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Cabot, Marston a Congregational minister, was born at Salem, Mass. He graduated in 1724, and was ordained over the Church North at Killingly, Conn., in 1730. He is said to have been attacked with apoplexy in the pulpit, and to have died a few hours after, April 8, 1756. He published five sermons. See *Cong. Quarterly, *1861, p. 156.

Cabral, Francios a Jesuit missionary, was born in 1528 at Covilhaa, in Portugal, and entered the Society of Jesus at Goa. Appointed a missionary, he traversed great part of India and Asia. After spending several years as professor of theology at Goa, he was made vice-provincial in Japan. He baptized, in 1575, the king of Bungo, who several years before had received hospitably Francis Xavier, but was not converted until the arrival of Cabral. He passed over into China, where he labored abundantly, and thence returned to Goa, where he governed the house of the Professed thirty-eight years. He died at Goa, April 16, 1609.-Alegambe, *Script. Soc. Jesu; *Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *8:36.

Cabrera (Morales), Francisco a Spaniard, who lived in the 17th century, and taught at Salaxnanca. His *History of the Popes, *joined to that of Chacon and Vettorini, was printed in 1630. A new edition of the work of Chacon was brought down by Oldoini to 1677. Supplements by Guarnacci to 1740. and by J. P. de Cinque and R. Fabricius to 1756, have been added.

Cabrera, Alfonso De a Spanish Dominican, was born at Cordova about the middle of the 16th century. He was sent, soon after his elevation to the priesthood, to preach the Gospel in America. After his return he preached with wonderful success in the chief cities of Spain; and died, worn out by his excessive labors, Nov. 20, 1598, before he had completed his fiftieth year. He left four volumes of sermons and some treatises, which have often been printed in Spain, and at Paris and Palermo.

Cabrera, Pedro a Spanish theologian, brother of Alfonso, was a priest of the order of St. Jerome of Cordova in the 17th century. He first taught philosophy and afterwards theology, at Cordova and elsewhere. He wrote a *Commentary *on the *Summa *of St. Thomas (Cordova, 1602,2 vols. 8vo). See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, s.v.*

Cabrisseau, Nicolas a French theologian, was born at Rethel, Oct. 1, 1680. He was highly esteemed by Tellier, archbishop of Rheims, but persecuted by the successor of that prelate as refractory to episcopal authority. In 1722 he was banished thirty leagues from the archiepiscopal jurisdiction, and was employed by cardinal Noailles at Paris; but was persecuted afresh :and imprisoned at Vincennes, and finally sent in exile to Tours, where he died, Oct. 20,1750. He wrote some practical religious works, for which see Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v.

Ca'bul (Hebrews *Kabul', *כָּבוּל*, *according to etymology, *bound, *but signification uncertain [see below]), the name of a town and a district. **1. **(Sept. Χαβώλ*, *but other copies blend with the following words into Χωβαμασομέλ.) A city on the eastern border of the tribe of Asher, and apparently at the northern part, beyond Beth-Emek (Jos 19:27). It seems to correspond to the village *Chabolo *(Χαβωλώ) mentioned by Josephus *(Lfe, § *43, 45) as on the confines of Ptolemais, in Galilee, 40 stadia from Jotapata. A fortress by the name of *Kabul *is mentioned by Arabian geographers in the district of Safed (Rosenmiuller, *Analect. Arab. *in, 20). Dr. Robinson, during his last visit to Palestine, accordingly found a village called *Kabul *on his way to Accho, situated "on the left, among the lower hills" *(Biblioth. Sacra, *1853, p. 121; *Later Bibl. Res. *p. 88; for Talmudical notices, see Schwarz, *Palest. *p. 192). **2. **(Sept. translates ῞Οριον*, boundary, *but in neglect of the context, ver. 12, which favors the derivation of Simonis *[Ononmast. *p. 417] and Hiller *[Onomast. *p. 435, 775], as i.q. "something exhaled, as nothing ;" Josephus *[Ant. 8:*5, 3] calls it Χαβαλών*, *and says [apparently from conjecture] that it is a Phoenician word indicative of *dissatisfaction.) *A district containing "twenty cities," given to Hiram, king of Tyre, by Solomon, in acknowledgment of the important services which he had rendered toward the building of the Temple (1Ki 9:13). Hiram was by no means pleased with the gift, and the district received the name of Ca. bul (as if signifying *unpleasing) *from this circumstance. The situation of Cabul has been disputed; but we are content to accept the information of Josephus *(Ant. *8:5, 3), who seems to place it in the north-west part of Galilee, adjacent to Tyre. The foregoing town, named Cabul (Jos 19:27), being also in Galilee, it is possible that it was one of the twenty towns consigned to Hiram, who, to mark his dissatisfaction, applied the significant name of this one town to the whole district. The cause of Hiram's dislike to what Solomon doubtless considered a liberal gift is very uncertain. It has been conjectured (Kitto, *Pictorial Bible, *note on 1Ki 9:13) that "probably, as the Phoenicians were a maritime and commercial people, Hiram wished rather for a part of the coast, which was now in the hands of Solomon, and was therefore not prepared to approve of a district which might have been of considerable value in the eyes of an agricultural people like the Hebrews. Perhaps the towns were in part payment of what Solomon owed Hiram for his -various services and contributions." *SEE HIRAM.*

Cacalla a Spanish martyr, was a friar of Austin's order, and priest of the town of Valladolid, in Spain, and preacher sometime to the emperor Charles V. He was burned in 1560. See Fox, *Acts and Monuments, *iv, 454.

Caccia, Guglielmo (called *il Moncalvo), *an eminent Piedmontese painter, was born at Montalbano, in Montferrat, in 1568.. He settled first at Milan, and painted in the Church of San Antonio Abate a representation of the titular saint, with *St. Paul. *His best oil paintings are, *St. Peter, *in the Chiesa della Croce; *St. Theresa, *in the church of that name; the *Descent from the Cross, *which many consider his masterpiece, in San Gaudenzio, at Novara; also, the *Raising of Lazarus *and the *Miracle of the Loaves. *He died in 1625. See Spooner, *Biog. Hist. of the Fine Arts, *s.v.; Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, s.v.*

Caccia, Orsola Maddelena and Prancesca, daughters and scholars of Guglielmo Caccia. They assisted their father in his fresco works, and are the only women ever known to have practiced this branch of the art. In Montferrat they painted a number of cabinet pictures, and more altar-pieces than any other females. Orsola founded the convent of the Ursulines at Moncalvo, the chapel of which is decorated with some altar-pieces by her. There is also *a Holy Family. *Orsola died in 1678, and Francesca at the age of fifty-seven. See Spooner, *Biog. Hist. of the Fine Arts, *s.v.; Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale,*

Abarca, Pedro a Spanish Jesuit, was born at Jaca, in Aragon, in 1619. He entered the Society of Jesuits in 1641, and, after teaching theology at Salamanca for more than twenty-five years, died at Valencia, Oct. 11, 1693. He wrote, *A History of the Kings of Aragon (1682-84), *in Spanish: — and treatises on *The Knowledge and Will of God, Predestination, The Trinity, *and *The Incarnation and Perfection of Jesus Christ, *all in Latin. See *Biblioth. Hisp. *2, 130; *Journal des Savans, *1774, p. 324.

Ab'arim (Heb. *Abarim', *עֲב2ַָ2רַים*, *regions *beyond, *i.e. east of the Jordan; Sept. 'Αβαρίμ*, *but τὸ πέραν in Nu 27:12, Vulg. *Abarim; *in Jer 22:20, Sept. τὸ πέραν τῆς θαλάσσης, Vulg. *transeuntes,* Auth. Vers. "passages"), a mountain (הִד הָעֵבָרַים, Nu 27:12; De 32:49), or rather chain of hills (הָעֲבָרַים הָדֵי, Nu 33:47-48), which form or belong to the mountainous district east of the Dead Sea and the lower Jordan, being situated in the land of Moab (Nu 21:11), on the route to Palestine (Nu 27:12). It was the last station but one of the Hebrews on their way from Egypt to Canaan (Nu 33:47-48). *SEE IJE-ABARIM*. The range presents many distinct masses and elevations, commanding extensive views of the country west of the river (Irby and Mangles, p. 459). From one of the highest of these, called Mount Nebo, Moses surveyed the Promised Land before he died (De 32:49). From the manner in which the names Abarim, Nebo, and Pisgah are connected (De 32:49; De 34:1), it would seem that they were different names of the same general mountain chain. *SEE NEBO*. According to Josephus, who styles it *Abaris *('Αβαρ]ς, *Ant. *4:8, 48), it was "a very high mountain, situated opposite Jericho," and Eusebius (*Onomast. *Ναβαà) locates it six miles west of Heshbon. The name Abarim has been tortured by some disciples of the Faber and Bryant school of etymologists into a connection with the name of a district of Egypt called *Abaris *or *Avaris *(Josephus, *Apn, *1:14), and so with the system of Egyptian idolatry, from the deity of the same name. Affinities between the names of two of the peaks of this range, Nebo and Peor, have also been traced with those of other Egyptian deities, Anubis and Horis. There is no good foundation for such speculations.

Abaris *SEE ABARIM; SEE AVARIS*.

Abaris (ςΑβαρις), in Greek legend, was **(1) **a priest of Apollo, whom the latter presented with a golden arrow, by which he was able to fly around the earth. It is related of him (Herod. 4:36) that he came from the Hyperboreans, about the time of Croesus, to Greece in order to deliver that country from a frightful plague. He built a temple to Proserpina at Sparta (Strabo, 8, 301; Pausan. iii, 13, 2). He is said by Iamblicus, in his *Life of Pythagoras, *to have performed wonders by means of an arrow which he had received from Apollo. Brucker relates that, in the time of a general plague, Abaris was sent by the Scythians on an embassy to the Athenians. This plague happened in the third Olympiad. There seems little reason to doubt that Abaris went from place to place imposing upon the vulgar by false pretensions to supernatural powers. He passed through Greece, Italy, and many other countries, giving forth oracular predictions, pretending to heal diseases by incantation, and practicing other acts of imposture. Some of the later Platonists, in their zeal against Christianity, collected the many fabulous tales reported of Abaris, and exhibited them in opposition to the miracles of Christ. **(2.) **A table companion or a friend of king Turnus. **(3.) **An inhabitant of Caucasus who was slain by the hand of Perseus on the occasion of his marriage with Andromeda. See Smith, *Dict. of Class. Biog. and Mythol. *s.v.

Abarus in Greek mythology was a surname of *Apollo, *after Abas, a city in Phocis, where he had a temple. This temple was prized so highly, because of its ancient statues, that, after being destroyed twice, in the Persian and the Holy War, it was rebuilt.

Abas in Greek legend, was **(1) **a king of Argos, renowned mainly through his great-grandson Perseus. His father was Lynceus, his mother Hypermnestra, and the fierce and cruel Danaus was his grandfather. Abas brought Lynceus the news of Danaus's death, for which he was presented with a costly shield which Danaus had consecrated to Juno. **(2.) **A son of Neptune and Arethusa, a river nymph. This nymph had appealed to Diana for protection from the persecution of Alpheus. She was therefore changed into a cloud and then into water. **(3). **A son of Melampus and Iphianassa, a daughter of Protus. **(4.) **An associate of Diomedes, who was transformed into a stormy petrel by Venus. **(5.) **One of the Centaurs who opposed the Lapithae.

Abaskanton was an amulet worn by the Greeks as a preventive against becoming bewitched.

Abassines a sect of the Greek Church, inhabiting an extended and wooded region along the coast of the Black Sea. They are a rough variety of the Circassians, and support themselves chiefly by plunder and piracy. From their isolated position they have fallen away from many of the doctrines and practices of the Eastern Church, to which they nominally belong. They observe several feasts, and believe in the seven sacraments, holding confession to be one of them; but they neither confess the number nor the particular species of their sins, exclaiming only in general, "I have sinned, I have sinned." On the repetition of this declaration, the offenders are absolved in a few words accompanied with some gentle stripes upon the side with an olive twig. But in the case of heinous crimes such as homicide, adultery, and theft they are often severely scourged. Their funeral rites are ushered in by cries, sighs, and groans. The relations of the deceased lash themselves, and the women disfigure their faces while the priest says a requiem over the deceased and perfumes the corpse. They put their dead into coffins constructed out of the hollowed trunks of trees, and bound round with the sprigs on branches of vines. After the performance of the funeral obsequies they bring out provisions and lay them upon the sepulchres of their deceased friends.

Abata (ἄβατα*, inaccessible), *a name given in early times to the altar, on account of the exclusion of the laity therefrom. The Council of Trullo (q.v.), canon 69, decreed "that no layman whatsoever should come into the altar part, except only the emperor, when he had made his oblation to the Creator, according to ancient custom." It was called *adyta *by the Latins. See Bingham, *Christ. Antiq. *bk. 8 ch. 6, § 7.

Abati, Ercole grandson of the following, was born at Modena in 1563. He was a talented genius, but disgraced himself by intemperance. He dashed off his work with negligence and haste, but with such ingenuity of composition as to make us lament his idleness and. dissipation. In the Gallery of Florence there is a fine picture of his the *Marriage at Cana. *In connection with Schildon, He painted some pictures in the Council Hall at Florence. He died in 1613.

Abati, Niccolo an eminent historical painter, was born at Modena in 1512. He was a scholar of Antionio Begarelli, an old designer and sculptor, and probably received instruction from Correggio. At the age of thirty-five he painted his celebrated work, the *Martyrdom of St. Peter, *for the Church of the Benedictines, now in the Dresden Gallery, which brought him into immediate notice. He afterwards painted, in the Candiano Palace, twelve pictures illustrating scenes from the twelve books of the *Eneid, *which were highly praised by Lanzi. These pictures are now in the Florentine Gallery. In the prime of life he went to Bologna, where he executed, in the Palazzo Leoni, in fresco, a *Nativity, *and at the Institute four subjects in a frieze representing musical assemblies and conversations; they were composed with such fine taste and elegance that they became the models of the Caraccii, in proof of which Agostino Caracci wrote a sonnet in his praise, in which he attributed to him the symmetry of Raphael, the sublimity of Michael Angelo, the truth of Titian, the greatness of Correggio, and the grace of Parmigiano. His practice was so excellent that it is said he never had occasion to retouch his work when dry. When Primaticcio was invited to the court of France by Francis II to decorate the royal galleries, he selected Abati to assist him in the great work, esteeming him the most efficient. Abati died in Paris in 1571. Of his numerous fresco paintings but four remain, and his oil paintings are very rare. His great works at Modena and Bologna have been engraved by Domenico Cunego.

Abatini, Guido Ubaldo, a distinguished painter of history in fresco, was born probably in 1600, and was early admitted into the Academy at Rome. He was a disciple of Cavaliere Guiseppe Cesari. One of his principal works is on the ceiling of the Chapel of St. Theresa, in the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria at Rome. He died in 1656.

Abaur *(Great Third) *is a mystical spirit mentioned in chapter 42 of the Egyptian *Ritual of the Dead.*

Abauzit, Firmin a French Unitarian, was born at Uzes, in Languedoc, Nov. 11, 1679. Though his mother was a Protestant, he was forcibly placed in a Roman Catholic seminary, to be educated as a Papist. His mother succeeded in recovering him, and placed him at school in Geneva. At nineteen he traveled into Holland and England, and became the friend of Bayle and Newton. Returning to Geneva, he rendered important assistance to a society engaged in preparing a translation of the New Testament into French (published in 1726). In 1727 he was appointed public librarian in Geneva, and was presented with the freedom of the city. He died at Geneva, March 20, 1767. Though not a copious writer, he was a man of great reputation in his day, both in philosophy and theology. Newton declared him "a fit man to judge between Leibnitz and himself." Rousseau describes him as the ''wise and modest Abauzit," and Voltaire pronounced him "a great man." His knowledge was extensive in the whole circle of antiquities, in ancient history, geography, and chronology. His manuscripts were burned after his death by his relatives at Uzes, who had become Romanists; his printed works are collected, in part, in *OEuvres Diverses de Firmin Abauzit *(Amsterdam, 1773, 2 vols.). Many of his theological writings are contained in a volume entitled *Miscellanies on Historical, Theological, and Critical Subjects, *transl. by E. Harwood, D.D. (Lond. 1774, 8vo). A list of his works is given by Haag, *La France Protestante,* 1:3. See, also, Hoefer, *Biog. Generale, *1:38.

Ab'ba ('Αββᾶ, אִבָּא*) *is the Hebrew word אָב, *father, *under a form (the "emphatic" or definite state — the father) peculiar to the Chaldee idiom (Mr 14:36; Ro 8:15; Ga 4:6). **1. **As such, it was doubtless in common use to express the paternal relation, in the mixed Aramaean dialect of Palestine, during the New Testament age. Especially would it be naturally employed from infancy in addressing the male parent, like the modern *papa; *hence its occurrence in the New Testament only as a *vocative *(Winer, *Gram. of the New-Test. Diction, § *29)'. Its reference to God (comp. Jer 3:4; Joh 8:41) was common among the later Jews (Hamburger, *Real-Encyklop. *s.v.). To guard against the appearance of too great familiarity, however, the writers of the New Testament, instead of translating the title into its Greek equivalent, πάπα, have retained it in its foreign form — one of emphasis and dignity; but they have in all cases added its meaning, for the convenience of their merely Greek readers. Hence the phrase *"Abba, father" *in its two-fold form *(Critica Biblica, *2:445). **2. **Through faith in Christ all true Christians pass into the relation of sons; are permitted to address God with filial confidence in prayer; and to regard themselves as heirs of the heavenly inheritance. This adoption into the family of God inseparably follows our justification; and the power to call God our Father, in this special and appropriative sense, results from the inward testimony of our forgiveness given by the Holy Spirit. *SEE ADOPTION*. **3. **The word Abba in after ages came to be used in the Syriac, Coptic, and Ethiopic churches, in an improper sense, as a title given to their bishops (D'Herbelot, *Bibl. Orient. s.v.*), like *padre, *etc., in Roman Catholic countries.' The bishops themselves bestow the title Abba more eminently upon the Bishop of Alexandria; which gave occasion for the people to call him Baba, or Papa, that is, grandfather — a title which he bore before the Bishop of Rome.

Abbacy the office of abbot (q.v.). Abbadion*. *(ἀββάδιον), a Greek term for an obscure monk.

Abbadie, Jacques, born about 1658, at Nay, in Bearn, studied at Saumur and Sedan. His proficiency was so early and so great, that at seventeen he received the title of D.D. from the Academy at Sedan. In 1676 he incepted an invitation from the Elector of Brandenburg, and was for some time pastor of the French Protestant church at Berlin. The French congregation at Berlin was at first but thin; but upon the revocation of the edict of Nantes great numbers of the exiled Protestants retired to Brandenburg, where they were received with the greatest humanity; so that Dr. Abbadie had in a little time a great charge, of which he took all possible care; and, by his interest at court, did many services to his distressed countrymen. The Elector dying in 1688, Abbadie accepted a proposal from Marshal Schomberg to go with him to Holland, and afterward to England with the Prince of Orange. In the autumn of 1689 he accompanied the Marshal to Ireland, where he continued till after the Battle of the Boyne, in 1690, in which his great patron was killed. He returned to London, was appointed minister of the French Church in Savoy; next was made dean of Killaloe, in Ireland, and died near London, Sept. 15 (other authorities say Oct. 2 or 6), 1727. His chief work is his *Traiti de la Verite de la Religion Chretienne *(Rotterd. 1692, 2 vols. 12mo), which has passed through several editions, and has been translated into several languages (in English, Lond. 1694-8, 2 vols. 8vo). Madame de Sevigne called it "the most charming of books;" and, though written by a Protestant, it found just favor among French Romanists, and even at the court of Louis XIV. His other principal writings are: *Reflexions sur la Presence du Corps de Jesus Christ dans l'Euchariste; Les Caracteres du Chretien et da Christianisme; Traite de la Divinite de Notre Seigneur Jesus Christ; L'Art de se connaitre *(Rotterd. 1692, translated into different languages); *La Verite de la Religion Reformee *(Rotterd. 1718, 2 vols. 8vo); *Le Triomp de la Providence et de la Religion, *an explanation of a portion of the Apocalypse (Amst. 1723, 4 vols. 12mo); *Accomplishment of Prophecy in Christ *(Lend. new ed. 1840, 12mo). A full list of his writings is given by Haag, *La France Protestante,* 1:7. — Hoefer, *Biog. Generale *1:38.

Abbadopresbuteros (ἀββαδοπρεσβύτερος), a Greek term for a monk who is in priest's orders.

Abbahu a Jewish teacher of the 4th century (279-320), is well known for his proficiency in Greek, and even instructed his daughter in that language. He is also known for his polemics and attacks against the Trinity and the ascension of Christ (Jerus. *Taanith. *ii, 656; *Genesis Rabba, c. 29; Exodus Rabba, *c. 29). Of this Abbahu we read *(Abodah Sarah, fol. *4 a) that he recommended a certain rabbi Saphra to a noble Christian. At this recommendation the Christian exempted rabbi Saphra from taxation for thirteen years. When the Christian asked rabbi Saphra about the meaning of the passage in Am 3:2, and perceived his ignorance, he asked rabbi Abbahu about its meaning. Having received a satisfactory answer, the Christian asked, "Why is rabbi Saphra, whom you recommended to me as a great man, so ignorant in the Scriptures, which thou didst explain immediately?" To this rabbi Abbahu answered "We who come in contact with you Christians are obliged for our self-preservation to study the Scriptures, because you dispute so often with us from the Scriptures; but the other Jews who live among Gentiles have no use of that, since they do not dispute with them concerning the Scriptures." The Samaritans he regarded as heathen, and forbade the use of their wine *(Cholin, *fol. *6 *b). Of his maxims we mention, "Be always of the persecuted, but not of the persecutors" *(Babd Kamma, *fol. 93); "Better to commit a sin secretly than to profane the name of God openly" *(Pesachim; *fol. 56); "In the place where the penitent stands, not even the righteous can stand" *(Sanhedrin, *fol. 99). When he died, it was hyperbolically said that "the columns of Caesarea shed tears" *(Moed Katan, *fol 25 a) See Hamburger, *Real- Encyklopadie*, 2, 4 sq. (B.P.)

Abbandus (Or Abandus) a priest and theologian of the 12th century, was a contemporary of Berenger and Abelard. We have nothing accurate concerning his life. He was the author of *Tractaius de Factione Corporis Christi in Eucharistia, *inserted in the third volume of the *Analectia *of Mabillon. This is a treatise against those who claim that the breaking of the body of Jesus Christ in the eucharist is only such in appearance, and not in reality. After the condemnation of Berenger, many questions arose as to the sense of certain articles in the Confession which had been proposed to him for signature in the Synod of Rome. Among other things, it was said by some that the breaking of the body of Christ was only *made in the species of bread; *others maintained that it was the actual body which was broken. The former held that after the change of the bread and wine into the substance of the body and blood of Jesus Christ, the species of bread and wine remained, and. that the breaking was made only in them. The second party held a change in the species as well as in the substance. Abbandus supported the latter view. He is said to have died about 1142. See Ceillier, *Hist. des Auteurs Sacer. et Eccl. *12, 197.

Abbanus ST., the name of two Irish abbots. **(1.) **Of Cill-Abbain, in Ui-Muireadhaigh, County Meath, is probably identical with St. Abban of Cill-Abbain. He was originally named Blaih, and was a son of the sister of St. Ibar, the contemporary of St. Patrick, in the 5th century. Of him nothing certain is known. He is commemorated in the calendars March 16. **(2.) **Of Magh-Arnuidhe, in Ui-Ceinseallaigh, County Wexford, the son of the sister of St. Coemgen, in the 6th century, is commemorated Oct. 27. Twenty monasteries are mentioned as having been founded by this saint, almost all in the southern half of Ireland. See O'Clery, *Martyrol. Dungall.; *Colgan, *Acta SS. Hibernie; Acta SS. Octobris, *12, 270.

Abbas. Two different authors are frequently quoted by this title. **1. **A celebrated canonist who flourished in 1250, and wrote a Commentary on the Five Books of Decretals, printed at Venice in 1588, folio. He is known as *Abbas antiquus.* **2. **The celebrated Nicholas Tudeschi, the Panormitan, known as *Abbas Siculus *or *Abbas junior. SEE PANORMITAN*.

Abbas (Α᾿ββᾶς), a Greek term for (1) father, (2) a monk, and (3) an abbot.

Abbas (properly *Abd-el-Mottalib), *the paternal uncle of Mohammed and progenitor of the Mohammedan dynasty of the *Abbassides *(q.v.), was born at Mecca about A.D. 566. He was but four years the senior of Mohammed, and was still a pagan when the prophet began his public career, and long remained his open enemy. He fought against Mohammed in the battle of Bedr, and was taken prisoner; but as soon as the cause of the prophet seemed to succeed he gave in his adhesion to the new faith, and defended it zealously. When Mecca surrendered to Mohammed, the holy well Zemzem was retained, although a monument of paganism, in deference to Abbas, its keeper. He was the chief mourner at Mohammed's funeral, and his presence and memory were treated with great respect by the caliphs.

Abbassides a name given to the third Mohammedan dynasty, the caliphs of Bagdad, which was founded by Abul Abbas, who claimed the caliphate as lineal descendant of Mohammed's uncle, Abbas (q.v.) from whom the name is derived. The Abbassides were the successors of the Ommiads, the caliphs of Damascus. Early in the 8th century the family of Abbas had acquired great influence; and Ibrahim, the fourth in descent from Abbas, obtained several successes over the Ommiads, but was captured and put to death in 747. Ibrahim's brother, Abul-Abbas, whom he had named his heir, assumed the title of caliph, and, by a decisive victory near the river Zab in 750, effected the overthrow of the Ommiad dynasty. The vanquished family was treated with such severity that Abul Abbas gained the surname of Al- Saffah, the Bloody. On the death of Abul Abbas, Al-Mansur succeeded to the throne, and founded Bagdad as the seat of the empire. The descendants of Abul Abbas to the number of thirty-six, the last of whom was Mostasem, reigned until 1258, when the dynasty was expelled by Hulaku Khan. The line includes the illustrious names of Al-Mansur, Haroun al- Rashid, and Al-Mamun, but from the 10th century they sank to mere spiritual chiefs. of Islam. After their deposition at Bagdad, in 1258, a member of the family, named Ahmed, fled to Egypt, where he was recognised as caliph, and his descendants reigned there, under the protection of the Mamelukes, until Egypt was conquered by the Turks, in 1517. Motawakkel III, the last caliph, was taken by Sultan Selim I, the conqueror of Egypt, to Constantinople, and detained there some time as a prisoner. He afterwards returned to Egypt, and died at Cairo, a pensionary of the Ottoman government, in 1538.

Abbat the same as *abbot *(q.v.).

Abbati the name of a sect of the Vaudois, which was spread over Italy towards the end of the 14th century, and are charged with having indulged in every kind of brutality. They lasted, however, but a short time.

Abbatia (ἀββατεία), a Greek term for an abbey or monastery.

Abbatissa *SEE ABBESS*.

Abbe the French name for abbot (q.v.). It is used in France not only to designate the superior of an abbey, but is also the general title of the secular clergy. Before the French Revolution it was even sometimes assumed by theological students (unordained) in the hope that the king would confer upon them a portion of the revenues of some abbey. There were at one time in France so many unordained abbes, poor and rich, men of quality and men of low birth, that they formed a particular class in society, and exerted an important influence over its character. They were seen everywhere; at court, in the halls of justice, in the theaters, the coffee- houses, etc. In almost every wealthy family was an abbe, occupying the post of familiar friend and spiritual adviser, and not seldom, that of the gallant of the lady. They corresponded, in a certain degree, to the philosophers who lived in the houses of the wealthy Romans in the time of the emperors.

Abbe commendataire. *SEE ABBOTT*.

Abbes, Guillaume a French theologian and native of Bedarieux, lived in the first half of the 17th century. He was at first canon of St. Sebastian's at Narbonne, then of the Church of St. Paul, and pronounced the funeral oration of Claude of Rebe, archbishop of Narbonne. He wrote *Le Parfait Orateur *(Narbonne, 1648), a rare book. See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v.

Abbes, James an English martyr of the 16th century, was a Christian who, because of his devotion to God and his fellow-men, was compelled to travel from place to place to avoid the peril of being apprehended. He was finally caught by some wicked men, and taken before the bishop of Norwich and examined. They threatened him in order to make him desist from his pious labors, until he yielded to their wishes against his conscience. The bishop gave him a piece of money; but poor James had scarcely left the house when his conscience troubled him so, that he went immediately to the bishop again, and threw the money which he had given him into his lap, saying, "I am sorry that I consented to your wicked persuasions." The bishop began anew some scheme by which to win him over, but all was in vain. He was therefore taken to Bury, Aug. 2, 1555, and burned. See Fox, *Acts and Monuments, *7, 328.

Abbess (Lat. *abbatissa), *the superior or head of an abbey of nuns, bearing the same relation to them as the abbot to the monks. An abbess possesses in general the same dignity and authority as an abbot, except that she cannot exercise the spiritual functions appertaining to the priesthood *(Conc. Trident. *Sess. 25, c. 7). Generally the abbess must be chosen from the nuns of the same convent; she must be sprung from legitimate marriage, must be over forty years old, and must have observed the vows for eight years. In case of emergency, however, any nun of the order who is thirty years old, and has professed five years, may be elected. In Germany fifteen abbesses (of Essen, Elten, Quedlinburg, Herford, Gandersheim, etc.) had formerly the right of sending a representative to the German Diet, and possessed a kind of episcopal jurisdiction, which they exercised through an *official. *After the Reformation the superiors of several German abbeys, which were changed into Protestant institutions of ladies living in common, retained the title "abbess." *SEE ABBEY; SEE ABBOT *.

Abbess the female superior of a body of nuns. The office of abbess was elective and for life (triennial abbesses, however are mentioned belonging to years so late as 1565, 1583). An abbess was restricted to one monastery; was bound to render obedience to the bishop in all things; and was subject to be deprived for misconduct, but only upon report of the bishop to the king. She was bound, also, to give account of monastic property to both king and bishop was entitled to absolute obedience, possessing ample powers of discipline, even to expulsion, but could not excommunicate; neither could she give the veil or ordain. In France an abbess was not to leave her monastery, save once a year if summoned by the king, with the bishop's consent, to his presence upon monastic business. Neither was she to speak to any man except upon necessary business, and then before witnesses, and between the first hour of the day and evening. Abbesses had no power to choose confessors for themselves or for their nuns without the sanction of the ordinary. There have been instances of abbesses attending provincial synods, when they were distinguished by the pastoral staff and veil of prelacy (conferred at sixty years of age). The dress of an abbess in the 12th century consisted only of a long white tunic with close sleeves, probably of linen, and a black surtout of equal length with sleeves large and loose, and a hood drawn up so as to cover the head completely.

Ab-beth-din (אב בת דין, i.e. *the father *or head *of the house of judgment, *or juridical college) is a term used in the Talmud to denote the vice-president of the Sanhedrim, who sat at the right of the *nasi, *or president, while at the left sat the *chacham, *i.e. the wise man. These three persons were called "the ancient," or זקני, also "the judges," or דיני. In the absence of the nasi, the ab-beth-din presided. The other members of the Sanhedrim occupied places according to their rank in the college. At a late period a certain punctilious etiquette prevailed. Thus, when the nasi entered, all the members were expected to rise and remain standing till he had invited them to resume their places. When the ab-beth-din entered, all were expected to rise, but allowed again to sit down without intimation to that effect; while the chacham was only saluted by each individual member rising as he passed, and immediately sitting down again. Only the abbeth-din was initiated into the mysteries of the law *(Chagiga, *fol. 13 b); and when he died, the lectures in the schools of his place were suspended. (B. P.)

Abbey (Lat. *abbatia), *a monastery of monks or nuns, ruled by an abbot or abbess [for the derivation of the name, *SEE ABBOT *]. The abbeys in England were enormously rich. All of them, 190 in number, were abolished in the time of Henry VIII. The abbey lands were afterward granted to the nobility, under which grants they are held to the present day. Cranmer begged earnestly of Henry VIII to save some of the abbeys for religious uses, but in vain. In most abbeys, besides the Abbot, there were the following officers or *obedientarii, *removable at the abbot's will: **1. **Prior, who acted in the abbot's absence as his *locum tenens. *In some great abbeys there were as many as *five *priors. **2. **Eleemosynarius, or Almoner, who had the oversight of the daily distributions of alms to the poor at the gate. **3. **Pitantarius, who had the care of the *pittances, *which were the allowances given on special occasions over and above the usual provisions. **4. **Sacrista, or Sacristan (Sexton), who had the care of the vessels, vestments, books, etc.; he also provided for the sacrament, and took care of burials. **5. **Camerarius, or Chamberlain, who looked after the dormitory. **6. **Cellararius, or Cellarer, whose duty it was to procure provisions for strangers. **7. **Thesaurarius, or Bursar, who received rents, etc. **8. **Precentor, who presided over the choir. **9. **Hospitularius, whose duty it was to attend to the wants of strangers. **10. **Infirmarius, who attended to the hospital and sick monks. **11. **Refectionarius, who looked after the hall, and provided every thing required there. For the mode of electing abbots, right of visitation, etc., see *Conc. Trident. *Sess. 24. On the most important English abbeys, see Willis, *History of Mitred Abbeys, *vol. 1; A. Butler, *Lives of Saints, *2:633. *SEE CONVENT; SEE MONASTERY; SEE PRIORY*.

Abbey, David A., a Presbyterian minister, was born in Ulster County, N. Y., April 6, 1813. He was converted in 1830 and united with the Reformed (Dutch) Church. In 1838 he graduated at Yale College; in 1839 he entered the Theological Seminary at Auburn, N. Y., finished his course in 1841, and was licensed by the Cayuga Presbytery. He was a man of great accuracy, both in literary composition and in business. He died of typhoid fever at Apalachin, N. Y., Dec. 6, 1865. See Wilson, *Presb. Hist. Almanac, *1867, p. 271.

Abbo Abbot of Fleury, in France, born 958, slain in a tumult at Reole, in Gascony, Nov. 13, 1004. He presided two years (985-987) over a monastic school in England, and returned to Fleury, where he was made abbot. He was so celebrated for his wisdom and virtues that people, even in far- distant parts, had recourse to him for advice and assistance, especially in all questions relating to monastic discipline, his zeal for which caused the tumult in which he was slain. — Neander, *Ch. Hist. *3, 404, 470; Mosheim, *Ch. Hist. *c. 10, pt. 2, ch. 1, § 5; *Aeta Sanctorum, *t. 8.

Abbo surnamed CERNUS (the *crooked*), a French monk, who was also called *Abbo Parisiensis *because he was of the monastery of Saint-Germain-des- Pres, is said to have died in 923. He was present at the siege of Paris by the Normans in 887. Of this siege he wrote the history in a poem in three books, which has been admitted into Pithou's and Duchesne's collections. A more correct edition, with notes and a French translation, may be seen in the *Nouvelles Annales de Paris *(1753, 4to). There are also *Five Select Sermons *under his name in D'Achery's *Spicilegium — *(vol. ix); and in *Bibl. PP. (Colon. *1618), vol. 5, is *Abbonis Epistola ad Desiderium Episc. *The third book of the *Siege, *addressed to the clergy, has been omitted by his editors, as having no connection with the history. See Chalmers, *Biog. Dict. *s.v.; Landon, *Eccles. Dict. *s.v.; Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v.

Abbo A Bishop Of Soissons and a successor of Rhodoini, who subscribed the Council of Trosli in 921, and the one of Rheims in 923. He held the position of chancellor of St. Medard-Rudolph, the successor of Charles the Simple, and died in 937.

Abbo Bishop Of Nevers, lived contemporaneously with the emperor Charles the Bald. He subscribed the third Council of Soissons in 868, as also those held at Troves in 867 and 878, and the one held at Poictou in 876.

Abbot (Lat. *abbas; *from Chaldee אִבָּא, *the father), *the head or superior of an abbey of monks. **1. **The title was originally given to every monk, but after the sixth century was restricted to the heads of religious houses. At a later period the title was not confined to the superiors of monasteries, but was also given to the superiors of other institutions (as *abbas curie, palatii, scholarum, *etc.), while, on the other hand, several other terms, as provost, prior, guardian, major, rector, etc., were adopted to designate the superiors of the convents of the several orders. The Greek Church uses generally the term *archimandrite *(q.v.). The name *abbot *was especially retained by the order of the Benedictines, and its branches, the Cistercians, Bernhardines, Trappists, Grandmontanes, Praemonstratenses. But the congregation of Clugny (q.v.) reserved the title abbot to the superior of the principal monastery, calling those of the other monasteries *coabbates *and *proabbates. *The Abbot of Monte-Cassino assumed the title *abbas abbatum. *A number of religious orders are governed by an *abbot-general,* e.g. (according to the *Notizie per 'Anno *1859, the Official Roman Almanac), the regular canons of Lateran, the Camaldulenses, the Trappists, the Olivetans, the (Oriental) order of St. Antonius, and the Basilians. *Regular *abbots are those who wear the religious habit, and actually preside over an abbey, both in spiritual and temporal matters. *Secular *abbots are priests who enjoy the benefices, but employ a *vicar *(q.v.) to discharge its duties. *Lay *abbots are laymen to whom the revenues of abbeys are given by princes or patrons. *Field *abbots *(abbates castrensus) *are regular abbots appointed for army service. *Arch *abbot is the title of the abbot of St. Martini, in Hungary. The abbots are, in general, subject to the jurisdiction of the diocesan bishop, but formerly some were exempt, and had even a kind of episcopal jurisdiction *(jurisdictio quasi episcopalis), *together with the right of wearing episcopal insignia *(mitred abbots, *abbates mitrati). Some, as the abbot of St. Maurice, in Switzerland, have even a small territory. Abbots with episcopal jurisdiction have the right of taking part in general councils, and the right of voting in provincial synods. The privileges and duties of abbots are determined by the rules of the order to which they belong, as well as by canonical regulations. The *commendatory *abbots *(abbates commendatarii; *Fr. *abbes commendataires), *in France and England, were secular ecclesiastics, to whom abbeys were given *in commendam, *who enjoyed a portion of the revenues, together with certain honors, but without jurisdiction over the inmates of the abbeys. This became latterly so common that most abbeys were thus held perpetually *in commendam. *In England many abbots, among other privileges, had the right of sitting in the House of Lords. According to Fuller *(Ch. Hist. *b. 6, p. 292, ed. 1655), there were sixty-four abbots and thirty-six priors, besides the Master of the Temple summoned to Parliament, which he terms "a jolly number." Edward III reduced them to twenty-six. In Germany, ten *prince-abbots *(of Fulda, Corvey, etc.) were members of the German Diet till 1803. See Bingham, *Orig. Eccles. *b. 7, ch. 3; *Conc. Trident. *Sess. 25, and, for full details, Martene, *De Ant. Monach. Rit. *lib. 5. The forms for the *benediction *of abbots (i. q. inauguration) are given in Boissonnet, *Dict. des Ceremonies, *1:22 sq. **2. **The title of *Abbot *is still used in some Protestant countries. In Germany it is sometimes conferred upon divines, especially if they enjoy the revenues of former abbeys. Thus the late Professor Lucke of Gottingen was an abbot.

Abbot (sometimes written *abbat), *the head or superior of an abbey or monastery, corresponding to *abbess *for a house of nuns. **1. ***Different Kinds. — *Abbots were distinguished by the epithets *commendatory, crosiered, field, lay, mitred, oecumenical *(i.e. general), according to circumstances. *SEE ABBOT *(in vol. 1). **2. ***The Election of Abbots. — *Thomassin *(Discipline de l'Eglise) *states that after A.D. 500 the bishops were the ordinary and universal collators to all benefices, and that the privilege of electing abbots was granted subsequently to monasteries, and by its general use became at last a common right. But he does not well prove his statement; and, on the other hand, it is certain that bishops in the time of St. Benedict had little to do with the election of abbots. The rule of that saint, A.D. 526, expressly enacts that the abbot shall be chosen by the whole community. Upon the occasion of an election, leave was sought, first of all from the prince, and in certain cases the consent of the bishop of the diocese was required; after this, a day was fixed for the election, and all absent electors notified by letter; the latter, however, having the privilege of voting by proxy if necessarily absent. The three days previous having been passed in fasting, on the day of election, the mass of the Holy Spirit being ended, all the brethren assembled in the chapter-house, and the chapter *De Ordinando Abbate *and, the constitution of the Lateran *De Electione Facienda per Scrutinium, *etc., were read. The election was then made in one of three ways: 1. *Per inspirationem, *i.e. the whole fraternity with one voice required the same man for abbot. 2. *Per scrutiniunm, *i.e. by electing three members of the fraternity to receive secretly the votes of the others. 3. *Per compromissum, *i.e. when certain members of the fraternity were appointed to elect an abbot. The election having been pronounced, the abbot elect was led into the abbey church, and, receiving from the altar the pastoral staff, was conducted to the abbot's seat in the choir. In the chapter-house he took the oath upon the gospels to preserve the liberties and privileges of the house; after which the members of the fraternity were introduced to him, kissed him, and promised obedience. **3. ***Confirmation and Benediction. — *After election, the assent of the prince having been obtained, the confirmation of the election was required. This originally belonged to the bishop of the diocese, but afterwards passed into the hands of the pope, who appointed a person to see whether the election had been proper, and, if so, to confirm it. Subsequently, the different orders obtained of the pope the privilege of electing one of their number a *local prelate, *i.e*. *a person who, having received the confirmation of his own election from the pope, had the power to confirm the elections of the abbots of the order to which he belonged. The benediction was received from the bishop three days after the confirmation in the presence of two other abbots. The benediction of an abbot was not absolutely essential, and yet without it an abbot could not confer orders nor exercise many other privileges. **4. ***Duties, Power, etc*. — The duties of abbots (according to the rule of St. Benedict) were to instruct by their conversation and to edify by their example; to care for the spiritual and temporal affairs of their abbeys; to act as fathers to all, without respect of persons; etc. Novices received the tonsure from the abbot upon entering the monastic state. It was the duty of the abbot to proceed to Rome every three years, unless excused by the pope; to administer the eucharist on Holy Thursday; to feed twelve poor persons during Lent; to clean the sanctum sanctorum on Easter-eve; to perform the office of cook on Christmas-day and at Easter to give the blessing at table; to keep the keys of the abbey at night, etc. (Marthne, *De Ant. Monach. Rit.). *The power of the abbot was almost absolute. In spiritual matters he could excommunicate and grant dispensations to his monks; he could, either in person or by deputy, absolve them; he could reserve certain cases (specified in the bull of Clement VIII, 1593) to himself. He could not, however, without the consent of the community, profess novices, nor nominate to the abbey benefices, nor depose the conventual priors elected canonically by the chapters. He could bless the ornaments of the church and the altar of his monastery, but not the chalices, nor anything that required unction, without the pope's leave. He could give the tonsure and the four lowest orders in cases where he possessed episcopal jurisdiction or had papal authority to do so. In temporal matters the abbot could buy, sell, bargain, exchange, etc., but could not alienate the goods or property of the monastery, nor give up any of its privileges, nor dispose of the savings which he might have made. **5. ***Rights, Prerogatives, etc. *— **(1.) **Abbots took rank immediately after the bishop, and with them had the title of *prelate.* **(2.) **Many abbots had the privilege granted them by the pope of wearing within their own churches the gloves, mitre, and pastoral staff in common with the bishops. **(3.) **Abbots had the right of giving the benediction within their own churches after vespers, mass, and matins, but could not do so without special permission when a bishop was present. **(4.) **Certain abbots had the privilege of wearing the episcopal vestments, such as the rochet, but only of the color of their order. **(5.) **According to the reply of Gregory XIII to questions put to him by the Council of Rouen in 1581, the following is the order of precedence observed in synods: **[1] **Abbots who have received the benediction and who are privileged to use the mitre; **[2] **abbots commendatory; **[3] **dignitaries of cathedrals; **[4] **proctors. **6. ***Deposition. — *Abbots immediately subject to the holy see could be deposed by the pope alone; those not exempt, by their bishops, or by their superiors, or the general chapter. The crimes specially punished with deposition were incontinence or extravagance. See Gilbert, *Inst. Eccles. *p. 368; Bingham, *Christ. Antiq. *bk. 7 ch. iii, § 12 sq.

Abbot, Abiel D.D., a Unitarian minister, born in Wilton, N. H., Dec. 14, 1765. He graduated at Harvard, 1787, was assistant in the Phillips Andover Academy from 1787 to 1789, and became pastor of Coventry, Conn., 1795. Having been brought up a Trinitarian Calvinist, Mr. Abbot became, 1792, a decided anti-Trinitarian, and, in 1811, was deposed by the Consociation of Tolland County from the ministry on account of heretical doctrines. From Sept. 1811 to 1819, he had charge of Dummer Academy, and from 1827 to 1839 he was pastor of Peterborough, N. H. He received the degree of D.D. from Harvard in 1838, and died Dec. 31, 1859. He published in 1811 a *"Statement of the Proceedings in his Church at Coventry which terminated in his Removal," *and some occasional pamphlets. — Sprague, *Unitarian Pulpit, *p. 229 sq.

Abbot, Abiel D.D., a Unitarian minister, born at Andover, Mass., Aug. 17, 1770. He graduated at Harvard, 1792, and was pastor at Haverhill from 1794 to 1803, and at Beverley from 1803 until 1826. His health failing, he spent the winter of 1827-8 in Charleston, S. C., and in Cuba, but died just as the ship reached quarantine at New York, June 7, 1828. He was a man of taste and culture, and an eloquent preacher. His *Letters from Cuba *were published after his death (Boston, 1829, 8vo); and also a volume of *Sermons, with a Memoir *by Everett (Boston, 1831, 12mo). — Sprague, *Unitarian Pulpit,* p. 309 sq.

Abbot, Benjamin LL.D., a Unitarian minister, was a native of Andover, Mass. He graduated at Harvard College in 1788, and immediately afterwards took charge of the academy in Exeter. This position he held, with the highest reputation, until 1838, when he resigned. He spent the remainder of his days in Exeter, and died in 1811, See *Sprague, Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *8, 466.

Abbot, Ezra, D.D., LL.D. a distinguished Unitarian scholar, was born at Jackson, Maine, April 18, 1819. He studied at Phillips Academy, Exeter, N.H.; graduated from Bowdoin College in 1840; taught for about five years at East Machias, Maine; removed to Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1847; in 1856 became assistant librarian of Harvard University, and in 1872 professor of New- Test. criticism, a position which he retained until his death, March 21, 1884. In 1855 Dr. Abbot edited Andrew Norton's posthumous *Translation of the Gospels, *and in 1856 Norton's *Statement of the Reasons for not Believing the Doctrines of Trinitarians. *In 1864 he published his *Literature of the Doctrine of Future Life, *in which he gave a list of more than five thousand works on that subject. In 1865 he edited Lawson's *Church of the First Three Centuries, *and in 1866 Orme's *Memoir of the Controversy on the Three Heavenly Witnesses. *In 1860 he edited and revised Hudson's *Critical Greek and English Concordance of the New Testament. *He was one of the writers for the American edition of Smith's *Dictionary of the Bible, *and his additions to the bibliography of that work are exceedingly valuable. He gave substantial aid to the Reverend Dr. Noyes in his *Translation of the New Testament, *which was published in 1869. His work on *The Authorship of the Fourth Gospel: External Evidences, *brought out in 1880, is well-known to European and American scholars. Among his last labors was the assistance which he gave to Dr. C.R. Gregory, of Leipsic, in the preparation of his *Prolegomena *to Tischendorf's last critical edition of the Greek Test. Dr. Abbot was also a voluminous contributor to the periodical literature of the day, in Europe and America. He was a member of the American Bible Revision Committee. In the special department of Biblical literature he stood among the foremost scholars of the present day, and in textual criticism he was probably superior to any other in America. He was a man of singular modesty and disinterestedness, and was endowed with an almost unlimited capacity for work, possessing withal the qualities of thoroughness and accuracy, and in all his studies was more anxious to learn the truth than to establish any foregone conclusion.

Abbot, George D.D., Archbishop of Canterbury, brother of Robert *(inf.), *one of the translators of the English Bible, and a man of great ability and learning, was born at Guildford, October 29, 1562, and entered at Baliol College, Oxford, in 1578; subsequently was made Master of University College, and, in 1599, Dean of Winchester. At the university he was first brought into contact with Abp. Laud, whose ecclesiastical schemes he opposed through life. In 1604, Dr. Abbot was the second of eight learned divines at Oxford, chosen by King James, to whom the care of translating all (but the Epistles of) the New Testament was committed. In 1608, he assisted in a design to unite the churches of England and Scotland; in which his prudence and moderation raised him high in the favor of the king, who bestowed upon him successively the bishoprics of Lichfield (1609) and of London (1610). In 1611 his majesty elevated him to the See of Canterbury. As archbishop, he had the courage to displease the king by opposing the *Book of Sports, *the divorce of the Countess of Essex, and the Spanish match. In 1627, he ventured the displeasure of Charles 1, by refusing to license a sermon, which Dr. Sibthorpe had preached, to justify one of Charles's unconstitutional proceedings. For this act he was suspended from his functions, but was soon, though not willingly, restored to them. A cause of deep sorrow to him, in his latter days, was his having accidentally while aiming at a deer, shot one of Lord Zouch's keepers. He died Aug. 4, 1633. He was a Calvinist in theology, and, unfortunately, very intolerant toward Arminians and Arminianism. His *Life, *with that of his brother Thomas, was published at Guildford (1797d 8vo). His chief works are: *Six Lectures on Divinity *(Oxford, 1598, 4to); *Exposition of the Prophet Jonah *(1600, 4to, new ed. Lond. 1845, 2 vols. with Life); *A brief Description of the World *(Lond*. *1617, 4to, et al.) *Treatise of the perpetual Visibility and Succession of the true Church *(1624, 4to); *Judgment of the Archbishop concerning Bowing at the Name of Jesus *(Hamburg, 1632, 8vo). — Middleton, *Evang. Biog.; *Collier, *Eccl. Hist. *vol. 2; Neal, *Hist. of Puritans, *1:556; Mosheim, *Ch. Hist. *3, 409.

Abbot, George (known as "The Puritan") son (or grandson). of Sir Thomas Abbot was born at Easington, East Yorkshire, in 1603 or 1604. He was elected probationer fellow of Merton College, Oxford, in 1624 and admitted LL.B. in 1630. He held Caldecote, Warwickshire, against prince Rupert and Maurice during the Civil War. Mr. Abbot was a member of the Long Parliament for Tamworth. He was not a clergyman, as has been said by some, nor yet a nephew of the archbishop of the same name; but he was a theologian and scholar of rare ability. He died Feb. 2 (or 4), 1648. He was the author of, *The Whole Book of Job Paraphrased, or Made Easy for Any to Understand *(1640): *Vindicice Sabbathi *(1641): — *Brief Notes upon the Whole Book of Psalms *(1651). See Wood (Bliss's), *Athenoe Oxonienses, *s.v.; Cox, *Literature of the Sabbath.*

Abbot, Gorham Dummer LLD., an American minister, teacher, and writer, was born at Brunswick, Me., Sept. 3, 1807. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1826; and, after taking part of the theological course at Andover, he made the tour of the United States and several visits to Europe, in order to study the various systems of public education. In 1837 he became pastor of the Presbyterian Church at New Rochelle, N. Y.; in 1841 he became travelling agent for the American Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge; in 1843 he organized the Abbot Collegiate Institute for young ladies, in New York, which was afterwards called the Spingler Institute. He retired from public life in 1866, and died July 31, 1874. — He published, *Pleasure and Profit: — Prayer-book for the Young: — The Family at Home: — Nathan Dickerman: — Mexico and the United States: their Mutual Relations and Common Interests *(1869): — and other works.

Abbot, Jacob a Unitarian minister, was born at Wilton, N. H., Jan. 7,1768. He prosecuted his studies, in preparation for college, under a Mr. Birge, who had opened a school in Wilton. He graduated at Harvard College in 1792, and immediately began teaching school in Billerica, Mass. Whatever of leisure he could command he devoted to the study of theology, under the direction of the Rev. Dr. Cumming, the Congregational minister of that place. He continued teaching but one year, when he returned to Cambridge and continued his theological studies under the direction of Dr. Tappan. He commenced preaching in 1795. After preaching in various places until 1797, he went to Coventry, Conn., and was shortly afterwards engaged to preach in the neighboring parish of Gilead. In 1798 he went to Hampton Falls, and commenced preaching there as a candidate. In due time a call was presented him, which he accepted, and was constituted their pastor in August of the same year. He was for many years a useful member of the Board of Trustees of the Exeter Phillips Academy; and also, for some years; a trustee of the Female Academy at Derry. He resigned his charge at Hampton Falls in April, 1826, and removed to a farm in Windham, N.H., where he preached occasionally in neighboring parishes. During the winter of 1827-28 he supplied Dr. Abiel Abbot's pulpit in Beverly, Mass. At Windham he preached, after a Unitarian society was formed there, and also superintended the schools of the town. On Nov. 2,1834, as he was crossing a pond on his return from meeting, the boat was upset and he was drowned. See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *8, 320.

Abbot, John Emery a Unitarian minister, was born at Exeter, N.H. in 1793. He graduated at Bowdoin College, Me., in 1810. Shortly after leaving college he began his theological studies, and prosecuted them partly at the university in Cambridge, and partly under the direction of the Rev. Dr. Channing in Boston. In 1815 he was employed as a candidate, received and accepted a call, and was ordained and installed pastor of the Ninth Church in Salem. About this time he began to discover symptoms of pulmonary disease, and took a short journey South, from which he received injury rather than relief. Later he sailed for Havana; for some reason he was worse on his arrival than when he started. He grew rapidly worse while there, and soon found it necessary to return to Exeter. He died Oct. 6, 1819. See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *8, 466.

Abbot, John Lovejoy a Unitarian minister, was born at Andover, Mass., Nov. 29, 1783. He prepared for college at Phillips Academy, Andover; entered Harvard in 1801, and graduated in 1805. He then returned to his father's, and commenced the study of theology under the Rev. Jonathan French, the minister of the congregation in that place. In a short time, however, he went back to Cambridge, and was employed, as a subordinate officer of the college, at the same time pursuing his theological studies under Dr. Ware, professor of theology. In 1811 he was appointed librarian of the college and held the office two years. He was licensed to preach in 1808; and, during his residence at Cambridge, preached at various places: in the neighboring parishes. He was ordained and installed pastor of the First Church in Boston July 14, 1813. His health began to fail him while here, and he was obliged to take a voyage for his recovery. He passed the following summer in Brighton, near Boston, from there he went to Medford; and,. finally, in reduced health, returned to his father's in Andover, where he died, Oct. 17, 1814. See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit *8, 420.

Abbot, Robert D.D., Bishop of Salisbury, was born at Guildford, in Surrey, in 1560, took the degrees of M.A. in 1582, and that of D.D. in 1597. He won the good opinion of James I by a work in confutation of Bellarmine and Suarez, in defense of the royal authority, and was soon after made Master of Baliol College, and Regius Professor of Divinity at Oxford. As Vice-Chancellor of the University, he favored the Calvinistic theology, and opposed Laud to the utmost. In 1615 he was appointed by his brother (then Archbishop of Canterbury) to the bishopric of Salisbury, which, however, he enjoyed but a short time, and died on the 2d of March, 1617. His works are: **1. ***Mirror of Popish Subtilties *(Lond. 1594, 4to); **2. ***Antichristi Demonstratio, contra Fabulas Pontificias, *etc. (1603, 4to); **3. ***Defence of the Reformed Catholic of W. Perkins against Dr. W. Bishop* (1606, 1609, 4to); **4. ***The Old Way, a Sermon *(1610, 4to); **5. ***The true Ancient Roman Catholic *(1611, 4to); **6. ***Antilogia *(against the Apology of the Jesuit Endemon, for Henry Garnett, 1613, 4to); **7. ***De Gratia et Perseverantia Sanctorum *(1618, 4to); **8. ***De amissione et intercessione Justification; et Gratioe, *(1618, 4to); **9. ***De Suprema Potestate Regia: *(161 9. 4to). He left in MS. a Latin commentary on Romans which is now in the Bodleian Library. — Middleton, *Eccl. Biog.*

Abbot, Robert a noted English Puritan divine, but not a Nonconformist, was born about 1589. He was educated at Cambridge, where he proceeded A.M., and was afterwards incorporated at Oxford. In 1616 he was presented to the vicarage of Cranbrook, Kent, by archbishop George Abbot. His ministry at this place was very effective; "his parishioners were as his own sons and daughters to him; and by day and by night he thought and felt, wept and prayed, for them and with them." In 1643 he was transferred to the living of Southwick, Hants; and subsequently he became pastor of St. Augustine. London, where he continued to a good old age. He disappears from history some time previous to 1662. He wrote several works, which are distinguished for their terseness and variety. The principal of these are, *A Hand of Fellowship to Helpe Keepe Out Sinne and Antichrist (1623): — Bee Thankfull London and her Sisters (1626): — Triall of our Church- forsakers *(1639). See Brook, *Puritans, *3, 182, 183; Wood (Bliss's), *Athenoe Oxonienses.*

Abbot-Hull a Congregational minister, was born in Boston, Mass., June 15, 1702. He graduated at Harvard College in 1720; and died April 9, 1774, after a ministry of more than fifty years, See Sprague, *Annuals of the Amer. Pulpit. *1, 241.

Abbots, Arch, Commendatory, Crosiered, Field, Lay, Ecumenical, Regular, Secular. *SEE ABBOT*.

Abbott, Alfred Freeman an English Wesleyan minister, was born at Lowestoft, July 8 1816. Piously trained, he early entered upon Christian work, and in 1839 was accepted as a candidate for the ministry. His sympathy for the poor aid afflicted, the simplicity of his trust in Christ, the singleness of his aim, and the cheerfulness of his disposition greatly endeared him to the people. Trials subdued and chastened his spirit. At the Conference of 1879 he was. appointed to Watford, Herts, where he died, Dec. 4, 1879. See *Minutes of Wesleyan Conference, *1880, p. 20.

Abbott, Amos a Congregational minister, was born in Wilton, N.H., June 2, 1812. He was educated at Phillips Academy and Andover; was a missionary of the A.B. C.F.M. in Western India, 1834-47; city missionary at Manchester, N.H., 1850-51; Portsmouth, 1851-56; resident licentiate at Andover, 1856-57; again became a missionary to India in 1857-69; was without a charge at Nashua, N.H., in 1869-74; but graduated from the Philadelphia Homoeopathic College in 1871; was resident at Steele City, Nebraska, 1874, but practiced his profession and was also home missionary at Alexandria in 1876-77; at Fairfield, 1877-78, and the Otoe Reservation, 1878-79; and without charge at Ryde, on the Isle of Wight, from 1887 until his death, April 24, 1889. He was the author of an arithmetic that was used in the mission schools for forty years. He also wrote, *Pilgrimages*: — *Cholera: *— *Index to the New Testament: *— *Logic: *— *Vicarious Punishment: *— *Diseases of Women: *— and translated several works, among them a *Natural Philosophy.*

Eadulf (or Aldwulf, Lat. *Adulphus).* **(1) **Eighth bishop of Lindsey, A.D. 796-836. **(2) **Fifteenth bishop of Lichfield, cir. A.D. 803-816.

Eagle occurs in Scripture as the translation of the Hebrews נֶשֶׁר *(ne'sher, *so called from *tearing *its prey with its beak; occurs Ex 19:4; Le 11:13; De 14:12; De 28:49; De 32:11; 2Sa 1:23; Job 9:26; Job 39:27; Ps 103:5; Pr 23:5; Pr 30:17,19; Isa 40:31; Jer 4:13; Jer 48:40; Jer 49:16,22; La 4:19; Eze 1:10; Eze 10:14; Eze 17:3,7; Ho 8:1; Ob 1:4; Mic 1:16; Hab 1:8), with which all the designations of the kindred dialects agree, Chald. נשִׁר *(neshar', *Da 4:33; Da 7:4), Sept. and N.T. ἀετός (Mt 24:28; Lu 17:37; Re 4:7; Re 12:14). As there are many species of eagles, the *nesher, *when distinguished from others, seems to have denoted the chief species, the *golden *eagle, χρυσαίετος*, *as in Le 11:13; De 14:12. The word, however, seems to have had a broader acceptation, and, like the Greek ἀετός and Arabic *nesr *(see Bochart, *Hieroz. *2:312 sq.), sometimes comprehends also a species of *vulture, *especially in those passages where the *nesher *is said to be bald (Mic 1:16), and to feed on carcasses (Job 29:25; Pr 30:17; Mt 24:28), which, however the true eagle will occasionally do. *SEE GIER-EAGLE; SEE HAWK; SEE OSPREY; SEE OSSIFRAGE; SEE VULTURE*. **1. **The characteristics of the eagle referred to in the Scriptures are its swiftness of flight (De 28:49; 2Sa 1:23; Jer 4:13; Jer 49:22; La 4:19, etc.); its mounting high into the air (Job 39:27; Pr 23:5; Pr 30:19; Isa 40:31; Jer 49:16); its strength and vigor (in Ps 103:5); its predaceous habits (Job 9:26; Pr 30:17; compare AElian, *Anim. *10:14); its setting its nest in high places (in Jer 49:16; comp. Aristotle, *Anim.* 9:22; Pliny, 10:4); the care in training its young to fly (in Ex 19:4; De 32:11); its powers of vision (in Job 39:29; comp. Homer, *Il. *17:674; AElian, *Anim. *1:42; Isidore, *Origg. *12:1; Pliny, 12:88); and its molting (Ps 103:5). As king of birds, the eagle naturally became an emblem of powerful empires (Eze 17:3,7), especially in the symbolical figures of Babylon (Da 7:4), and the cherubim (Eze 1:10; Eze 10:14; Re 4:7), like the *griffin *of classical antiquity. *SEE CREATURE, LIVING*. Eaglets are referred to in Pr 30:17 as first picking out the eyes of their prey. The following is a close translation of a graphic description of raptorial birds of this class which occurs in the book of Job (39:26-30): ***By thy understanding will [the] hawk tower, Spread his wings southward?** **Perchance on thy bidding [the] eagle will soar, Or [it is then] that he will make lofty his nest?*** ***A rock will he inhabit, and [there] roost, Upon the peak of a rock, even [the] citadel: Thence he has spied food,** **From afar his eyes will look: Then his brood will sip blood;** **Ay, wherever [are the] slain, there [is] he!*** To the last line in this quotation our Savior seems to allude in Mt 24:28. " Wheresoever the carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered together;" that is, wherever the Jewish people, who were morally and judicially dead, might be, there would the Roman armies, whose standard was an eagle, and whose strength and fierceness resembled that of the king of birds, in comparison with his fellows, pursue and devour them. The ἀετοί of Mt 24:28; Lu 17:37, may include the *fultur Jalvus *and *Neophraon percnopterus; *though, as some eagles prey upon dead bodies, there is no necessity to restrict the Greek word to the *Vulturide* (see Lucian, Navig*. *p. 1; comp. Seneca, *Ep. *95; Martial, 6:62). The figure of an eagle is now, and has long been, a favorite military ensign. The Persians so employed it, which fact illustrates the passage in Isa 46:11, where Cyrus is alluded to under the symbol of an " eagle" (עיַט) or "ravenous bird" (compare Xenoph. *Cyrop. *7:4). The same bird was similarly employed by the Assyrians and the Romans. Eagles are frequently represented in Assyrian sculptures attending the soldiers in their battles, and some have hence supposed that they were trained birds. Considering, however, the wild and intractable nature of eagles, it is very improbable that this was the case. The representation of these birds was doubtless intended to portray the common feature in Eastern battlefield scenery, of birds of prey awaiting to satisfy their hunger on the bodies of the slain. These passages have been by some commentators referred to the vulture, on the assumed ground that the eagle never feeds on carrion, but confines itself to that prey which it has killed by its own prowess. This, however, is a mistake (see Forakal, *Descript. Anim. *page 12; compare Michaelis, *Orient. Bibl. *9:37 sq., and new *Orient. Bibl. *9:43 sq.); no such chivalrous feeling exists in either eagle or lion; both will feed ignominiously on a body found dead. Any visitor of the British zoological gardens may see that the habit imputed is at least not invariable. (See also Thomson, *Land and Book, *1:491.) *Aquila bisfasciata, *of India, was shot by Colossians Sykes at the carcass of a tiger; and *Arapax, *of South Africa is "frequently one of the first birds that approaches a dead animal." Of all known birds, the eagle flies not only the highest, but also with the greatest rapidity (comp. Homer, Il. 22:308). To this circumstance there are several striking allusions in the sacred volume. Among the evils threatened to the Israelites in case of their disobedience, the prophet names one, in the following terms: "The Lord shall bring a nation against thee from far, from the end of the earth, as swift as the eagle flieth" (De 28:49). The march of Nebuchadnezzar against Jerusalem is predicted in the same terms: "Behold, he shall come up as clouds, and his chariots as a whirlwind: his horses are swifter than eagles" (Jer 4:13); as is his invasion of Moab also: "For thus saith the Lord, Behold he shall fly as an eagle, and shall spread his wings over Moab" (Jer 48:40); i.e., he shall settle down on the devoted country as an eagle over its prey. (See also La 4:19; Ho 8:2; Hab 1:8.) The eagle, it is said, lives to a great age, and, like other birds of prey, sheds his feathers in the beginning of spring. After this season he appears with fresh strength and vigor, and his old age assumes the appearance of youth. To this David alludes when gratefully reviewing the mercies of Jehovah, "Who satisfieth thy mouth with good things, so that thy youth is renewed like the eagle's" (Ps 103:5); as does the prophet, also, when describing the renovating and quickening influences of the Spirit of God: "They that wait upon the Lord shall renew their strength; they shall mount up with wings as eagles; they shall run and not be weary; and they shall walk and not faint" (Isa 40:31). Some Jewish interpreters have illustrated the former passage by a reference to the old fables about the eagle being able to renew his strength when very old (*SEE BOCHART, HIEROZ. *2:747). But modern commentators for the most part are inclined to think that these words refer to the eagle after the molting season, when the bird is more full of activity than before. Others prefer Hengstenberg's explanation on Ps 103:5," Thy youth is renewed, so that in point of strength thou art like the eagle." The passage in Mic 1:16, " Enlarge thy baldness as the eagle," has been understood by Bochart *(Hieroz. *2:744) and others to refer to the eagle at the time of its molting in the spring. Oedman *( Vermischte Samml.* 1:64) erroneously refers the baldness spoken of by the prophet to point to the Vultur *barbatus (Gypaetus), *the bearded "vulture or lammergeeyer, which he supposed was bald. It appears to us to be extremely improbable that there is any reference in the passage under consideration to eagles molting. Allusion is here made to the custom of shaving the head as a token of mourning; but there would be little or no appropriateness in the comparison of a shaved head with an eagle at the time of molting. But if the *nesser is *supposed to denote the griffon vulture *(Vultur fulvus), *the simile is peculiarly appropriate; it may be remarked that the Hebrew verb *karach (*קָרִח) signifies "to make bald on the back part of the head;" the notion here conveyed is very applicable to the whole head and neck of this bird, which is destitute of true feathers. The direction of the prophet is to a token of mourning, which was usually assumed by making bald the *crown* of the head; here, however, it was to be enlarged, extended, as the baldness of the eagle. Exactly answering to this idea is Mr. Bruce's description of the head of the "golden eagle:" the crown of his head was bare; so was the front where the bill and skull joined. The meaning of the prophet, therefore, seems to be that the people were not to content themselves with shaving the crown of the head merely, as on ordinary occasions, but, under this special visitation of retributive justice, were to extend the baldness over the entire head. With reference to the texts referred to above, which compare the watchful and sustaining care of his people by the Almighty with that exhibited by the eagle in training its younger ones to fly, especially the spirited one in De 32:11-12 — ***As an eagle will rouse his nest; Over his fledglings will hover; Will spread his wings,** **Will take it [i.e. his brood, or each of the young]; Will bear it upon his pinions:** **[So] Jehovah, he alone would guide him [i.e. Israel]; And there was not with him a strange god" —*** We may quote a passage from Sir Humphrey Davy, who says, "I once saw a very interesting sight above one of the crags of Ben Nevis, as I was going in the pursuit of black game. Two parent eagles were teaching their offspring, two young birds, the maneuvers of flight. They began by rising from the top of the mountain, in the eye of the sun. It was about midday, and bright for this climate. They at first made small circles, and the young birds imitated them. They paused on their wings, waiting till they had made their first flight, and then took a second and larger gyration, always rising towards the sun, and enlarging their circle of flight so as to make a gradually ascending spiral. The young ones still and slowly followed, apparently flying better as they mounted; and they continued this sublime exercise, always rising, till they became mere points in the air, and the young ones were lost, and afterwards their parents, to our aching sight." The expression in Exodus and Deut., "beareth them on her wings," has been understood by Rabbinical writers and others to mean that the eagle does actually carry her young ones on her wings and shoulders. This is putting on the words a construction which they by no means are intended to convey; at the same time, it is not improbable that the parent bird assists the first efforts of her young by flying under them, thus sustaining them for a moment, and encouraging them in their early lessons. (Comp. AElian, *Anim. *2:40; Oppian, *Cyneg. *3:1:15; Jerome *in Jesa. *46; Naumaun, *Naturgesch. d. Vogel, *1:215; on the contrary, Aristotle, *Anim. *9:22.), Finally, the eagle was an Assyrian emblem, and hence probably the reference in Hab 1:8. The eagle-headed deity of the Assyrian sculptures is that of the god Nisroch (q.v.); and in the representations of battles certain birds of this order are frequently shown accompanying the Assyrian warriors in their attacks, and in one case bearing off the entrails of the slain. From the Assyrians the use of the eagle as a standard (q.v.) descended to the Persians, and from them probably to the Romans. In all ages, and in most countries, as the proverbial "king of birds," it has been the symbol of majesty among the feathered tribes, like the lion among beasts. **2. **The eagle, in zoology, forms a family of several genera of birds of prey, mostly distinguished for their size, courage, powers of flight, and arms for attack. The bill is strong, and bent into a plain pointed hook, without the notch in the inner curve which characterizes falcons; the nostrils are covered with a naked cere or skin of a yellow or a blue color; the eyes are lateral, sunken, or placed beneath an overhanging brow; the head and neck covered with abundance of longish, narrow-pointed feathers; the chest broad, and the legs and thighs exceedingly stout and sinewy. Eagles, properly so called, constitute the genus *Aquila, *and have the tarsi feathered down to the toes; they are clothed in general with brownish and rust- colored feathers, and the tail is black, grey, or deep brown. Sea-eagles (genus *Haliaetus) *have the tarsi or legs half bare and covered with horny scales; not unusually the head, back, and tail more or less white. The larger species of both measure, from head to tip of tail, 3 feet 6 inches or more, and spread their wings above 7 feet 6 inches; but these are proportionably broad to their length, for it is the third quill feather which is the longest, as if the Creator intended to restrain within bounds their rapidity of flight, while by their breadth the power of continuing on the wing is little or not at all impeded. The claws of the fore and hind toe are particularly strong and sharp; in the sea-eagles they form more than half a circle, and in length measure from 1.5 to 1.75 of an inch. These majestic birds have their abode in Europe, on the shores of the Mediterranean, in Syria and Arabia, wherever there are vast woody mountains and lofty cliffs; they occupy each a single district, always by pairs, excepting on the coasts, where the sea- eagle and the osprey *(Pandion halicetus) *may be found not remote from the region possessed by the rough-legged eagles — the first because it seeks to subsist on the industry of the second, and does not interfere with the prey of the third. It is in this last genus, most generally represented by the golden eagle *(Aquila chryaeta) *that the most powerful and largest birds are found. That species in its more juvenile plumage, known as the ring- tailed eagle, the imperial eagle, or mogilnick *(A. heliaca), *and the booted eagle *(A. pinnata), *is found in Syria; and at least one species of the sea- eagles (the *Hal. ossifragus, albicilla, or albicaudus) *frequents the coasts, and is even of stronger wing than the others. These build usually in the cliffs of Phoenicia, while the others are more commonly domiciliated within the mountains. According to their strength and habits, the former subsist on antelopes, hares, hyrax, bustard, stork, tortoises, and serpents; and the latter usually live on fish; both pursue the catta *(pterocles), *partridge, and lizard. The osprey alone being migratory, retires to Southern Arabia in winter. None, excepting the last mentioned, are so exclusively averse to carrion as is commonly asserted: from choice or necessity they all, but in particular the sea-eagles, occasionally feed upon carcasses of horses, etc.; and it is well known in the East that they follow armies for that purpose. Hence the allusions in Job and Mt 24:28, though vultures may be included, are perfectly correct. So again are those which refer to the eagle's eyrie, fixed in the most elevated cliffs. The swiftness of this bird, stooping among a flock of wild geese with the rushing sound of a whirlwind, is very remarkable; and all know its towering flight, suspended on its broad wings among the clouds with little motion or effort. Thus the predictions, in which terrible nations coming from afar are assimilated to eagles, have a poetical and absolute truth, since there are species, like the golden, which really inhabit the whole circumference of the earth, and the nations alluded to bore eagles' wings for standards, and for ornaments on their shields, helmets, and shoulders. In the northern half of Asia, and among all the Turkish races, this practice is not entirely abandoned at this day, and eagle ensigns were constantly the companions of the dragons. China, India, Bactria, Persia, Egypt, the successors of Alexandria, the Etruscans, the Romans, the Celtae, and the Arabs had eagle signa of carved work, of metal, or the skins of birds stuffed, and set up as if they were living. These, named עיַט *(ayit, *a "ravenous bird," Isa 46:1, whence ἀετός*), aquila, eryx, simurg, humma *or *humaion, karakush *(the birds of victory of different nations and periods of antiquity), were always symbolical of rapid, irresistible conquest. A black eagle was the ensign of Kalid, general of Mohammed, at the battle of Aisnadin, and the carved eagle still ,seen on the walls of the citadel of Cairo, set up by Karakufsh, the vizier of Salah- ed-din, to commemorate his own name and administration, indicates a species not here enumerated. At least for distinct kinds of eagles have been observed in Palestine, viz. the golden eagle *(Aquila Chrysaitos), *the spotted eagle (A. *naevia), *the common species in the rocky districts (see *Ibis, *1:23), the imperial eagle *(Aquila Heliaca), *and the very common *Circaetos gallicus, *which preys on the numerous *reptilia *of Palestine (see the vernacular Arabic names of different species of Vulturidae and Falconidae in Loche's *Catalogue des Oiseaux observ. en Algerie; *and in *Ibis, *volumes 1, 2, Tristram's papers on the ornithology of North Africa). The Hebrews *nesher *may stand for any of these different species. though perhaps more particular reference to the golden and imperial eagles and the griffon vulture may be intended. The *Aq. heliaca, *here figured, is the species most common in Syria, and is distinguished from the others by a spot of white feathers on each shoulder. (See the *Penny Cyclopcedia, *s.v. Falconidae; Hebenstreit, *Aquilae natura*e *S.S. Historia, e historia naturali et e Monumentt. vett. illustrata, *Lips. 1747.) *SEE BIRD*.

Eagle in the Church of England, the desk or lecturn from which the lessons are read is often in the form of an eagle with outspread wings. The usage is probably derived from the fact that, in ecclesiastical symbolism, the eagle is the accompanying symbol of the apostle John (see Jamieson, *Sacred and Legendary Art, *1:137).

Eagle, As An Architectural Term is used to designate a branzen or wooden lectern, the upper portion of which; represents an eagle with outstretched wings, on the back of which is a book-rest. Many ancient examples of such lecterns remain in collegiate and cathedral churches, and a great number of new specimens have been made for use after the old models. *SEE LECTERN*.

Eagle, In Christian Symbolism St. Gregory considered this bird to typify the contemplative life; other fathers regarded it as an emblem of resurrection (Ps 103:5). It is the symbol of St. John the Evangelist, as it soars up to heaven and the sun; and he dwells in his Gospel and the Revelations specially on the divine discourses and the celestial glory of the Sun of Righteousness. It also represented the regeneration of the neophyte; the resurrection of the Saviour (says St. Ambrose); and renewing of the soul on earth, as glory hereafter will renew body and soul; the power of grace when it is portrayed drinking at a chalice, or in combat with a serpent, the type of evil.

Eagleton, William, D.D. a Presbyterian minister, was born in Maryville, Tennessee, March 25, 1796. He was educated in Maryville College, and studied theology in the South- western Theological Seminary, at the same place. In 1827 he was licensed by the Union Presbytery, and soon after was elected professor in Maryville College, In 1829 he accepted a call to the Church in Murfreesborough, where he remained till his death, March 28, 1866. See Wilson, *Presb. Hist. Almanac, *1867, page 431.

Eames, James Henry, D.D. a Protestant Episcopal minister, was born at Dedham, Massachusetts, November 29, 1814. The first two years of his college course were spent at King College, Bristol, Tennessee, and the last two at Brown University, where he graduated in 1839. He pursued his theological studies with Reverend John Bristed, of Bristol, R.I., was ordained deacon in December, 1841, and presbyter in 1842; was rector of Ascension Church, in Wakefield, for about four years, when he took charge of St. Stephen's Church in Providence, remaining there until 1850, and then engaged in missionary labor in Rhode Island; became rector of St. Paul's Church, Concord, N.H., in 1858, and held that position until his death, Which occurred in the harbor of Hamilton, Bermuda, December 10, 1877. For many years Dr. Eames was. chaplain to the asylum for the insane, and performed a large amount of missionary work in New Hampshire. Three times he travelled in Europe, and spent part of several winters in Bermuda. (J.C.S.)

Eanbald (or Enbald). **(1) **The pupil and successor of Albert in the archiepiscopal see of York, A.D. 782. He was very vigorous in the administration of his diocese, and died at a monastery called Etlete (or Edete), August 10, 796. **(2) **Called also *Heantbald, *succeeded the, foregoing as archbishop of York, and his history is given with considerable detail by Alcuin. He appears to have died A.D. 812.

Eanbert bishop of Hexham, cir. A.D. 800-806. Eanfrith, fifth bishop of Elmham, A.D. 736.

E'anes (Μάνης,Vulg. *Esses, *Syr. *Mani), *a name given (1 Esdr. 9:21) as that of a third son of Emmer (Immer); apparently in place of Harim, and his first two sons Maaseiah and Elijah of the Hebrews list (Ezr 10:21). Fritzsche suggests *(Exeg. Handb. *in loc.) that καὶ Μάνης is a mistranslation of the וּמַבּנֵי, "and of the sons of," of the Hebrews text, the three names following having been omitted by the Greek translator.

Eanswitha (or Enswida), a British saint, commemorated Aug. 31, was the daughter of Eadba, king of Kent, and lived a virgin, in a nunnery founded by her, at Folkestone, where she died, some say in 640, others in 673.

Ear (properly אֹזֶן o *(Zen, *οϊvς*), *the organ of hearing. In Scripture the term is frequently employed figuratively. To signify the regard of Jehovah to the prayers of his people, the Psalmist says, "His ears are open to their cry" (Ps 34:15). To "uncover the ear" is a Hebraism, and signifies to show or reveal something to a person (1Sa 20:2). The Psalmist, speaking in the person of the Messiah, says, "Sacrifice and offering thou didst not desire; mine ears hast thou opened" (Ps 40:6). Ainsworth reads, " Mine ears hast thou digged open." The Sept., which Paul follows (Heb 10:5), reads the passage thus: "A body hast thou prepared me." "Make the ears of this people heavy," occurs in Isa 6:10, that is, render their minds inattentive and disobedient; with a similar meaning, the prophet Jeremiah speaks of " ears uncircumcised" (Isa 6:10). Among the Jews, the slave who renounced the privilege of being made free from servitude in the sabbatical year submitted to have his ear bored through with an awl, which was done in the presence of some judge or magistrate, that it might appear a voluntary act. The ceremony took place at his master's door, and was the mark of perpetual servitude (Ex 21:6). *SEE EARRING*.

Ear EARRING, an old English agricultural term for *ploughing, *occurs in Ge 45:6; Ex 34:21; 1Sa 8:12, as a translation of the term חָרַישׁ *(charish', ploughing, *as it is elsewhere rendered). (See *Critica Biblica, *in, 210.) The same now obsolete word is used by our translators in De 21:4; Isa 30:24, to represent the Hebrews word עָבִד *(abad', *to *till, *as it is often elsewhere rendered). *SEE AGRICULTURE; SEE EGYPT*. So Shakspeare says "to ear the land that has some hopes to grow" *(Richard II, *3, 2). It is etymologically connected with the Latin *aro, *to plough. It is directly derived from the Anglo-Saxon *erian, *" to plough, " and is radically the same with *harrow. *What we call *arable *land was originally written *ear: able *land. The root *ar *is one of wide use in all the Indo-European languages (see Miller, *Science of Language, p. *239). *SEE PLOUGH*.

Eardley, Sir Culling one of the founders of the Evangelical Alliance, was born in Hatfield in 1805. He was a son of sir Culling Smith, baronet, succeeded to the baronetcy in 1829, and in 1847 assumed by royal license his maternal name of Eardley, his mother having been a daughter of the last lord Eardley. He was educated at Oxford, but did not graduate, having scruples as to subscribing the oaths administered in taking the degree of A.B. He represented Pontefract in one short Parliament previous to the Reform Bill, and in 1846 was an unsuccessful candidate for Edinburgh in opposition to lord Macaulay, sir Culling basing his claim chiefly on his opposition to the Maynooth grant. Sir Culling greatly distinguished himself for the active part he took in the work of the Evangelical Alliance and other religious associations, and the cause of religious toleration, in particular, found in him an indefatigable and most active champion. — Ann. *Amer. Cyclopcedia *for 1863, page 358.

Eardulf *(Lat. Ardulphus). *(1) Bishop of East Anglia (Dunwich) in 747. (2) Twelfth bishop of Rochester, cir. A.D. 762.

Earle (or Earles), John an English prelate, was born at York in 1601, and entered Merton College, Oxford, in 1620. He became chaplain and tutor to prince Charles, and chancellor of the cathedral of Salisbury. On the Restoration he was made deani of Westminster, and consecrated bishop of Worcester in 1662. In September 1664, he was transferred to the see of Salisbury. He died November 17, 1665, leaving *Microcosmography *(Lond. 1628, 8vo; 6th ed. 1630, 12mo). See *Chalmers, Biog. Dict. *s.v.; Allibone, *Dict. of Brit. and Amer. Authors, *s.v.

Earle, Jabez, D.D. an English Independent minister, was born about 1676, and educated among the Dissenters. He was assistant to the Reverend Thomas Reynolds, at the Weigh-House, London, in 1699; and in 1707 removed to Hanover Street, where he ministered more than sixty years, and died in 1768, leaving a number of *Sermons *and theological treatises, etc. (1706-35; new ed. 1816, 8vo). See Chalmers, *Biog. Dict. *s.v.; Allibone, *Dict. of Brit. and Amer. Authors, *s.v.; Wilson, *Dissenting Churches, *1:169; 2:6, 492, 508, 530.

Earlom, Richard a pre-eminent English engraver, was born in London in 1742, and was the pupil of Cipriani. He died in 1822. The following are some of his principal plates: *The Holy Family; Mary Magdalene Washing the Feet of Christ; David and Bathsheba; The Repose; The Virgin and Infant; The Infant Jesus Sleeping; The Presentation in the Temple; The Virgin and Infant with St. John. *See Spooner, *Biog. Hist. of the Fine Arts, *s.v.

Early English a title often given to the first pointed or Gothic style of architecture in England. It is also called the Lancet Style, and also (in the nomenclature of the Ecclesiological Society) the First Pointed Style. " It succeeded the Norman towards the end of the 12th century, and gradually merged into the Decorated at the end of the 13th. It first partook of the heaviness of the Norman, but soon manifested its own beautiful and peculiar characteristics. The arches are usually equilateral and lancet-shaped; the doorways are often divided into two by a single shaft or small pier; the windows are long and narrow, and, when gathered into a group, are frequently surmounted by a large arch, which springs from the extreme molding of the window on each side. The space between this arch and the tops of the windows is often pierced with circles, or with trefoils or quatrefoils, which constituted the earliest form of tracery. Each window, however, is generally destitute of any tracery in itself" (Chambers, s.v.) The moldings, says Parker, in general consist of alternate rounds and deeply-cut hollows, with a small admixture of fillets, producing a strong effect of light and shadow. "Circular windows were more used in England during the prevalence of this style than in either the decorated or perpendicular, and fine specimens remain at York and Lincoln cathedrals, and at Beverley Minster. Groined ceilings are very common in this style; in general they have only cross springers and diagonal ribs, with sometimes longitudinal and diagonal ribs at the apex of the vaults, and good bosses of foliage at the intersections. The *pillars *usually consist of small shafts arranged round a larger circular pier, but others of different kinds are to be found, and a plain octagonal or circular pillar is common in country churches. The *capitals *consist of plain moldings, or are enriched with foliage and sculpture characteristic of the style. The most prevalent *base *has a very close resemblance to the Attic base of the ancients, though the proportions are different, and the lower torus is worked with a considerably larger projection. The *buttresses *are often very bold and prominent, and are frequently carried up to the top of the building with but little diminution, and terminate in acutely-pointed pediments, which, when raised above the parapet, produce in some degree the effect of pinnacles. Flying buttresses were first introduced in this style. Pinnacles are but sparingly used, and only towards the end of the style. The roofs appear always to have been high-pitched. The ornaments used in this style are by no means so various as in either of the others; occasionally small roses or other flowers, and bunches of foliage, are carved at intervals in the hollow moldings, but by far the most common and characteristic is the toothed ornament, which is often introduced in great profusion, and the hollows entirely filled with it. The foliage is very remarkable for boldness of effect, and it is often so much undercut as to be connected with the moldings only by the stalks and edges of the leaves; there is frequently considerable stiffness in the mode in which it is combined, but the effect is almost always good: the prevailing leaf is a trefoil. Towards the latter part of the style crockets were first introduced. The style may be said to begin in the later half of Richard the First's reign, about which time St. Hugh began his cathedral. During the reign of king John the Early English style had obtained the complete mastery; but the reign of Henry III was the great period of the Early English style, which had now obtained perfection. That king himself and his brother Richard were great builders. The most perfect example of the style is perhaps Salisbury Cathedral. Towards the end of the reign we have examples, such as the presbytery of Lincoln and the chapter-house of Salisbury, of what may be almost called the Decorated style, though the moldings and many of the details are pure Early English. This kind of work may best be called Transitional." *SEE ARCHITECTURE*.

Early, John, D.D. a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, was born in Bedford County, Virginia, January 1, 1786, of Baptist parents. He was converted in 1804; licensed to preach in 1806; and in 1807 entered the Virginia Conference, wherein he continued laboriously and faithfully till 1815, when the growing necessities of his family obliged limn to locate and engage in secular business. In 1821 he re-entered the effective ranks, and labored with marvellous success until 1846, when he connected himself with the Church Sonth, and devoted his energies to establishing and operating the Southern Book Concern. In 1854 he was elected to the episcopacy; in 1866 was granted a superannuated relation, and died in Lynchburg, November 5, 1873. Bishop Early was full of the missionary spirit, and everywhere awakened missionary zeal; was one of the chief founders of Randolph-Macon College; was a man of great energy and devotedness, and held a high position in the esteem of the Church. See *Minutes of Annual Conferences of the M.E. Church South, *1873, page 914; Simpson, *Cyclop. of Methodism, *s.v.

Haas, Gerardus de D.D. was born in 1736. After completing his theological studies at Utrecht, and receiving the doctorate in theology in 1761, he was settled successively at Amersfoort, Middelburg, and Amsterdam. His works are chiefly exegetical and dogmatic. The most important of them are, *Amerkinge over het sevende Boek der Godspraaken van Jesaia *(Utr. *1773): — Het viifde en drie volgende hoofdstukken uit Pauuls brief aan de Roreinen verklaard *(Amst. 1789-93, 3 parts): *— Verhandeling over de toekonende wereld *(Amst. *1798): — Over de Openbaring van Johannes *(Amst. 1807. 3 parts). He also completed the commentary of Prof. Nahnis on the Epistle to the Philippians. It was published at Amsterdam in 1783 in 3 vols. See Glasius *Godgeleerd Nederland, *1. (J.P.W.)

Haas, Nikolaus a Lutheran theologian of Germany, was born November 25, 1665. He studied at Altdorf and Leipsic, was pastor in 1686, and died July 26, 1715, leaving, *De Principiorum Moralium Existentia, Definitione et Divisione *(1683): — *De Astrologia Judiciaria *(1685): — *Heilige Unterredungen mit Gott *(1689): — *Enchiridion Catechismi Lutheri contra Papistas *(1703), besides a number of ascetical works. See Doring, *Die gelehrten* *Theologen Deutschlands, *s.v.; Winer, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *1:166; Jocher, *Allgemeines Gelehrten Lexikon, *s.v. (B.P.)

Habadim (or rather *Chabadim), *a subdivision of the Jewish sect of Chasidim, founded by rabbi Solomon, in the government of Mohilef, in the 18th century. The name is composed of the initial letters of the three Hebrew words, דעת, בינה, חכמה, "wisdom, intelligence, and knowledge." They may not improperly be termed the "Jewish Quietists," as their peculiarity consists in the rejection of external forms and the complete abandonment of the mind to abstraction and contemplation. Instead of the baptisms customary among the Jews, they go through the signs without the use of the element, and consider it their duty to disengage themselves as much as possible from matter, because of its tendency to clog the mind in its ascent to the supreme source of intelligence. In prayer they make no use of words, but simply place themselves in the attitude of supplication, and exercise themselves in mental ejaculations.

Haba'iah (Heb. *Chabayah', *חֲבִיָּה or חֲבָיָה, *protected *by *Jehovah; *Sept. Ο᾿βα‹α and Ε᾿βαια*, *a priest whose descendants returned from the captivity with Zerubbabel, but were degraded from the priestly office on account of not being able to trace their genealogy (Ezr 2:6; Ne 7:63). B.C. ante 459.

Hab'akkuk [many *Habak'kuk] *(Heb. *Chabakkuk', *חֲבִקּוּק, *embrace; *Sept. Α᾿μβακούμ*, *Vulg. *Habacuc; *Jerome, *Praef. in Habakkuk *translates περίληψις, and Suidas πατὴρ ἐγέρσεως*; *other Graecized and Latinized forms are Α᾿ββακούμ*, *Α᾿μβακούκ*, Ambacnum, Abacuc, *etc.), the eighth in order of the twelve minor prophets (q.v.) of the Old Testament. **1. **As to the name, besides the above forms, the Greeks, not only the Sept. translators, but the fathers of the Church, probably to make it more *sonorous, *corrupt it into Α᾿ραβακούκ*, *Α᾿ραβακούρω, or, as Jerome writes, Α᾿βακούρω*, *and only one Greek copy, found in the library of Alcala, in Spain, has Α᾿ββακούκ*, *which seems to be a recent correction made to suit the Hebrew text. The Heb. word may denote, as observed by Jerome, as well a "favorite" as a "struggler." Abarbanel thinks that in the latter sense it has allusion to the patriotic zeal of the prophet fervently contending for the welfare of his country: but other prophets did the same; and in the former and less distant signification, the name would be one like Theophilus, "a friend of God," which his parents may have given him for a good omen. Luther took the name in the active sense, and applied it to the labors and writings of the man, thus: "Habakkuk had a proper name for his office; for it signifies a man of heart, one who is hearty towards another and takes him into his arms. This is what he does in his prophecy; he comforts his people and lifts them up, as one would do with a weeping child or man, bidding him be quiet and content, because, please God, it would yet be better with him." But all this is speculation. See Keil and Delitzsch, *Comment. *ad cap. 1, 1. **2. **Of the facts of this prophet's birth-place, parentage, and life we have only apocryphal and conflicting accounts (see Delitzsch, *De Habacuci vita et cetate, *Lips. 1842, 1844). The Rabbinical tradition that Habakkuk was the son of the Shunammite woman whom Elisha restored to life is repeated by Abarbanel in his commentary, and has no other foundation than a fanciful etymology of the prophet's name, based on the expression in 2Ki 4:16. Equally unfounded is the tradition that he was the sentinel set by Isaiah to watch for the destruction of Babylon (comp. Isa 21:16 with Hab 2:1). In the title of the history of Bel and the Dragon, as found in the Sept. version in Origen's *Tetrapla, *the author is called "Habakkuk, the son of Joshua, of the tribe of Levi." Some have supposed this apocryphal writer to be identical with the prophet (Jerome, *Promen. in Dan.). *The psalm in ch. 3 and its title are thought to favor the opinion that Habakkuk w-as a Levite (Delitzsch, *Habakkuk, *p. 3). Pseudo-Epiphanius (2, 240, *De Vitis Prophetamum) *and Dorotheus *(Chronicles Pasch. p.* 150) say that he was of Βηθζοκήρ or Βηθιτουχάρ (v.r. Βηδζοκήρ*, *Βιδζεχάρ*) (Bethacat, *Isid. Hispal. c. 47), of the tribe of Simeon. This may have been the same as Bethzacharias, where Judas Maccabaus was defeated by Antiochus Eupator (1 Macc. 6:32, 33). The same authors relate that when Jerusalem was sacked by Nebuchadnezzar, Habakkuk fled to Ostracine, and remained there till after the Chaldeans had left the city, when he returned to his own country, and died at his farm two years before the return from Babylon, B.C. 538. It was (during his residence in Judea that he is said to have carried food to Daniel in the den of lions at Babylon. This legend is given in the history of Bel and the Dragon, and is repeated by Eusebins, Bar Hebraeus, and Eutychius. It is quoted from Joseph ben- Gorion (B. J. 11, 3) by Abarbanel *(Comm. on Hab.), *and seriously refuted by him on chronological grounds. The scene of the event was shown to mediaeval travelers on the road from Jerusalem to Bethlehem *(Early Travels in Palestine, *p. 29). Habakkuk is said to have been buried at Ceila, in the tribe of Judah, eight miles east of Eleutheropolis (Eusebius, *Onomasficon, *s.v.); where, in the days of Zebenus, bishop of Eleutheropolis, according to Nicephorus *(H. k. 12, *48) and Sozomen *(H. E. 7, *28), the remains of the prophets Habakkuk and Micah were both discovered. *SEE KEILAH*. Iabbinical tradition, however, places his tomb at Chukkok, of the tribe of Naphthali, now called Jakuk. *SEE HUKKOK*.

Habakkuk the Hebrew prophet, is commemorated in the old Roman martyrologies on January 15.

Habakkuk, Book Of — A full and trustworthy account of the life of this prophet would explain his imagery, and many of the events to which he alludes; but since we have no information on which we can depend, nothing remains but to determine from the book itself its historical basis and its age. **1. **The Rabbinical traditions agree in placing Habakkuk with Joel and Nahum in the reign of Manasseh (comp. *Seder Olam Rabba *and *Zuta, *and *Tsemach David). *This date is adopted by Kimchi and Abarbanel among the Rabbis, and by Witsius and others among modern writers. The general corruption and lawlessness which prevailed in the reign of Manasseh are supposed to be referred to in Hab 1:2-4. Kalinsky conjectures that Habakkuk may have been one of the prophets mentioned in 2Ki 21:10. Carpzov *(Introd. ad libr. canon. *V. T.p. 79, 410) and Jahn *(introd. in libros sacros V. T. *2, § 120) refer our prophet to the reign of Manasseh, thus placing him thirty odd years earlier; but at that time the Chaldaeans had not as yet given just ground for apprehension, and it would have been injudicious in Habakkuk prematurely to fill the minds of the people with fear of them. Some additional support to our statement of the age of this book is derived from the tradition, reported in the apocryphal appendix to Daniel and by the Pseudo-Epiphanius, that Habakkuk lived to see the Babylonian exile. Syncellus *(Chronographia, *p. 214, 230, 240) makes him contemporary with Ezekiel, and extends the period of his prophecy from the time of Manasseh to that of Daniel and Joshua, the son of Josedech. The *Chronicon Paschale *places him later, first mentioning him in the beginning of the reign of Josiah (Olymp. 32), as contemporary with Zephaniah and Nahum; and again in the beginning of the reign of Cyrus (Olymp. 42), as contemporary with Daniel and Ezekiel in Persia, with Haggai and Zechariah in Judea, and with Baruch in Egypt. Davidson (Horne's *Introd. *2, 968), following Keil, decides in favor of the early part of the reign of Josiah. Calmet, Jager, Ewald, Rosenmüller, Maurer, and Hitzig agree in assigning the commencement of Habakkuk's prophecy to the reign of Jehoiakim, though they are divided as to the exact period to which it is to be referred. Ranitz *(Introductio in Habakkuk Vatic. p. *24, 59), Stirkel *(Prolog. ad interpr. tertii cap. Habakkuk *p. 22, 27), and De Wette *(Lehrbuch der Historischkritischen Eileit. *Berlin, 1840, p. 338) justly place the age of Habakkuk before the invasion of Judaea by the Chaldeans. Knobel *(Der Prophetisn. de Hebr.) *and Meier *(Gesch. d. poet, nat. Liter. d. Hebr.) *are in favor of the commencement of the Chaldean era, after the battle of Carchemish (B.C. 606), when Judaea was first threatened by the victors. Some interpreters are of opinion that ch. 2 was written in the reign of Jehoiachin, the son of Jehoiakim (2Ki 24:6), after Jerusalem had been besieged and conquered by Nebuchadnezzar, the king made a prisoner, and, with many thousands of his subjects, carried away to Babylon; none remaining in Jerusalem save the poorest class of the people (2Ki 24:14). But of all this nothing is said of the book of Habakkuk, nor even so much as hinted at; and what is stated of the violence and injustice of the Chaldaeans does not imply that the Jews had already experienced it. It is also a supposition equally gratuitous, according to which some interpreters refer ch. 3 to the period of the last siege of Jerusalem, when Zedekiah was taken, his sons slain, his eyes put out, the walls of the city broken down, and the Temple burned (2Ki 25:30). There is not the slightest allusion to any of these incidents in the third chapter of Habakkuk. But the question of the date of Habakkuk's prophecy has been discussed in the most exhaustive manner by Delitzsch *(Derd Prophet Habakkuk, *Eill. § 3), and, though his arguments are rather ingenious than convincing, they are well deserving of consideration as based upon internal evidence. The conclusion at which he arrives is that Habakkuk delivered his prophecy about the twelfth or thirteenth year of Josiah (B.C. 630 or 629), for reasons of which the following is a summary. In Hab 1:5 the expression "in your days" shows that the fulfillment of the prophecy would take place in the lifetime of those to whom it was addressed. The same phrase in Jer 16:9 embraces a period of at most twenty years, while in Eze 12:25 it denotes about six years, and therefore, reckoning backwards from the Chaldean invasion, the date above assigned would involve no violation of probability, though the argument does not amount to a proof. From the similarity of Hab 2:10 and Zep 1:7, Delitzsch infers that the latter is an imitation, the former being the original. He supports this conclusion by many collateral arguments. Now Zephaniah, according to the superscription of his prophecy, lived in the time of Josiah, and from Hab 3:5 he is supposed to have prophesied after the worship of Jehovah was restored, that is, after the twelfth year of that king's reign. It is thought that he wrote about B.C. 624. Between this period, therefore, and the twelfth year of Josiah (B.C. 630), Delitzsch places Habakkuk. But Jeremiah began to prophesy in he thirteenth year of Josiah, and many passages are borrowed by him from Habakkuk (compare Hab 2:13 with Jer 51:58, etc.). The latter, therefore, must have written about B.C. 630 or 629. This view receives some confirmation from the position of his prophecy in the O.T. Canon. On the other hand, while it is evident, from the constant use of the *future *tense in speaking of the Chaldean desolations (Hab 1:5-6,12), that the prophet must have written before the invasion of Nebuchadnezzar, which rendered Jehoiakim tributary to the king of Babylon (2Ki 24:1), B.C. 606, yet it is equally clear from ch. 2, 3 that the prophecy did not long precede the fulfillment; and as there seem to be no references to the reigns of Josiah or Jehoahaz (B.C. 609), and as the notices of the corruption of the period agree with the beginning of the reign of Jehoiakim, we cannot be far astray in assigning B.C. 608 as the approximate date of this book. **2. **Instead of looking upon the prophecy as an organic whole, Rosenmüller divided it into three parts corresponding to the chapters, and assigned the first chapter to the reign of Jehoiakim, the second to that of Jeheiachin, and the third to that of Zedekiah, when Jerusalem was besieged for the third time by Nebuchadnezzar. Kalinsky *(Vatic. Chabac. et Nah.) *makes four divisions, and refers the prophecy not to Nebuchadnezzar, but to Esarhaddon. But in such an arbitrary arrangement the true character of the composition as a perfectly developed poem is entirely lost sight of. The prophet commences by announcing his office and important mission (i, I). He bewails the corruption and social disorganization by which he is surrounded, and cries to Jehovah for help (Hab 1:2-4). Next follows the reply of the Deity, threatening swift vengeance (Hab 1:5-11). The prophet, transferring himself to the near future foreshadowed in the divine threatenings, sees the rapacity and boastful impiety of the Chaldean hosts, but, confident that God has only employed them as the instruments of correction, assumes (Hab 2:1) an attitude of hopeful expectancy, and waits to see the issue. He receives the divine command to write in an enduring form the vision of God's retributive justice as revealed to his prophetic eye (Hab 2:2-3). The doom of the Chaldaeans is first foretold in general terms (Hab 2:4-6), and the announcement is followed by a series of denunciations pronounced upon them by the nations who had suffered from their oppression (Hab 2:6-20). The strophical arrangement of these "woes" is a remarkable feature of the prophecy. They are distributed in strophes of three verses each, characterized by a certain regularity of structure. The first four commence with a "Woe!" and close with a verse beginning with כַּי (for). The first verse of each of these contains the character of the sin, the second the development of the woe, while the third is confirmatory of the woe denounced. The fifth strophe differs from the others in form in having a verse introductory to the woe. The prominent vices of the Chaldaeans' character, as delineated in Hab 1:5-11, are made the subjects of separate denunciations: their insatiable ambition (Hab 2:6-8), their covetousness (Hab 2:9-11), cruelty Hab 2:12-14), drunkenness (Hab 2:15-17), and idolatry (Hab 2:18-20). The whole concludes with the magnificent psalm in chap. 3:" Habakkuk's Pindaric ode" (Ewald), a composition unrivalled for boldness of conception, sublimity of thought, and majesty of diction. This constitutes, in Delitzsch's opinion, "the second grand division of the entire prophecy, as the subjective reflex of the two subdivisions of the first, and the lyrical recapitulation of the whole." It is the echo of the feelings aroused in the prophet's mind by the divine answers to his appeals; fear in anticipation of the threatened judgments, and thankfulness and joy at the promised retribution. But, though intimately connected with the former part of the prophecy, it is in itself a perfect whole, as is sufficiently evident from its lyrical character, and the musical arrangement by which it was adapted for use in the Temple service. **3. **The style of this prophet has always been much admired. Lowth *(De Poesi Hebraeor. *p. 287) says: "Poeticus est Habaccuci stylus; sed maxime in eda, quae inter absolutissimas in eo genere merito numerari potest." Eichhorn, De Wette, and Rosenmüller are loud in their praise of Habakkuk's style; the first giving a detailed and animated analysis of the construction of his prophecies *(Einleitung. in das A. Test. 3:*333). He equals the most eminent prophets of the Old Testament — Joel, Amos, Nahum, Isaiah; and the ode in ch. 3 may be placed in competition, with Ps 18; Ps 68 for originality and sublimity. His figures are all great, happily chosen, and properly drawn out. His denunciations are terrible, his derision bitter, his consolation cheering. Instances occur of borrowed ideas (Hab 3:19; comp. Ps 18:34: Hab 2:6; comp. Isa 14:7: Hab 2:14; comp. Isa 11:9); but he makes them his own in drawing them out in his peculiar manner. With all the boldness and fervor of his imagination, his language is pure and his verse melodious. Eichhorn, indeed, gives a considerable number of words which he considers to be peculiar to this prophet, and supposes him to have formed new words or altered existing ones, to sound more energetic or feeble, as the sentiments to be expressed might require; but his list needs sifting, as De Wette observes *(Einleitung, *p. 339); and קַיקָלוֹן, Hab 2:16, is the only unexceptionable instance. **4. **The ancient catalogues of canonical books of the Old Testament do not, indeed, mention Habakkuk by name; but they must have counted him in the twelve minor prophets, whose numbers would otherwise not be full. In the New Testament some expressions of his are introduced, but. his name is not added (Ro 1:17; Ga 3:11; Heb 10:38; comp. Hab 2:4: Ac 12:25,25; comp. Hab 1:5). **5. **Express commentaries on the whole of this book separately are the following, of which the most important are designated by an asterisk L*] prefixed: Theophylact, *Commentarius *(in *Opp. *4); Bede, *Expositio *(in *Works, 9, *404) Tanchum of Jerusalem, *Commentaire *(ed. Munk, Paris, 1843. 8vo): Abarbanel, *Commentarius *(ed. Sprecher, Traj. 1722. Helmst. 1790, 8vo): Luther, *Auslegung *(Vitemb. 1526, 4to; Erf. cod. 8vo; in Latin, Argent. 1528, 8vo); Capito, *Enarrationes *(Argent. 1526, 8vo); Chytraus, *Lectiones *(in *Opp. *p. 364); Grynseus, *Hypomeamata *(Basil. 1582, 8vo); De Guevara, *Commentarius *[Rom. Cath.] (Madrid, 1585, 4to; 1593. fol.; Aug. Vind. 1603; Antw. 1609, 4to); Agellius, *Commentarius *(Antw. 1597. 8vo); Tossan, *Periphrasis *(Francf. 1599, 8vo); Garthius, *Commentarius *(Vitemb..1605, 8vc): Tarnovius, *Commentarius *(Rost. 1623, 8vo); Cocceius, *Antlysis *(in *Opp. 11:*657); Marbury, *Commentaire *(Lond. 1650; 4to), *De Padilla, *Commentaria *[Rom. Cath.] (Madrid, 1657, 2 vols. 4to; Sulzb. 1674, 4to, Iome, 1702, fol.); Hafenreffer, *Commentarius *[including Nahuml (Stuttg. 1663, 8vo); *Van Til, *Commentarius *(L. B. 1700, 4to); Biermann, *De Prophesie van H. *(Utr. 1713, 4to); Esch, *Erklarung *(Wesel, 1714, 4to); Abicht, *Annotationes *(Vitemb. 1732, 4to); Jansen, *Analecta *(in *Pentateuch, *etc.); *Scheltinga, *Commentarius *(L. B. 1747, 4to); *Kalinskv, *Illustratio *[including Nahum] (Vratislav, 1748, 4to); Chrysander, *Anmerk. *(Rint. and Lpz. 1752, 4to); Monrad, *Anmerk. *(from the Danish, Göttingen, 1759, 8vo); Anon. *Traduction *(Paris, 1775, 12mo); Perschke *Versio, *etc. (Francf. et. Lips. 1777, 8vo): *Ludwig, Erläuterung *(Frkft. 1779, 8vo); Faber, *Commentatio *(Onold. 1779, 2 vols. 4to) Wahl, *Amerkung. *etc. (Hanover. 1790, 8vo), Kofod, *Commentarius *(Hafn. 1792, 8vo); Tingstad, *Anmadversiones *(Upsal. 1795, 8vo); Hadnlein, *Interpretatio *(Erlang. 1795, 8vo) Bather, *Application *(in *Sermons, *i, 188); Plum, *Observationes *[including Obad.] (Götting. 1796, 8x o); Conz, *Erläuterung. (in *Staudlen's *Beitrade); *Horst, *Amerkungen *(Gotha, 1798, 8vo); Dahl, *Observationes *(Neustr. 1798, 8vo); Wolfssohn, *Amerk. *(Bresl. 18.06, 8vo); Euchel, *E1aut: *(Copenh. i815, 8vo); Justi, *Erlaut. *(Lpz. 1820, 8vo); Wolff, *Commentar *(Darmst. 1822, 8vo); Schroder, *Amerk. *[including Joel. Nahum, etc.] (Hildesh. 1827, 8vo); Deutsch, תִּרגּוּם, etc. (Bresl. 1837, 8vo) , *Baumlein, *Commentarius *(Heilbronn, 1840, 8vo); *Delitzsch, *Auslegung *(Lpz. 1843, 8vo); Von *Gumpach, Erklarung *(Munch. 1860, 8vo); Robinson, *Homilies *(Lond. 1865, 8vo). *SEE PROPHETS, MINOR*. The following are on chap. 3 exclusively Barhr (, *De equitatione Dei *[ver. 15] (Lips. 1749, 4to); Feder, *Canticum Hab. *(Wirzb. 1774, 8vo); Perschke, *Commentarius *(Franef. 1777, 4to); Busing, *De fulgoribus Dei*[ver. 3, 41 (Bremen, 1778, 4to); Nachtigal, *Erkldr. *(in Henke's *Magazine, 4:*180-190); Schroder, *Dissertutio *(Groningen, 1781,4to); Schnurrer, *Dissertatio *(Tübing. 1786, 4to); Morner, *Hymnus Habakkuk *(Ups. 1794, 4to); Heidenheim, תִּרגּוּם, etc. (Rodelh. 1800,1826, 8vo); Anton, *Expositio *(Gorl. 1810, 4to); Steiger, *Amerkungen *(in Schwarz, *Jahrb. *1824, p. 136); Stickel, *Prolusio *(Neust. 1827, 8vo); Reissmann, *De Song of Solomon Habakkuk *(Krauth. 1831, 8vo); Strong, *Prayer of Habakkuk *(in the *Meth. Quar. Rev. *Jan. 1861, p. 73). *SEE COMMENTARY*.

Habazini'ah (Hebrew *Chabatstsinyah', *חֲבִצַּניָה*, *perh. *lamp of Jehovah; *according to Furst, *collection of Jehovah; *Sept. Χαβασίν*), *the father of one Jeremiah and grandfather of the chief Rechabite Jaazaniah, which last the prophet Jeremiah tested with the offer of wine in the Temple (Jer 35:3). B.C. considerably ante 539.

Hab'bacuc (Α᾿μβακούμ; Vulg. *Habacuc), *the form in which the name of the prophet HABAKKUK *SEE HABAKKUK *(q.v.) is given in the Apocrypha (Bel, 33, 34, 35, 37, 39).

Habdalah (הִבדָלָה, *distinction), *a ceremony by which the Jewish Sabbath is divided or separated from the other days of the week. It is performed after the concluding service in the synagogue, by reciting passages of Scripture and prayers, and the use of wine and spices. On Sabbath evening four benedictions are said, one over the wine, a second over the spice the third over the light, "Blessed art thou Lord our God, king of the world, who hast created a shining light," and the last is, "Blessed art thou, Lord our God, king of the universe, who hast made a distinction (הִמִּבדַּיל) between the holy and the common, between light and darkness, between Israel and the other nations, between the seventh day and the other six days of work; blessed be thou, O God, who hast made a distinction between the-holy and the common." If for any reason a Jew is prevented from performing this ceremony, either at 'home or abroad, he is at liberty to substitute the following short benediction: "Blessed is he who has made a distinction between things sacred and profane." See Buxtorf, *Lex. Chald. Tal. *s.v. (B.P.)