are sent out not in the original but in an authorized copy ( *transcriptum*). Of other bulls ( *non consistoriales*) the pope signs only the minute ( *minuta*), and the completed document is signed by the various papal officers who helped in its preparation. The briefs are signed only by the secretary of briefs. Briefs are drawn up in accordance with the special rules of the department in the apostolic secretariate or dataria (see CURIA); bulls in the chancery. Leo XIII simplified the procedure in 1878 by ordering that bulls other than consistorial should be written in ordinary script on parchment and sealed only with a red stamp containing the pictures of Peter and Paul and the name of the reigning pope. The more important briefs and bulls are contained in collections known as *bullaria. * The oldest collections contained mostly only a small number. To these belong: *Bullæ diversorum pontificorum a Joanne XXII ad Julium III a bibliotheca Ludovici Gomes * (Rome, 1550), containing only some fifty documents; another from Boniface VIII to Paul IV (1559), with about a hundred and sixty; and one from Gregory VII to Gregory XIII (1579), with 723 documents. The *Magnum bullarium Romanum,* covering the period from Leo I to the year 1585, was published in 1586, and since has been continued in revised and completed editions. The latest as well as most convenient and complete edition is the *Bullarium magnum Romanum, * published at Turin by order of Pius IX and under the auspices of Cardinal Gaude (1857-72, 24 vols., covering the years 440-1740). For delimiting bulls (*bullæ circumscriptionis*), see CONCORDATS AND DELIMITING BULLS. E. FRIEDBERG. BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Marini, *Diplomatica pontificia, * Rome, 1841; H. Breslau, *Handbuch der Urkundenlehre,* i, 67 sqq., Leipsic, 1888; G. Phillips, *Kirchenrecht,* iii, 640 sqq., Regensburg, 1889; E. Friedberg, *Lehrbuch des katholischen und evangelischen Kirchenrechts,* Leipsic, 1895.

**BRIEGER,** brî'ger, **JOHANN FRIEDRICH THEODOR:** German Protestant; b. at Greifswald June 4, 1842; educated at the universities of Greifswald, Erlangen, and Tübingen from 1861 to 1864 (Ph.D., Leipsic, 1870). He became privat-docent at Halle in 1870, and was appointed associate professor of church history in the same university three years later. In 1876 he was called to Marburg as full professor of the same subject, and since 1886 has been professor of church history at Leipsic. In addition to numerous contributions to theological periodicals, he has written *Gasparo Contarini und das Regensburger Concordienwerk des Jahres 1541* (Gotha, 1870); *De formulæ Ratisbonensis origine atque indole * (Halle, 1870); *Constantin der Grosse als Religionspolitiker * (Gotha, 1880); *Die angebliche Marburger Kirchenordnung von 1527 * (1881); *Luther und sein Werk * (Marburg, 1883); *Aleander und Luther, 1521 * (Gotha, 1884); *Die Torgauer Artikel * (Leipsic, 1888); *Die theologischen Promotionen auf der Universität Leipzig 1428-1539 * (1890); *Der Glaube Luthers in seiner Freiheit von menschlichen Autoritäten * (1892); *Die fortschreitende Entfremdung von der Kirche im Licht der Geschichte* (1894); *Das Wesen des Ablasses am Ausgange des Mittelalters * (1897); and *Zur Geschichte des Augsburger Reichstages von 1530 * (1903). He was also one of the founders of the *Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte * in 1876, and has been its editor to the present time.

**BRIESSMANN,** brîs'mān, **JOHANN:** Reformer; b. at Cottbus (on the Spree, 43 m. s.s.w. of Frankfort), Brandenburg, Dec. 31, 1483; d. at Königsberg Oct. 1, 1549. He belonged to a prominent family, and as a Franciscan he studied after 1518 at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and after 1520 at Wittenberg, where he was promoted in 1521 as licentiate and in 1522 as doctor of theology. Influenced by Luther's appearance at the Leipsic disputation with Eck (1519), but more especially by Luther's great reformatory writings of the year 1520, he soon found himself one in the Evangelical faith with his beloved friend. When the Franciscans had to leave Wittenberg, Briessmann went to Cottbus, but on the initiative of Luther he was able to return in 1522. He addressed a reformatory epistle to the congregation at Cottbus, *Unterricht und Ermahnung * (Cottbus, 1523), and at the instance of Luther wrote a powerful refutation of the attacks of the Franciscan Schatzgeyer upon Luther's *De votis monasticis * (Wittenberg?, 1523), stating in his declaration to Spalatin that he could not refuse the wish of Luther, "since he felt himself in agreement not so much with a Luther as with the Evangelical truth." ### Preacher in Königsberg, 1523-27. On the recommendation of Luther, he was called in 1523 as preacher to Königsberg by Albert, the grand master of the Teutonic order (see ALBERT OF PRUSSIA). A Königsberg chronicler thus describes his life and work: he preached the word with gentleness but with all seriousness; many became pious Christians and better men; "on account of his godly, honorable, moral life he was beloved by many and his sermons were gladly heard." About the time when he entered upon his pastoral duties he published his *Flosculi de homine interiore et exteriore de fide et operibus * (ed. P. Tschackert, Gotha, 1887), containing 110 verses in which, following Luther's work "Concerning Christian Liberty," he defends the Evangelical doctrine against Rome and the fanatics. His influence upon Bishop George of Polentz is seen in the latter's sermon delivered on Christmas day, 1523, in which he publicly expressed his belief in the Evangelical teaching of justification by faith alone. As the bishop did not preach himself, he appointed as his substitute "the learned Dr. Johann Briessmann, a man well versed in the holy scripture." In 1524 the bishop issued his first reformatory mandate, enjoining the ministers to use only the German language in their ministerial acts, and to read Luther's writings, especially his translation of the Bible. Of lasting effect were also certain writings of Briessmann, as his *Umschreibung und Erklärung des Vater Unsers als Anleitung zum wahrhaft evangelischen Gebetsleben im Gegensatz gegen die Mariengebete;* a *Sermon von dreierlei heilsamer Beichte,* as guide to Evangelical confession in opposition to auricular confession; and his sermon *Von der Anfechtung des Glaubens und der Hoffnung, * with reference to the Gospel-lesson on the woman of Canaan ( Matt. xv. 21-28). For the benefit of the more cultured members of the congregation he delivered lectures on the epistle to the Romans. He laid stress upon the inwardness of the Christian life in opposition to the impetuous zeal of Amandus in forcibly doing away with ancient usages and forms. With Luther, who greatly rejoiced over the rapid progress of the Reformation in Prussia, he entertained a lively correspondence, and on June 12, 1524, one day before Luther, he was married, being the first married minister of Prussia. ### In Riga, 1527-31. After the secularization of the territory of the Teutonic Order in 1525 under Polish feudal supremacy, Briessmann and his collaborators, Speratus and Poliander, faithfully assisted Duke Albert at the diet, Dec., 1525. He accepted a call from the citizens of Riga to complete the reformatory movement there, with the consent of the duke, Oct., 1527. By preaching and teaching he brought about the necessary reformation and published in 1530 *Kurze Ordnung des Kirchendienstes sammt einer Vorrede von Ceremonien.* ### Activity in Königsberg 1531-49. After four years of faithful work he returned to Königsberg in 1531 as cathedral preacher. With his colleagues he had soon to oppose the fanatical tendencies of Schwenckfeld, which the ill-advised duke had favored at first. As he labored for the purity of Evangelical doctrine, he also labored for the upbuilding of the inner life of the Church by the new *Landesordnung * (1540), by the articles concerning the appointment and support of the ministers (1540), by the introduction of a new order of marriage and divine service (1544). He recommended the *lectio continua, * or continuous reading of the whole Bible in divine service, thus making the congregations acquainted with Holy Scripture, and a thorough instruction in the catechism besides the preaching; he introduced church-singing by the use of a hymn-book, the first in Prussia. Repeated calls to Rostock he declined. He also devoted his energies to the development of the schools and higher education. He formed the plans for the university which was founded in 1544. During the sickness of Bishop Polentz in 1546, the business of the episcopal see was entrusted to Briessmann, and in 1547 he made a tour of inspection to correct abuses which still existed in the diocese. He opposed especially teachings brought thither by refugees from the Netherlands, represented by the humanist Gulielmus Gnaphæus (or Fullonius), a sympathizer with Carlstadt. It was also due to Briessmann's energy that the troubles caused by the first rector of the university, Georg Sabinus, had no lasting influence. Against Andreas Osiander, whom the duke had called to Königsberg, he defended the genuine Lutheran doctrine and confession. Painful as was this Osiandrian controversy for Briessmann, yet he rejoiced toward the end of his life that the Moravian Brethren, driven from Poland by the intrigues of the Polish-Catholic clergy, were in 1548 received into the Prussian state church, after being settled in Prussia with the permission of the duke. In opposing the Osiandrian errors, Briessmann also opposed the duke who at first adhered to Osiander. To the suggestion of the duke to hear the opinion of churches from abroad, Briessmann replied: "Since the present controversy concerns doctrinal points which have been preached in Prussia for over twenty-four years, the opinion and judgment of others is not to be awaited." These are the last words from his mouth and pen, "the testament of the first Reformer of Prussia, and therefore especially valuable for the history of the Prussian Reformation" (Tschackert). In the spring of 1549 he retired from his arduous duties. He is buried in the choir of the cathedral at Königsberg. DAVID ERDMANN. BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Tschackert, *Urkundenbuch zur Reformationsgeschichte des Herzogtums Preussen, * vols. i., ii., in *Publikationen aus den königlichen preussischen Staatsarchiven, * vols. xliii.-xlv., Leipsic, 1890.

**BRIGGS, CHARLES AUGUSTUS:** Protestant Episcopalian; b. at New York City Jan. 15, 1841. He was educated at the University of Virginia (1857-60), Union Theological Seminary (1861-63), and the University of Berlin (1866-69). From 1863 to 1866 he was in business with his father. He was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry and was pastor at Roselle, N. J., from 1870 to 1874, when he was appointed professor of Hebrew at Union Theological Seminary. In 1891 he was transferred to the chair of Biblical theology, and since 1904 has been professor of theological encyclopedia and symbolics. In 1892 he was tried for heresy by the Presbytery of New York, but was acquitted, although in the following year he was suspended by the General Assembly. In 1899 he was ordained to the priesthood in the Protestant Episcopal Church. He is a member of the American Oriental Society, the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft, and the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis. He was editor of the *Presbyterian Review * from 1880 to 1890, and collaborated with S. D. F. Salmond in editing the *International Theological Library * (New York, 1891 sqq.), with S. R. Driver and A. Plummer in editing the *International Critical Commentary * (1895 sqq.), and with F. Brown and S. R. Driver in preparing the *Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament * (12 parts, Oxford, 1891-1906). In addition to numerous studies in various theological periodicals, he has written *Biblical Study * (New York, 1883); *American Presbyterianism * (1885); Messianic Prophecy (1886); *Whither? A Theological Question for the Times * (1889); *The Authority of Holy Scripture * (1891); *The Bible, the Church, and the Reason * (1892); *The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch * (1893); *The Messiah of the Gospels * (1894); *The Messiah of the Apostles * (1895); *General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture * (1899); *The Incarnation of the Lord * (1902); *New Light on the *Life of Jesus * (1904); *Ethical Teachings of Jesus* (1904); and *Critical Commentary on the Psalms* (1906).*

**BRIGHT, WILLIAM:** English church historian and patristic scholar; b. at Doncaster (30 m. s. of York), Yorkshire, England, Dec. 14, 1824; d. at Oxford Mar. 6, 1901. He studied at Rugby and University College, Oxford (B.A., 1846; M.A., 1849), and became fellow 1847; was theological tutor in Trinity College, Glenalmond, Perthshire, 1851-58; tutor of University College, Oxford, 1862; appointed regius professor of ecclesiastical history and canon of Christ Church, Oxford, 1868. His publications were very numerous and have gone through many editions; besides sermons and addresses, poems, and devotional works they include: *Ancient Collects and Other Prayers selected from various rituals * (London, 1857); *A History of the Church from the Edict of Milan, A.D. 313, to the Council of Chalcedon, A.D. 451* (1860); Eighteen Sermons of St. Leo I, surnamed the Great, on the Incarnation, translation and notes (1862); *Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History, * text and introduction (1872); *Orations of St. Athanasius against the Arians, * text, with life (1873); *Socrates's Ecclesiastical History, * text and introduction (1878); *Chapters of Early English Church History* (1878; 3d ed., 1897); *Select Anti-Pelagian Treatises of St. Augustine* (1880); St. Athanasius's *Historical Writings* (1881); *Later Treatises of St. Athanasius,* translation, notes, and an appendix of St. Cyril (vol. xlvi. of *A Library of the Fathers, * ed. E. B. Pusey and others, 1881); *Notes on the Canons of the First Four General Councils* (1882); *Lessons from the Lives of Three Great Fathers* (1890); *Morality in Doctrine* (1892); *Waymarks in Church History* (1894); *The Roman See in the Early Church and Other Studies in Church History* (1896); *The Law of Faith* (1898); *Some Aspects of Primitive Church Life* (1898). With P. G. Medd he edited a Latin translation of the English prayer-book (1865), and he contributed the section on the Litany to J. H. Blunt's *Annotated Book of Common Prayer* (1866). BIBLIOGRAPHY: *W. Bright, Selected Letters, * ed. B. J. Kidd, with *Memoir* by P. G. Medd, London, 1903.

**BRIGHTMAN, FRANK EDWARD:** Church of England; b. at Bristol June 18, 1856. He was educated at University College, Oxford (B.A., 1879), and was ordered deacon in 1884 and ordained priest in the following year. He was chaplain of University College from 1884 to 1887 and assistant curate of St. John the Divine, Kennington, in 1887-88, while from 1884 to 1903 he was Pusey Librarian. He was also examiner in the Theology School in 1899-1901, and since 1902 has been fellow and tutor of Magdalen College, Oxford, as well as prebendary of Carlton with Thurlby in Lincoln Cathedral. He has written *Liturgies Eastern and Western* (vol. i., Oxford, 1896) and *What Objections have been made to English Orders?* (London, 1896), and has also translated the *Preces Privatæ * of Lancelot Andrewes (1903).

**BRIGHTMAN, THOMAS:** Puritan and Presbyterian; b. at Nottingham 1562; d. at Hawnes (5 m. s. by e. of Bedford) Aug. 24, 1607. He studied at Queen's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1581; M.A., 1584; B.D., 1591), became a fellow there in 1584, and rector of Hawnes in 1592. He was one of the fathers of Presbyterianism in England; as Thomas Cartwright says, "The bright star in the Church of God." He subscribed the Presbyterian Books of Discipline. He was a famous expositor of Revelation (*Apocalypsis Apocalypseos, * Frankfort, 1609, Heidelberg, 1612, Eng. transl., *A revelation of the Revelation, * Amsterdam, 1615, Leyden, 1616) and of Daniel from xi. 36 to end of xii. (Basel, 1614, which edition has notes on Canticles; Eng. transl., London, 1644). He opened up a new path in the exposition of the Apocalypse by making two distinct millenniums: the first, from Constantine until 1300, in this corresponding with the common orthodox view; the second, from 1300 to 2300, which was a new departure, by which he was enabled to find a place for the future conversion of the Jews, and a more glorious condition of the Church on earth, which he gains by a symbolical interpretation of Rev. xxi. and xxii. His views greatly modified the Puritan interpretation of the Apocalypse, and were expounded by different writers and reproduced in different forms long after his death. His collected works appeared London, 1644.

**BRIGIDA, SAINT, BRIGITTINES.** See BRIDGET, SAINT, OF SWEDEN.

**BRILL, JAKOB:** Mystic; b. at Leyden Jan. 21, 1639; d. there Jan. 28, 1700. He was a follower of Pontiaan van Hattem; between 1685 and 1699 he published about forty works of a mystical-devotional character, which were much read; but spiritualizing Christ to such a degree that the historical Christ almost disappeared, and the sacrifice on the cross became a mere symbol of the sacrifice which shall take place in us, he at last got lost in a mystical pantheism, far away from Christianity. BIBLIOGRAPHY: A eulogy of Brill is found in Poiret's *Catalogue des écrivains mystiques * (Lat. transl., Amsterdam, 1708). Consult also Ypey en Dermout, *De hervormde Kerk in Nederland,* vol. iii., Breda, 1824.

**BRINCKERINCK, JAN:** A popular preacher and spiritual director in connection with the Brethren and Sisters of the Common Life; b. near Zütphen, Guelderland, 1359; d. at Deventer Mar. 26, 1419. Thomas à Kempis, who wrote his life, says that he came of a good family, but tells nothing further of his early life except that, living in the days of the great religious awakening under Groote's influence, he was profoundly impressed by it. He came into intimate personal relations with Groote and his disciples, and devoted himself to forwarding the "new devotion" and the education of the young. He was ordained priest in 1393, and not long afterward took charge as rector of the house for women founded at Deventer by Groote, "Meester Geertshuis" as it was commonly called (see COMMON LIFE, BRETHREN OF THE). He introduced a strict discipline into the life of the inmates, and was practically the founder of the sisters whose houses afterward became so numerous. Under his direction the numbers grew so considerably that new buildings were needed. After three years the church and convent were ready for occupancy; at first of wood, they were rebuilt of stone in 1407. The foundation was placed under the Windesheim chapter, who named Brinckerinck as its confessor. Numbering in that year twelve sisters and novices, by the middle of the century the community had grown to considerably over a hundred, including all classes. It was self-supporting; the sisters copied and illuminated manuscripts, or occupied themselves profitably in other ways according to their gifts. In 1408 a new house was erected at Diepenveen, a few miles away, in the choir of whose church Brinckerinck was buried. He was known far and wide for his popular preaching, which, according to the testimony of Rudolf Dier, one of his hearers, and of the Brethren of the Common Life, gave to all the impression that he had sat at the feet of Jesus. From a manuscript biography by Elizabeth of Delft, one of the twelve first sisters, we learn that she wrote down some of his sermons, and Rudolf Dier adds that out of such materials eight vernacular "collations" were formed, containing his admonitions to the sisters. These were discovered not long ago, and published by Moll in 1866. They read like notes of spoken discourses, sometimes apparently combinations of different ones. Like the usual "collations" of the Brethren of the Common Life, they were not formal sermons following a rhetorical method, but simple and artless talks which pass readily from one topic to another, and are rich in short, pithy sentences of a kind to be easily understood and remembered by his hearers. L. SCHULZE. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The *Vita* by Thomas à Kempis is in the *Chronicon monasterii S. Agnetis, * ed. H. Rosweyde, Antwerp, 1615; another by J. Buschius is in the latter's *Chronicon Windeshemense, * ed. K. Grube, Halle, 1886. Consult: G. Dumbar, *Analecta, * vol. i., Deventer, 1719; idem *Het Kerkelyk en Wereltlyk Deventer,* ib. 1732-88; W. Moll, *Kerkgeschiedenis van Nederland voor de Hervorming,* ii. 2, 209 sqq., Utrecht, 1871.

**BRISTOL, FRANK MILTON:** Methodist Episcopal bishop; b. in Orleans Co., N. Y., Jan. 4, 1851; elected bishop, 1908.

**BRITISH CHURCH.** See CELTIC CHURCH.

**BRITISH HONDURAS.** See CENTRAL AMERICA.

**BRITTINANS, BRITTINIANS.** See BRICTINANS.

**BRIXEN, BISHOPRIC OF:** A diocese which takes its name from Brixen, a town of the Tyrol, situated 40 m. s.s.e. of Innsbruck. The present Tyrol became a part of the Roman Empire 15 A.D., and the rapid spread of Christianity in north Italy gives ground for the supposition that it penetrated comparatively early into the Alpine region. The earliest authentic mention of a bishopric in southern Rhætia, however, dates from the end of the sixth century. Among the bishops of Venetia and Rhætia Secunda who addressed a letter to the emperor Maurice in 591 appears the name of a certain Ingenuinus, whom Paulus Diaconus and the author of the *Versus de ordine conprovincialium pontificum * describe as bishop of Sabiona, the present Seben. The existence of the bishopric seems to have been continuous from this time. It embraced to the south of the Brenner the upper Eisackthal and the Pusterthal, to the north of the Brenner almost the whole of what is now the Tyrol. Probably under Otto II., the see was removed from Seben to Brixen; in a document of 967 Bishop Richpert is designated as *Prihsinensis ecclesiæ episcopus.* (A. HAUCK.) Brixen counts among the most ancient examples of exemption from the secular jurisdiction, having received it from Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. Its territory increased largely by donations from successive emperors, and Frederick I. (1179) gave its incumbent the princely title and rights. Henceforth the bishops received investiture immediately from the emperor, and had a seat and a voice in the imperial diet. The secular privileges, however, were gradually absorbed by the powerful magnates of the Tyrol, and at the Peace of Lunéville the principality was formally suppressed, to be conferred the next year on the house of Austria. Brixen was the meeting-place in 1080 of a council of imperialist prelates who undertook to depose Gregory VII. and elect Guibert of Ravenna pope in his place. Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa occupied the see from 1450 to 1464, and Caspar Ignatius, Count Künigl (1702-1747), was among the greatest and most active prelates of his day. The nomination to the see is vested in the emperor of Austria.

**BROAD CHURCH.** See ENGLAND, CHURCH OF.

**BROADUS, JOHN ALBERT:** American Baptist; b. in Culpeper County, Va., Jan. 24, 1827; d. in Louisville, Ky., Mar. 16, 1895. He was graduated at the University of Virginia 1850, and was assistant professor of Latin and Greek there, 1851-53, chaplain to the University 1855-57, pastor of the Baptist church in the place until, in 1859, on its organization, he became professor of the interpretation of the New Testament and of homiletics in the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, then in Greenville, S. C. In 1877 the seminary was removed to Louisville, and in 1888 he became its president. He attained high rank as teacher, preacher, and scholar, and published two notable volumes in the field of homiletics, *The Preparation and Delivery of Sermons * (Philadelphia, 1870; 25th ed., by E. C. Dargan, New York, 1905) and *Lectures on the History of Preaching * (New York, 1876); also *Sermons and Addresses* (1886; 6th ed., 1905); a commentary on Matthew (Philadelphia, 1887); *Jesus of Nazareth * (New York, 1890); *Harmony of the Gospels according to the Revised Version * (1893); *Memoir of James Petigru Boyce * (1893). He also prepared a commentary on Mark (Philadelphia, 1905), and edited and revised the Oxford translation of Chrysostom's homilies on Philippians, Colossians, and Thessalonians, with an essay on St. Chrysostom as a homilist, in vol. xiii. of Philip Schaff's *Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers * (New York, 1889). BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. T. Robertson, *Life and Letters of John Albert Broadus, * Philadelphia, 1901.

**BROCHMAND,** brek'mānd, **JESPER RASMUSSEN:** Bishop of Zealand; b. at Köge (20 m. s.w. of Copenhagen), Zealand, Aug. 5, 1585; d. at Copenhagen Apr. 19, 1652. He studied at Herlufsholm, Copenhagen, Leyden, and Franeker; became rector of Herlufsholm academy 1608; professor pædagogicus, University of Copenhagen, 1610; professor of Greek 1613; member of the theological faculty 1615. In 1617 he was appointed teacher to Prince Christian, son of King Christian IV., but returned to the university three years later. At this time Denmark was disturbed by Roman Catholic propaganda, and Brochmand made the controversy with Rome a subject of his public lectures. In 1626-28 he published *Controversiæ sacræ * (3 parts), a reply to Bellarmine's attacks on the Lutheran Church, and in 1634, at the king's order, he engaged in a polemic with the Jesuits, who endeavored to defend the conversion of Margrave Christian William of Brandenburg to Catholicism. In their final reply the Jesuits stigmatized Brochmand as a "disturber of the Roman empire, the boldest despiser of His Imperial Majesty and the Catholic rulers, a poisonous spider, and a degenerate Absalom." Against this pamphlet Brochmand delivered a series of lectures which after his death were collected and published under the title *Apologiæ, speculi veritatis confutatio * (Copenhagen, 1653). He was ordained bishop of Zealand in 1639, and during his long and fruitful activity in this office reorganized the Danish church service, especially by abolishing the Latin choir, and by introducing Wednesday services during Lent. His reputation as a dogmatist was established by his *Universæ theologiæ systema * (2 vols., 1633) in which he proved himself a bitter opponent, not only of the Roman Catholics, but also of the Reformed, whom he calls "enemies of God and of truth." He wrote several devotional works, of which his *Sabbati sanctificatio * for more than two centuries was a favorite collection of sermons with the Danish people. (F. NIELSEN.)

**BROEMEL, ** bru'mel", **ALBERT ROBERT: ** German Lutheran pastor and author; b. at Teichel (15 m. s.s.e. of Erfurt), Schwarzburg, Apr. 27, 1815; d. at Ratzeburg (12 m. s.e. of Lübeck), Prussia, Oct. 28, 1885. He was educated at Göttingen, Jena, and Berlin, and after spending two years helping Otto von Gerlach in both educational and pastoral duties in the last-named place, was called in 1846 to be pastor of Lassahn in the duchy of Lauenburg. In 1854 he became superintendent of the whole district, with special charge of the principal church of Ratzeburg. Besides the multifarious duties which occupied him during the next thirty years, he found time for a considerable literary activity. His principal work was his *Homiletische Charakterbilder * (2 vols., Berlin, 1869-1874), which is practically a history of preaching, especially the post-Reformation and German. As is natural from the character of his life, his writings generally are more practical than theoretical. (WILHELM GLAMANN.)

**BROMLEY, THOMAS: ** English mystic; b. in Worcester 1629; d. 1691. He held a fellowship in Oxford until 1660, when, as a non-conformist, he refused to accept the Anglican Liturgy. But previously he had become a follower of Jakob Boehme the mystic, and with John Pordage and Jane Lead had founded the Philadelphian Society (see LEAD, JANE); when he left Oxford he came to Pordage, and lived with him many years. He rejected the outward church and advocated virginity for all. *The Way to the Sabbath of Rest * (last ed., 1802) is his most important work.

**BROOKE, FRANCIS KEY: ** Protestant Episcopal bishop of the missionary district of Oklahoma and Indian Territory; b. at Gambier, O., Nov. 2, 1852; graduated at Kenyon College, 1874. He was successively rector at College Hill, Portsmouth, Piqua, and Sandusky, Ohio; St. Louis, Mo.; and Atchison, Kan., and was consecrated bishop in 1893.

**BROOKE, STOPFORD AUGUSTUS: ** English Unitarian; b. at Letterkenny (16 m. s.w. of Londonderry), County Donegal, Nov. 14, 1832. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1856), and was ordained priest in the Church of England in 1857. He was successively curate of St. Matthew's, Marylebone (1857-59) and Kensington Church (1860-63). He was then chaplain to the princess royal, Berlin (1863-65), and after his return to England was minister of St. James's Chapel, York Street (1866-75), and of Bedford Chapel (1876-94). He was appointed chaplain to the queen in 1872, but in 1880 he withdrew from the Church of England, finding himself unable to accept the orthodox teaching concerning miracles. Among his writings special mention may be made of the following: *Life and Letters of the late Frederick W. Robertson* (2 vols., London, 1865); *Freedom in the Church of England* (1871); *Sermons* (1868-77); *Theology in the English Poets* (1874); *A Fight of Faith* (1877); *Spirit of the Christian Life* (1881); *Unity of God and Man* (1886); *The Early Life of Jesus* (1887); *History of Early English Literature* (1892); *Short Sermons* (1892); *History of English Literature* (1894); *Study of Tennyson* (1894); *God and Christ* (1894); Jesus and Modern Thought (1894); *Old Testament and Modern Life* (1896); *The Gospel of Joy* (1898); and *Poetry of Robert Browning* (1902).

**BROOKS, ELBRIDGE GERRY:** American Universalist; b. at Dover, N. H., July 29, 1816; d. at Philadelphia Apr. 8, 1878. He was licensed at Portsmouth, N. H., 1836; became pastor in West Amesbury, Mass., 1837; in East Cambridge, 1838; in Lowell (First Universalist Church), 1845; in Bath, Me., 1846; in Lynn, Mass. (First Universalist Church), 1850; in New York (Church of our Savior), 1859; in Philadelphia (Church of the Messiah), 1868. He was general agent of the board of trustees of the General Convention, 1867-1868. He was an eloquent preacher, courageous and energetic, an advocate of the Maine liquor law and of the cause of the Union during the Civil War, as well as of the doctrine of remedial punishment in the future world. He published *Universalism in Life and Doctrine and its Superiority as a Practical Power * (New York, 1863) and *Our New Departure, or the methods and works of the Universalist Church of America as it enters on its second century * (Boston, 1874). BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. S. Brooks, *Life-Work of Elbridge Gerry Brooks, * Boston, 1881.

**BROOKS, PHILLIPS:** American preacher and bishop; b. in Boston Dec. 13, 1835; d. there Jan. 23, 1893. He was of distinguished New England ancestry, being descended on his father's side from John Cotton and on his mother's side from Samuel Phillips, the founder of Phillips Academy, Andover. He was graduated at Harvard, 1855; studied at the Protestant Episcopal Theological School, Alexandria, Va., 1856-59; became rector of the Church of the Advent, Philadelphia, 1859; of Holy Trinity Church, Philadelphia, 1862; of Trinity Church, Boston, 1869; he was consecrated bishop of Massachusetts, 1891. He was one of the most eloquent, spiritual, successful, and highly esteemed clergymen of his time, and held this position both by intellectual power and an engaging personality. His preaching was preeminently the product of his own experience; he was of broad sympathies and tactful in his dealings with men. He was particularly courteous in cultivating cordial relations with those of other than his own denomination. He gave the Lyman Beecher lectures on preaching before the Yale Divinity School in 1877 (published as *Lectures on Preaching, * New York, 1877), and was Bohlen lecturer at the Philadelphia Divinity School in 1879 (*The Influence of Jesus, * 1879). He published five volumes of *Sermons * during his life (1878-90), and five have been added since his death (1893-1905). His *Letters of Travel written to his family * appeared in 1893, and a volume of *Essays and Addresses, religious, literary, and social,* edited by his brother, John Cotton Brooks, in 1894. Individual sermons, addresses, etc., have been printed in many forms and the number of books of extracts from his preaching is very large. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The best biography is his *Life and Letters* by A. V. G. Allen, 2 vols., New York, 1900, condensed into 1 vol., ib. 1907.

**BRORSON, HANS ADOLF:** Bishop of Ribe; b. at Randrup, on the west coast of northern Sleswick, June 20, 1694; d. at Ribe, Jutland, June 3, 1764. He studied at the University of Copenhagen (1712-17), devoting himself more to history and literature than to theology, and acted as tutor in the house of an uncle at Lögum in Sleswick, where he caught the spirit of the religious revival at that time making itself felt in this province. In 1722 he was appointed minister at Randrup, and in 1729 he was called as deacon to Töndern. Here he began collecting Danish hymns for the use of his congregation, to replace the German ones previously sung before and after the Danish sermon. In 1732 he published a small volume of Christmas hymns which contains some of his most excellent compositions; later he published other booklets, and in 1739 the first edition of his *Troens rare Klenodie* ("The Faith's Rare Jewel"), a collection of 250 hymns, mostly translations from the German. In 1737 King Christian VI. appointed him dean of Ribe stift, and two years later he succeeded to the bishopric. Brorson was one of the greatest of Danish hymn-writers, and is preeminently the poet of Christmas. His hymns are associated with the melodies of the people, and he was essentially a singer for those who worship in the privacy of their homes. While not unable to write original hymns, it was especially the hymns and melodies of German Pietism that he transplanted into the church of Denmark. The best edition of his hymns is by P. A. Arland (Copenhagen, 1867). (F. NIELSEN.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. D. Jörgensen, *H. A. Brorson, * Copenhagen, 1887.

**BROTHERHOODS, RELIGIOUS.** See CONFRATERNITIES.

**BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS.** See CHRISTIAN BROTHERS.

**BROUGHTON,** brau'tun, **HUGH:** Church of England Hebrew scholar; b. at Oldbury (near the border of Wales, 20 m. s.w. of Shrewsbury), Shropshire, 1549; d. in Tottenham, London, Aug. 4, 1612. He was helped in his efforts to obtain an education by Bernard Gilpin, and became fellow of St. John's and Christ's colleges, Cambridge (B.A., 1570). In London he gained fame as a preacher of Puritan doctrine. In 1588 he published *A Consent of Scripture, * a treatise on Bible chronology; it was attacked at both universities and Broughton undertook lectures in its defense at London. In 1589 or 1590 he went to Germany and thenceforth spent most of his life on the Continent, where he disputed with Jews, Roman Catholics, and Protestants who did not agree with him, and wrote letters to England asking for appointments. His learning and ability were unquestioned, but his unhappy temper and bad manners prevented his advancement. He was long anxious to assist in preparing a new version of the Bible, but when the translators were appointed by King James in 1604 he was not one of them, and when their work was done he made a bitter attack upon it. His writings were collected by Lightfoot, with the pompous title *The Works of the Great Albionean Divine, Renowned in Many Nations for Rare Skill in Salem's and Athens's Tongues and Familiar Acquaintance with all Rabbinical Learning, Mr. Hugh Broughton * (London, 1662); a sketch of his life is included. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the life prefixed to his works, there are available sketches in: B. Brook, *Lives of the Puritans,* ii. 215 sqq., London, 1813; A. à Wood, *Athenæ Oxonienses,* ed. P. Bliss, ii. 308 sqq., 4 vols., ib. 1813-20.

**BROUSSON,** brū"sōn', **CLAUDE:** French Protestant; b. at Nîmes 1647; executed at Montpellier Nov. 4, 1698. He practised as a lawyer at Castres, Castelnaudary, and, after 1679, in Toulouse, and employed his talent with courage and self-sacrifice to defend his coreligionists against the rigorous measures of the government. In 1683 he was compelled to leave France and lived for a time in Lausanne. He visited Berlin and Holland to bring about a coalition between the Protestant princes against Louis XIV. In 1689 he returned to France and traveled through the southern part of the country admonishing and exhorting his brethren, though a price was put on his head, and he was hunted by the officials like a beast of prey. In 1693 he again retired to Lausanne, and was ordained there (1694). In 1695 he reentered France through Sédan, and visited most of the Reformed congregations north of the Loire, finally escaping through Franche-Comté into Switzerland. Once more, in 1697, he visited France, but was caught at Oloron, and sentenced to death by strangling. Among his works, of which a list is given in *La France protestante,* vol. iii., the most prominent are: *État des réformés de France * (The Hague, 1685); *La Manne mystique du désert * (Amsterdam, 1695); *Lettres pastorales sur le cantique des cantiques * (Delft, 1697). BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Borrel, *Biographie de C. Brousson, * Nimes, 1852; H. S. Baynes, *The Evangelist of the Desert. Life of C. Brousson, * London, 1853.

**BROWN, ARTHUR JUDSON:** Presbyterian; b. at Holliston, Mass., Dec. 3, 1856. He was educated at Wabash College (B.A., 1880) and Lane Theological Seminary (1883). He was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in 1883, and held successive pastorates at Ripon, Wis. (1883-1884), First Presbyterian Church, Oak Park, Ill. (1884-88), and First Presbyterian Church, Portland, Ore. (1888-95). Since 1895 he has been one of the secretaries of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions. In addition to numerous contributions to periodicals, he has written *The New Era in the Philippines * (Chicago, 1903) and *New Forces in Old China * (1904).

**BROWN, CHARLES REYNOLDS:** Congregationalist; b. at Bethany, W. Va., Oct. 1, 1862. He was graduated from the University of Iowa (B.A., 1883; M.A., 1886) and the School of Theology of Boston University (1889). He was pastor of Wesley Chapel Methodist Episcopal Church, Cincinnati, O. (1889-92); of Winthrop Congregational Church, Boston (1892-96); since 1896 he has been pastor of the First Congregational Church, Oakland, Cal. He was special lecturer on ethics in Leland Stanford University in 1900-06, Lyman Beecher lecturer at Yale in 1905-06, and lecturer on ethics in Mills College in 1906-08. In 1897 he made a tour of Egypt and Palestine, and has been president of the board of trustees of Mills College since 1902 and a director of the Oakland Associated Charities since 1899, and chairman of the committee for the reconstruction of the San Francisco churches after the earthquake of 1906. In theology he is a liberal, and in addition to pamphlets and sermons, has written *Two Parables * (Chicago, 1898); *The Main Points: A Study in Christian Belief * (San Francisco, 1899); and *The Social Message of the Modern Pulpit * (Yale lectures, New York, 1906).

**BROWN, CHARLES RUFUS:** Baptist; b. at East Kingston, N. H., Feb. 22, 1849. He was educated at Phillips Exeter Academy (1863-65) and the United States Naval Academy (1865-69), and attained the rank of master. He resigned from the navy, however, and continued his studies at Newton Theological Institution (1874-75, 1877-1878), Harvard University (B.A., 1877), Union Theological Seminary (1878-79), and the universities of Berlin (1879-80) and Leipsic (1880-81). He was ordained to the Baptist ministry at Franklin, N. H., in 1881, and remained there as pastor until 1883. He was appointed associate professor of Biblical interpretation, Old Testament, in the Newton Theological Institution in 1883, and since 1886 has been professor of Hebrew and cognate languages there. He was also librarian of the institution in 1884-85, 1889-97, and 1900-06, secretary of the faculty in 1887-92, and registrar in 1892-95. He has been a member of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis since 1883, and was formerly a member of the American Oriental Society (1886), the Archeological Institute of America (1899), and the department of archeology in the University of Pennsylvania (1902). He has written *An Aramaic Method* (2 parts, Chicago, 1884-86); in 1893-94 edited the course of Sunday-school lessons in the Bible Study Minor Graded Lesson System, and made a critical translation of Jeremiah (Philadelphia, 1907).

**BROWN, DAVID:** Free Church of Scotland; b. at Aberdeen Aug. 17, 1803; d. there July 3, 1897. He studied at the University of Aberdeen (M.A., 1821); was licensed 1826, and was assistant to Edward Irving in London 1830-32; was ordained minister of a country chapel six miles southwest of Banff 1836; he went with the Free Church 1843, and the same year became minister of St. James's, Glasgow; was elected professor of apologetics, church history, and exegesis of the Gospels at the Free Church College, Aberdeen, 1857; elected principal 1876, and resigned his professorship 1887. He was a director of the National Bible Society of Scotland, one of the founders of the Evangelical Alliance, was deeply interested in the Alliance of the Reformed Churches and a member of the third General Council at Belfast, 1888. He was an opponent of Robertson Smith in the controversy which resulted in the dismissal of the latter from Aberdeen, and as a member of the New Testament revision company took a highly conservative position. He was moderator of the General Assembly of the Free Church in 1885. Besides numerous contributions to the periodicals, he published *Christ's Second Coming: Will it be Pre-millennial?* (Edinburgh, 1846; 6th ed., 1867), a classic; *Crushed Hopes Crowned in Death, * a memorial of his son, Alexander Brown, of the Bengal civil service, d. Jan., 1860 (London, 1861); *The Restoration of the Jews: the History, Principles, and Bearings of the Question * (Edinburgh, 1861); *Life of the late John Duncan * (1872); *The Apocalypse: its structure and primary predictions * (London, 1891). He collaborated with R. Jamieson and A. R. Fausset in preparing the *Commentary, Critical, Experimental, and Practical, on the Old and New Testaments* (6 vols., Glasgow, 1864-70), furnishing the portion devoted to the Gospels, the Acts, and the Epistle to the Romans; wrote the commentary on the Epistles to the Corinthians for Schaff's *Popular Commentary on the New Testament * (1882); and prepared the Epistle to the Romans for Dods and Whyte's *Handbooks for Bible Classes * (Edinburgh, 1883). BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. G. Blaikie, *David Brown, . . . A Memoir, * London, 1898.

**BROWN, FRANCIS:** Presbyterian; b. at Hanover, N. H., Dec. 26, 1849. He was educated at Dartmouth College (B.A., 1870), Union Theological Seminary (1877), and the University of Berlin (1877-79). He was assistant master in Ayers' Latin School, Pittsburg, Pa., in 1870-72, and tutor in Greek in Dartmouth College in 1872-74. He became instructor in Biblical philology in Union Theological Seminary, New York City, 1879; associate professor of the same, 1881; professor of Hebrew and the cognate languages, 1890; and also president, 1908. He was president of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis in 1895-96 (member since 1881); president of the Society of Historical Theology (Oxford) in 1899-1900 (member since 1891; member of the American Oriental Society since 1881). He was Ely lecturer in Union Theological Seminary in 1907; head of the American School for Oriental Study and Research in Palestine, 1907-08. He has written: *The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles * (New York, 1884; in collaboration with R. D. Hitchcock); *Assyriology, its Use and Abuse in Old Testament Study * (1885); *A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament* (12 parts, Oxford, 1891-1906; in collaboration with S. R. Driver and C. A. Briggs); and *The Christian Point of View * (New York, 1902; in collaboration with A. C. McGiffert and G. W. Knox).

**BROWN, HUGH STOWELL:** English Baptist; b. at Douglas, Isle of Man, Aug. 10, 1823; d. at Liverpool Feb. 24, 1886. He learned surveying, and became a railroad engineer; at twenty-one entered King William's College, Castletown, Isle of Man, to study for the ministry of the Established Church; doubts concerning the baptismal teachings of the Church and the relations of Church and State led him to think of returning to his trade; in 1846 he joined the Baptists, in 1847 became minister of the Myrtle Street Chapel, Liverpool, and remained there till his death. He inaugurated Sunday afternoon lectures for workingmen, with whom, owing to his early experiences, he had great influence. He was president of the Baptist Union 1878, an active member of the Baptist Missionary Society, and president of the Liverpool Peace Society. He published numerous lectures and sermons. BIBLIOGRAPHY: *Hugh Stowell Brown, his Autobiography, his Commonplace Book, and Extracts from his Sermons and Addresses, a memorial Volume, * edited by his son-in-law, W. S. Caine, London, 1887; *DNB, * supplement vol., i. 300-301.

**BROWN, JAMES BALDWIN:** English Congregationalist; b. in London Aug. 19, 1820; d. there June 23, 1884. He studied at London University (B.A., 1839); studied law for two years and then studied theology at Highbury College; became minister of London Road Chapel, Derby, 1843; of Claylands Chapel, Clapham Road, London, 1846, and remained with this congregation till his death; a new church on Brixton Road (Brixton Independent Church) was occupied in 1870. He was distinguished for the breadth of his theological views and strongly opposed to Calvinism. He took an active interest in public movements such as the relief of the laboring classes during the Lancashire cotton famine. He favored the opening of the Crystal Palace on Sundays, and was a warm advocate of the admission of dissenters to the universities. He strenuously opposed the doctrine of conditional immortality as a deadly error. In 1878 he was chairman of the Congregational Union; at this time a movement to discover some common ground on which Christians of various ways of thinking might unite in independence of dogma and of the historic side of Christianity had made such progress as to call for repressive action on the part of the Union in the opinion of many; he strongly opposed such action, but was overruled and outvoted. His more important books were: *The Divine Life in Man * (London, 1859), which brought upon him a charge of heterodoxy; *The Soul's Exodus and Pilgrimage * (1862); *The Divine Treatment of Sin * (1864); *The Home Life in the Light of its Divine Idea * (1866); *Idolatries, Old and New, their Cause and Cure * (1867); *The First Principles of Ecclesiastical Truth * (1871); *The Higher Life, its Reality, Experience, and Destiny * (1874); *The Doctrine of Annihilation in the Light of the Gospel of Love * (1875); *Home, its Relation to Man and Society * (1883). BIBLIOGRAPHY: For his life consult Elizabeth B. Brown, *J. Baldwin Brown Minister of Brixton Independent Church, * London, 1884 (by his wife).

**BROWN, JOHN:** English Congregationalist; b. at Bolton-le-Moors (12 m. n.w. of Manchester), Lancashire, June 19, 1830. He was educated at Owens College, Manchester, and the Lancashire Independent College, Manchester (B.A., London University, 1853), and was minister of Park Chapel, Manchester, from 1855 to 1864, and of Bunyan Church, Bedford, from 1864 to 1903, when he became pastor emeritus. He was chairman of the Congregational Union of England and Wales in 1891, Congregational Union lecturer in 1898, and Lyman Beecher lecturer at Yale in 1899. He was also president of the County Association of Free Churches in Bedfordshire from 1878 to 1902, and chairman of the committee of the Congregational Union of England and Wales, 1893-95. He represented the latter body at the Triennial Union of the United States at Minneapolis in 1892, and at the Congregational Union of Ontario and Quebec at Toronto in 1905. In Biblical criticism he is a liberal conservative, and in theology belongs to the evangelical school. In addition to numerous pamphlets and magazine articles, he has written: *Lectures on the Book of Revelation * (London, 1866); *God's Book for Man's Life *(1881); *John Bunyan, his Life, Times, and Work * (1885); *The Pilgrim Fathers of New England * (1895); *The Bedfordshire Union of Christians * (1896); * Apostolical Succession in the Light of History and Fact * (Congregational Union lectures, 1898); *The Present Crisis in the Church of England * (1899); *Puritan Preaching in England * (Yale Lectures for 1899, New York, 1900); *Eras of Nonconformity * (2 vols., London, 1904). He likewise edited Bunyan's *Pilgrim's Progress, Holy War, * and *Grace Abounding * (3 vols., London, 1887-88), and the same author's complete works for the Cambridge University Press (2 vols., Cambridge, 1905-06).

**BROWN, JOHN:** The name of several Scotch ministers, the most noteworthy being: **1. John Brown of Edinburgh:** Scotch Burgher minister, eldest son of Rev. John Brown of Whitburn (21 m. w.s.w. of Edinburgh), Linlithgowshire (b. 1754; d. 1832), and grandson of John Brown of Haddington; b. at Whitburn July 12, 1784; d. at Edinburgh Oct. 13, 1858. He studied at Edinburgh and the divinity hall of the Burgher Church at Selkirk; was licensed 1805 and ordained minister of the Burgher Church of Biggar, Lanarkshire, 1806; became minister of the Rose Street Church, Edinburgh, 1822, and of the Broughton Place Church in the same city 1829; was professor of exegetical theology to the United Associate Synod after 1834. He was strongly in favor of the separation of Church and State, and in 1845 was tried (and acquitted) before the synod on a charge of holding unsound views concerning the atonement. He was a fine orator and a voluminous writer; the most prominent of his works are: *Expository Discourses on First Peter * (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1848); *Exposition of the Discourses and Sayings of our Lord Jesus Christ * (3 vols., 1850); *The Resurrection of Life, * an exposition of I Cor. xv. (1852); *Expository Discourses on Galatians * (1853); *Analytical Exposition of the Epistle of Paul to the Romans * (1857). He was the father of the well-known John Brown, M.D. (b. 1810; d. 1882), author of *Rab and his Friends * (Edinburgh, 1859). BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Cairns, *Memoirs of John Brown, * Edinburgh, 1861; *DNB,* vii. 18-19. **2. John Brown of Haddington:** Scotch Burgher minister; b. at Carpow, near Abernethy (on the Firth of Tay, 6 m. s.e. of Perth), Perthshire, 1722; d. at Haddington (12 m. e. of Edinburgh) June 19, 1787. He was poor and self-taught, but acquired no small amount of learning; was a herd-boy, pedler, soldier, and school-teacher; studied theology under Ebenezer Erskine and James Fisher of Glasgow; was licensed in 1750, and in 1751 settled as pastor of the Burgher branch of the Secession Church of Haddington, where he remained till his death, declining a call as professor of divinity in Queen's College, N. J. After 1768 he was professor of theology to the Associate Synod. His yearly income from his church never exceeded £50, and his professorship had no salary; nevertheless he brought up a large family, gave freely in charity, and wrote books (which brought him no pecuniary profit) not only popular but valuable. They include: *Two Short Catechisms Mutually Connected* (Edinburgh, 1764); *A Dictionary of the Bible * (2 vols., 1769; revised ed., 1868); *The Self-interpreting Bible * (2 vols., 1778; often reprinted); and *A Compendious History of the Church of England and of the Protestant Churches in Ireland and America* (2 vols., Glasgow, 1784; new edition by Thomas Brown, Edinburgh, 1823). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sketches of his life are prefixed to various editions of his works; the best is that by his son, prefixed to his *Select Remains, ed. his Sons, J. and E. Brown, * this edited by W. Brown, Edinburgh, 1856. Consult also *DNB,* vii. 12-14.

**BROWN, JOHN NEWTON:** American Baptist; b. at New London, Conn., June 29, 1803; d. at Germantown, Penn., May 15, 1868. He was graduated at Hamilton Institute (Colgate University), Hamilton, N. Y., 1823; preached at Buffalo, N. Y., Providence, R. I, Malden, Mass., and Exeter, N. H.; was professor of theology and church history in the New Hampton (New Hampshire) Theological Institution, 1838-45; pastor at Lexington, Va., 1845-49; editorial secretary of the American Baptist Publication Society 1849 till his death. He prepared (1833) and revised (1852) the "New Hampshire [Baptist] Confession of Faith." His most important literary work was the *Encyclopædia of Religious Knowledge * (Brattleboro, 1835).

**BROWN, PETER HUME:** Scotch historian, layman; b. at Haddington (18 m. e. of Edinburgh), Haddingtonshire, Dec. 17, 1850. He was educated at Edinburgh University (M.A., 1873), and had originally intended to enter the Church. He gave up this plan, however, and ultimately turned his attention to history. In 1898 he was made editor of the Register of the Privy Council of Scotland, and three years later was appointed to his present position of professor of ancient (Scottish) history and paleography in the University of Edinburgh. He has written: *George Buchanan, Humanist and Reformer * (Edinburgh, 1890); *Early Travellers in Scotland * (London, 1891); *Scotland before 1700, from Contemporary Documents * (Edinburgh, 1893); *John Knox: a Biography * (2 vols., 1895); *History of Scotland * (2 vols., Cambridge, 1898-1902); *Scotland in the time of Queen Mary * (Rhind Lectures for 1903; London, 1904); and *George Buchanan and his Times * (1906).

**BROWN, PHŒBE ALLEN (HINSDALE):** Hymnwriter; b. at Canaan, Columbia County, N. Y., May 1, 1783; d. at Marshall, Henry County, Ill., Oct. 10, 1861. She was left an orphan at the age of two, and in early life suffered great hardship and even cruel treatment at the hands of strangers; she first learned to write at the age of eighteen. In 1805 she married Timothy Brown (d. 1853) and moved to East Windsor, Conn. In 1813 the family went to the neighboring village of Ellington, and in 1818 to Monson, Mass. Her husband was a village mechanic, the family was poor, and her life was hampered by care; nevertheless she read much, kept up systematic Bible study, and found money to devote to Christian work, especially to the cause of missions. She wrote for her own amusement, but published newspaper articles, tracts, and a volume of tales, *The Tree and its Fruits * (New York, 1836); she left an autobiography in manuscript. Her best known hymn, "I love to steal awhile away From every cumbering care," is said to have been written at Ellington at a time when poverty and domestic duties left little opportunity for meditation at home and she was in the habit of going out for a walk every day at dusk; some thoughtless remarks of neighbors being reported to her, she wrote "An Apology for my Twilight Rambles." The second line originally read "From little ones and care." The poem was first printed (abridged and revised) in Nettleton's *Village Hymns * (New York, 1824). The tune "Monson," to which it is often sung, was written by her son, Samuel Robbins Brown. BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. M. Bird, in *The Independent * for Jan. 6, Jan. 20, and April 14, 1881; S. W. Duffield, *English Hymns,* pp. 242-246, New York, 1886 (gives original text of the hymn mentioned in the text); Julian, *Hymnology,* p. 185.

**BROWN, SAMUEL ROBBINS:** The first American appointed missionary to Japan; b. at East Windsor, Conn., June 16, 1810, son of Phœbe (Hinsdale) Brown; d. at Monson, Mass., June 20, 1880. He was graduated at Yale, 1832; studied at the Theological School, Columbia, S. C., 1835-37, and at Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1837-38; went to China in 1838 and took charge of a school founded and maintained by the Morrison Education Society (see MORRISON, ROBERT), located first at Macao, in 1842 removed to Hongkong. He returned to America in 1847 bringing with him three Chinese boys, one of whom was Yung Wing, afterward at the head of the Chinese Education Commission; he taught at Rome, N. Y., 1848-51, and was pastor of the Reformed (Dutch) Church and principal of a successful school at Owasco Outlet (Sand Beach), near Auburn, N. Y., 1851-59; was one of the incorporators (1851) and first chairman of the executive committee of Elmira College, the first chartered woman's college in America. In May, 1859, he sailed for Japan as missionary of the Reformed (Dutch) Church, and located at Kanagawa till 1863, when he removed to Yokohama; returned to America in 1867 and for two years preached for his old church at Owasco Outlet; was again in Japan 1869-79. Dr. Brown arrived in Japan immediately after the opening of the country; during the difficult transition period which followed he labored with rare judgment and unfailing zeal for both natives and foreign residents. His views and his methods were free from narrowness and he considered the advancement of civilization a part of the work of the Christian missionary. He wrote many articles and newspaper letters on Chinese and Japanese subjects; prepared school books for his pupils; published *Colloquial Japanese* (Shanghai, 1863), and *Prendergast's Mastery System Adapted to the Study of Japanese or English* (Yokohama, 1878); and assisted in the Japanese translation of the New Testament, completed just before his death and published the same year. BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. E. Griffis, *A Maker of the New Orient, Samuel R. Brown, * New York, 1902.

**BROWN, WILLIAM ADAMS:** Presbyterian; b. in New York City Dec. 29, 1865. He was educated at Yale University (B.A., 1886), Union Theological Seminary (1890), and the University of Berlin (1890-92). He was successively instructor in church history (1892-93) and systematic theology (1893-95) in Union Theological Seminary, where he was provisional professor of systematic theology from 1895 to 1898, and has been Roosevelt professor of the same subject since 1898. He is a member of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, and has written, in addition to contributions to Hastings's *Dictionary of the Bible, Musical Instruments and their Homes * (New York, 1888); *The Essence of Christianity * (1892); *Christ the Vitalizing Principle of Christian Theology * (1898); and *Christian Theology in Outline * (1907).

**BROWN, WILLIAM MONTGOMERY:** Protestant Episcopal bishop of Arkansas; b. near Orrville, O., Nov. 6, 1855. He was educated at Seabury Hall, Faribault, Minn., and by private tutors, and graduated from Bexley Hall, the theological seminary of Kenyon College, Gambier, O., 1884. He was ordered deacon in 1883, and priest, 1884. He was in charge of Grace Mission, Galion, O., 1883-91, and during this period established seven other missions in adjacent places. In 1891 he was chosen general missionary and archdeacon of the diocese of Ohio, and in this capacity founded many new parishes, besides building twenty-one mission chapels. He was likewise secretary of the Diocesan Missionary Committee and of the Diocesan Board of Trustees. In 1898 he was consecrated bishop-coadjutor of Arkansas, and on the death of Bishop Henry N. Pierce in 1899, became bishop of the diocese. He has written *The Church for Americans * (New York, 1896).

**BROWNE, EDWARD HAROLD:** Bishop of Winchester; b. at Aylesbury (35 m. n.w. of London), Buckinghamshire, Mar. 6, 1811; d. at Shales, near Bitterne (2 m. n.e. of Southampton), Hampshire, Dec. 18, 1891. He studied at Emmanuel College, Cambridge (B.A., 1832; M.A., 1836; B.D., 1855); became fellow and tutor of his college, 1837; curate of Stroud, Gloucestershire, 1840; perpetual curate of St. James's, Exeter, 1841; perpetual curate of St. Sidwell's, Exeter, 1842; viceprincipal and professor of Hebrew in St. David's College, Lampeter, Wales, 1843; vicar of Kenwyn-cum-Kea, Cornwall, and prebendary of Exeter, 1849; vicar of Heavitree and canon of Exeter, 1857; in 1854 he was appointed Norrisian professor of divinity at Cambridge; in 1864 was consecrated bishop of Ely; in 1873 translated to Winchester; resigned 1890. He took a deep interest in the "Old Catholic" movement and attended the congress at Cologne in 1872; was a member of the Old Testament company of revisers; was prominent on the conservative side in the beginning of the controversy concerning Bible criticism and issued *The Pentateuch and the Elohistic Psalms, in Reply to Bishop Colenso * (London, 1863). He also published: *The Fulfilment of the Old Testament Prophecies Relating to the Messiah* (1836); *An Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles* (2 vols., 1850-53; new ed., 1886)—the work by which he is best known; and *Position and Parties of the English Church * (1875). He also contributed to *Aids to Faith * and wrote the introduction to the Pentateuch and the commentary on Genesis for the "Speaker's Commentary:" BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. W. Kitchin, *Edward Harold Browne . . . A Memoir,* London, 1895; *DNB, * supplement vol., i, 304.

**BROWNE, GEORGE:** First Protestant archbishop of Dublin; d. 1556. He is first heard of in 1534, when, as provincial of the order of Austin Friars, he was employed to administer the oath of succession to the friars of London and the south of England; he was nominated to the see of Dublin, vacant by the murder of Archbishop Allen, was consecrated the same year, and arrived in Ireland in 1536. He worked diligently to introduce the Reformation in Ireland and to further the cause of the king; he was deposed under Mary. His opponents have described him as avaricious, profligate, and unlearned. BIBLIOGRAPHY: A sketch and useful references to sources are in *DNB,* vii. 43-45.

**BROWNE, GEORGE FORREST:** Bishop of Bristol; b. at York Dec. 4, 1833. He was educated at St. Catherine's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1856), where he was fellow and lecturer in 1863-1865. He was ordained to the priesthood in 1859, and after being chaplain of St. Catherine's College and theological tutor at Trinity College, Glenalmond, Scotland, was rector of Ashley, Hants, from 1869 to 1875. He was a member of the Council of the Senate of Cambridge University in 1874-1878 and again in 1880-92, and was Disney professor of archeology in the same university from 1887 to 1892. He was treasurer of St. Paul's in 1891-99 and canon in 1892-97, and in 1895 was consecrated bishop suffragan of Stepney, being translated to the see of Bristol two years later. He was also Bell lecturer in the Scottish Episcopal Church in 1862 and secretary to the Cambridge Local Examinations seven years later, and is president of the Alpine Club. He has written: *Ice Caves of France and Switzerland * (London, 1865); *The Venerable Bede * (1879); *University Sermons; The Ilam Crosses * (1889); *Lessons from Early English Church History * (1893); *The Church at Home before Augustine * (1894); *Augustine and his Companions * (1895); *Off the Mill * (1895); *Conversion of the Heptarchy* (1896); *Theodore and Wilfrith * (1897); *History of St. Catherine's College * (1902); and *Life and Works of St. Aldhelm * (1903).

**BROWNE, JOHN:** English Congregationalist; b. at North Walsham (15 m. n. of Norwich), Norfolk, Feb. 6, 1823; d. at Wrentham (33 m. n.e. of Ipswich), Suffolk, Apr. 4, 1886. He studied at Coward College and University College, London 1839-44 (B.A., London University, 1843); was minister at Lowestoft, Suffolk, 1844; at Wrentham, 1848 till his death. His chief publication was the *History of Congregationalism and Memorials of the Churches in Norfolk and Suffolk * (London, 1877), which is of great importance for the beginnings of English Congregationalism.

**BROWNE, PETER:** Protestant Irish bishop; b. in County Dublin soon after 1660; d. Aug. 25, 1735. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin; was consecrated bishop of Cork and Ross 1710. He opposed the custom of drinking healths in a series of pamphlets (1713 sqq.) which won him much notoriety, but has more enduring fame as an antideistical writer; in reply to John Toland he published *A Letter in Answer to a Book Entitled Christianity not Mysterious * (Dublin, 1697), and afterward elaborated his argument in *The Procedure, Extent, and Limits of Human Understanding * (London; 1728), a critique of Locke's *Essay; * in *Things Divine and Supernatural Conceived by Analogy with Things Natural and Human * (1733) he asserts that knowledge of God's essence and attributes can be only "analogical" and not direct.

**BROWNE, ROBERT:** Leader of the English Separatists (from whom they received their popular name of Brownists), and generally considered the founder of the Congregationalists; b. at Tolethorp (3 m. n. of Stamford), Rutlandshire, about 1550; d. at Northampton after June 2, 1631. He was of good family and had influential relatives on both his father's and his mother's side, including the great chancellor, Lord Burghley. He studied at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge (B.A., 1572). It is said that in 1571 he was domestic chaplain to Thomas Howard, duke of Norfolk, and that the duke took his part in some obscure trouble with the ecclesiastical authorities; but this is doubtful. He taught school for three years (seventeenth century writers say in or near London) and made "enemies" by freely speaking his mind concerning "many things amiss, and the cause of all to be the woeful and lamentable state of the Church." In 1578 or 1579 he returned to Cambridge. At this time his views seem to have ripened. Holding that the true Church consisted only of such as led Christian lives and did not properly include all baptized persons, he declared that "the kingdom of God was not to be begun by whole parishes, but rather of the worthiest, were they never so few." He publicly harangued against "the calling and authorizing of preachers by bishops," preached constantly to Puritan audiences (acceptably, it would appear) although he had no bishop's license, and, when his brother obtained a license for him, disdained it. Naturally he was silenced, and illness compelled him temporarily to comply with the bishop's mandate. About 1580 Browne went to Norwich, attracted thither by a friend, Robert (or Richard) Harrison, who became his coworker. Here he organized his first church and soon extended the field of his operations as far as Bury St. Edmunds. The bishop of Norwich complained of him as a preacher of "corrupt and contentious doctrine" and likely to mislead "the vulgar sort of people," but Burghley protected him. Nevertheless Norwich was made so uncomfortable for the little band that about Jan., 1582, most of them, with their pastor, emigrated to Middelburg in Zealand. Browne's impulsive and imperious character, as well as the principles of the congregation, did not promote unity. After two years of continual discussion and division, with four or five families, he left for Scotland. They arrived in Edinburgh Jan., 1584, and at once commenced the propagation of their peculiar doctrines. They "held opinion of separation from all kirks where excommunication was not rigorously used against open offenders not repenting; they would not admit witnesses [sponsors] in baptism, and sundry other opinions they had." Within a week Browne was summoned before the session of the kirk; he was imprisoned, but only for a short time; and soon, unhindered, if not covertly encouraged by the secular authorities, he traveled over Scotland. He returned to England, and, possibly, again visited Holland. It has generally been supposed that Browne kept on as zealously and offensively as ever so far as his strength—which was beginning to break owing to imprisonments and hardships—permitted, continually harassed by the authorities and favored by Burghley, until 1586; that in that year the bishop of Peterborough excommunicated him, and this so wrought upon him that he changed completely, submitted to the Church, and thenceforth lived quietly, and, after a few years, in the enjoyment of a good benefice. Mr. Burrage transfers the excommunication to a later period and gives the date of Browne's submission Oct. 7, 1585. In Nov., 1586, he was elected master of St. Olave's Grammar-school in Southwark, binding himself to abstain from propagating his peculiar doctrines and to live as a member of the Church. His controversial powers were now employed against his former associates, Henry Barrow and John Greenwood. In Sept., 1591, he received the living of Achurch-cum-Thorpe, Northamptonshire; he was ordained deacon and priest on Sept. 30, and he remained at Achurch for forty uneventful years. For a period of ten years (1616-26) the entries in the parish register are not in his handwriting. Mr. Burrage thinks that this was the time when he was under sentence of excommunication by the bishop of Peterborough, and that the cause was a manifestation of Separatist tendencies encouraged by Browne in his parish. If this be so he made submission a second time, for his handwriting reappears in the register. His last entry is dated June 2, 1631, and in Nov., 1633, a new rector took his place. He died in Northampton jail, committed for striking a constable who came to him to collect a debt, and having shown something of his early fervid manner when brought before a justice in consequence. Browne's biographers have been much puzzled to explain or extenuate his extraordinary conduct in making terms with the Church. It has been urged that he was broken physically and mentally in 1586; but he can not have been forty years old at that time and he lived forty-five years afterward. Dr. Dexter's suggestion that he was naturally of unsound mind with a tendency to insanity which at times became acute has found wide acceptance. It would explain not only Browne's own conduct but also the long forbearance and continued kindness which he enjoyed from Burghley and others. Mr. Burrage thinks that "at last he had become wearied of the continual criticism to which his views in the past had subjected him, and probably had honestly come to feel that he might be of really more service to the world, as it was, not by wearing himself out by combating established ideas, but rather by accepting what the world offered him and by using the advantage he had thus gained to the furtherance of his higher ideals." The starting-point of Browne's views and system seems to have been his conviction that the spiritual welfare of true Christians required their separation from others who were Christians in name only. It was futile to hope that such separation would be brought about by the bishops and clergy of the Established Church or by the civil rulers. Yet the necessity for it was immediate. Hence the only course possible was for the faithful to secede and organize themselves. A voluntary association or covenant of true believers constituted a church, and each church had the exclusive right of discipline and the choice of its own officers. Two kinds of officers are designated in the New Testament: apostles, prophets, evangelists are temporary and belong to the past; the abiding officers are the pastor, teacher, elders, deacons, and widows who have their charge in one church only. The presence of these officers does not release any member from the duty of watching and helping the others, and a similar responsibility exists between churches. The civil authorities should have nothing to do with spiritual matters, and it is not their province to enforce conformity to any ecclesiastical system. He was thus the first Englishman to express the Anabaptist doctrine of complete separation of Church and State. See CONGREGATIONALISTS, I., 1, §§ 1-2. Browne published three treatises at Middelburg (1582), entitled respectively: (1) *A Book which Sheweth the Life and Manners of All True Christians, and how unlike they are unto Turks and Papists and heathen folk; also the points and parts of all divinity that is of the revealed will and word of God are declared by their several definitions and divisions in order* (extracts in Walker, pp. 18-27); (2) *A Treatise of Reformation without Tarrying for Any, and of the wickedness of those preachers which will not reform till the magistrate command or compel them* (reprinted, Boston, "Old South Leaflet, no. 100 "; with biographical introduction by T. G. Crippen, London, 1903); (3) *A Treatise upon the 23d of Matthew, both for an order of studying and handling the Scriptures and also for avoiding the popish disorders and ungodly communion of all false Christians, especially of wicked preachers and hirelings* (extracts in Burrage, pp. 21-25). These were intended primarily to further his cause in England and were spread abroad by his followers; two men were hanged in 1583 for disseminating them (see COPPIN, JOHN). Several other publications or manuscripts of Browne's are mentioned (Mr. Burrage, *True Story,* pp. 74-75, enumerates twenty-five) and the following are known to be preserved: (4) *A True and Short Declaration both of the Gathering and Joining together of Certain Persons, and also of the lamentable breach and division which fell among them* (1584?; reprinted in *The Congregationalist*, London, 1882), the story of Browne's early life; (5) *An Answer to Master Cartwright's Letter for joining with the English Churches* (London, n.d.; extracts in Burrage, pp. 31-36); (6) *A Reproof of Certain Schismatical Persons* [Henry Barrow and John Greenwood] and their doctrine, touching the hearing and preaching of the word of God (manuscript written probably in 1588, discovered by Mr. Burrage and published by him, Oxford, 1907); (7) A letter addressed "My good Uncle," and dated "the last of December, 1588" [Jan. 10, 1589], discovered and published with introduction by Champlin Burrage under the title *A New Years Guift* (London, 1904). The letter is quoted by Richard Bancroft, afterward archbishop of Canterbury, in a sermon at Paul's Cross, Feb. 9, 1588, and the manuscript discovered by Mr. Burrage is indorsed in what is believed to be Bancroft's handwriting "Mr. Browne's Answer to Mr. Flower's Letter." One sheet (4 pages) is lacking, but the part preserved contains more than 6,000 words, discusses the subject of church government at considerable length, and is particularly interesting for the idea which it gives of Browne's views concerning the Church of England at the time of writing; (8) A letter to Burghley, Apr. 15, 1590, printed by Strype in the *Life and Acts of John Whitgift,* appendix, bk. iii., no. xlv. (appendix, pp. 133-134, ed. London, 1718). BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Fuller, *Church History of Great Britain,* book ix., cent. xvi., sect. vi., §§ 1-7, 64-69, ed. J. S. Brewer, 6 vols., London, 1845; C. H. Cooper, *Athenæ Cantabrigienses,* ii. 177-178, London, 1858-61; H. M. Dexter, *Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years, * New York, 1880; W. Walker, *Creeds and Platforms of Congregationalism,* pp. 1-27, ib. 1893; idem, *History of the Congregational Churches in the United States,* 31-41, ib. 1894; *DNB,* vii. 57-61; C. Burrage, *The True Story of Robert Browne (1550-1603), Father of Congregationalism, * Oxford, 1906.

**BROWNE, SIR THOMAS:** Author of the *Religio Medici; * b. in Cheapside, London, Oct. 19, 1605; d. at Norwich Oct. 19, 1682. He attended Winchester College and Broadgate Hall (Pembroke College), Oxford (B.A., 1626; M.A., 1629); studied medicine and practised in Oxfordshire; traveled in Ireland, France, and Italy, continued his medical studies at Montpellier and Padua, and received his degree of doctor of medicine at Leyden about 1633; settled at Norwich in 1637, where he gained much repute as a physician and still more as a man of universal knowledge. The *Religio Medici* was probably written about 1635 and not intended for publication; two unauthorized editions appeared in 1642, which led to an edition with the author's approval, but anonymous, in 1643. The work is peculiar from its blending of deep religious feeling and skeptical views. "It appears to have been composed as a *tour de force * of intellectual agility, an attempt to combine daring skepticism with implicit faith in revelation." The style is metaphorical and artificial, with many Latinized words, but striking and impressive. Browne also published: *Pseudodoxia Epidemica, or Enquiries into very Many Received Tenets and commonly Presumed Truths, which Examined prove but Vulgar and Common Errors * (London, 1646); *Hydriotaphia or Urnburial * and *The Garden of Cyrus * (1658); many of his manuscripts were published posthumously. The best edition of his complete works is by Simon Wilkin (4 vols., London, 1835-36; reprinted, abridged, by Bohn, 3 vols., 1851-52). The *Religio Medici, * with *A Letter to a Friend upon Occasion of the Death of his Intimate Friend * (first published 1690) and *Christian Morals * (1716), and the *Hydriotaphia * and *Garden of Cyrus, * have been carefully edited by W. A. Greenhill (London, 1881 and 1896); and the *Religio Medici * is ed. with introduction by C. H. Herford (New York, 1907). BIBLIOGRAPHY: A rather extended sketch of Browne's life and writings is given in *DNB,* vii. 64-72, where the literature and list of works is given at some length. Consult also E. Gosse, in *English Men of Letters, * London, 1905.

**BROWNISTS.** See BROWNE, ROBERT.

**BROWNLEE, WILLIAM CRAIG:** American (Dutch) Reformed clergyman; b. at Torfoot, Lanarkshire, Scotland, 1783; d. in New York Feb. 10, 1860. He was graduated at Glasgow University; was licensed and emigrated to America in 1808; was pastor at Mt. Pleasant, Washington County, Penn., Philadelphia (1813), and Baskingridge, N. J. (1819); professor of languages in Rutgers College 1825; called to the Collegiate Reformed Dutch Church, New York, 1826; made pastor emeritus after a paralytic stroke in 1843. He was a strong opponent of Roman Catholics and Quakers. He published *Inquiry into the Principles of Quakers* (New York, 1824); The Roman Catholic Controversy (Philadelphia, 1834); *Lights and Shadows of Christian Life * (New York, 1837); *Popery an Enemy to Civil and Religious Liberty * (1836); *Romanism in the Light of Prophecy and History * (1857). BIBLIOGRAPHY: A *Memorial * was published by the consistory of his Church (New York, 1860).

**BROWNSON, ORESTES AUGUSTUS:** Roman Catholic convert; b. at Stockbridge, Vt., Sept. 16, 1803; d. at Detroit, Mich., Apr. 17, 1876. His religious career is marked by its many changes. The influences of his boyhood were of the strictest New England orthodoxy; at nineteen he joined a Presbyterian church at Ballston, N. Y.; in 1826 he was ordained (at Jaffrey, N. H.) a Universalist minister; after two or three years he left the Universalists, and, influenced by Robert Dale Owen and his projects, became a socialist, entered politics, and helped form a "Workingmen's Party" in New York. He soon despaired of reform by means of political organization, and in 1831 again began preaching at Ithaca, N. Y., this time as an independent, attracted by the writings of William Ellery Channing. Later he had Unitarian parishes at Walpole, N. H., and Canton, Mass. In 1836 he organized in Boston "The Society for Christian Union and Progress" and continued its minister till 1843, when he gave up preaching. In Oct., 1844, he was received into the Roman Catholic Church in Boston, and did not again change his faith, although he continued independent and combative within the Church and received a recommendation from Rome to be more guarded in his language. He wrote with great zeal and no small ability in advocacy of all of his successive beliefs. He started *The Boston Quarterly Review * in 1838 and wrote nearly all its numbers till it was merged in *The Democratic Review * of New York in 1843; from 1844 to 1864 and again 1873-75 he published *Brownson's Quarterly Review, * at first in Boston, later in New York, where he lived 1855-75. His books were: *New Views of Christianity, Society, and the Church * (Boston, 1836); *Charles Elwood, or the Infidel Converted * (1840); *Essays and Reviews * (New York, 1852); *The Spirit Rapper; an Autobiography * (Boston, 1854); *The Convert, or Leaves from my Experience * (New York, 1857); *The American Republic, its Constitution, Tendencies, and Destiny * (1865). BIBLIOGRAPHY: His son, Henry F. Brownson, has published a collected edition of his *Works,* 20 vols., Detroit, 1882-87, and his *Life, * 3 vols., 1898-1900.

**BRUCE, ALEXANDER BALMAIN:** Church of Scotland; b. at Aberargie (a hamlet in the parish of Abernethy, 7 m. s.e. of Perth), Perthshire, Jan. 30, 1831; d. at Glasgow Aug. 7, 1899. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh (1845-49) and the Divinity Hall of the Free Church of Scotland, which he entered in 1849. After the completion of his theological studies, he was an assistant minister at Ancrum, Roxburghshire, and Lochwinnoch, Renfrewshire, until 1859, when he accepted a call to the pastorate of Cardross, Dumbartonshire, where he remained nine years. He was then minister of the East Free Church, Broughty Ferry, Forfarshire, from 1868 to 1875, and in the latter year was appointed professor of apologetics and New Testament exegesis in the Free Church Hall, Glasgow, a position which he held until his death. In theology he declared himself to be "in sympathy with modern religious thought, while maintaining solidarity with all that is best in the theology of the past; in favor of freedom in critical inquiries on the basis of evangelic faith, and of a simplified and more comprehensive creed." The boldness of his views brought him to the notice of the General Assembly of his denomination in 1890, but after consideration his writings were pronounced to be, on the whole, in accord with orthodox standards. He was Cunningham Lecturer in 1874, Ely Lecturer in Union Theological Seminary, New York, in 1886, and Gifford Lecturer in Glasgow University in 1896-97, and after 1894 collaborated with T. K. Cheyne in editing the *Theological Translation Library. * In addition to minor contributions, he wrote *The Training of the Twelve * (Edinburgh, 1871); *The Humiliation of Christ * (1876); *The Chief End of Revelation* (London, 1881); *The Parabolic Teaching of Christ* (1882); *The Galilæan Gospel * (Edinburgh, 1884); *F. C. Baur and his Theory of the Origin of Christianity and of the New Testament * (London, 1885); *The Miraculous Element in the Gospels * (the Ely lectures for 1886; 1886); *The Life of William Denny * (1888); *The Kingdom of God, or, Christ's Teachings according to the Synoptic Gospels * (Edinburgh, 1889); *Apologetics: or, The Cause of Christianity defensively stated * (1892); *St. Paul's Conception of Christianity * (1894); *With Open Face: or, Jesus mirrored in Matthew, Mark, and Luke* (London, 1896); *The Providential Order of the World * (Gifford lectures for 1897; 1897); a commentary on the synoptic Gospels in *The Expositor's Greek Testament * (1897); *The Epistle to the Hebrews, the First Apology for Christianity* (Edinburgh, 1899); and *The Moral Order of the World in Ancient and Modern Thought * (Gifford lectures for 1898; London, 1899). BIBLIOGRAPHY: *DNB,* supplement i., 321-322.

**BRUCH,** bruh, **JOHANN FRIEDRICH:** German theologian; b. at Pirmasens (13 m. e.s.e. of Zweibrücken), Rhenish Bavaria, Dec. 13, 1792; d. at Strasburg July 21, 1874. He was educated at the gymnasium of Zweibrücken and the Protestant academy of Strasburg, after which he was successively tutor at Cologne (1812), vicar at Lohr in German Lotharingia, and private tutor in Paris (1815). In Nov., 1821, he was appointed professor at the Protestant seminary at Strasburg, and a few months later became full professor in the theological faculty. His position, both then and later, was rationalistic. His conception of revelation, miracles, Christ and his works, sin, and salvation, therefore, frequently diverged widely from the teachings of the Church and of tradition. His lectures were at first restricted to Christian ethics and the synoptic Gospels, but later embraced also systematic theology and the New Testament, in addition to practical homiletics. After 1831 he was preacher at the Nikolaikirche, where he sought to instruct and calm the religious excitement caused by the attacks of orthodox Pietism on liberal theology, aiming to further a faith based on reason and a life of true Christianity, as well as unity and peace within the Church. Bruch's influence was also felt in the development of the religious life of his city, and in the foundation and administration of religious and ecclesiastical projects. The first infant schools, the evening schools for poor children, Sunday lectures for workingmen, the society for the improvement of young criminals, and the society for the evangelization of Protestants scattered in the departments of the East were among those inspired and called into existence by him. He was also the president of the Strasburg Bible Society and until his death conducted the pastoral conference of his city. After 1828 he likewise acted as the director of the Protestant gymnasium. In 1849 he was appointed inspector of the district of St. Thomas, in 1852 a member of the supreme consistory, and in 1866 of the directory. Amid all these tasks he found time and strength to treat the most obscure problems of theology and philosophy, although he was obliged, for lack of sympathy, to abandon his plan of writing in French to supply the deficiency of Protestant theological literature in France. The Franco-Prussian War brought devastation into Church and school, and Bruch was accordingly appointed rector of the new university and placed in control of the provisional direction of ecclesiastical affairs, the final efforts of his life being devoted to a reorganization of the theological faculty and of the ecclesiastical situation, which he sought to protect against the domination of the system prevailing at Berlin. Bruch was a prolific writer, his works, in addition to numerous pamphlets and articles in learned periodicals, being as follows: *Lehrbuch der christlichen Sittenlehre* (2 vols., Strasburg, 1829-32); *Christliche Vorträge* (2 vols., 1838-42); *Études philosophiques sur le christianisme * (Paris, 1839); *Ideen zur Abfassung einer den Bedürfnissen der deutsch-protestantischen Kirche Frankreichs entsprechenden Liturgie * (Strasburg, 1839); *Die Lehre von den göttlichen Eigenschaften * (Hamburg, 1842); *Zustände der protestantischen Kirche Frankreichs* (1843); *Betrachtungen über Christenthum und christlichen Glauben in Briefen* (2 vols., Strasburg, 1845-46); *Weisheitslehre der Hebräer, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Philosophie* (1851); *Das Gebet des Herrn* (1853); *Ueber das Prinzip der weltüberwindenden Macht des Christenthums * (Gotha, 1856); *Die protestantische Freiheit * (Strasburg, 1857); *Die Lehre von der Präexistenz der menschlichen Seele* (1859); and *Theorie des Bewusstseins* (1864). T. GEROLD. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bruch's life-story is told in *Kindheit- und Jugenderinnerungen von Dr. Fr. Bruch, * Strasburg, 1889, and *Johann Friedrich Bruch, seine Wirksamkeit in Schule und Kirche, 1821-72,* 1890, both edited from his remains by his son-in-law, T. Gerold.

**BRUECK,** brük **(PONTANUS,** real name **HEINSE, HENISCH, HEINCZ), GREGORIUS:** German jurist; b. at Brück (22 m. n. of Wittenberg) c. 1484; d. at Jena Feb. 15, 1557. He studied at Wittenberg and Frankfort-on-the Oder, and became so famous as the secretary and representative of the jurist Hennig Göde that princes and critics sought his advice. Frederick the Wise invited him to his court, and after the death of the electoral councilor Degenhard Pfeffinger (1519), Brück seems to have taken his place. He was soon interested in Luther, and it was not without significance that he accompanied the elector to Cologne and Worms. Having returned to Wittenberg, Brück received the degree of doctor of law, and soon afterward was appointed chancellor. His tact and ability greatly helped the cause of the Reformation, and the development of the Evangelical Church. He was instrumental in bringing about the Torgau-Magdeburg confederations; he advised the elector at the diets held at Speyer in 1526 and 1529, and it was due to him, next to Luther, that the Pack-disturbances did not lead to a general war. But his greatest services were rendered at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530. He not only gave the first impulse to the composition of the Augsburg Confession, but he took part in the preparation of its details, wrote the introduction to it, caused it to be read in public, and gave to the emperor the Latin copy in the name of the Evangelical estates. He would not be intimidated, but, on the contrary, encouraged the timid, and acted as spokesman in all public debates, so that his eloquence and ability were even recognized by his opponents. Cochlæus, well aware of the importance of Brück, vainly tried to induce him to abandon the Lutherans by an "Admonition to Peace and Unity." Brück's reply is unknown, for at the time he was engaged in writing a true account of events at the Diet of Augsburg, 1530, which was first printed in Förstemann's *Archiv für die Geschichte der kirchlichen Reformation * (Halle, 1831). Brück attended all diets held during his lifetime, and he also strove for the consolidation of the Church, finally succeeding in 1542 in forming a permanent consistory. For a time he resided at Wittenberg, but after the disastrous end of the Schmalkald War, which he had consistently opposed, he followed the sons of the Elector to Weimar, remaining a loyal friend of the imprisoned Frederick. Still later Brück retired to Jena, where he died. (T. KOLDE.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: *CR,* xii. 351 contains the *Oratio de Gregorio Pontano * (by Melanchthon); J. A. Wimmer, *Vita Gregorii Pontani, * Altenburg, 1730; T. Kolde, in *ZHT,* 1874, pp. 34 sqq.

**BRUECKNER,** brük'ner, **BENNO BRUNO:** German Protestant; b. at Rosswein (23 m. w. of Dresden) May 9, 1824. He was educated at the University of Leipsic, and after serving as pastor at Hohburg from 1850 to 1853 was appointed associate professor and second university preacher at Leipsic. Two years later he was made full professor, and in the following year was appointed university preacher and director of the seminary for practical theology. He became canon of Meissen and consistorial councilor in 1860, and nine years later went to Berlin as provost of St. Nicholas and St. Mary, honorary professor, university preacher, and member of the high consistory, of which he became clerical vice-president in 1877. In 1872 he was chosen general superintendent of Berlin, and in the following year was appointed canon of Brandenburg. He became high consistorial councilor in 1880, a member of the Prussian council of state in 1884, and president of the united synods of the district of Berlin in 1889. His works include *Epistola ad Philippenses Paulo auctori vindicata contra Baurium* (Leipsic, 1848); *Betrachtungen über die Agende der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche in Sachsen * (1865); and numerous sermons, both individual and collected, many of which ran through several editions. He also edited the second and third editions of W. M. L. De Wette's commentary on the Catholic Epistles (Leipsic, 1853-67) and the fifth edition of his commentary on the Gospel of John (1863).

**BRUEGGLERS.** See KOHLER, CHRISTIAN AND HIERONYMUS.

**BRUGMANN,** brūg'man, **JAN:** A theologian and reformer of the Franciscan order in the Netherlands and Germany. The date of his birth is unknown, but from the way in which he speaks of his age in 1473, the year of his death, he was probably born about 1400, at Kempen. He was educated and admitted to the clerical state in a monastery of the northwestern Netherlands, perhaps Groningen. He joined the Franciscans at Saint-Omer in Artois, where the community was full of the spirit of St. Bernardin of Sienna, the founder of the strict or Observant Franciscans. Here he taught theology, until in 1439 he was charged, at the request of the town council of Gouda, with the erection of an Observantine house there, and later took part in a similar work at Sluis, Leyden, and Alkmaar. Learning to know the moral and spiritual condition of the people while discharging these missions, he set himself to elevate it by popular preaching, at the same time effecting a reform in the convents of Groningen, Gorinchem, Haarlem, Warnsveld, and Nymwegen between 1450 and 1455. At Amsterdam he founded a house in 1462, and composed a bitter factional strife among the citizens. He brought about the foundation of the Observantine province of Cologne, of which he was provincial for several years. Feeling his end approaching, he retired to Nymwegen, where he died. His influence went far beyond the reform of the Franciscan houses; he ranks with the great popular preachers of the Netherlands at that time, such as Groote and Florentius Radewyns, with whom he was in close alliance. A few of his sermons have been printed (see below). He wrote also a life of Christ, which in some particulars resembles those of Bonaventura and Ludolf of Saxony, though adhering more closely to the Gospel narrative. In spite of its frequently erroneous exegesis and its arbitrary mystical interpretations, it is so full of simple piety and warm devotion that it awakens respect. He wrote also, in three different versions, the life of Lidwina of Schiedam, a mystical ascetic considered a saint in the Netherlands (1350-1443); it has recently been discovered that he was a vernacular spiritual poet of no slight importance. L. SCHULZE. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The one book is W. Moll, *Joh. Brugmann, en het Godsdienstig Leven, * Amsterdam, 1854. One of his sermons is given in Moll's biography, but other sermons and writings of his appear in *Handelingen . . . Maatschappij der Nederlandsche letterkunde, * The Hague, 1887; *De Katholik,* xx.; *Archief voor Nederlandsche Kerkgeschiedenis * i. (1885), iv. (1892-93).

**BRULLY,** brü"yî' **(BRUSLY), PIERRE** (*Petrus Brulius*): The successor of Calvin in Strasburg; b. at Mersilhaut (Mercy-le-Haut, about 2 m. s.e. of Metz) c. 1518; burned at the stake at Tournai (14 m. e. of Lille), Flanders, Feb. 19, 1545. Educated for the Church, he became lector in the Dominican convent at Metz and was expelled in 1540 or 1541 for sympathizing with the Reformation. In July, 1541, he was in Strasburg and intimate with Calvin, in whose house he lived, and when Calvin was recalled to Geneva (1541) succeeded him in the pastorate. In September, 1544, he undertook a missionary journey to Flanders on the invitation of persons in Tournai who wished instruction in the Reformed faith; preached there and in neighboring cities with earnestness and success, but necessarily in secret, as to preach Protestant doctrine was forbidden. He was arrested at Tournai in November, condemned, and executed, notwithstanding efforts made to save him from Strasburg and by the Protestant princes of Germany. BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Paillard, *Le Procès de Pierre Brully,* Paris, 1878; R. Reuss, *Pierre Brully, * Strasburg, 1879.

**BRUNETIÈRE,** brü"ne-tyār', **MARIE FERDINAND:** French Roman Catholic critic; b. at Toulon (42 m. e.s.e. of Marseilles) July 19, 1849; d. in Paris Dec. 9, 1906. Educated at Marseilles and at the Lycée Louis le Grand, Paris, he became secretary of the editorial board of the *Revue des deux mondes * in 1875 and editor in 1893. He was appointed professor of the French language and literature at the École Normale Supérieure, Paris, and in 1893 became a lecturer at the Sorbonne. He delivered a course of lectures in the United States in 1897. In 1887 he was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honor, and in 1893 was admitted to the French Academy, while in 1895 he was appointed a commander of the Order of Pius IX. His theological attitude was noteworthy in that, like Coppée, Huysmans, and other distinguished literary men of France, he became convinced of the truth of the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church, abandoning the agnosticism which he had formerly professed. His writings, which mark a new epoch in French criticism, include *Études critiques sur l'histoire de la littérature française * (7 vols., Paris, 1880-1903); *Histoire et littérature * (3 vols., 1884-86); *Questions de critique *(2 vols., 1889-90); *Évolution des genres dans l'histoire de la littérature * (1890); *Nouvelles questions de critique * (1890); *Les Époques du théâtre français 1636-1850 * (1892); *Essais sur la littérature contemporaine* (2 vols., 1892-95); *L'Évolution de la poésie lyrique en France au dix-neuvième siècle* (2 vols., 1894); *Éducation et instruction * (1895); *La Moralité de la doctrine évolutive* (1896); *La Renaissance de l'idéalisme * (1896); *Le Roman naturaliste * (1896); *Manuel de l'histoire de la littérature française * (1897; Eng. transl., New York, 1898); and *Discours académiques * (1901); *Les motifs d'espérer * (1902); *Cinq lettres sur Ernest Renan * (1903); *Les difficultés de croire * (1904); and *Sur les chemins de la croyance * (1904).

**BRUNFELS, OTTO:** German humanist and Reformer. The date of his birth can not be determined; d. at Bern Nov. 23, 1534. His father was an artisan at Mainz. At an early age he entered the Carthusian order, but the spirit of the age soon drew him out of his convent into the polemics of the time. At first he was a follower of Hutten, for whom he broke a lance with Erasmus, and whose library he used in compiling a small collection of the writings of Huss, which he published in 1524, with a dedication to Luther. He served the Reformation as a preacher, first at Steinheim, and then at Neuenburg in the Breisgau. When the attitude of the imperial government made his position there insecure, he went to Strasburg, where he supported himself by teaching, wrote against tithes, and studied medicine. He was a friend of Luther and also of Carlstadt, but was still more strongly attracted by Zwingli, whose influence procured him a medical position at Bern. His importance lies chiefly in the fact that he was a successful botanist, and a pioneer in this science for Germany, with his extensive illustrated *Herbarium * (Strasburg, 3 vols., 1530-40, translated into German, 2 parts, 1532-37, 2d ed., 1546). (W. VOGT.)

**BRUNO OF COLOGNE: ** Archbishop of Cologne 953-965; b. in the spring of 925, the youngest son of Henry I., the Fowler; d. at Reims Oct. 11, 965. He was educated from his fourth to his fourteenth year in the cathedral school of Utrecht. His brother Otto I. recalled him in 939 to the court. As early as 940 he was invested with the functions of chancellor, and ordained deacon a year or two later. In 951 he was made *archicapellanus * and thus exercised a great influence on the administration of the whole kingdom. In 947 he took part in the Synod of Verdun, where German ecclesiastics settled the question of the archbishopric of Reims, important to the later history of France. In 951 he went with Otto to Italy, and supported his brother faithfully in the disturbances of the next year. Otto had him chosen archbishop of Cologne in 953, and added to his spiritual sovereignty the government of Lorraine. He was consecrated Sept. 25. Lorraine was a very troublesome possession; it was not until after the banishment of Count Raginar of Hainault in 958 that he succeeded in establishing peace and order there. The relations with France often offered difficult problems, too. After the death of King Louis d'Outremer and Duke Hugh the Great, Bruno was made a sort of supreme judicial arbiter for France in his brother's name. Peace was his constant aim, together with the assertion of Carolingian sovereignty. On Otto's second absence in Italy (961), the administration of the empire was confided to Bruno and William of Mainz. Bruno's importance is mainly political, as a representative of the close alliance of the episcopate and the crown which marked Otto's policy. As a bishop, however, he did much to promote a real and living piety and to encourage education. (A. HAUCK.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: The *Vita Brunonis, * by Ruotger, ed. G. H. Pertz, is in *MGH, Script.*, iv. 252-275, Hanover, 1841; and another *Vita * by an unknown author, ib., pp. 275-279. Consult: Pieler, *Erzbischof Bruno I. von Köln,* Arnsberg, 1851; E. Meyer, *De Brunons I. archiepiscopo Coloniensi, * Berlin, 1867; C. Martin, *Beiträge zur Geschichte Bruno I. von Köln,* Jena, 1878; Hauck, *KD* iii. 40 sqq.

**BRUNO, (FILIPPO) GIORDANO:** Italian philosopher of the Renaissance; b. at Nola (14 m. e.n.e. of Naples), Campania, 1548; burned at the stake at Rome Feb. 17, 1600. He joined the Dominicans at Naples at the age of fourteen or fifteen, but study and reflection and particularly the influence of the works of Nicholas of Cusa and Raymond Lully made him doubtful of dogma and restive under the strict rules of his order. In 1576 he fled to Rome and thenceforth led a wandering life. He first visited various cities of North Italy; about 1580 he reached Geneva, stayed there two years, and went on to Paris through Lyons and Toulouse; at Paris he gave lectures on philosophy; from 1583 to 1585 he was in England, where he had the friendship of such men as Sir Philip Sidney, and composed his most important works; between 1586 and 1588 he was lecturing at Wittenberg; he visited Prague, Helmstädt, Frankfort, Zurich, and Padua, and reached Venice early in 1592. Here he was arrested in May, tried before the Inquisition, and his case adjourned to Rome, Jan., 1593. On Jan. 7, 1600, after a confinement of seven years, he was condemned as an apostate and heretic and given over to the civil authorities for execution. He was the first philosopher to espouse the Copernican hypothesis; in his metaphysical interpretation of it he radically opposed the philosophy and science of his time, and subverted also the most cherished teachings of the Church. His fundamental principle, as against Aristotle, was the absolute boundlessness of the universe. The supernatural in its traditional sense was thus eliminated. No heaven existed separate from the universe. The world—the phenomenal aspect of the universe—and God are not the same, but God is identified with the universe; or God may be designated as matter conceived of in extended substance, essentially immaterial, the immanent cause or soul of the world. Later philosophers, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibnitz, Boehme, and Hegel owe much to Bruno. Just three hundred years after his execution, Feb. 17, 1900, on the very spot where he was burned, a monument was dedicated to his memory. Bruno's most important works were the *Spaccio della bestia trionfante * (Paris, 1584); *Della causa, principio ed uno, * and *Del infinito universo e mondi* (Venice, 1584); *De triplici minimo et mensura, * and *De monade numero et figura * (Frankfort, 1591). His Italian works were edited by Wagner (2 vols., Leipsic, 1830) and by Paul de Lagarde (2 vols., Göttingen, 1888); his Latin works by Fiorentino (2 vols., Naples, 1879-91) and by Tocco (Florence, 1889). The *Della causa * has been translated into German by Lasson (3d ed., Leipsic, 1902), and a German translation of his collected philosophical works begun by L. Kuhlenbeck (Jena, 1904, vol. v., 1907), who has also edited *Lichtstrahlen aus Giordano Bruno's Werken * (Leipsic, 1891). There is an English translation of "The Expulsion of the Triumphant Beast" by W. Morehead (London, 1713; only 50 copies printed and now extremely rare), and of the "Heroic Enthusiasts" (*Gli eroici furori, * Paris, 1585) by L. Williams (London, 1887); a general account and synopsis of the "Infinite Universe," written by Bruno in his dedication of the work to Lord Castelnau, was translated by John Toland and printed, with a Latin essay on the death of Bruno (in *A Collection of Several Pieces of Mr. John Toland,* vol. i., London, 1726, pp. 304-349). BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the life of Bruno a noteworthy production is J. L. McIntyre, *Giordano Bruno, * London, 1903. Phases of his life and philosophy are presented in F. J. Clemens, * Giordano Bruno und Nicolaus von Cusa, eine philosophische Abhandlung,* Bonn, 1847; C. J. G. Bartholmess, *Jordano Bruno,* 2 vols., Paris, 1846-47; D. Berti, *Vita di Giordano Bruno, * Milan, 1868; Mrs. Besant, *Giordano Bruno,* London, 1877; R. Mariano, *Giordano Bruno, la vita e l'uomo,* Rome, 1881 (important); M. Carriere, *Die philosophische Weltanschauung der Reformationszeit, * Leipsic, 1887 (the work of a specialist); Miss I. Frith, *Life of Giordano Bruno,* London, 1887; D. Berti, *Giordano Bruno, . . . sua vita e sua dottrina,* Turin, 1889; R. Landseck, *Bruno der Märtyrer der neuen Weltanschauung, * Leipsic, 1890; J. Owen, *Giordano Bruno, * in *Skeptics of the Italian Renaissance,* London, 1893; H. Brunnhofer, *Giordano Bruno's Weltanschauung und Verhängniss,* Leipsic, 1899; G. Louis, *Giordano Bruno. Seine Weltanschauung und Lebensauffassung,* Berlin, 1900; A. Riehl, *Giordano Bruno,* Leipsic, 1900, Eng. transl., London, 1905. Consult also the works on the History of Philosophy, by Ueberweg, Ebrard, etc.

**BRUNO (BONIFATIUS) OF QUERFURT:** Missionary to the Slavs and Prussians, among whom he suffered martyrdom, Feb. 14, or Mar. 16, 1009. He was a Saxon nobleman, educated at the cathedral-school at Magdeburg, and accompanied his cousin, the Emperor Otto III., to Rome (996), where he took holy orders. Pope Sylvester II. entrusted to him a missionary expedition to the Slavs in the east, which the Polish duke Boleslav had asked for, and he was raised to the rank of archbishop. His chief task was to be the conversion of the heathen Prussians, to whom Adalbert of Prague had fallen victim but a short time before. Being detained at Magdeburg by wars between Germans and Poles, he wrote the *Vita S. Alberti. * Peace being reestablished, he went to Poland and was gladly received by Boleslav, but being unable to enter into Prussia, he converted the Petchenegs and organized their church affairs. Remaining for some time in Poland, he wrote the *Vita quinque fratrum Poloniae, * Christian martyrs slain in 1003 near Meseritz, and when at last he took upon him the task he was entrusted with, he and his companions, like St. Adalbert, lost their lives by the swords of the heathen not far from Braunsberg. Boleslav, who was deeply afflicted, ordered the remains of the martyrs to be gathered and brought to Poland, where they were solemnly buried and became an object of most devoted reverence. A. WERNER. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources for a life are: the *Chronicon* of Dietmar, ed. J. M. Lappenberg, Hanover, 1889; Damian's *Vita St. Romualdi,* ed. G. H. Pertz, in *MGH, Script.,* iv. 850-854, ib. 1841; *Chronicon Magdeburgense,* ed., Meibom, in *Script. rer. Germ.,* pp. 269-378. Consult: W. von Giesebrecht, *Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit,* ii. 104, 192 sqq., Brunswick, 1875; idem, *Erzbischof Brun-Bonifatius* in *Neue preussische Provinzialblätter,* i. (1859); Hauck, *KD,* vol. iii.; *ADB,* iii. 433.

**BRUNO, SAINT:** Founder of the Carthusian order. See CARTHUSIANS.

**BRUNO OF SEGNI:** Bishop of Segni (28 m. s.e. of Rome); b. at Solero (6 m. w. of Alessandria), Lombardy, between 1045 and 1049; d. at Segni July 18, 1123. He was educated in a monastery near his birthplace and at Bologna, became a canon at Sienna, and came to Rome in 1079. Here he came in contact with the leaders of the Church, and must have soon attracted the attention of Gregory VII., if it is true that it was at his request that he disputed with Berengar on the Eucharist. In any case he accomplished his task so well that the pope made him bishop of Segni in the Campagna the same year. He was even more closely connected with Urban II., whom he accompanied to France in 1095. In 1099 he entered the monastery of Monte Cassino, but without resigning his see or severing his relations with the outside world. He undertook an important mission to France for Paschal II. in 1106, and remained with the pope for some time after his return, finally going back to his cloister, where he was elected abbot in 1107. Paschal made no objection to this pluralism until in the conflicts of 1111 Bruno took the part of the antipope Maginulf (Sylvester IV.), and was forced to resign his abbacy and return to Segni. Lucius III. canonized him in 1181. His works (in *MPL,* clxiv., clxv.) are principally exegetical. His *Libellus de symoniacis, * written before 1109, is important for its discussion of the meaning of simony, and especially for its attitude on the sacraments of a simoniacal priest. CARL MIRBT. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources for a life are the *Chronicon Cassinense,* book iv., chaps. 31-42, ed. W. Wattenbach, in *MGH, Script.,* vii. 776-783, Hanover, 1846, and an anonymous *Vita* in *ASB,* 18 July, iv. 478-488. The fullest and best modern treatment is by B. Gigalski, *Bruno, Bischof von Segni, . . . sein Leben und seine Schriften,* Münster, 1898. Consult also Hefele, *Conciliengeschichte,* vol. v.; C. Mirbt, *Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors VII.,* pp. 384-385, 423-424, 522-523, Leipsic,1894; Meyer von Knonau, *Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich IV.,* pp. 92 sqq., ib. 1904.

**BRUNO OF TOUL.** See LEO IX., Pope.

**BRUNO OF WÜRZBURG:** Bishop of Würzburg 1034-45. He was the son of Duke Conrad I. of Carinthia, and thus a nephew of Pope Gregory V. and a cousin of the emperor Conrad II. The latter made him bishop of Würzburg in 1034. In the spring of 1045 he accompanied Henry III. to Hungary, and died May 26 from the results of injuries received in the fall of a building at Persenbeug in what is now Upper Austria. As a theologian he is remembered for his commentary on the Psalms, made up mainly of extracts from older authors, especially Cassiodorus, but including Augustine, Gregory the Great, the pseudo-Bede, and the *Breviarium in Psalmos* ascribed to Jerome. A catechetical exposition of the Lord's Prayer and the Apostles' and Athanasian Creeds attributed to him is probably older. (A. HAUCK.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bruno's Commentary is in *MPL,* cxlii. Consult: J. Baier, *Der heilige Bruno . . . als Katechet,* Würzburg, 1893; *ADB,* iii. 435.

**BRUNSWICK:** A North German duchy, consisting of three larger territories and six small exclaves, bounded on the north by Hanover, on the east by Saxony, on the south by Hanover, and on the west by Westphalia; area, 1,424 square miles; population (1900), 464,333, of whom 432,570 (93.1 %) are Lutherans; 4,406 (.9 %) Reformed; 24,175 (5.2 %) Roman Catholics; 1,358 of various sects; and 1,824 (.39 %) Jews. The Lutheran Church was established in the duchy in 1568, but received its first official organization in 1657 and 1709, while in 1755 and 1764 the administration was placed under six general superintendencies, which are now located at Wolfenbüttel, Brunswick, Helmstädt, Blankenburg, Gandersheim, and Holzminden. The act of Oct. 12, 1832, emphasized the ecclesiastical power of the duke, which is enforced with the cooperation and counsel of an evangelical consistory composed of both clergy and laity. At the same time the appointment of church-directors for the administration of individual churches was considered, but these officials were not actually created until Nov. 20, 1851. Where the congregation has the right of electing its pastors, these "church-deputies," together with an equal number of representatives elected by the community, choose the ministers, and in other cases extend the invitation to the candidates proposed by the duke or by patrons. The congregations, however, have the right to reject candidates who are deficient either in morality or in ability. The number of deputies has increased with the population from four to sixteen, and they are chosen by secret ballot, serving for a term of six years. About twenty years after the organization of the parishes, a general synod was created (May 31, 1871), consisting of twelve clergymen and sixteen laymen from seven electoral districts, in addition to two clerical and two lay delegates appointed by the duke. This synod, which holds its sessions in public, controls all modification, interpretation, and promulgation of laws for the churches, except in matters of doctrine. The committee of the synod is composed of two clerical and two lay members with a fifth chosen from one of the two main bodies, and is required to decide, together with the consistory, on the rejection of candidates by individual congregations, and to discipline pastors and teachers of religion. Shortly after the creation of this synod, inspectoral synods were introduced by a law of Jan. 6, 1873, which enacted that each parish should be inspected every two years, and that this must take place annually for the city of Brunswick in one of the local churches. A lay inspector may also be appointed by the duke in addition to the regular synod. These regulations control twenty-eight superintendencies with 230 parishes and 428 buildings for religious purposes, of which 333 are churches. A seminary for preachers is conducted at Wolfenbüttel by the consistory, and numerous institutions and associations exist in the duchy. Among the latter special mention may be made of a missionary society, a house of deaconesses, the sisterhoods at Marienberg near Helmstädt, and, above all, of the "Evangelical Association for the Duchy of Brunswick," with its many affiliated interests. Few sectaries have found their way into Brunswick, although Baptists and Mennonites are found here and there, the latter having an establishment for missions in the capital itself. (WILHELM GOETZ.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Beste, *Geschichte der braunschweigischen Landeskirche,* Wolfenbüttel, 1889; *Entwurf einer Verfassungs-Urkunde für die evangelisch-lutherische Kirche des Herzogtums Braunschweig,* Brunswick, 1850; J. Bugenhagen, *Bugenhagens Kirchenordnung für die Stadt Braunschweig, 1528, * Leipsic, 1885; F. Koldewey, *Beiträge zur Kirchen- und Schulgeschichte des . . . Braunschweig, * Wolfenbüttel, 1888; *Beiträge zur Statistik des Herzogtums Braunschweig,* Brunswick, part xx., 1907.

**BRUSTON,** brü"stēn', **CHARLES AUGUSTE:** French Reformed; b. at Bordeaux (90 m. n. of Marseilles) Mar. 6, 1838. He was educated at the lyceum of Grenoble (bachelier ès lettres, 1854), the seminary at Montauban (bachelier en théologie, 1859), and the universities of Geneva, Halle, Berlin, Göttingen, and Heidelberg. He was then successively pastor of Reformed churches at Châtillon-en-Diois in 1861-62, Die in 1862-64, Bordeaux in 1864-68, and Orléans in 1868-74. In the latter year he was appointed professor of Hebrew in the Protestant faculty of theology of Montauban, and since 1894 has been dean of the same faculty. He is a member of the synodical committee of studies and other committees, and was elected a corresponding associate of the Société des Antiquaires de France. In theology he is progressive, but is opposed to arbitrary speculations. He has written: *De l'authenticité des Actes des Apôtres* (Toulouse, 1859); *Les Psaumes traduits de l'Hébreu* (Paris, 1868); *Du Texte primitif des Psaumes* (1873); *De lapsu hominis* (Orléans, 1873); *Histoire critique de la Littérature prophétique des Hébreux* (Paris, 1881); *Les Quatre sources des lois de l'Exode * (1883); *Études sur l'Apocalypse* (1884); *Les Deux Jéhovistes, études sur les sources de l'histoire sainte* (Montauban, 1885); *Les Origines de l'Apocalypse* (Paris, 1888); *La Vie future d'après l'enseignement de Jésus-Christ * (1890); *La Sulammite, mélodrame en cinq actes* (1891); *Les Cinq Documents de la loi mosaïque* (1892); *Le Parallèle entre Adam et Jésus-Christ, étude exégétique sur Rom. v. 12-21* (1894); *La Vie future d'après St. Paul* (1895); *Le Dixième congrès des Orientalistes et l'Ancien Testament* (1895); *Études sur Daniel et l'Apocalypse* (1896); *La Descente de Christ aux enfers d'après les Apôtres et d'après l'Église* (1897); *Les Paroles de Jésus découvertes en Égypte* (1898); *Les Prédictions de Jésus * (1899); *Le Cantique de Débora* (1901); *Études phéniciennes* (2 vols., 1903-06); *L'Inscription de Siloé et celle d'Eshmoun-azar* (1904); Vraie et fausse critique biblique (1905); *Fragments d'un ancien recueil de paroles de Jésus * (1905); and *L'Histoire sacerdotale et le Deutéronome primitif* (1906), in addition to numerous contributions to theological periodicals and works of reference.

**BRUYS, PIERRE DE.** See PETER OF BRUYS.