英
CHURCH FATHERS: A title of honor applied
to the early writers of the Christian Church. It
was originally given to the bishops; when appeal
was made to their testimony as representatives of
the teaching office of the Church, it was an easy
transition to the inclusion with them of venerated
writers of an earlier period, even though they had
not held the episcopal office. Thus by the fifth
century the term " Fathers " is found used in very
much its modem sense. Antiquity alone, how-
ever, is not held sufficient to confer this title, as
Vincent of Lerins clearly states (Commonitorium,
li. 24); Hilary of Poitiers (on Matt, v.) says that
Tertullian " by his subsequent error destroyed the
authority of his approved writings." Accordingly
modem Roman Catholic theologians, among whom
the title is most strictly used, are accustomed to
require four qualifications — orthodoxy of doctrine,
sanctity of life, the approbation of the Church, and
antiquity. For the Latin Church the line of the
Fathers closes with Pope Gregory I. (d. 604);
for the Greek Church with John of Damascus
(d. 754). See Apostolic Fathers; Doctor;
Patristics.
Bibliography: Q. R. Crooka and J. F. Hunt, Thgotogieal
Bncjfdopimiia and Mtihodoiogy, pp. 30d-309, Now York,
18M.
CHURCH FEDERATION.
I. The United SUtee.
The National Federation of Churches (§ 1).
Ita Aims and Achievements (S 2).
II. Great Britain and Other Lands.
The term ** church federation " has come into
use in recent years to designate the spirit and
methods of cooperation and unity that in varied
ways are bringing Protestant Churches and Chris-
tian bodies into organized afi&liation and united
action in matters of common interest and service.
As a movement it is for the most part confined to
the fellowship of the Churches that hold to his-
torical and Evangelical Christianity. As a prac-
tical working force it has found expression espe-
cially in the United States and Great Britain and
in countries where foreign missionary work is caiv
ried on by societies supported by these nations.
I. The United States: Historically the federa-
tion movement in the United States is linked with
the development of the spirit of unity which found
expression in the nineteenth century through the
American branch of the Evangelical Alliance (q.v.).
A conference held in New York, Dec. 3, 1899,
took steps which resulted in the oi^ganization of
the National Federation of Churches
1. The Na- and Christian Workers. A letter was
tional Fed- then prepared and sent out by the Ex-
aration of ecutive Committee expressing the hope
Ohurohes. that it might be the forerunner of
a " National Federation of all our
Protestant Christian denominations, through their
official action." At the annual meeting held in
Washington, Feb., 1903, action was taken requesting
'' the highest ecclesiastical or advisory bodies of the
Evangelical Churches to appoint representative
delegates to a National Conference." Thirty de-
nominational bodies having an aggregate membei^
ship of over seventeen million members responded
and were represented by nearly five hundred dele-
gates in the great Interchurch Conference on
Federation held in New York, Nov. 1&-21, 1906.*
By a substantially unanimous vote a Plan of Fed-
eration was adopted and recommended ''to the
Christian bodies represented in the Conference for
their approval." This plan created a " Federal
Council of the Churches of Christ in America " and
became operative when approved by two-thirds
of the constituent bodies. Such approval having
been received, the council was organized and its
first meeting was held in Dec., 1908.
The preamble to this Plan of Federation expresses
the conviction that " in the providence of God, the
time has come when It seems fitting
8. Ita AfwT« more fully to manifest the essential
and oneness of the Christian Churches of
Achieve- America, in Jesus Christ as their
menta. Divine Lord and Savior, and to pro-
mote the spirit of fellowship, service,
and cooperation among them." The object of the
Federal Council is stated in the Constitution to be:
'' (1) To express the fellowship and catholic unity
of the Christian Church. (2) To bring the Christian
bodies of America into united service for Christ and
the world. (3) To encourage devotional fellowship
and mutual counsel concerning the spiritual life and
religious activities of the Churches. (4) To secure a
biiger combined influence for the Churches of Christ
in all matters afifecting the moral and social condi-
tions of the people, so as to promote the application
I The following is the list of Churohes ropreeented: the
Baptist Churohes of the United SUtes; the Free Baptist
General Conference; the Christians (Christian Connection);
the Concregatlonal Churches; the Disciples <^ Christ; the
Evangelioai Association; the Evangelical Synod of North
America; the Friends; the Evangelical Lutheran Church.
General Synod; the Methodist Episcopal Church; the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church, South; the Primitive Methodist
Church; the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church in Amer-
ica; the Methodist Protestant Church; the African Meth-
odist Episcopal Church; the African Methodist Episcopal
Zion Church; the General Conference of the Mennonite Church
of North America; the Moravian Church; the Presbyterian
Church in the United States of America; the Cumberiand
Presb3rterian Church; the Welsh Calvinistio Methodist or
Presbyterian Church; the Reformed Presbyterian Church;
the United Presbyterian Church; the Protestant Episcopal
Church; the Reformed Church in America; the Refonned
Church in the United States of America; Uie Reformed
Episcopal Church; the Seventh-day Baptist Churches;
the United Brethren in Christ; the United Evangelieal
Church.
01
Chnroh of Bnff]
Ohurohof Qod
of the law of Christ in every relation of human life.
(5) To aasist in the organization of local branches
of the Federal Council to promote its aims in their
communities." The difference between federated
union and organic church union is clearly defined
in the stipulation that " this Federal Council shall
have no authority over the constituent bodies
adhering to it: but its province shall be limited to
the expression of its counsel and the recommending
of a course of action in matters of common interest
to the Churches, local councils, and individual Chris-
tians." The Council " has no authority to draw up
a common creed or form of government or of worship,
or in any way to limit the full autonomy of the
Christian bodies adhering to it."
Historically this national movement '' for the
prosecution of work that can be better done in union
than in separation" has found initiative and en-
couragement through federated activities, State and
local. The Interdenominational Commission of
Maine was organised in 1892, and is composed of
membere appointed by official State bodies repre-
senting the Baptist, Free Baptist, Christian, Con-
gregational, and Methodist Churches. The prin-
ciples under which this Commission acts seek to
secure practical reciprocity among these denomina-
tions, both in the planting of new churches and in the
readjustment of forces when through overmultipli-
cation of churches or decrease in population con-
ditions exist that demand consolidation through
union and comity of action. The plans of the Com-
mission aim not to organize so-called ** union
churches/' but to consolidate religious forces, still
leaving them within the limits of denominational
fellowship. The secretary of the Commission, who
has held this position since its work began in 1905,
bears testimony " that in thirty-seven of the fifty-
one cases entered on the records of the Commission
consultation respecting the clash of interests has
sufficed to relieve the strain: mere friendly con-
ference has led to an adjustment of the difficulties.
Many other cases, without such mention as would
justify entrance on the records, have been adjusted
by the same friendly means, and in a great many
other instances still an effective influence has been
exerted in ways that have maintained an ideal
ci fraternal cooperation which has tended to ele-
vate very much of the church work of the State
from the low level of partizan and sectarian strife."
C<Hnmiaaions similar to that in Maine exist in other
States, but their work as yet has not been as effect-
ive in its results. In the aggregate, however, consul-
tation and comity are increasingly taking the place
of competitive action in home mission and church
extension work. The State Federations organized
in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, and
other conomonwealths have already proved the need
and effectiveness of imited effort. In their pur-
poses they have a common aim, but in methods
they are working along lines suggested by local
enviroDment and limited by executive resources.
IL Great Britain and Other Lands: Church
federation in England and Great Britain is largely
a movement unifying the activities of Nonconform-
ist Churches in matters of common interest. Its
orgaoizing center is the National Council of the
Evangelical Free Churches which was founded in
1894. Membership in this Council comes through
local Councils. " The Churches constituting the
local Councils are the Congregational, the Baptist
Churches, the Methodist Churches, the Presbyterian
Church of England, the Free Episcopal Churches,
the Society of Friends, and such other Evangelical
Churches as the National Council may at any time
admit." The total number of Councils in 1906
was 897 with more than fifty District Federations.
The latest report says: " The aim of our Movement
has from the beginning been preeminently spiritual,
and the main work of the local Councils in all
parts of the country has been United Missions."
The relation in which the Free Churches stand to
the Established Church of England has been a
powerful factor in drawing them into close and
effective fellowship. The work of the local Councils
includes activities not only evangelistic, but social
and philanthropic.
In other lands church federation is already a
potent factor in the unifying of Christian forces
represented through missionary organizations.
The Standing Committee of Cooperating Christian
Missions in Japan is made up of representatives
from nearly aU the different missions. Since its
organization in 1902 it has exerted a notable influ-
ence in advancing plans of comity and cooperation.
At the great China Centenary Missionary Confer-
ence held at Shanghai in May, 1907, steps were
taken to federate all of the Christian forces in the
empire. In India the missionary workers are
laboring not only to federate their activities, but
achieve definite plans of organic church union.
This spirit of unity and desire for closer fellowship
is illustrated in action that is being taken in every
part of the world by those having in charge the
missionary work of Protestant Churches.
The indications multiply that church federation
stands for a movement of profound significance in
its relation to the present and future history of
Christianity in its institutional life and fellowship.
E. B. Sanford.
Biblxoorapht: E. B. Sanford, Chwdi FederaHon, New
York, 1006 (contains reports of the Interchuroh Con-
ference on Federation); Federation (the quarterly pub-
lished in New York by the Federation of Churches in New
York City); the Annual Reports of the National Federa-
tion of Churches, of the Committee of Cooperating Mis-
sions (Japan), and of the National Council of Free Churches
(England).
CHURCH (CHURCHES) OF GOD: The name
of several religious bodies in America.
1. The Church of God in North America, popu-
larly known as Winebrennarians, is a Baptist de-
nomination founded by John Winebrenner in 1830.
The founder was bom at Glade Valley, Frederick
C5ounty, Md., Mar. 25, 1797; d. at Harrisburg, Pa.,
Sept. 12, 1860. He studied at Dickinson College,
Carlisle, Pa., and learned theology under Dr.
Samuel Helfcnstein. Called to the pastorate of the
German Reformed Church at Harrisburg, Pa., he
was ordained at Hagerstown, Md., Sept. 24, 1820.
His earnest preaching resulted in a revival, in which
he opposed theaters, dancing, gambling, lotteries,
and racing, thus causing opposition which resulted
in official charges against him« He severed his
Ohnroh of Qod
Ohuroh Government
92
relatioDB with his charge and with the Reformed
Church in 1825, but continued his ministry in and
around Harrisburg, extensive revivals of religion
following. His theological views gradually changed
as the result of his study of the Bible. Congre-
gations were formed at a number of points, and
several ministers were ordained. In Oct., 1830,
six of these ministers met in Harrisburg and agreed
to form a body to be called the General Eldership
of the Church of God, the term " general elder-
ship " being used to distinguish this body from the
eldership of the local church.
In doctrine the Church is prevailingly Arminian
and orthodox. It is largely premillenarian, and
practises three ordinances: baptism, by inmiersion;
the Lord's Supper, observed in the evening; and
washing of feet. The local church polity is pres-
byterial, each church having its own boaixl of
elders and deacons. The churches within a given
district are associated together for cooperation in
general work. The pastors and other ordained
ministers within a district, together with an
equal number of lay elders, constitute an annual
eldership which appoints the ministers to the various
charges. These annual elderships elect an equal
number of ministerial and lay delegates, who con-
stitute the general eldership, changed in 1905 from
a triennial to a quadrennial body, the highest
judicatory of the denomination.
The Church now reports two annual elderships in
Pennsylvania, two in West Virginia, two in Okla-
homa, and one each in Maryland, Ohio, Indiana,
Michigan, Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri,
Kansas, Arkansas, and Oregon. A general elder-
ship, composed of delegates from the annual elder-
ships, was organized in 1845, and the General
Eldership of the Church of God organized in 1830
became the East Pennsylvania eldership. In 1866
the title of the general eldership, as also those of
the annual elderships, was changed to the form.
The General Eldership of the Churches of God. The
total membership is estimated to be about 40,000,
with 500 ministers. The general eldership controls
the institutions of learning, of which there are three
(Findlay College, Findlay, O.; Fort Scott Collegiate
Institute, Fort Scott, Kan.; and Barkeyville
Academy, Barkeyville, Pa.), and the publishing
house and book store at Harrisburg, Pa. Each an-
nual eldership is engaged in missionaiy work in
its own territory, and frontier mission work is
carried on by the general eldership in Missouri,
Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, Oklahoma, Arkansas,
Oregon, and Washington. There is a Woman's Gen-
eral Missionary Society, which, through the Board
of Missions of the general eldership, supports four
American missionaries, ten or twelve native workers,
and a number of Bible readers in Ulubaria and
Bogra Districts, Bengal Province, India.
C. H. Forney.
Bibliography: J. Winebrenner, Brief View9 of tKe Chvrch
of Qody HarriBburg, 1840; idem, A TreaUte on Regtnera-
Hon, ib. 1844; idem, Practical and Doctrinal Sermon;
ib. 1860. The church paper is the Church Advocate, Harris-
buxv. F^.
fl. The Church of God and Saints of Christ (the
"BUck Jews") are chiefly negroes who claim to be
the descendanta and representatives of the true
Jews; it is held that the latter were originally a
black people and that the descendants of the lost
tribes have changed color through mixture with
the Gentiles. The Church was founded at Topeka,
Kan., in 1897 by William S. Crowdy, who claimed
to be called " to be a prophet of God sent to the
whole world." The Saints respect both Jewish
and Christian law and ritual, and interpret the
Scriptures literally. Their system of doctrine is
presented in Crowdy's manual. The Bible Story
Revealed (Philadelphia, 1902). Among the princi-
pal points of belief are: repentance the first step to
the kingdom; the seventh day the Sabbath; absti-
nence from wine and strong drink; foot-washing;
prayer in the words of Jesus; the holy kiss; religion
the exercise of love, charity, and hospitality; the
law of Moses completed, supplemented, or abolished
by the law of God in Christ. The ministry con-
sists of the Prophet Crowdy, two bishops (one in
Africa), evangelists (whose functions are those of
visitation), and elders or pastors of churches. The
polity is presbyterial, with an annual " Board
Meeting," and a quadrennial General Assembly.
There is also an annual celebration of the Passover
with mingled Hebrew and Christian rites. The
organization reports about one hundred churches
(seven in Africa) and 8,000 to 9,000 members.
The largest church and the denominational head-
quarters are in Philadelphia. Business enterprises
are conducted in connection with many of the
churches, a farm colony is located at Belleville,
Va., and the establishment of a widows' and or-
phans' home and a training-school there is con-
templated. W. H. Larrabee.
Biblioorapht: The organ of the denomination is the
Weeklv Prophet, Philadelphia.
3. The Adventist Church of God, a branch of the
Seventh-day Adventists. See Adventists, 5.
4. The Churches of God in Christ Jesus, popularly
known as the Age-to-come Adventists. See Ad-
ventists, 6.
6. The Mennonite Church of God in Christ. See
Mbnngnites.
CHURCH GOVERNMENT.
Meaning of the Expression (§1).
The Refonned Church Government (S 2).
Fundamental Differences of Lutheran View (f 3).
German Reformers not Opposed to State Qovera-
ment (S 4).
State Government Accepted in Luther's Time (§ 6).
Actual Views of Luther and his Contemporaries (§ 6).
Influence of the Idea of the Common Priesthood ($ 7).
Modem Development of German Church Government
(§8).
[The following article is a condensation of the
article Kirchenregiment in the Hauck-Herzog RE ;
for more general discussion of the subject see
Polity.]
Church government in the speech of to-day
denotes that particular conduct of the ecclesiastical
community which is not effected by means of the
spiritual administration of word and sacraments,
but by means which on occasion may be of civil
constitution. Prior to the Reformation the pastor
was called rector, and regere ecdesiam (" to gov-
ern the Church ") indicated his spiritual care over
93
Ohuroh of Qod
Ohnroh Government
the congregation through the word and sacra-
ments. Church government is thus, originally, the
pastoral, though logically also the epis-
I. MiMining copal, and, in the last resort, the par
of the Ez- pal cure of souls; because the bishop
prenon. is properly the pastor of his diocese,
and the pope — ^at all events according
to the doctrine of the curia — pcarochtta mundi (see
Cure or Souls). However, the divinely given
authority for the spiritual control (potestas eccle-
tiadica; see AuTHORrrY, Ecclesiastical) em-
braces, according to the theory then in vogue, every
regulative function, whether in a proper sense
spiritual or not; that is, certain fimctions not
within the direct sphere of word and sacrament,
provided only the same appear expedient to the
bishop or pope, as the case may be, with relation
to the cure of souls. Hence prior to the Refor-
mation church government was regarded as part
and parcel of the episcopal, or ultimately papal,
cure of souls. It was only after the establishment
of the Reformers' principle, that this theory con-
flicts with Scripture, and that the ecclesiastical
authority which is to be exercised by the spiritual
office in virtue of divine commission comprises
rather the sole administration of word and sacra-
ments, and not, in addition, external control, that
the institution of church government as a power
by itself could become developed and was actually
developed. The idea of church government in this
sense is Protestant; the Roman Catholic Church, in
80 far as it has continued upon the pre-Refor-
mation basis, still construes the matter as falling
within the spiritual province of ecclesiastical
authority.
Of the two Protestant Church bodies in which,
upon the basis of the aforesaid Reformation doc-
trine, a scheme of church government has taken
f^hape distinct from the spiritual economy it is
pertinent to consider first the Reformed Church;
and in fact its Calvinistic branch is of exceptional
interest in this connection. The task of organizing
the Protestant Church in France was
3. The Rfr- complicated at the outset by the hos-
formed tiUty of the government. In the
Church face of this enmity, the Church had to
Govern- organize as an independent association,
ment Starting with Calvin's tenets that the
church organization described in the
Acts of the Ap)ostle8> and the pastoral epistles is
ordained by cSod to be directed by a college of
elders, and that this Church is an example or article
of faith for every particular congregation, it de-
wlopcd this assumption, following Calvin's inter-
pretation of Eph. iv. 11 sqq., Rom. xii. 7, and
1 Cor. xii. 28, into the doctrine that in accordance
with the aforesaid divine arrangement there are
two kinds of elders; namely, not only bearers of
the teaching office — who, in agreement with the
Lutheran Church, were held to be restricted to
teaching and the administration of the sacraments
—but also " ruling " elders, who were regarded as
filling the spiritual, but not the teaching office
(Calvin's " Institutes," IV., chaps, i.-v., xi., xii.).
Pastor and ruling elders together constituted the
SDveming body of the congregation (Fr. consis-
toire, cf. K. Rieker, Grundsdtze reformirter Kirchefi"
verfaasung, Leipsic, 1899, pp. 102 sqq., 141 sqq.).
Then there came together from the congregations,
comprising a definite group, certain delegates of the
consistoireSf both teaching and ruling officers, to
form committees (" synods "), through whose
agency the corresponding church circuit was gov-
erned, the same as the congregation by the agency
of the consistoire. Further, the French Evangelical
Church as a whole is governed by a general synod
(cf. G. von Polenz, Geschichte dea framosischen
CalmnismuSf 4 vols., Gotha, 1857; G. V. Lechler,
Geschichte der Preshyterial' und Synodtdverfassung,
Leyden, 1854, pp. 64 sqq.). The essential basis of
the [Reformed] church government is thus clearly
apparent in the main, even though now and then
its lines of distinction coalesce. It rests upon divine
authority just as in the pre-Reformation Church;
save that this conmiissioned authority is not im-
parted to the teaching elders, but only to the ruling
ones. Yet the former take part, and indeed as
weighty personages, in the sessions of the govern-
ing bodies, though this is only because they admin-
ister the order of salvation, and because all church
government, in the nature of the case, has no other
object than to render possible and make sure the
order of salvation; hence the teaching presbyters
enjoy their influence upon church government not
as retainers of a divine commission to rule, but as
expert representatives of their divine commission to
teach; so much so, for instance, that in questions
of doctrine the non-spiritual members of s3mods
have no voice. These fundamental ideas of the
French constitution of presbyterial-synodal church
government have undergone, in the course of time
and in connection with their development in Ger-
man territories, various alterations an accoimt of
which properly belongs to church history.
Two fundamental points differentiate the Lu-
theran theory of church government both from
the pre-Refonnation and Roman Catholic theory
and from the Calvinistic-Reformed the-
3. Funda- ory. In the first place, the Lutheran
mental Church does not assume that there
Differences is any form of church government
of ordained by divine commission, coin-.
Lutheran ddently with the institution of the
View. Church, but rather esteems every
form of government admissible by
whose operation sufficient provision is made for
the rightful administration of word and sacra-
ments. Hence there is no Lutheran dogmatic basis
of church government; and Lutherans accord to
the claim of the Reformed that there is no such
higher dignity than that of a theological opinion.
The second point is the fact that the Lutheran
Church, when, in accordance with the imperial
decree of 1526 at Speyer, it developed the State
Church polity, virtually from the very start placed
church government in the State sovereign's hand.
In consequence of these two differences the ques-
tion of Lutheran church government is much more
complicated than that of the pre-Reformation
Church, or of the Roman Catholic or of the Reformed
Churches.
It has been asserted that the Reformers' ideals
Ohnroh Gtovemmant
94
were inoonfiistent with state gcvemment of the
Church; and Bome (notably so F. J. Stahl, in
Kirchenverfa88ung nock Lehre und
4. Oerman Recht der Protestanien, Erlangen, 1840,
Refonn- 2d ed., 1862; Lutheriache Kirche und
en not Union, Berlin, 1859) have inter-
Opposed to preted these ideals as tending in the
State Gov- direction of the pre-Refonnation con-
eminent oeption; others (as A. L. Richter, in
the Zeitachrift fiir detdschea RecfU und
die Rechtsttnasenachaft, iv., 1840, pp. 1 sqq.; Lehr-
buch dea Kirckenrechla, Leipsic, 1841 sqq. ; Geachichie
der evangeliacken Kirchmverfaaaung in Deutach-
landf 1851) think that they sympathize with the
presbyterial-synodal organization. This difference
of opinion shows how slight is the foundation for
either side. Both views have arisen from the
rational desire to obtain historic support and
Reformation authority for party strivings — the
product and expression of modem times — and
the contentions of both Stahl and Richter are
inadmissible. The chief argument against Stahl 's
theory is the attitude of the Reformers with refer-
ence to the actual institution and organization of
chiurch government by the territorial sovereigns: it
is incompatible with a conception of polity fimdar
mentally contrary. Richter, on his side, to demon-
strate his proposition of presbyterial-synodal ide-
als of organization on the part of the Reformers,
assmnes that their views underwent a change
somewhere about 1525; before that time their
ideals were presbyterial-synodal, but, owing to their
experiences with Anabaptism and the Peasants'
War, the said ideals were crowded out, and the
Reformers were obliged to admit the actual neces-
sity of church government under territorial sover-
eignty. Richter submits this contention without
more particular evidence, which would be hard to
find. He forgets, for one thing, that the prin-
ciples from which the territorial sovereignty form
of church polity is deduced theologically were
extant even prior to 1525, and were dedared by the
Reformers; on another side, that not until after
that year did the Reformation begin its eccle-
siastical organization, so that only the ideas real-
ized by the Reformers after that year are in ques-
tion; it was not in the spirit of that age to project
and formulate ideal systems of organization with-
out practical conditions to uphold them.
R. Sohm in his Kirchenrecht (Leipsic, 1892) has
defended the thesis that the territorial sovereignty
form of church government came about in oppo-
sition to Luther's doctrine and after
5. State his death, and that it was a product
Ooyemment of the pusillanimous faith of Luther's
Accepted contemporaries and successors, being
in Luther's closely related to the reaction, espe-
Time. dally on Melanchthon's part, to Ro-
man theories and to the consistorial
fabric which grew out of their influence, and the
reenforcement of these consistories with temporal
means of ooerdon. This thesis is untenable. If
historical evolution be taken just as it stands, and
the literature of the sixteenth century be considered
as a whole, there can be no doubt that the govern-
ment of the Church by the soverdgns of the State
was in harmony with the Reformers' theory;
provided in this connection is understood by
church government not the Reformers' "eccle-
siastical authority " (see AuTHORmr, Ecclesias-
tical), but all that is involved in a legal direction
of the church organism. The theory in question
is not in any way taught by Melanchthon exclusively,
as had been occasionally affirmed before Sohm; but
in its main outlines it is apparent as early as
Luther's tract An den Add deutacher Nation (cf.
O. Mejer, Die Grundlagen dea lutheriachen Kirchen-
regimenta, Rostock, 1864, pp. 26 sqq.), and it is
elsewhere taught by Luther and others. It is
dearly implied in the Lutheran confessional wri-
tings (Augs. Con., art. xxviii.; Art. Schmal., de
poteatate papcB, pp. 354-355; Larger and Smaller
Catechisms, pp. 361, 363, 446, and elsewhere;
most plainly in Auga. Con. variata, article on
marriage of priests, in Hase, Libri aymbolicij p. L.).
Its theological basic thoughts come to light in a
long array of liturgies and other kinds of promul-
gations on the part of the Reformatory territorial
sovereigns.
The Church as a corporate unity separated from
the State is a thoroughly modem idea, to Luther
thoroughly unknown (cf. Schenkel,
6. Actual TSK, 1850, p. 1; Hundeshagen, ZKR,
Views i., pp. 451 sqq.; W. Kahl, Verachieden'
of Luther heit der katholiachen und evajigdischen
and his Anachauung uber daa Verhaltnia von
Contem- Stoat und Kirche, Leipsic, 1886; 0.
poraries. Mejer, RechtaUben der deutachen evan-
geliacken Landeakirchen, Hanover, 1899,
pp. 28 sqq.; K. Rieker, ut sup., pp. 55 sqq.). In
this unity two powers work side by side, the two
swords of the Middle Ages; but this indicates
merely a " division of the administrative organiza-
tion of the single body "; the well-known and so
often misunderstood utterances of Luther as to the
relation of the temporal to the spiritual power are
not intended to mean that the temporal power has
nothing at all to do in the Church, but rather that
within the one body two members, each in its
office, have to cooperate for the weal of the whole
organism, only neither is to encroach upon the
other within its rightful sphere. The spiritual
commission of the teaching order thus appears to
be confined to the word and administration of the
sacraments (that is, ecclesiastical power in Luther's
sense of the term); the authority of the governing
order appears to be directed toward rightfully up-
holding the laws of God as expressed in the Ten
Commandments, especially according to the first
table of the same, to the end that no unlawful
form of divine service be endured in the land.
From these premises everything essential to the state
control of church government proceeds with logical
finality. Nor is this conclusion impaired by the
fact that the Reformers themselves accounted the
government's position not so much a source of
rights as a sum of obligations the government
was to fulfil, a responsible office which called
into play all those prerogatives which modems
are wont to designate as corollaries to a '' govern-
ment."
To be sure, alongside these lines of thought are
95
Ohtiroh Gk>v«mment
ilso to be found certain documentary indications
of the germs of a second and divergent theory; not
one, however, that reaches backward toward the
pastoral fonn of church fi^vemment, but one out of
which, in favoring circumstances, a presbyterial-
synodal polity might have grown. There is here
in mind, above all, that fundamental principle of
Protestantism, the common priesthood. For even
though it be true that this principle was conceived
by the Reformers only as a religious
7. Infltt- principle (so that things were carried
ence of the too far when in earlier times it was
Idea of the attempted to derive from this basis
Common independent administration and con-
Mcsthood. gregational tenets, and set these up as
express doctrines of the Reformation),
it is none the less an overshooting of the mark on
another side when modem writers like Sohm (ut
sup., p. 510) and Rieker (ut sup., p. 79) profess to
credit this thou^t with no influence at all upon
the constitution of the Evangelical Church (cf.
R Sehling, in ZKR, 1894, p. 229, and Kirchenge-
tetZQ^nmg urUer Moriz van Sachsertf Leipsic, 1898,
pp. 3 flqq.). If, conformably to the well-known
doctrine of the Lutheran confessional writings (cf .
the same collected with the pertinent citations in
0. Mejer, Lehrbtich des Kirchenrechta, GOttingen,
1869), the congregation of believers is bound by
the obligations of faith to see to it that sufficient
provision is made at all times for the rightful ad-
ministration of word and sacraments, and if,
furthermore, this congregation is charged with
responsibility before God in this matter {Apol.,
p. 292, and elsewhere), it follows that the congrega-
tion as a congregation must see to it that this divine
eommission is property exerdsed by those whom
it appcHnts to this end. Upon such bases a pres-
byterial-synodal church government might veiy
well be constructed. But these ideas were not
developed, because, as above set forth, they were
thnist aside and suppressed by the system of terri-
torial sovereignty that governed the Church. Or,
dightly changed, they were introduced into the
territorial sjrstem by the teaching that since each
member of the congregation is bound to contribute
Mcording to the measure of his ability toward the
maintenance of a rightful and adequate adminis-
tration of the word and sacraments, and since the
territorial sovereign possesses an especially high
measure of such ability (in virtue whereof he is
designated as membrum ecclesia prcecipuum), he
must aoooidingjy apply all his power entrusted to
bim by (jod towaid the satisfaction of that obli-
gation. By this process the government of the
Church might practically fall into the hands of the
territorial sovereign alone; because the means at
his disposal are so vastly superior to those of all
other church-members that these, in comparison,
find nothing further to do (Luther's Bedenken von
1590. Erlangen ed.,liv., p. 179; Art. Schmal.,p. 350;
Mejer, ut sup., pp. 109 sqq., cf. 27, 36, 46). The
idea of membrwn eccUsia protcijmum, to be sure, is
again and again obscured by subsequent absurd
usage; but it always carries the assiunption that
the territorial sovereign has the power to apply
^ governing rights to the fmtherance of eccle-
siastical ends. This was the case in the Reforma-
tion period and in general so long as his rights were
regarded and exercised as operative private rights.
According to the civil law of to-day, however, the
governing rights of the territorial sovereign are in
the nature of public powers, which reach no fmther
than their corresponding official obligations. The
doctrine of membrum ecdesue prcecipuum is there-
fore antiquated, and has no significance in present
praxis. On the other hand, conjointly with the
custodia prioria tabulasy it constituted, down to the
middle, or thereabout, of the nineteenth century,
the prinoipal foundation upon which the territorial
sovereignty rule of the Church was declared to be
a part of the territorial governing office, and as
such was regarded as an adjunct of state supremacy.
Meanwhile, after some beginnings of changing
views that were even earlier apparent, since the
middle of the eighteenth century the point of view
according to which church government is admin-
istered by the State has changed more and more.
In place of the purpose to uphold the
8. Modem first table of the Ten Commandments,
Develop- there intervened, as Territoriahsm
ment of (q.v.) came into power, the humani-
German tarian-political aim to make the State
Church religiously a unity, to the end that
Government, quiet and peace, the supreme ends of
the State, be achieved; and when a
subsequent fiurther evolution of things brought
the tolerance principle into play, for this aim was
substituted one deriving from freedom of conscience,
which determines state activity on this side to-day.
The theory of the Chureh was next changed by the
natural right school; the Church is not an institu-
tion founded by God, but a society, an association
within the State. But several equally legitimate
churches standing side by side in the State can
be treated by the state government only as church
associations which govern themselves; and if
among them there is a Lutheran Church, its status
does not differ from that of any other, and the right
of the State in its government becomes a mere
Kirchenhoheit (jus circa sacra), which is essentially
the police control of associations. This appears the
more equitable since the new constitutional prog-
ress has brought matters to such a pass that the
popular representatives have acquired directly or
indirectly a determining influence in legislation
and certain other specific rights of government,
indeed the entire sphere of operation; since, fmther,
all representatives in the Diet have equal voice —
the Reformed, the Roman Catholic, and the non-
Christian members the same as the Lutherans —
and this equality of influence on the part of non-
adherents of the Lutheran Church is inconsistent
with its constitutional parity. Accordingly there
are projects on every side in the direction of a
logical transformation of the territorial sovereignty
form of church polity into corporate self-govern-
ment. It has been previously remarked that the
Reformers' theology opened the way to progress
in this direction; and that the example of the
Calvinistic Reformed Church was not far removed,
even though the latter's dogmatic tenets were not
here to the purpose. And in fact it is true that«
Ohuroh HUtory
96
as Boon 88 the oollegialistic and constitutional State
theories gained force and were here earlier, there
later, here more, there less, carried into execution,
likewise in the Lutheran Church the congregations
have employed presbyterial church committees;
synods have been constituted of representatives of
these committees for districts; and finally a general
synod for the land, or, where several Lutheran
denominations exist, a synod of the denominations
has been brought together as the general repre-
sentative body of the church. So the Lutheran
Church is acquiring the organization of a corporate
Church, in virtue whereof it governs itself.
E. Sehlino.
CHURCH mSTORT.
II.
a. Ancient Christianity.
b. Medieval Christianity.
c. Modern Christianity.
VI. Value.
VII. Literature.
1. Ancient Historians.
2. Historians from 1500
to 1800.
3. Historians from 1800 to
1900.
4. Manuals of Church His-
tory in One or More
Volumes.
5. Histories of Doctrine.
6. Chronoloeical Tables.
7. Atlases.
Nature and Aim.
Church History and
Secular History.
III. Sources.
Written Sources (§1).
Unwritten Sources
(§2).
IV. Duty of the Historian.
Investigation (S 1).
Presentation of Results
(§2).
V. Periods and Epochs.
1. Sacred or Biblical His-
tory.
a. Christian History or
EodesiastiGal History
Proper.
L Nature end Aim: Church history em-
braces, in the widest sense, the whole religious
development from the creation to the present
time, and is continually growing in bulk. In
a narrower eense, it is confined to a history
of Christianity and the Christian Church from
the birth of Christ and the Day of Pentecost,
when Christianity made its first appearance in an
organized form as distinct from the Jewish religion.
The historian has to trace the origin, growth, and
fortunes of the Church, and to reproduce its life in
the different ages. The value of his work depends
upon the degree of its truthfulness, or exact corre-
spondence with the facts. Church histoiy is not a
heap of dry bones, but life and power: it is the
Church itself in constant motion and progress
from land to land, and from age to age, until the
whole worid shall be filled with the knowledge of
Christ. It IB the most interesting part of the
world's history, as religion is the deepest and
most important concern of man, the bond that
unites him to God. It embraces the external
expansion and contraction of Christianity, or the
histoiy of missions and persecutions, the visible
organization of church polity and discipline, the
development of doctrine and theology, the wor-
ship, with its various rites and ceremonies, litur-
gies, sacred poetry and music, the manifestations
of practical piety, Christian morality, and benevo-
lent institutions; in one word, all that belongs to
the inner and outer life of Christianity in the
worid. It is a panorama of God's dealings with
the human race, and man's relations to God under
all aspects. It shows the gradual unfolding of the
plan of redemption — a plan of infinite wisdom
and goodness, in constant conflict with the Satanic
powers and influences which are struggling for
the ascendency, but are doomed to ultimate de-
feat, and to be overruled for good. It is the great-
est triumph of God's wisdom to bring good out
of evil, and to overrule the wrath of man for his
owQ gloiy and for the progress of truth and right-
eousness. Church histoiy is a book of life, full of
warning and precept, of hope and encouragement.
n. Church History and Secular History: These
differ as Church and State, as Christianity and
humanity, as the order of grace and the order of
nature; 3ret they are inseparably connected, and
the one can not be understood without the other.
Among the Jews the spiritual and secular history
together form the one histoiy of theocracy. Both
currents inteimingle in the Byzantine Empire,
in the European States and the Latin Church
during the Middle Ages, in the period of the Refor-
mation, during the colonial period of America, and
in all countries where Church and State are united.
Gibbon's History of the Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire is in great part also a history of the
rise and progress of Christianity, which survived
the fall of Old and New Rome, and went forth to
conquer the barbarian conquerors by Christianizing
and civilizing them. Every history of the papacy ^
also a history of the German Roman Eknpire, and
vice versa. No history of the sixteenth century
can be written without constant reference to the
Protestant Reformation and Roman Catholic reac-
tion. The Franciscan, Dominican, and Jesuit mis-
sions along the St. Lawrence, down the Mississippi,
and in Mexico, Florida, and the islands of the
Caribbean Sea, and the Puritan settlements of New
England are the beginning, alike of the ecdesias-
tical and secular history of North America. In
modem times the tendency is more and more
toward a separation of the spiritual and temporal
powers; nevertheless, the Church will always be
influenced by the surrounding state of civil society,
and must adapt itself to the wants of the age, and
progress of events; while, on the other hand, the
world will always feel the moral influence, the
restraining, stimulating, and sanctifying power of
Christianity, which works like a leaven from within
upon the ramifications of society.
nL Sources: These are mostly written, though
in part unwritten. The written sources include
(1) The official documents of ecclesiastical and ci\il
authorities, such as acts of councils, creeds, litur-
gies, hymn-books, church-laws, papal bulls and
encyclicals. (2) The writings of the
1. Written personal actors in the history, and
Sourcaa. contemporary observers and reporters,
such as the Fathers for ancient Chris-
tianity, the Schoolmen for medieval, the Reformers
and their opponents for the Reformation period.
(3) Inscriptions on- walls, pictures, churches, tomb-
stones, and other monuments. The history of the
Hebrew religion has derived much light from mod-
em discoveries of monumental remains in Egypt,
Babylonia, and Assyria (qq.v.), the deciphering of
the hieroglyphic and cimeiform inscriptions, the
Moabite Stone, and the code of Hammurabi. See
Inscriptions; Moabite Stone; and Hammurabi
AND H|s Cops,
97
Ohnroh History
The unwritten sources are works of Christian
art, such as churches, chapels, pictures, sculp-
tures, crosses, crucifixes, relics, and other monu-
ments which symbolize and embody Christian ideas.
The Roman catacombs, with their vast extent,
their solemn darkness, their lab3rrinthine mystery,
their rude epitaphs and sculptures,
2. Un- their symbols of faith, and their relics
written of martyrdom, give a lifelike idea of
Soupoes. the Church in the period of perse-
cution, ite trials and sufiFerings, ite
faith and hope, its simple worship and devoted
piety. "He who is thoroughly steeped in the
ima^iy of the catacombs will be nearer to the
thoughts of the early Church than he who has
teamed by heart the most elaborate treatises of
Tertullian or Origen." The basilicas are charac-
teristic of the Nioene period; the Byzantine
churches, of the Byzantine age and the Eastern and
Russian Church; the Gothic cathedrals, of the
palmy days of medieval Catholicism; the Renais-
sance style, of the revival of letters. Even now,
most churdies and secto can be best appreciated
in the localities, and in view of the monumente
and the people, where they originated, or have
their center of life and action.
IV. Duty of the Historian: The historian must
master the sources in the original languages in
which they were written (Greek, Latin,
1. Invest!- Sjrriac, Coptic, and the modem lan-
sation. guages of Europe); separating the
genuine from the spurious, the orig-
inal from corruptions and interpolations, sifting the
tnith from falsehood, the facte from fiction and
partisan judgment, comparing the accounte of all
actors, friend and foe, narrator, eulogist, advo-
cate, and antagonist, whether orthodox or heretic,
whether Christian, Jew, or Gentile, aiming in all this
laborious investigation at " the truth, the whole
truth, and nothing but the truth."
He must, then, reproduce the clearly ascertained
facts and resulte of his investigation in a faithful
and lifelike narrative, so as to present the objective
course of history itself, as it were, in a photo-
graph, or rather in an artistic painting; for a
pbotogn^>h gjves a dull view of the momentary
look of a person, while the portrait of the artist
combines the changing moods and various aspecte
of his subject into a living whole. The genuine
writer of history differs as much from
2. Pna. the dry chronicler of isolated facts
sntatlon and dates as from the novelist. He
^^••nlta. must represent both thoughte and
facts. He must particularize and gen-
eralize, descend into minute details and take a
comprehensive bird's-eye view of whole ages and
periods. He must have a judicial mind, which
deals impartially with all persons and evente com-
inic before his tribunal. He must be free from
jartizan and sectarian bias, and aim at justice and
(ruth. It is the exclusive privilege of the divine
mind to view all things mb specie cOemitaHSf and to
^^ the end from the beginning. Man can know things
^ly consecutively and in fragmente. But his-
tory is its own best interpreter; and the farther
it advances the more one is able to understand
UL— 7
and appreciate the past. Historians differ in
gifte and vocation. Some are miners, who bring
out the raw material from the sources (Flacius,
Baronius, Tillemont, Gieseler, Denifle, Hamack,
Pastor); others are manufacturers, who work up
the material for the use of scholars (Bossuet, Mos-
heim. Gibbon, DoUinger, Milman, Neander). Some
are wholesale merchante, some retailers. Some are
bold critics, who open new avenues of thought
(Ewald, Baur, Renan); others popularize the re-
sulte of laborious researches for the general benefit
(Hagenbach, Merie, Hase, Pressens^, Fisher).
V. Periods and Epochs: These represent the
different stages in the religious development of
the race. They must not be made arbitrarily,
according to a mechanical scheme (such as the
centurial division, introduced by Flacius in the
"Magdeburg Centuries," and followed by Mos-
heim), but taken from the actual stops or start-
ing-pointe (which is the real meaning of "epoch,"
from Gk. epechdj "to stop," "to pause") and
circuite (Gk. peridot) of the history itself. The
following are the natural divisions:
1. Saored or Biblical History: The history of
divine revelation, from the creation to the close
of the apostolic age, running parallel with the
Scriptures, from Genesis to Revelation. Here dis-
tinction must be made between the dispensation
of the Law and the dispensation of the Gospel, or
the history of the Old Covenant religion and that of
the New Covenant religion.
2. Christian History or Boolesiastical History
proper, from the begLoning of the- apostolic age to
modem times. Subdivisions:
(a) History of Ancient Christianity, embracing
the first six centuries to Gregory I. (590): Gre-
co-Latin, Patristic, Catholic, the common stock
from which the Greek, the Roman, and the Prot-
estant churches have sprung. Subdivisions:
(1) The life of Christ and the apostolic age. (2) The
age of persecution, to Constantine the Great and
the Council of Nic»a (325). (3) The age of the
union of Church and Stete, of the formulation of
Christian doctrine, and ecumenical councils (to
590). Some historians carry ancient Christianity
down to Chariemagne (800) and the begirming of
the Holy Roman ^npire and the temporal power
of the papacy. In this case there is a fourth sub-
division, from Gregory I. to Charlemagne (590 to
800). But Charlemagne belongs to the Middle
Ages and the Germanic phase of Christianity.
(b) History of Medieval Christianity, from the
close of the sixth to the beginning of the six-
teenth century, or from Gregory the Great (590),
the first medieval pope, to Luther (1517). The
Greek and Roman churches, divided since the con-
troversy of Photius and Pope Nicholas I., pursue
their independent course. The papacy receives ite
full development, the Holy Roman Empire is the
dominant power, religious thought gradually moves
toward the Reformation, and Western Europe
comes more and more into prominence. Sub-
divisions: (1) The missionary period, Gregory I.
to Gregory VII. (590-1050); the Church spreads
among the Celtic, Slavonic, and Teutonic races of
Northern and Western Eiuope, Mohammedanisrn
Ohnroh History
98
originates and grows, the Great Schism occurs
between the East and the West. (2) The absolute
papacy, Gregory VII. to Boniface VIII. (1050-
1294) — the period of the Crusades, the rise of the
mendicant orders, scholasticism, the rise of the uni-
versities and Gothic architecture, the development
of heretical sects, and the Inquisition. (3) The
decline of the papacy and signs of the Reformation,
Boniface VIII. to Luther's theses (1294-1517)—
the " exile " of the popes at Avignon, the papal
schism, the reforming coimcils of Pisa, Constance,
and Basel, Wyclif, Huss, Savonarola, Wessel, the
German mystics, Eckhart and Tauler, the Renais-
sance, the discovery of printing and the New Worid.
(c) History of Kodem Christianity, from the
Reformation (1517) to the present time. Protes-
tantism and Romanism; founding of the various
Evangelical Churches (the Lutheran, Calvinistic,
Anglican, etc.); restoration and revival of Roman-
ism; the Council of Trent; Jesuitism; Jansenism;
the Puritan conflict in England; the Westminster
Assembly; the restoration of the Episcopal Church
under Charles II.; the expulsion of the Stuarts;
the Edict of Toleration; the organization of the dis-
senting denominations (Presbyterians, Independ-
ents, Baptists, Quakers); the settlement of North
America; Pietism and the Moravians in Germany;
the rise of rationalism in Germany, deism in Eng-
land; the Methodist revival in England and the
Colonies; the French Revolution and spread of
infidelity; organization of philanthropic agencies,
the Sunday-school, and modem missions; progress
and triimiph of ultramontane Romanism, culmi-
nating in the Vatican Council (1870); conflict of
faith with rationalism and infidelity; growth of the
churches in the United States on the basis of the
voluntary principle; unionistic movement among
English-speaking Protestants; the new criticism,
based on the historic study of the Scriptures and
early church history, shaking traditional views of
the Old Testament and the person and mission of
Christ. Subdivisions: (1) The age of the Protec-
tant Reformation and the Roman Catholic Coun-
terreformation or reaction (1517-1648). (2) The
age of scholastic and polemic confessionalism, in
conflict with non-conformity and subjective piety
(1650-1750). (3) The age of rationalism and re-
ligious revival and church union (1750-1900).
VI. Value: The study of history enables one
to imderstand the present, which is the fruit of
the past and the germ of the future. It is the
richest storehouse of wisdom and experience. It
is the best oonmientary of Christianity. It is full
of comfort and encouragement. It verifies on ev-
ery page the promise of the Savior to be with
his people always, and to build his Church on an
indestructible rock. It exhibits his life in all its
foms and phases, and the triumphant march of
his kingdom from land to land and generation to
generation. Earthly empires, systems of philoso-
phy, have their day, human institutions decay,
all tilings of this worid bloom and fade away, like
the grass of the field; but the Christian religion
has the dew of p>erennial youth, survives all changes,
makes steady progress from age to age, overcomes
all persecution from without, and corruption from
within, is now stronger and more widely spread
than ever before, directs the course of civilization,
and bears the hopes of the himian race. The
history of the world is governed in the interest,
and for the ultimate triimiph, of Christianity. The
experience of the past is a sure guaranty of the
future.
Vn. Literature: Only works on general church
history will be mentioned here.
1. Ancient Historians: Eusebius (d. 340)—
"Church History" from the birth of Christ to
Constantine the Great, 324 — and his successors in
the Greek Church, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret.
The Latin Church (e.g., Rufinus) contented itself
with translations and extracts from Eusebius and
his continuators. The Middle Ages produced most
valuable material for history (chronicles, papal
bulls, theological treatises, etc.), but no great gen-
eral church history; the Reformation first called
forth the spirit of critical inquiry.
2. Historians from 1500 to 1800: Matthias
Flacius (d. 1575) and other Lutheran divines of
Germany wrote the " Magdeburg Centuries " (Latin,
Basel, 1559-74), covering thirteen Christian cen-
turies in as many volumes — the first history from
a Protestant point of view, in opposition to the
claims of Romanism (see BIaodeburg Centuries).
In defense of Romanism, and in refutation of
Flacius, Csesar Baronius (d. 1607) wrote in Latin
" Ecclesiastical Annals," in 12 folio vols. (Rome,
1588 sqq.; new ed., by A. Theiner, Bar-le-Duc,
1868 sqq.), continued by Raynaldus, Spondanus,
Theiner, and others — a work of extraordinary
learning and industry, but to be used with caution.
Tillemont (d. 1698), in his invaluable M^moirei
(16 vols., Paris, 1693-1712), wrote the history of
the first six centuries from the sources, in biblio-
graphical style and in the spirit of the more liberal
GaUican Catholicism. Gottfried Arnold (d. 1714),
of the Pietistic school of Spener, in his Unpar-
teiische Kirchen- und Ketzerhiatorie (4 vols, folio,
Frankfort, 1699 sqq.; to 1688 A.D.), advocated the
interests of practical piety, and the claims of
heretics and schismatics, and all those who suf-
fered persecution from an intolerant hierarchy
and orthodoxy. J. L. Mosheim (d. 1755) wrote
his " Institutes of Ecclesiastical History " (in Latin,
Helmst&dt, 1755, and often since in several trans-
lations) in the spirit of a moderate Lutheran or^
thodoxy, with solid learning and impartiality, in
clear style, after the centurial arrangement of Fla-
cius, and furnished a convenient text-book, which
(in the translation of Murdock, with valuable
supplements) has continued in use in England and
America much longer than in Germany. J. M.
Schroeckh's Christliche Kirchengeschichte (35 vols.,
Leipsic, 1768-1803), continued by Ktrchenge-
Bchichte aeit der Reformation (10 vols., 1804-12), is
far more extensive and far less readable, but in-
valuable for reference, and full of information from
the sources. It forsakes the mechanical centurial
division, and substitutes for it the periodic arrange-
ment. H. P. K. Henke (d. 1809) followed with a
thoroughly rationalistic work (6 vols., Brunswick,
1795-1806; continued by J. S. Vater, 3 vols.,
1818-20).
99
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
Ohurch Hl8tox7
3. Hiatorlans from 1800 to 1900: August Nean-
der, a converted Israelite, professor of church history
in Berlin (d. 1850), marks an epoch in this branch
of theological literature; and by his truly Christian,
consdaitious, impartial, truth-loving, just, and
liberal, and, withal, thoroughly learned and pro-
found spirit and method, he earned the title of
** Father of Church History." His AUgemeine
Geschiehle tier christlichen Religion und Kirche (6
vols., Hamburg, 1825-52), though incomplete (it
stops with the Council of Basel, 1430), and some-
what diffuse and monotonous in style, is an im-
mortal monument of genius and learning. It
pays special attention to the development of Chris-
tian life and doctrine, and is edifying as well as
instructive. It has been naturalized in England
and America by the translation of Professor Torrey
(5 vols., Boston, 1847-52; 12th ed., 1872; new
ed., with a complete index, 6 vols., 1881), and will
long be studied with profit, although in some re-
specis superseded by more recent researches in the
first three centuries. Equally valuable, though of
an altogether different plan and spirit, is the
Kirchengesckichte of J. K. L. Gieseler (5 vols.,
Bonn, 1824-56), translated first by Cunningham
in Philadelphia (1846), then by Davidson and
Hull in En^and, and revised and completed by
H, B. Smith of New York (5 vols., 1857-^80). The
text is a meager skeleton of facts and dates;
but the body of the work consists of carefully
ttlected extracts and proof-texts from the sources
which furnish the data for an independent judg-
ment. F. C. Baur's work on church history, partly
published after his death (5 vols., Tubingen, 1853
8qq.), is distinguished for philosophic grasp, critical
combinations, and bold conjectures, especially in
the treatment of the apostolic and postapostolic
ages, and the ancient heresies and systems of doc-
trine. K R. Hagenbach's KircKengeschichte (7 vols. ,
Leipaic, 1869 sqq.; revised ed., by Nippold, 1885
aqq.) ia a popular digest for the educated lay reader,
riiilip Schaff's History of the Christian Church
(3 vols.. New York, 1859 sqq. ; Germ. ed. of the 1st
three vols., Leipeic, 1868, revised ed. of same in
Eni^, New York, 1882-1907) is written from the
An^o-German and Ang^o-American standpoint.
H. C. Sheldon's History of the Christian Church
(5 vols.. New York, 1894) is by an American Meth-
odist. England has produced greater works in
ipedal departments than in general church history
— «.g., Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire, Milman's Latin Christianity ^ Stanley's
Jewish Church and Eastern Church, Farrar's Life of
Chritt, The Apostle Paul, and Early Days of Chris-
tianity, J. B. Lightfoot's Apostolic Fathers, Trench's
Lectures on the Mediaeval Church, the Texts and
Studies ed. J. A. Robinson. George Waddington
presents the general histoiy to the Reformation
inclusive (6 vols., London, 1833 sqq.); his work is
B^Mrseded by J. C. Robertson's History of the
Christian Church to the Reformation (3 vols., Lon-
don, 1854 sqq.; new ed., 8 small vols., 1875). The
older work of Milner (d. 1797) is written in popular
style for edification. The most valuable contribu-
tioQfl of modem English scholarship to ancient
church history are found in Smith and Cheetham's
Dictionary of Christian Antiquities (2 vols., Lon-
don, 1875-80) and Smith and Wace's Dictionary
of Christian Biography (4 vols., 1877-87). The
largest Roman Catholic church history of recent
times is Abb^ Rohrbacher's Histoire universeUe de
V6glise catholique (25 vols., Paris, 1842 sqq.).
4. KannaU of Church History In One or Kore
Volumes: (a) Roman Catholic: J. J. I. von Ddl-
linger (Vienna, 1836, unfinished; Eng. transl., 4
vols., London, 1840-42); J. A. Mdhler (posthumous,
ed. P. B. Gams, 3 vols., Regensbui^g, 1867-70); J. B.
Alzog (10th ed., by F. X. Kraus, 2 vols.. Mains,
1882; Eng. transl., 4 vols., London, 1879^2; 3
vols., Cincinnati, 1876); F. X. Kraus (3 parts,
Treves, 1872-75; 4th ed., 1896); J. Hergen-
rOther (4th ed., ed. J. P. Eirsch, 3 vols.,
Freiburg, 1902 sqq.); F. X. Funk (4th ed.,
Paderbom, 1902); C. J. von Hefele (4th ed., by
A. Kn6pfler, 1905). (b) Protestant: K. A. Hase
(11th ed., Leipsic, 1886; a masterly miniature
picture; Eng. transl.. New York, 1855); C. W.
Niedner (2d ed., Berlin, 1866; very learned and
very heavy); J. H. Kurtz (14th ed., by N. Bon-
wetsch and P. Tschackert, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1906;
Eng. transl., 3 vols.. New York, 1888-89); A. Ebrard
(4 vols., Erlangen, 1865-67; polemically Reformed);
J.J.Herzog(3vols.,Erlangen, 1880-82; moderately
Reformed); E. Chsustel (French, 4 vols., Paris,
1859-74; new ed., 1881 sqq.); H. Schmid (2 vols.,
Erlangen, 1881); K. A. Hase, Vorlesungen (4 vols.,
Leipsic, 1885 sqq.); R. Sohm (9th ed., Leipsic,
1894; Eng. transl., London, 1895); W. MdUer
(3 vols., Freibui^g, 1889-94; 2d ed., by H. von
Schubert and G. Kawerau, 1897-1902; Eng. transl.,
London, 1892-1900); Karl Mailer (2 vols., Tti-
bingen, 1892-1902); F.Loofs (Halle, 1901); H. von
Schubert (2d ed., Tubingen, 1904). By American
and English scholars are G. P. Fisher, History of
the Christian Church (New York, 1887); J. F. Hurst,
History of the Christian Church (2 vols., New York,
1897-1900); A. H. Newman, Manual of Church His-
tory (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1900-03); Cheetham and
Hard wick, Church History (4 vols., London, 1908).
6. Hiatories of Bootrlne: G. Mttnscher (4 vols.,
Marburg, 1797-1809); F. C. Baur, Lehrbuch der
Dogmengeschichte (Tttbingen, 1847; 3d ed., 1867);
idem, Vorlesungen, ed. by his son (3 vols., Leipsic,
1865-67); A. Neander (ed. J. L. Jacobi, BerUn,
1857; Eng. transl, 2 vols., London, 1858); K. R.
Hagenbach (5th ed., Leipsic, 1867; Eng. transl,
2 vols., Edinburgh, 1880); W. G. T. Shedd (2 vols.,
New York, 1863); G. Thomasius (2 vols., Erlangen,
1874-76); F. D. Nitzsch (Berlin, 1870; unfin-
ished); A. Hamack, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte
(3d ed., 3 vols., Freiburg, 1894-97; Eng. transl,
7 vols., London and Boston, 1895-1900); idem,
Orundriss der Dogmengeschichte (4th ed., Freiburg,
1905; Eng. transl. New York, 1893); F. Loofs
(3d ed., Halle, 1893); R. Seeberg (2 vols., Leipsic,
1895-98); G. P. Fisher (International Theological
Library, 1896); H. C. Sheldon (4th ed., 2 vols..
New York, 1906). See Dogma, DoaMATics.
6. Chronological Tables: H. B. Smith, History
of the Church of Christ in Sixteen Chronological
Tables (New York, 1860); F. X. Kraus, Synchro-
nistische Tabellen gur Ktrchengeschichte (Treves,
Ohuroh Order
Churoh Beflifitera
100
1876); idem, SynchronisHsche Tabellen zur christ-
lichen KunstgeschichU (Freiburg, 1880); H. Wein-
garten, ZeUtafdn und Ueberblicke zur Kirchenge-
sckichte (6th ed., by C. F. Arnold, Leipsic, 1905).
7. AtlAsefi: K. Heussi and H. Mulert, Atlas zur
Kirchengeschichie, 66 maps with 18 pages of intro-
duction and index (Tubingen, 1905). The general
historical atlases of R. H. Labberton (14th ed.,
Boston, 1889), F. W. Putzger (24th ed., Bielefeld,
1900), and E. A. Freeman (accompanying his His-
torical Geography of Europe, 3d ed., London, 1903)
are also useful for church history.
The main activity in recent times in historical
investigation and treatment has been devoted to
the first three Christian centuries, including the
work of Hamack, Fimk, Kattenbusch, Lightfoot,
Robinson, McGiffert, and many others. The Mid-
dle Ages are receiving an increasing amount of
attention; names worthy of mention in this field
are Ddllinger, Ehrle, Denifle, Schwane, Kirsch,
and Finke among Roman Catholics, and Karl
MQller, ^auck, Mirbt, Sabatier, Creighton, Stubbs,
lica, and others among Protestants.
(Philip ScHAPrt) D. S. Schaff.
Bxbxjoobapht: For fuller infomubtion cf. Philip Sohaff,
HitUfry of the Ckriaiian Church, i. 1-63. New York. 1882;
and introductions to other general works on church
history. Further. Schaflf, Whai is Church Hiaioryf
Philadelphia. 1846; W. Q. T. Shedd. The PhUoaophv of
HiBtory, Andover, 1861; H. B. Smith. The Nature and
Worth of the Science of Church Hietory, in his volume of
essays, Faith and Philoeophy, pp. 49-87. New York. 1877;
J. De Witt, Churdi Uietory ae a Science, in the BihUotheca
Sacra, 1883; E. A. Freeman, The Meihod of Hiaiorical
Study, London. 1880; A. C. McGiflfert. The Study of
Church Hietary, in the BiMtolfteca Sacra, 1893; W. Bright.
The Study of HieUrry, in Waymarke of Churdi Hittory,
London. 1894; Lord Acton. The Study of Hietary, Lon-
don. 1895; A. Hamack. Dm Chrietentum und die Oe-
•chichte, I^ipsio, 1895; K. Lamprecht. Wtiat /« Hittoryf
transl. from the Germ, by £. A. Andrews. New York.
1905.
CHURCH ORDER (Ger. Kirchenardnung) :
The general ecclesiastical constitution of a State.
The eariy Evangelical Church attached leas im-
portance to ecclesiastical ritual than the pre-
Reformation Church had done. As early aa 1526
Luther observes in Deutsche Messe und Ordnung
des GoUesdiensts : " In sum, this and all other forms
are so to be used that where they give rise to a mis-
use they should be forthwith set a^side, and a new
form be made ready; since outward forms are in-
tended to serve to the advancement of faith and
love, and not to the detriment of faith. Where
this they cease to do, they are already dead and
void, and are of no more value; just as when a good
coin is debased and retired on account of its abuse,
and issued anew; or when e very-day shoes wax old
and rub, they are not longer worn, but thrown
away and new ones bought. Form is an external
thing, be it ever so good, and thus it may lapse into
misuse; but then it is no longer an orderly form,
but a disorder; so that no external order stands
and avails at all of itself, as hitherto the papal forms
are judged to have done, but all forms have their
life, worth, strength, and virtues in proper use;
or else they are of no avail and value whatever "
(Werke, Weimar ed., xix. 72 sqq.). According to
Lutheran ecclesiastical teaching (Formula of Con-
cord, II.; Solida declaraHo, x.; Apology, xiv.; Me-
lanchthon's Loci, 2d redaction in CR, xxi. 555-556;
the Saxon VisitaHonsbuch of 1528; etc.) a uniform
liturgy is requisite only in so far as it is indispen-
sable to uphold proper doctrine and the adminis-
tration of the sacraments; whereas in general the
rightful appointment of the external fimctions of
church officers and their sphere in the congrega-
tions is committed to the church governing board
of the state authorities. The spontaneous develop-
ment of church law, and especially the regulation
of divine service, the sacraments, and discipline,
as Luther ideally conceived it, proved impracti-
cable, and gave place, though not invariably so, to
definition on the part of temporal sovereigns. All
these regulations, especially those of governments
and cities, by means of which the canonical church
forms that had previously prevailed in the land
were modified in a reformatory direction, while the
newly developing church sjrstem became progres-
sively established, are called "Church Orders."
Those of the sixteenth century are the most im-
portant (cf. E. Sehling, in ZKR, xxix., 1897, pp.
328 sqq., and introduction to his edition of the
Church Orders, i., Leipsic, 1902).
A Church Order usually begins with a dogmatic
part in which the agreement of the State Church
with the general Lutheran confessions is set forth
with more or less of detail (Credenda); then follow
regulations concerning liturgy, the appointment of
church officers, organization of church government,
discipline, marriage, schools, the pay of church and
school officials, the administration of church prop-
erty, care of the poor, etc. (Agenda, q.v.). A sys-
tematic topical arrangement is by no means al-
ways adhered to. As a rule, later compilations
have made use of earlier forms, and thus the Orders
are grouped in families. E. Sehxjno.
Bxblioorapht: H. C. KdniiE, Bibliotheca offendarum, Zeller-
feld. 1726; J. J. Moser. Carpue jurie evanffeliorum eccL^
aiaetici, 2 vols.. Zollichau. 1737-38; A. L. Richter, Die
evanodiechen Kirchenordnunoen dee 10. Jakrhunderte, 2
vols., Weimar. 1846.
CHURCH PATRON SAINT (patronus sanctus):
The particular saint to whom a church is dedicated,
and under whose protection it stands. The early
Church in a great variety of ways put guardian saints
in the place of the tutelary deities (dettUulares) known
to the pagan religions in coimection with specific
objects and relationships. In primitive times
church patrons were taJcen especially from the
number of the martyrs, who were esteemed to be
influential mediators with God. Then when the
worship of saints had developed from the venera-
tion of martyrs, the guardian patrons were selected
from among the saints not only for separate churches,
but also for countries, dioceses, orders, cloisters,
cities, congregations, gilds, brotherhoods, etc. The
possession of relics of a saint in a certain church
often determined his choice as patron. When sub-
sequently the custom arose of naming churches
after some Christian mystery — as, for instance,
the Holy Trinity, the Holy Ghost, the Sacred Heart
of Jesus — ^it came about that a church might be
commended to the protection of a saint without
bearing his name, thus creating the distinctioo
101
Ohnroh Order
Ohuroh Be^fiters
between a protective and a titular patron. In
accordance with its teaching as to the saints and
veneration of relics, the Roman Catholic Church
has developed a special doctrine concerning venera-
tion, election, alteration, etc., of church patron
saints (cf. the decree confirmed by Urban VIII.,
Mar. 23, 1630, in L. Ferraris, Bibliotheca prompta
canoniea, 11 vols., Venice, 1782-94, s.v. patroni
tancti).
The Refonners and Protestants generally have
retained the old custom of designating churches after
saints and Christian mysteries for the purpose of
thus bestowing upon them a definite, distinguishing
name. In the choice of it, more or less deference
is shown to the preferences of the congregation and
the founder. E. Sbhlino.
BiBuooRAnrr: M. R C. Walcott, Saend Arth<gologv, b.t.
"Patroa," London, 1808.
CHURCH REGISTERS.
Eariy (%iireh Books (§ 1).
Mediend Reeisten ({ 2).
The ficKinninga of Modem Registers (| 3).
Contents and Gharscter (| 4).
Valoe for Other than Church Uses (| 5).
Eodesiastical and Cml Registers ({ 6).
Collections of Church Registers ({ 7).
The German word Kirchenbuch has different
meanings. It refers to church books in the sense
of "service-books," and to parish books which
recorded inventories, rents, income, ecclesiastical
celebrations, and other matters referring to wor*
ship; but in modem times the word has generally
taken the meaning of registers of sacramental acts,
such as baptism, marriage ceremonies, confessions,
and funerals.
An especially old and remarkable example of a
" church book " in the older sense is that of Old-
edoe. which begins before 1371 and contains a table
for determining Quinquagesima Simday, the pas-
toral epistle of Bertram, bishop of LUbeck (1376),
lists of pastors, also of tithes, income of pastors,
donations, etc. Church books of another kind,
but differing from modem church registers, are the
cartularies of bishops in England, as, for instance,
the Register of John Pontissara (1282-1304) and
the Renters of John de Sandale and Rigaud de
Affierio, bishops of Winchester, 1316-23 (London
and Winchester, 1897). These books contain
ever3rthing relating to the government of bishops.
The church book in the sense of a
I. Early register of ecclesiastical celebrations
Church is important for the history of modem
Booki. registers, since in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries it was trans-
fonned into the church register of baptisms,
marriages, etc., for instance in Mecklenburg and
HoUtein. Land-registers and registers of taxa-
tion go back much farther in Germany into the
fifteenth century, in England, France, Italy into
the fourteenth or thirteenth, even earlier. An-
other source for the date of personal records are
the church bills found in the older parish registers.
A more thorough knowledge of the history, nature,
and importance of church registers began only
when efforts were made to collect and test existing
material. Church registers, or at least compilations
corresponding to them, are traceable to the civ-
ilized nations of the earliest times, for instance the
Egyptians. The Hebrews had also their records
of birth and genealogical tables. In the Roman
empire registers of births may be traced back to
the time of the kings; from the time of Augustus
are found registers of marriages. As Christianity
took its rise in the Roman empire, it accepted to a
certain extent the existing elements of culture.
The diptyches (see Liber VrriB; Sculftxtrs,
Christian) were adopted from the Romans, and
adapted to Christian usages, the members of the
congregation being registered not for military
reasons or for the levying of taxes, but as citizens
of the kingdom of God. Besides the dates of birth,
there were also recorded dates of marriage and of
death. These " sacred books and tablets " were
important preeminently from a historical stand-
point, as they contained the names of bishops, mar-
tyrs, and benefactors.
The diptyches did not develop into church
registers of the modem kind, nor were they of any
importance for the modem Church, owing chiefly
to the degeneration of culture after the destruction
of the Roman empire, and to a perverted tendency
of the medieval Church. Instead of the dip-
tyches of the deceased and living,
2. Medieval churches and monasteries adopted
Regiaters. necrologies and morilogies, in which
were entered especially the names of
donors and benefactors. They were usually called
" books of life " (see Liber Vita). Besides
these, there were in existence church books in
the older sense, that is, registers of taxes, inven-
tories, etc. On account of the lack of personal
registers, princes and lords had their own family
books, while the age of other people had to be
determined, even as late as the sixteenth century,
by the testimony of living persons. At the close
of the Middle Ages the census in the modem
sense was instituted in flourishing cities like Augs-
burg and Breslau.
The Renaissance had a wholesome effect upon
the development of church registers, in France and
Italy as early as the beginning of the fourteenth
century. A register of baptisms from Cabridres
near Vauduse dates from 1308, fragments of a
register of marriages and deaths in Middle France
from 1335 and 1336. In Italy the use of such
registers may be traced to the fourteenth century.
In Spain the famous cardinal Ximenez in 1407 at
the Synod of Toledo ordered the introduction of
baptLnnal and matrimonial registers; soon after-
ward similar orders were issued in Portugal. In
Switzerland and (jermany church
3. The Be- registers go back to the time of the
ginningB of Reformation. Earlier attempts had
Modem not been successful. The first bap-
RegisteiB. tismal register in Zurich dates from
1525, the register of marriages in
Strasbui^ from the same time. Church registers
in Constance began in 1531, and in Frankfort,
Thuringia, Saxony, and Bohemia about the same
time. In the imperial dty of Nuremberg they
existed from 1524, in Silesia from 1534, under the
influence of the Silesian Reformer Hess; the other
Chnrch Be^nterB
Ohuroh and School
102
territories followed soon afterward, in the early
sixties of the sixteenth century. The number of
these registers, since the enormous losses resulting
from the Thirty Years' War, especially in Electoral
Saxony, can be estimated only approximately.
There is reliable information of the existence of
more than 150 registers dated 1522-63. The ear-
lier introduction of church registers in Italy and
France must be ascribed, to the independent influ-
ence of the classical renaissance, which became of
importance in Germany only after its union with
the religious efforts of Luther. In the Netherlands
the Reformation was for a long time suppressed
and its confessors were eidled, but a s3rnod in 1574
changed these conditions, and church registers
were soon generally introduced; but there are
extant fragments of earlier date. From Germany
the use of church registers penetrated the Scandi-
navian kingdoms at a comparatively late date.
In Denmark they were introduced by royal order
in 1646, in Norway in 1685, in Sweden in 1686.
As in Germany, so in England, the general intro-
duction of church registers followed separation
from the Papal Church, by order of King Henry
VIII. in 1538. In spite of this unevangelical
origin, the introduction of chiurch registers in
England was accompanied by immediate success.
There have been preserved not less than 812 church
registers from the year 1538, 1,822 from 1528 to
1558, and 2,448 from 1558 to 1600. From 1551
date the first evidences of church registers in Scot-
land; in Ireland their general introduction took
place only in the nineteenth century. In trans-
oceanic countries personal registers were used from
settlement there by the civilized peoples of Europe.
The earliest church register is that of the Dutch
in Reciff, Brazil, 1633. The East India House in
London preserves church registers from Bombay
from 1703, from Bengal dated 1713, from Madras
dated 1743. Of Roman Catholic church registers
there are only sporadic cases in Germany at the
time of the Refonnation. Their general introduc-
tion followed the decrees of the Council of Trent in
1563. These decrees referred only to registers of
baptisms and marriages; records of funerals were
introduced in 1614 by the Rituale Romanum. Dur-
ing the Thirty Years' War chureh registers were
sometimes taken away from the Evangelicals and
continued by the Catholics, so that the supposed
antiquity of some Catholic registers has no basis
in fact.
The church renters did not consist solely of lists
of baptisms, marriages, and funerals; a church
register at Lehrbach in Hesse contains not less than
twelve columns. The registers, especially those
of the seventeenth century, are frequently a rich
source for the histoiy of ch\m;h discipline. The
registers of the catechumens and con-
4. Contents firmed form a part of the church record
and which is very important for the history
Character, of Christian worship. They may be
traced back to the first period of the
Refonnation. The most curious chureh records
are found among the so-called family books. There
the members of the congregations are arranged
alphabetically according to families, and their resi-
dences, with the religious acts performed on them,
are given. In this way there originated chronicles
of whole villages; so, for instance, the village of
Dankerode in the Hartz mountains. Another
noteworthy class is found in the so-called minis-
terial books which were introduced after 1686 in
Sweden. They consist of six different parts:
Register (1) of births and baptisms; (2) of deaths
and funerals; (3) of marriages; (4) of catechetical
examinations at home; (5) of newly admitted
members; (6) of members who had moved to other
parishes. The most interesting part is the fourth,
which contained records of religious instruction,
of examinations, and of attendance at the Lord's
Supper, and notes on conduct and discipline before
and after marriage.
After the church registers had become known
and been generally introduced in all civilized states
of Europe, about the end of the seventeenth and
beginning of the eighteenth century, their value
and importance began to be appreciated from other
points of view, and they were used as sociological
sources, first in England after the seventeenth cen-
tury. After Natwral and Political Annotations upon
the Bills of MortaHiy^ by John Graunt (London,
1666 and 1676), there followed a rich literature of
similar character in England, France, Germany,
Holland, Italy, and Sweden. It is true, many of
these productions were merely sociological, but
some of them included the theological side, as, for
instance, WilUam Derham's Physical Theology
(London, 1713). This work formed the model
for Die gdttliche Ordnung in den
5. Value for Verdnderungen des menschlichen Ge~
Other than schlechis, by Johann Peter SOssmilch
Church (1741, 3 vols., 1776), and Mohsen, a
Uses. physician, published in his work on
vaccination for the first time a history
of chureh registers of baptisms and deaths. Thus,
a powerful influence was exerted upon them by the
rapid growth of sociology and statistics, and the
attention of large circles was called to them. After
the end of the seventeenth century extracts from
church registers were ordered to be made by the
pastors and superintendents of Brandenburg-
Prussia and sent to the government offices in
Berlin for purposes of vital statistics. The keeping
of chureh registers became dependent upon the
orders of civil authorities; this led to their general
adoption and to stricter enforcement of rules, but
at the same time the registers lost much of their
churchly character as they were used chiefly in
court and for purposes of taxation and for military
purposes. In conformity with the general law of
Prussia, every pastor had to make one copy of his
church register and send it to the local court.
Electoral Saxony and Austria issued similar orders.
In the course of time personal records were sep-
arated altogether from the Church and entrusted to
the municipal authorities, civil lists taking the
place of church registers. This was due in France
in part to the Revolution, in part to the peculiar
development of the royal authority. King Francis
I. issued as eariy as 1539 an order making church
registers subject to the supervision of the munic-
ipal courts. Under Louis XIV. the keeping of
103
Ohuroh Beslfiters
Chnroh and Sohoo
church r^istere was altog;ether due to himself and
the wcuhir government, according to a decree of
1667. Further decrees were issued in
6. Eccksi- France in 1736 and 1792. They were
astical and received into the civil code of Napo-
Ci¥il leon, and with the Napoleonic con-
Kegisten. quests were carried over to Belgium
in 1796, then to Holland and to several
states of Germany. In Germany, the entire sep-
aration of eivil affairs from connection with the
Church was brought about especially by the revo-
lutionary movement of 1848. The Pnissian con-
stitution of 1850 provided for the introduction of
provisions like those of the French in regard to
records of persons. This provision was made a
law in Pniffiia in 1874; accordin^y, special civil
registry-offices were introduced, and from that time
church registers lost their importance in public
affairs. In 1875 these same decisions were applied
to the whole German empire. Clexgsrmen are not
eligible as legiBtiy officers. In 1895 civil registers
were introduced also in Austria-Hungary. But
with the enactment of these laws chureh registers
did not dis£4>pear in Germany; on the contrary,
they regained their original significance and were
given back to the Chureh. In place of the secular
authorities, the ecclesiastical leaders, in Prussia
the membere of the consistories and of the Evan-
gelical Superior Chureh Council, assumed the super-
vision of the church registers. The kingdom of
God and the dvil order of the State are two different
^heres with their own special aims and purposes.
Registration of baptisms and of admission into the
congregation, of marriages and funerals, of attend-
ance at confessions and the Lord's Supper, and of
spiritual discipline are facts for the chureh regis-
ters, while data concerning physical births and
deaths, matrimony from the civil point of view, to-
gether with all facts concerning the physical and nat-
ural being of man, are a matter of the civil registry.
In modem times collections of chureh registers
have been undertaken; there is a genealogico-
statistical center in Denmark, in the academy of
Sweden, and in state arehives in Mecklenburg and
CHdenbuig. But in case of such collections dupli-
cate copies should always be made, because it is
essential that at least one copy of the
7. Collec- chureh register remain with the local
tiont of church. The collections should be
Church under the supervision of chureh author-
Registen. ities and be deposited in church ar-
chives, not in state arehives or other
secular institutions. As a resiilt of the French
Revolution and subsequent wars, the church rec-
ords of Alsace-Lorraine, the Netherlands, the Rhine
Palatinate, the Lower Rhine, and the duchy of
Berg are in state archives or in superior district
courts. In Prussia and German Austria-Hungary
the chureh registers were left with the churehes,
in ^ite of the introduction of civil registry-offices.
Recently attempts have been made in Germany,
Denmark, Sweden, Austria, En^and, and Belgium
to consolidate the different collections of church
registere for statistical purposes. In Belgium a
general index for all old chureh registers was pre-
pared in 1865. In Austria a statistical central
conmodssion was instituted in 1882 for a similar
purpose. In England an enormous amount of
material has been collected in the Record Office,
on the basis of the Parish Register Act of 1882.
(E. Jacobs.)
Biblioorapht: J. C. W. Au^UBti. Handbuch der ehrUaidien
Arehaologie, iii. 600-730, Leipeio, 1837; J. S. Bum, HUt.
of Paritk ReoiUtn, aUo of tha Reoiaien of Scotland, /r«^
land .... London, 1862; J. Jaatrow, Die VoUumoJU
d€utachtr StddU, BerUn. 1876; R. E. C. Waters. PaHA
ReoUten in England, London, 1883; H. Truaen, Dot
preuaHaehe KirdienredU im BerncKe dtr tvanoeliadUn
Landeakirehe, Berlin, 1804; £. Friedbers, Ldirbueh dsa
tvangeliMchen und katholiaehen KirchenrtehU, Leipne,
1805; Epiaeopal ReguUn of the Diocaa§ of WincheaUr,
London, 1807; J. Gmelin, in Deutaehe GctcAidUiMZtttr, i
(1000), 155-170; Krieg. in KorreapondewMaU dea OeaanU-
vereina der deutaekan Oeaehiehia' und AUartumavarwina.
1007. no. 25. pp. 102-105.
CHURCH AND SCHOOL.
Pablio Sohoob not OriginaUy Maintained by tht CSrardb
(5 1).
Influence of the Reformation (§ 2).
Pietism ({ 3).
Compulsory Education ({ 4).
Religion and Coercion Exclusive (§ 5).
Compulsory Religious Instruction not Desirable (| 6).
Position and Attitude of Teachers ({ 7).
Denominational and Undenominational Schoob (| 8).
Qerical O>ntrol of Schools (§ 0).
The question of the relation of Church and Scho<4
did not become a burning one until after the Refor-
mation, when the modem State began to recognize
its duty to provide public elementary schools for
its subjects and make school-attendance obligatory.
Since compulsory attendance was the necessary con-
dition for the success of public elementary schools,
the Church, from its very nature prevented from
employing coercion, could not compete with the
State in this field. It was necessary, therefore, for
Church and State to come to an understanding,
particularly as the latter never organized its school-
system de novo, but took over and developed the
educational organization of the Church.
The proposition that the School is the daughter of
the Church is not confirmed by the history of the
early Church. Religious education was considered
the business of the family and the community;
and education in any other sense was a private
matter. During the Middle Ages
z. Public the Church maintained schools for
Schools not future clerics and a few noblemen, and
Originally prepared children for confirmation.
Maintained It was Chariemagne who gave the first
by the great impetus to popular education.
Church. Even at the close of the Middle Ages
the writing-schools in Germany were
maintained either by the' cities or by private in-
dividuals, not by the Chiurch.
With the Reformation, the Church assumes a
different attitude toward popular education. Luther
insists on the establishment of schools; and Me-
lanchthon declares that the imion of
2. Influence Church and School is necessary. Pop-
of the Ref- ular education is demanded for relig-
orxnation. ious reasons; but the right to provide
for the same is recognized as belonging
to the State. The existing elementary schools in
the towns were reorganized; and the introduction
Churoh and Sohool
Ohuroh and State
104
of religious instruction gave them the character of
public schools. Similar schobls were founded in
the country villages. All these schools were quite
elementary in character, religion, reading, and
writing forming practically the only subjects of
instruction; but for more than two centuries they
offered the only educational opportunity to the
great majority of the population.
Even such schools could exist only under favor-
able circumstances. Before the Thirty Years' War
there were not many of them left; and after the war,
when the ideas of Ratke and Comenius began to be
effective, the tendency was to try something new,
rather than to reestablish the old
3. Pietism, system. In this movement the Piet-
ists took the lead. The public school,
as revived by them in the interest of religious edu-
cation, was introduced by various German states,
but first by Prussia in 1763. The State recognized
the service of the Church, and even entrusted the
supervision of these schools to the clerg;^, who
were regarded as officials of the State. The example
of Prussia was followed by Bavaria
4. Comjnil- (1802), Denmark (1814), Austria
•ory Edu- (1869), and France (1882), with the
cation, enforcement of school-attendance.
Holland, England, and the United
States have attained all that is necessary by less
incisive measures. In Italy and Spain education is
compulsory only from the sixth to the ninth year,
and wretched conditions prevail even to-day in the
Roman Catholic states of South America. In
Russia attendance at an elementary school shortens
the period of military service.
Ever since the State took charge of elementary
education and made it oompiilsoiy there has been
a movement in progress toward the emancipation of
the schools from the clergy; and for over a him-
dred years three questions have been in dispute:
(1) Is compulsory school-attendance consistent
with religious instruction? (2) Ought the school
to be denominational or undenominational? (3)
Does the control of the school belong to the
clergy or to trained schoolmen?
In principle, religion and coercion exclude each
other. This is a matter about which Protestantism
is now becoming more sensitive, and it is p>o6sible
that the present protest against oompulsoiy religious
instruction may develop into a general protest against
all enforced culture. Of course, no similar protest
is heard from Rome. The Roman Church, accus-
tomed to the maxim "compel them to come in," is
striving for power, and, for this reason,
5. Religion seeks contsol of the schools. It is
and Coer- willing for the State to enforce educa-
don Ex- tion, so long as the Church is benefited
dudve. thereby. It has no feeling for the
inner conflict between compulsory
education and freedom of conscience, regarding
ooerdon as necessary in view of present social and
religious conditions. So much the stronger, how-
ever, is this feeling in Protestantism. To be sure,
in the training of children a certain amoimt of
ooerdon is necessary, since the pathway of educa-
tion leads through obedience to freedom. Par-
ticularly in religious instruction, though, is it
desirable to keep the end in view and gradually
diminish coercion as freedom is approached. The
custom of the eariy Church to leave religious in-
struction to the family justified itself. Even if it
is evident that the religious instruction of the family
needs to be supplemented, still it is clear that the
school can not replace the family, since the teacher
alwasrs represents the law, while religion requires
freedom. There have been many school-teachers
of large religious nature who have touched the
hearts and consdences of their pupils without em-
ploying coerdon; but still the fact remains that
the prevalence of religion is not due to the religious
instruction given in the public schools.
As regards the parents, even in modem states
they can be compelled to send their children to
schools where religious instruction is given. This
is justified on the ground that the children are
minors; and that whatever arbitrary control over
the children the parents may lose is more than
made up for by the mental growth of the children.
But while the State can enforce education, the
Church is prevented from doing this and must,
therefore, protest when its services are thrust upon
those who do not want them. An effort has been
made to conceal the nature of this
6. Compul- religious coerdon by insisting that
80iy Re- instruction in the Bible has to do with
Ugious In- historical information only. While
struction such an argument might be applied
not Desir- to mere church history, it is inappli-
able. cable here. It involves a misunder-
standing of the most important part of
the subject. Two methods have been employed to
escape this difficulty. Either religious instruction
has been banished from the school entirely; or
an effort has been made to modify it to meet the
needs of dissenters, which is impossible if they are
atheists. If the Church is to exerdse educational
activity, providon must be made for it. For
instance, one whole school-day may be set apart
each week for the instruction of youth in religious
subjects, as is the case in France. Also in Italy,
Holland, England, and some states of the United
States the state schools are non-religious in prin-
dple. No cogent argument can be brought against
such a system, for religious instruction is certainly
not the business of the State. After all, the in-
terests of Christianity are furthered by it. By
assuming the responsibility of instruction in the
usual school branches, the State makes it possible
for the Church to concentrate its efforts in the
religious field. It is not so much the mere separa-
tion of Church and State that seems objectionable
as the severing of an old historical union that has
richly justified its existence by its works.
TUs solution of the old problem would relieve
the teacher of the embarrassment of teaching things
that are possibly not an expression
7. Podtion of his own inmost convictions — a
and Atti- difficulty often experienced by minis-
tude of ters. The teacher should either be al-
Teachers. lowed to teach religious subjects in
his own way, or else be relieved of the
duty entirely. It must be added, however, that this
separation of Church and State, in the nuumer in
105
Church and School
Church and State
which it hiui been accomplished in Holland, France,
Elng^and, and the United States, has aroused oppo-
sition in the ranks of the teachers. Conscious of
their high calling as educators, rather than as mere
instructors, they are unwilling to see religion ban-
ished from the schools, however much they may be
opposed to the domination of the schools by the
Church.
Through modem emigration the various religious
sects have been mixed together, especially in the
cities. Practical considerations make it necessary
that the children of a commimity where
8. Denomi- a number of confessions are repre-
national sented shall all attend one school; and
and Unde- thus originated the undenominational
nomina- school. This arrangement gives chil-
tional dren of a confession that is in the
Schools, minority the advantage of a larger
and better equipped school than they
could attend otherwise. Further, such schools
are favored by the spirit of tolerance and liber-
alism now prevailing in religious matters, and
by the non-religious character of the modem State.
Against undenominationalism it is urged that the
public school, as an educational institution, can
least of all dispense with religious instruction, which
forms the basis of all instmction; that religion,
which carries with it the Uteraiy and historical
studies, can not be separated from all other sub-
jects and made an independent study; that the
personality of the teacher will of necessity make
such schools either Protestant or Catholic; and
that spies of the opposite confession will then under-
mine the confidence between the children and the
teacher. The force of these objections can not be
denied. It is clear that a school that educates
must have harmony among its pupils; but in this
view denominationalism in the school becomes a
postulate of pedagogy, not of the Church. There
is no question as to the importance of the Church
for education. The question is whether practical
theology or pedagogy is the better quslified to
dictate the method to be employed in using the
educative material contributed by the Church. It
is plain that theology needs pedagogy as badly as
pedagogy needs theology.
Among the reasons that have decided teachers
against the denominational school one remains to
be mentioned: the usual [in Germany], but not
necessary, supervision by the clergy.
9. Clerical Reasons alleged in favor of clerical
Control control are: the splendid pedagogical
of services rendered by the Church
Schools, through such men as Comenius,
Fran<£e, Niemeyer, and Schleier-
maeher; the fine background of religious life
which tiie clergy bring to the school, and their
unselfishness in the work; the confidence expressed
in the dergy by the State in turning over to them
the public schools after the Reformation; and, not
least, the -high culture of the clergy. Against such
control it is argued that the public school is only
following the higher institutions of leaming in
emancipating itself from clerical guardianship;
that the imeducated teachers of the clerical regime
have been replaced with teachers trained scien-
tifically in the theoiy and practise of pedagogy;
that the clergy have not kept abreast of the grow-
ing science of education, and are, therefore, un-
prepared for the work; that this work is prejudi-
cial to their high calling as ministers of the Gospel;
and, finally, that clerical control benefits chiefly
the ultramontanes. The clergy themselves are
becoming less prejudiced in the matter and are
beginning to admit the force of these arguments;
and, on the other hand, their more prudent oppo-
nents recognize that it is the duty of the Church,
not of the State, to keep a lookout over the relig-
ious and moral welfare of the public schools.
C. Geter.
Biblxoorapht: On the theory of education in relation to
Church and State oonBult: C. Diekmann, Der hibliadM
OttdiidUaufUerridU in der VolkudiuU^ Leipaic, 1876;
G. A. L. Baur, OrundgUoe der ErMtehunoeUhrt, Gieaaen,
1887; R. H. Quick, Remarke About MonU and Rtligioua
Education, in his E—ay, London, 1887; G. A. Coe, Edu-
cation in Religion and Morale, New York, 1884.
On the history of education oonault: K. Schmidt, Oe-
eehichU der Pddaooffik, Kdthen, 1889; W. C Grasby,
Teaching in Three Continente, London, 1891; J. Pajrne,
Hietory of Education, ib. 1892; J. Bdhm, Oeechiehte der
POdaooffik, Nuremberg. 1893; S. G. Williams, Hietory of
Modem Education . . . from the Revival of Leaming to
the Preeent, Syracuse. 1896; T. Davidson, Hietory of Eel-
ucaHon, New York. 1900; E. G. Dexter. Hietory of Edu-
cation in the U. S., New York, 1904.
On the question of religious instruction in various
countries consult in Germany: £. Sachsse. Die Lehre von
der kirchlichen Ertiehung, Berlin. 1897; J. Beyhl, Die Be-
freiung der VolkeechuUehrer aue der geietlichen Herrechaft,
Berlin. 1903; F. Naumann. Der Streit der Konfeeeionen
um die Sdiule, Berlin, 1904. In France: L. Duchesne,
Autonomiee eccUeiaeHquee. £glieee eipariee, Paris, 1906.
In England: Of the Education Acts. 1870-91, there are
discussions by A. £. Steinthal, London. 1891; C. W. A.
Brooke, ib. 1897. Of those from 1870 to 1902. by Sir H.
Owen, and by W. A. Casson and G. C. Whiteley, both
London, 1903. On the Act of 1902 consult: C. E. Ben-
ham. H. H. Hanson, H. Mothersole, £. C. Rawlings. all
London, 1903; also: W. H. Carnegie, Church and the
Schoole; Churdiman'e View of the Education Controverey,
ib. 1905. In the U. S.: S. T. Spear. Religion and the
State, New York. 1876; J. Conway, ReepecHve RighU and
Dutiee of Family, State and Church in Regard to Educa>-
tion, ib. 1890; J. H. Crooker. ReHgioue Freedom in Ameri-
can Education, Boston, 1903.
CHURCH AND STATB.
I. General Treatment.
Scope of Subject ({1).
Ancient Rome and the Eastern Empire (| 2).
Rise of Papal Temporal Power (§ 3).
Subordination of Church to State (| 4).
The Modem State (8 6).
Relations with Rome (8 6).
The Evangelical SUte Church (§ 7).
Tendency toward Separation (§ 8).
Decadence of Protestantism in Germany (§ 9).
Self-Goyemment for Church the Remedy (| 10).
II. The United States.
PhikMophical Background (8 1).
Colonial Period (8 2).
Conditions after the Revolution (8 3).
Speeial Legislation (8 4).
I. General Treatment: Since the Christian oomr
munity presenta itaelf outwardly as a part of
the Bodal order, for the regulation of which the
State exists, the question arises, What shall be the
relation between Church and State? From the
point of view of the dififerent confessions this ques-
stion might be variously answered. However,
Church and State
106
disregarding minor distinctions, three answers are
possible: The State may rule the Church and
administer ecclesiastical affairs for its
X. Scope of own purposes; the Church may rule
Subject the State and use the temporal
authority to fiurther the interests
of the Church; or Church and State may be com-
pletely separated, each confining itself to its own
sphere, and neither exercising any authority over
the other. As a matter of history, however, Church
and State have seldom been completely independ-
ent of each other, the one occupying itself solely
with things spiritual, the other restricting itself to
things temporal. The Roman Catholic Church
still insists on having a voice in the control of tem-
poral affairs, and the Protestant states of Europe
usually claim a considerable share in ecclesiastical
affairs. The difficulty of coordinating the eccle-
siastical and the political authority as two distinct
systems, or, indeed, of effecting any great innova-
tion where the Church is concerned, is to be ac-
counted for on historical grounds. The funda-
mental legal ordinances involved here are not made
by act of will, but are passed along from one period
to the next, from one community to another.
Laws and rights are inherited; and in no field is
this so true as in that where religion is concerned.
Even where new forces have effected the most
complete changes, the effort is made to prove that
each form links itself back on the old. The time
of King Josiah, which saw the reconstruction of the
Israelitic tradition in the spirit of the new law;
the Pseudo-Isidor, who represents the asserted
increase in the power of the hierarchy as an old
right; even the Reformation itself, which claimed
so frequently to restore the primitive Church —
all bear witness to the statement.
From the very beginning the relation between
religious worship and temporal authority was a
most intimate one. The chief of
2. Ancient the tribe, as likewise the king of the
Rome and first commimity that could be called
the Eastern a state, united in himself the functions
Empire, of judge, military leader, and priest.
He represented hia people in their re-
lations toward one another, toward their enemies,
and toward God. Religion was an affair of the
State. In the later development the ruler might
transfer his priestly duties to a special class of
priests, but the close relation between religion and
rule remained. At the advent of Christianity into
the world's history the Roman emperor, as pontifex
maximuSf stood at the head of the religious system
in the Roman Empire. It was not his object, how-
ever, to suppress the foreign gods worshiped in
Roman possessions in the interest of the Roman
deities whose high priest he was. In so far as these
foreign gods had their states over which they ruled,
all, including Yahweh, were regarded juristically
as free and equal, though Yahweh was deposed
after the destruction of Jerusalem. The God of
Christianity, on the other hand, having no visible
kingdom, was not a deity in the Roman sense of the
word. Hence the persecution of the Christians as
atheists. With the advent of the Christian emperor
the oi^ganization of the Church and its relation to
the State was definitely determined for centuries
to come. The position of pontifex maximus which
Constantine united with his arbitrary authority
had not been depreciated by the decay of the old
Roman fcith. He was the absolute head of the
Church. Even after the title of pontifex maximiu
had been dropped, toward the end of the fourth
century, the office remained. The designation
episcopus universalis is only a Christian translation
of the heathen expression. To be sure, the em-
peror no longer performed the functions of a priest,
but he united in himself all ecclesiastical authority.
He appointed and disciplined the priests and exer-
cised a protectorate over the leges regias, those
duties toward God which were required of every
one. Laws and rights were created by the dictum
of the emperor. Thus the Churdi became an
institution of the State, and at the same time a com-
pulsory institution. The very persecution which,
in the name of religion, had formeriy been directed
against Christianity was now employed to uproot
heathenism, as well as to put down dissent within
the Church. To be a citizen of the empire one had
to be an orthodox Christian. This system, which
was most consistently developed in the Eastern
Empire, after its separation from Rome, became
the heritage of the Russian autocracy. Though
Russia has had its Holy Synod since the time of
Peter the Great, the Czar remains the only source
of authority in the Church, and uses the ecclesias-
tical organization to strengthen the State. Con-
sequently withdrawal from the state church is not
permitt^.
The second characteristic relation of Church
to State was developed in the Western Empire.
While the temporal power in the West
3. Rise of gradually waned after the division of
Papal Tem- the empire, the ecclesiastical organiza-
poral Power, tion remained intact; and, when the
ancient State disappeared, the pope
virtually succeeded the emperor as pontifex maxi-
mus and appropriated as much temporal author-
ity as was consistent with his priestly character.
This transition of authority may be said to have
begun in the year 445, when Valentinian III. pro-
mulgated a law requiring obedience to the ordi-
nances of the pope. Thiis the religious dream of
a civilas dei was fused with the Roman tradition
of an imperium inundi. Over against this papal
State stood the Germanic tribes. Their conversion
had been accomplished without difficulty, but for
this very reason it had not been profound. Their
indifference toward the Roman Church is ex-
plained by their relation to Arianism. Goths, Bur-
gundians, and Vandals had their own churches,
which were separate from those of the provincials.
The bishops were representatives of the king, and
the subjected Roman provincials were treated
just as the Phanariots are treated by the Turks.
Even the conversion of the Franks did not greatly
improve the position of the Roman Church. The
Prankish king suffered no foreign interference in
ecclesiastical affairs, not even from the pope him-
self. Here material interests take precedence,
and the Church assumes importance chiefly as a
large property-holder. In fact, it was the Franks
107
Ohuroh and State
wbo discovered the process of secularization. With
the restoration of the Western Empire by Char-
lemagne Byzantine ideas came into play. The
Roman idea of a papal imperium mundi was ap-
parently dormant. When, therefore, Germany
became the center of gravity of European history it
was quite natural that the bishops should be ad-
vanced to the position of temporal princes, in the
interest of the State. Otto the Great completed
this innovation by taking under his protection the
spiritual head of these princes, the pope himself.
Thus the functions of the bishop were largely
secularized. Investiture with property constituted
his title, and his chief duty was to aid in carrying
on the business of the empire. Without any
premonition of the danger aiiead of them, the
Germanic people entered upon this fatal course.
It remained for Gregoiy VII. to lift the veil and
show the Church in its character of a ruling power.
With him begins the period of the so-called spiritual
universal state, which lasted for several centuries.
Just as formerly the State had ruled the Church,
so now the Church, to a large extent, ruled the
State. The officials of the Church were brought
under the authority of Rome, and such public
interests as education, charity, care of the sick,
and even legislation and the administration of
justice, were made affairs of the Church. As
against the powerful Roman hierarchy the State,
crude, undeveloped, and split by dissensions, was
practically helpless. It should be added, however,
that not infrequently the State rebelled against
having to take a subordinate position; and toward
the dose of this period it developed such legal
institutions as jjlacetum regium and recurstu ab
abu9u to curtail ecclesiastical authority. In view
of this fact, the spiritual universal state must be
regarded as theoiy, rather than reality, and the
relation of Church to State during this period as one
of legal coordination, but with the preponderance
of competency on the side of the Chim;h.
The Renaissance brought a revival of the ancient
idea of the State, and with this a transformation of
the relation of Church to State. The
4. Subor- new state made it its chief function to
dinationof advance the welfare, or happiness, of
Church to its subjects, but, since preparation for
State. eternity was seen to be essential to
human welfare, the State now ex-
tended its activities into the ecclesiastical field.
In short, to a greater or less extent, it took over
the organization of the Church and assumed re-
sponsibility for the intellectual and spiritual well-
being of the people. The famous sentence Dux
Clivia ett papa in auta terns, the reform-program
of the Bavarian grand dukes, of George of Saxony,
of Louis XIV., of Joseph II., and finally the Con-
atUution civUe du derg€ of 1700 — all these give
proof of the characteristic relation between Church
and State which had its origin in the Renaissance.
It was the fate of the Reformation to fall in the
midst of this political development. It was neces-
sary that the new Christian conmiunity should have
an outward organization; but whence was this to
oome? Considered juristically, that was a grave
question. For Luther, however, it presented no
difficulties. It was sufficient that means of grace
be provided, and immaterial how this might be
accomplished. In the end, it was found t^t the
simplest arrangement was to entrust the care of the
Church to the existing authorities. Thus arose the
German state churches, as the mature product of
the state of the sixteenth century. The Reformat
tion did not recognize the necessity for an eccle-
siastical organization distinct from that of the State.
The Church was a homogeneous mass, and each
temporal prince fostered that particular section
which was conterminous with his temporal domain.
With the appearance of dissent and the rise of
other confessions, the inadequacy of this simple
arrangement became manifest. The solution of
the difficulty was offered by the theory of natural
right, which was expounded byHobb^ (q.v.) and
Rousseau. This is the view that the State is based
upon an original agreement among the people, who
delegate to the sovereign whatever authority he
has. Every church, just as the State, is a com-
munity; but the State remains the supreme com-
mimity, in which these other commimities take
their place. Thus the State again becomes secular
in character. To be sure, the temporal prince
retains his authority over the churches. This he
no longer claims on Christian grounds, but by
right of jus territoriale. In this way the territorial
system was developed (see TERRrroRiALiBM). It
should not be forgotten that this was the form in
which tolerance first asserted itself. The next step
in the development was CoUegialism (q.v.),
which is only a palliated territorialism. The
ruling prince remains the highest authority in
the Church. The only result was that now a
sharper distinction was drawn between jura
circa sacra, rights which are naturally incident
to the position of a sovereign, and jura in sacra,
rights which are deduced from the Church. The
fact that these rights are exercised through two
sets of officials is merely incidental, being due to
considerations of convenience. Prussia affords the
classic example of this kind of relation between
Church and State.
Whatever may be characteristic of the present
position of the Church in its relations to the State
has not been brought about by any
5. The essential change in the Church, but by
Modem the wonderful development of the
State. modem State and the rapid growth
of constitutional government. The
State, as the political organization, holds the su-
preme authority, which can not be modified or
limited, except by the State itself. Such a self-
limitation, however, is the striking characteristic
of the modem constitutional State. The people
have been given a voice in the government. In
sharp contrast to the police-state, which absorbed
eveiything, has been the fostering care exercised
by the government over private organizations for
the conduct of affairs of public interest. This new
position taken by the State has been particularly
favorable to the manifestations of religious life.
Religious liberty is now generally secured to all by
state constitutions. At the head of the various
societies, or orgamzations, which now enjoy a cer-
Church and State
108
tain independence under the law, stand those great
religious communities called churches. Legally
they occupy a veiy high position; and the reason
for this is clear. Their functions are not merely
of a private nature; from time immemorial the
interests of the Church have been regarded as
national and ethically coequal with the a£fair8 of
the State itself. In a word, religion is a matter of
public interest, and is recognized as such by the
State. To be sure, the Church is subject to the
State; otherwise the sovereignty of the State would
be a fiction. On the other hand, the modem
German state waives its right to take the Church
so closely under its control as did the old police-
state. In fact, the constitutional state regards it
as essential that the independence of the Church
be maintained. This principle has been often
proclaimed, e.g., in the Frankfort Orundrechte and
in the Prussian Constitution. Thus the Church is
quite propeily given the position of a separate com-
munity, existing under the State and working for
the public weal. The legal terminology employed
to characterize this relation of Church to State
recognises self-government as the essential feature.
The French law, which has become typical, speaks
of ciUtea reconnua, not as a juristic person, but as a
part of the public authority, and calls the local
organizations itablissemerUs pu^igues, analogous to
political communities. Hence the protection and
aid rendered to the Church by the civil government.
While theoretically the State may subordinate
the Church completely to itself, in practise it does
not do it. The degree of authority
6. Relations exercised varies, as does also the
with Rome, degree of independence enjoyed by
the Church. In view of the funda-
mental conception of the State, the Roman Catholic
Church is given too much latitude in Germany
and the Protestant Church too little. In reality,
the Roman Catholic Church is not simply a self-
governing state church, holding itself subject to
the State. It remains that same remarkable world-
power which in the Middle Ages shared with the
State the fimctions of government. If the power
of Rome has been greatly diminished in the modem
State, this has been accomplished only by force.
In principle, the Roman Church has 3rielded noth-
ing. The manner in which the present organiza-
tion of the Roman Catholic Church in Germany
came into being is characteristic. The German
states entered into agreements with the Holy See
just as they would make treaties among themselves
regarding secular things (see Concordats and
Delimitino Bulla). France led the way in the
Napoleonic Concordat. The necessity of restoring
the lost equilibrium at once manifested itself,
and, too, in a curious manner. All the states, on
their own initiative, proceeded to supplement the\
treaty with Rome by promulgating laws to give \
them a certain supervision over the Roman Catho-
lic Church. Here the articles organiquea furnished
the model. Of course, such restrictions have never
been recognized by the pope; and the fact that
they are directed against him only serves to em-
phasize his position as a temporal ruler. In fol-
lowing such a couwe, the State puts itself in the
position it occupied during the Middle Ages, when
it sought to assert its authority against Rome by
means of the now obsolete placetum regium, rectir-
8U8 ab abuau, nominaiio regia, and by the exclusion
of persancB mintis gratce (see Placet; Nominatio
Rboia). That the State is unable to substitute
for these ancient institutions something more in
accord with present political ideals and conditions
can be due only to a lack of confidence in its own
sovereignty. The inner contradiction between the
theory and practise of the State in the niatter of
exercising its authority toward the Roman Catholic
Church is strikingly shown in cases where the pope
is actually invoked to curb some Romanist official
who is attacking state institutions. Thus, through
the force of tradition, the modem German state
has been placed in this false and extremely objec-
tionable attitude toward Rome.
Quite different in this regard is the position of
the Evangelical Church. In contrast to the Roman
Catholic Cliurch, which claims such a
7. The large interest in the control of external
Evangelical affairs, the Protestant body, whose
State interests are spiritual rather than
Church, temporal, would be satisfied to occupy
the modest position of a self-governing
body within the State. As a matter of fact, how-
ever, the Evangelical Church in Germany has never
attained to that measure of freedom and independ-
ence which the constitutional state recognizes to
be its right. Despite all the assurances on the side
of the government, the old territorial system, the
administration of church affairs by the State, con-
tinues to thrive. It IB futile to assert that it is not
the State, but the sovereign in person, who rules
the Church; for, in public affairs, the person of the
ruler can not be separated from the State. In
Germany it seems to be taken as a matter of course
that the Evangelical Church ought to be, -and must
be, ruled by the State. Of course, the Church enjoys
a certain academic freedom; also the provision is
maintained that the State shall exercise its rule
here through separate authorities. It was a further
step in this direction when the present synodal
system was introduced in the last century. The
local parishes have their administrative boards,
and send their representatives, clergy and laymen,
to the Synod. The General Synod, the highest
representative body, cooperates with the sovereign
in the matter of ecclesiastical legislation. The
logical outcome of this process of development
should have been complete self-government for
the Church; but such has not been the case. In-
deed, this entire movement is only a phase of that
more general movement whose object has been to
develop and strengthen the State. The Church is
organized along parallel lines with the State, and
church administration remains state administra-
tion. Just as in things temporal the sovereign
remains supreme, despite local self-government and
popular representation, so in things ecclesiastical.
The present relation between the State and the
Roman Catholic Church is recognized as imsatis-
factory, and on both sides there has been a tend-
ency to change it. To be mentioned particulariy
is that significant modem movement on the
109
Church and State
part of the State whose object has been the com-
plete separation of Church and State. In this new
departure the United States took the
& Tendency lead. Since then, strange to say, this
Toward essentially Calvinistic idea has been
SeparatioiL carried out by such Roman CathoUc
countries as Mexico, Brazil, Cuba,
and most recently by France. One might almost
8ay that the separation of the Church from the
State is recognized by a republican government as
an obligation. Such separation is due to hostility
toward the Church, and its object is the subordina-
tion of the Church. The Protestant sees nothing
(objectionable in this. In his view the fact that the
State claims a certain surveillance over the out-
ward organization of the Church has no signifi-
cance for the inner life of faith. The Roman
Catholic, on the other hand, who carries his relig-
ious sentiment into these external things, strenu-
ously opposes any influence of the State in this
direction. The Toleramanirag of the Center,
which wafl introduced in the German Reichstag in
1900, is suggestive. Under the guise of demanding
freedom for the Church in general, it embodies the
complaints of the Roman Catholics. It demands,
among other things, complete freedom for the cure
of souU throughout the empire, for the erection of
church building? and the holding of religious wor-
ship, and also demands the removal of the placetum
and of all restrictions placed by the State upon
religious societies and associations. It is this last
point, the question of religious orders, that is not
80 easily conceded. Here economic interests come
into consideration; and it is unlikely that the exist-
ing laws limiting the acquisition of property by
mortmain will be changed in the interest of religious
orders. This ToUranzantrag makes no mention of
ministerial education. The State now provides for
the education of ministers, but whether it will be
able to nationalize the clergy, and thus remove
present religious dissensions, is doubtful. The
Evangelical Church gives the State no occasion to
rciwrt to radical measiures; but naturally a separa-
tion of the Roman Catholic Church from the State
carries with it a similar separation as regards the
Evangelical Church. This is illustrated by recent
e\'ent8 in France.
While the old territorial state rendered a mag-
nificent service in rescuing the Gospel, the close
embrace of the State now threatens
9. Deca« the Church with sufiFocation. The
dence of Evangelical Church in Germany has
Protestant- completely lost the support of the
ism in masses. For them it is an institution
Gennanj. of the State, or of the aristocracy, and
part of the system which they oppose.
It is regarded as une partie du gouvemement, just as
was the Roman Catholic Church in France in the
eighteenth century. But how is any other con-
dition possible under a church regiment whose
fundamental principle is that the Church must
subserve the political interests of the State? As the
Prussian state law puts it, the Church must show
** gentleness and tolerance in doctrine and beha-
vior,'- and it " must abstain from all interference
in private and family affairs." It must maint>ftin
" quiet and order," " quiet and peace "; and that
is the main consideration for the State. This
program is carried out by German officials with
perfect fidelity to duty, and with as much love to
the Church as the Church, in its present depressed
condition, is able to inspire in them. Naturally,
the legal pastor must fit into this rigime. The
result is that in any great religious movement, for
instance against Rome, the ecclesiastical organiza-
tion may leave a Protestant people completely in
the lurch. Political interests predominate; but
such interests, which come and go with ministries,
do not coincide with those of the Evangelical
Church, whose chief interest is to extend the King-
dom of Jesus Christ.
While it woiild be a mistake for the Evangelical
Church in Germany to aim at immediate separation
from the State, the remedy for exist-
10. Self- ing evils lies in that direction. There is
Government no doubt that complete separation is
for Church only a question of time; but for the
the Remedy, present what the Protestant Church
needs is that measure of independence
which, in theory, the modem State accords to it.
The attainment of self-government is the serious
task that the Church now confronts. But those
who uphold the old territorial system ask if this is
practicable. Here the only thing worthy of earnest
consideration is the question of the continued
existence of the state church. It has been argued
that independence for the Church would bring with
it a dissolution of the religious body into innu-
merable sects, thus destroying the national charac-
ter of the Church. Although the small religious
society offers advantages in the way of individual
freedom, it must be admitted that the large com-
munity best provides for the service of the Master.
The fear, however, that the Church would disinte-
grate if released from the grasp of the State is
ungrounded. The removal of the antiquated terri-
torial system does not mean necessarily that hence-
forth there would be no relation whatsoever between
Church and State. Between the territorial system
and the French system of sheer separation there is
a mean. Self-government for the Church consti-
tutes this mean. * Under such a system the Church
would be freed from the stifling domination of the
State, without being reduced to the position of a
mere company, or association. Such a relationship
for the Church would not be inconsistent with its
popular character. In France the two branches of
the Evangelical Church have been placed in the
position of secular organizations; but even in such
a guise they continue to flourish as national
churches. The various branches of the Protestant
Church in the United States are also popular in
character, the general impression to the contrary
notwithstanding. In each case the Church is some-
thing more than the aggregate of local organiza-
tions. Over and above the local society stands the
denomination, the Church, to which others than
the members of such organizations belong. It is a
spiritual body; but as such it is formally organized.
It is provided with a constitution, and is recog-
nized by law.
From a juristic point of view the relations be-
Oharoh and State
110
tween Church and State resulting from self-gov-
ernment on the part of the Church ofifer no difficulty.
From a practical point of view the question might
be raised: Has the Evangelieal Church in Germany
the strength and vitality to maintain itself without
the support of the strong arm of the State? It
should be remembered, however, that it has been
just this antiquated system of state government
for the Church that has made such a question
possible. A people is educated by its institutions;
and in this respect the Evangelical population of
Germany has been badly educated. If the Evan-
gelical Church is now without confidence in itself
this condition of affairs is due to centuries of state
domination over the Church. It may be admitted
that independence for the Church would involve
a difficult period of transition, but it is assumed
that the State would continue to aid the Church
until the Church had become self-supporting. For
the relations between Church and State in different
countries see the articles upon the countries and
states. See also the numerous related articles,
such as Church, the Chbistian; Church Gov-
ernment; Jurisdiction, Ecclesiastical; Polity;
and Religious Corporations. (Otto Mater.)
n. The United States: The relations of the relig-
ious and political institutions in the United States
differ radically from those found elsewhere in Chris-
tendom, and need to be considered separately. The
American people are without an ecclesiastical estab-
lishment provided by organic law. The popular
description of this condition is that there is '' a
complete separation of Church and State in the
United States." While this phrase holds the kernel
of a truth, it does not fairly express that truth.
The fact of the political separation is unduly em-
phasized, while the real connection between the
two institutions is overlooked.
At the time of the settlement of this country it
was universally regarded as a normal function of
the civil power to see to it that all
X. Philo- subjects, in theory at least, sustained
sophical some definite ecclesiastical relation;
Back- and the aggregate of such relations as
ground, had the sanction and support of the
civil power constituted an ecclesias-
tical establishment. American political philosophy
aa it developed through the colonial and early
national periods preserved the concept that the
civil power is charged with a duty in respect to the
religious affairs of the people, that it has an eccle-
siastical function to perform; and it developed this
concept to the effect that it is a normal function
of the civil powers to make it politically possible
and legally convenient for all the people to sustain
volimtaiy ecclesiastical relations, or to sustain none
at all. Under the American political system all
ecclesiastical relations must be voluntary, must
be without political penalty, and must be legal;
but the demand upon the civil government as the
physically dominant institution of society to realize
these conditions is as great as it ever was to pro-
tect a state church. This obligation of American
civil governments is now confirmed by a public
opinion which has been gaining strength through
four generations and is now generally accepted
without controversy. It is now expressed in a
series of guaranties and limitations contained in
the organic law of the several commonwealths, in
a well-developed system of statute legislation pro-
viding definite legal procedure covering many eccle-
siastical relations, and in a body of notable judicial
decisions rendered by the civil courts of last resort
defining under ever changing circumstances what
shall be the relation of Church and State.
Historically, this development has been as follows:
At the outbreak of the American Revolution the
colonies were divided ecclesiastically
2. Colonial into three groups. In one group, con-
Period, sisting of New York, New Jersey,
Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, the direct
establishment of the communion of the Church of
England, without, however, a resident episcopacy,
was more or less complete in law. In a second
group, consisting of Massachusetts, New Hamp-
shire, and Connecticut, the congregational form of
ecclesiastical organization on the basis of the terri-
torial parish was established in law and in fact. In
a third group, consisting of Rhode Island and Penn-
sylvania, no ecclesiastical establishment had been
developed either in law or in fact. Wherever there
was an establishment, what may be described as
the civil chim;h law was largely political and ad-
ministrative in its character. As a result of political
revolution the direct establishments by royal au-
thority were nullified in law and degraded in popu-
lar estimation. The indirect establishments in the
New England commonwealths, inasmuch as they
were based upon provincial legislation and local
administration, remained undisturbed for some
years. There remained, however, as survivals of
the direct establishments a number of incorporated
parishes in New York and Virginia and a few in
other states. As the remains of a still eariier estab-
lishment in New York, there were several incor-
porated Reformed Dutch churches which had re-
ceived special protection by the tenns of the Treaty
of Breda (1664). During all the colonial period
dissent had resisted the legal church establishments,
especially the system of taxation for their support;
and after the overthrow of British sovereignty a
demand developed for a divorcement of political
and ecclesiastical affairs. An illustration of the
sentiment prevailing at the close of the Revolution
is to be found in an act of the Assembly of Virginia
of the year 1785, the preamble of which declares
that " to suffer this ci\^ magistrate to intrude his
powers into the field of opinion, and to restrain the
profession or propagation of principles on the sup-
position of their ill tendency, is a dangerous fallacy
which at once destroys all religious liberty," and
that " it is time enough for the rightful purposes of
civil government for its ofiScials to interfere when
principles break out into overt acts against peace
and good order."
At the formation of the Federal government relig-
ious liberty was seciu^ to the people of the United
States, as far as the action of Congress was con-
cerned, by provision of the Constitution (art. iv.,
chap. 3, and the first amendment). It wiU be seen
that both of these provisions are limitations upon the
Ill
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Church and State
powers of Congress only. That body might pass
no law in order to establish a state religion, neither
could it provide any religious test as a
3. Coadi- qualification for holding office under
tions alter the Federal government. The framers
the Revo- of the Constitution did not under-
lution. take to protect the religious liberty of
the people against the action of their
respective state governments. Religious affairs
were declared to be within the sphere of domestic
relations, and therefore reserved to the control of
the states. The development of the local pecul-
iarities in the ecclesiastical institutions of the sev-
eral sections of the coimtry continued without
inteiTuptaon. The colonial legislatures had granted
a few charters of incorporation to local churches,
and this practise was continued for a few years by
the state legislatures. It was, however, soon aban-
doned because of the popular sympathy ^ith the
complaint that such particular charters of incor-
poration constituted special legislation secured
through political influence. After the Revolution
there arose a demand in the middle states for a
uniform procedure by which the local organizations
of all religious denominations might receive a cor-
porate form. To meet the needs of the time legis-
lation was enacted which introduced the second
stage in the development of American ecclesiastical
policy, via., the era of the general statute. The
first general statute that could serve the churches
of all denominations became law in New York on
April 6, 1784. An act of similar intent and like
provisions was passed in 1793 by the state of New
Jersey, and} these two statutes with their subse-
quent revisions became the models for similar
statutes in many of the northern states. These
early statutes resulted from the necessity of pro-
viding legal trustees with a standing in court, in
whom mi^t rest the title to property devoted to
religious purposes. They were enacted at a time
of little religious interest and of bare toleration of
religious bodies by legislators. The powers con-
ferred upon religious corporations that might come
into being under these general statutes were very
limited; and in no state were such corporations
allowed to be self-perpetuating. Partiality to re-
ligious denominations on the part of the state
legislatures was dreaded, and there was also a very
real fear among the lawmakers themselves lest
something might be done toward recreating an
ecclesiastical establishment. The method of pro-
viding for the incorporation of religious societies
by means of a general statute has developed un-
equally in different sections of the country, and it
has not yet been adopted by all the states. As late
as 1866, the states of Rhode Island, Virginia, and
South Carolina had no such statute; and in 1896 a
general statute of incorporation was still forbidden
by constitution in the states of Virginia and West
Virginia.
A third stage in the development of American
civil church law has come as the residt of special-
ising legislation with reference to religious organi-
zations in two directions. In one direction in-
creased discrimination has been made between
ecclesiastical bodies proper, and other social, edu-
cational, and philanthropic organizations. The
second form of specialization, however, is of far
more importance than the first. In the
4. Special states having the most highly developed
Legislation, legislation the general provisions of
the statutes have, from time to time,
been supplemented by special optional provisions
affecting convocations of particular religious de-
nominations. The demand for this class of legis-
lation has in nearly every case come from the
churches themselves. As the denominations have
grown in strength and their members have devel-
oped a more intelligent interest in their own special
features of polity, many of them have made efforts
to find legal expression for the essential features of
their respective polities. Through these supple-
mental provisions, there has been wrought into the
statute law of many of the states the recognition of
purely ecclesiastical functionaries. It can not now
be said to be the intention of the legislatures to
keep the control of the temporal affairs of the
churches in the hands of corporations, " inde-
pendent of priest, bishop, presbytery, or synod or
other ecclesiastical judicatory.'' There has devel-
oped in recent years a marked legislative cordiality
toward the churches. While at the beginning of
the nineteenth century the avowed policy in
American legislation was to treat all religious in-
terests alike by doing as little as possible for any
of them and forcing all to conform to one procedure,
at the beginning of the twentieth century the policy
seems to be to treat all interests alike by giving to
each all that is asked.
The early concept of religious organization in
American law was very naturally that of a simple
and completely autonomous local society. To de-
nominations whose types of polity correspond to
this concept the legislation of the general statute
era has been satisfactory. The special optional
provisions referred to, have, therefore, been enacted
for the benefit of churches having polities by which
the local bodies sustain a definite relation to some
more general authority. It has been those denomi-
nations which have an administrative or episcopal
type of organization that have shown the greatest
energy in securing denominational legislation of the
kind mentioned. At the present time twenty-five
distinct religious denominations have thus been
specially legislated for. The statutes of sixteen
states now contain special provisions for the in-
corporation and regulation of Protestant Episcopal
chiurches. Eight states make similar provision for
Roman Catholic churches, and seven states for
Methodist Episcopal churches. The privilege that
is being accorded to religious bodies of having such
legislation enacted as best developed their respect-
ive polities is resulting in what may be defined as a
legal crystallization of ecclesiastical polity. Pres-
byteries, conferences, synods, classes, conventions,
superintendents, overseers, presiding elders, vicars
general, bishops, and archbishops, have come to
have a legal status by virtue of their ecclesiastical
status and legal powers incidental to their spiritual
jurisdiction. Such features of ecclesiastical or-
ganization as secure recognition in the civil law are
thereby less liable to alteration than the non-legal
Ohuroh and State
Ohtirohyard
112
features, and more capable of resisting the influ-
ences of social environment.
The fmidamental principles of political philosophy
which were to regulate the relations of Church and
State among the American people had been well
defined and generally accepted while the nation was
still confined to the original states along the Atlantic
coast; and successive expansions of the national
domain have not resulted in any radical changes of
policy. The same principles have been applied by
the Federal government in Alaska, the Hawaiian
Islands, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands.
Nowhere has the civil power failed in its function
of affording legal protection and procedure for
religious organizations, and nowhere have the
churches exceeded these legal powers and infringed
upon civil rights. The alien peoples who have
come under American political training give evi-
dence of appreciating the altered relation of Church
and State. After more than one hundred years of
test under all conditions, it is now as true as at the
beginning of American national life that the full
and free right to entertain any religious belief, to
practise any religious principle, and to teach any
religious doctrine which does not violate the laws
of morality, and which does not infringe personal
rights, is conceded to all. The law knows no heresy,
is committed to the support of no dogma and to the
establishment of no sect. George James Batles.
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