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Baba Lalis is a Hind-. sect sometimes included among the Vaishnava (q.v.) sects., In reality, however, they adore but one god, dispensing with all forms of worship, and directing their devotions by rules and objects derived from a medley of Vedanta and Sufi tenets.

Baba, Gabriel an Italian abbot and theologian, was a native of Venice and lived in the latter half of the 17th century. He became secretary of cardinal Bichi, and wrote, *Principle Documenti della Vita Cristiana, Tradotti del Latino del Card. Giov. Bona *(Rome, 1676, *1677): — Discorso sopra l'Esalfazione di Papa Alessandro VIII *(ibid. 1689). See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v.

Babas *(*Βάβας or Βάβα*, *since the latter only appears as a genitive), a person mentioned by Josephus as the last descendant of the Asmonaeans, but simply to relate that his sons were preserved by Costabarus from the general massacre of the adherents of Antigonus ordered by Herod the Great on obtaining possession of Jerusalem, until their concealment was disclosed by Salome to the tyrant, who immediately made sure of their death *(Ant. 1*5, 7, 10).

Babbit, Pierre Teller, D.D. a Protestant Episcopal minister, was born in New York city, Feb. 12, 1811. He graduated at Yale College in 1831; the three years following he devoted to teaching, and then entered the General Theological Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church in New York city, where he graduated in 1836. - He was ordained deacon in the same year, and was advanced to the priesthood in 1837. He officiated for a short time in 1836 in St. Paul's Church, Woodbury, Conn., and thence removed to Boonville, 'Mo., where he did frontier work as a minister and teacher until 1838, when he accepted the rectorship of St. Luke's Church, Erie, Pa. A year or two later he went to Hudson, N. Y., as rector of Christ Church, but contracting the asthma,. he was compelled.to remove to a milder climate. He went to South Carolina and took charge of the parochial school in Charleston, performing missionary work also. In 1848 he returned to his old parish at Woodbury, but in 1850 removed to North Carolina to take charge of a school near Raleigh. After a brief service there, he went to Tallahassee, Fla., as assistant minister. of St. John's Church,-but in 1853 came North again, and accepted the rectorship of Grace Churoh,. South Middleton, N. Y. In 1862 he removed to St. Mark's Church, Newark, N. Y., and in October, 1867, became head-master of Doolittle Institute, Wethersfield Springs, N. Y. In. 1869 he became rector of the Episcopal Church at Bainbridge, Ga., and continued there till his death, April 1, 1881. See *Obituary Record of Yale College, *1881.

Babbitt, Amzi B. a minister of the Reformed (Dutch) Church, was born in New Jersey. He graduated at the College of New Jersey in 1816, and at Princeton Theological Seminary in 1821. He served for a time in the Presbyterian Church in Pequea, Pa;, and in the Second Reformed (Dutch) Church of Philadelphia (1834-35), also in the Presbyterian Church at Salisbury, Pa. He died in 1846. See Corwin, *Manual of the Ref: Church of America *(3d ed.), p. 168.

Babbitt, Carlisle a Methodist Episcopal minister, was born in Vermont, March 19, 1808. In 1831 he entered the itinerant ranks of the Kentucky Conference. He located and moved to Illinois in 1855, and in 1857 united with the Southern Illinois Conference, in which he labored with -anxious zeal and fidelity until his decease, June 26, 1864. Mr. Babbitt was a devoted father and husband and an excellent minister. See *Minutes of Annual Conferences, *1864, p.206.

Babcock, Cyrus Giles a Baptist minister, graduated at Brown University in 1816, and was licensed to preach in 1817. He was called to the pastorship of the Baptist Church at Bedford, Mass., but he declined the call because of ill-health. He died in March, 1817. See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, 6:*387.

Babcock, E. C. a Protestant Episcopal clergyman of the Diocese of New York, a graduate of the General Theological-Seminary, was engaged for a number of years as missionary in Greenpoint, N. Y., until about 1856, when he ceased to perform regular ministerial duty. He died about 1859. See *Prot. Episc. Almanac, *1860, p. 93.

Babcock, James a Methodist Episcopal minister; was born Washington County, N. Y., in March, 1800. He experienced religion in his sixteenth year, but lost it again by yielding to worldly fascinations; was reconverted in 1823; received license to preach in 1825, and was admitted into the Pittsburgh Conference. In 1828 his health so failed that he was obliged to become superannuate, and he died Feb. 8, 1829. Mr. Babcock was diligent, pious, and useful. See *Minutes of Annual-Conferences, *1831, p. 114.

Babcock, Rufus, D.D. an eminent Baptist minister, was born at Colebrook, Conn., Sept. 18, 1798. He graduated at Brown University in the class of 1821, and soon after was appointed tutor in Columbian College, Washington, D.C. During his connection with the college, he pursued his theological studies under the direction of the president, Rev. Dr. Staughton. He was ordained in 1823 as pastor of the Baptist Church in Poughkeepsie, N. Y., where he remained four years, and then removed to Salem, Mass., to take charge of the First Baptist Church in that place as associate pastor with the Rev. Lucius Boker, D.D., whom he succeeded on his retirement to accept the office of corresponding secretary of the Baptist General Convention. He was chosen president of Waterville College in 1833, and occupied that position for nearly four years, when he returned to the active ministry, and was pastor in Philadelphia and in New Bedford, Mass.; a. second time in Poughkeepsie, and in Paterson, N. J., when he retired from the pastorate and performed service in the interests of some of the leading benevolent organizations of his denomination and of the American Sundayschool Union. He died in Salem, Mass., lay 4, 1875. Dr. Babcock contributed much with his pen to various magazines and religious newspapers, and published several works, among which were the following: *Claims of Educationale Societies (1829):-Making Light of Christ (1830): — Memoir* *of Andrew Fuller (eod.): — Sketches of George Leonard, Abraham Booth, and Iaeac Backus *(1832)*: — History of Waterville College *(1836)*: —Tale of Truth for the Young *(1837)*: — Memoir of John Mason Peck (1858): — The Emigrant's Mother *(1859). See. Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, 6:*387. (J. C.S.)

Cadeoldus (Or Edoldus), Saint a French prelate, originally a monk, became abbot of Grison, and finally bishop of Vienne. He died in 696, and is commemorated Jan. 14. See Smith, *Diet. of Christ. Biog. *s.v.

Ca'des (Καδής v. r. Κῆδες and Κεδές), a Graecized form (1 Macc. 11:63, 73) of the name of KEDESH *SEE KEDESH *(q.v.) in Naphtali (Jos 20:7).

Ca'dès-Bar'nè (Κάδης Βαρνή)*, *a Graecized form (Judith 5:14) of KADESH-BARNEA *SEE KADESH-BARNEA *(q.v.).

Cadesreuter, Christoph a German Lutheran preacher and pedagogue, lived in the latter part of the 16th century, in the diocese of Hof, Bavaria. He wrote *Grammatica Graeca *(Leipsic, 1599). See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v.

Cadfan was a Celtic saint of the 6th century, of good birth in Armorica, who crossed over into Wales at the head of a large company, mostly his own relatives, supposed to have been exiled in consequence of the Frankish invasion, He is chiefly known as the first abbot of a monastery founded by him and Enion Freuhin, in the isle of Bardsey. An ancient Welsh inscription upon a rude pillar at Tywyn in Merionethshire, where was one of the many churches of his foundation, is thought to refer to him.

Cadfarch a Welsh saint, who lived about the middle of the 6th century, was the founder of the churches of Penegos, Montgomeryshire, and Abererch, Carnarvonshire. He is commemorated October 24.

Cadfrawd was an early Welsh saint. See Rees, *Welsh Saints, *p. 92, 100.

Cadgyfarch was an early Welsh saint. See Rees. *Welsh Saints, *p. 102.

Cadharians were a Mohammedan sect who deny predestination, and hold that human actions are solely regulated by the free-will of man himself. They have been styled the " Manichaeans of the Mussulman faith,"' because they maintain the existence of two original coordinate principles, the divine and the human.

Cadiocenus (Thadiocenus Or Thadiacus) was a supposed archbishop of York, who retired into Wales A.D. 586. See Stubbs, *Reyist. *p. 153.

Cadion, Jean Baptiste a French theologian, who died as a canon at Autun about 1600, after having been curate at Alise, left a *Vie de Sainte Reine *(Alise, 1648), See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, s.v.*

Cadir is an order of Mohammedan monks founded by Abdul-Kadir-Gilani, who died; at: :Bagdad in 1165. They never cut their hair, and always go bareheaded and barefooted. They can leave the order at pleasure, and are under no vow of celibacy.

Cadizadelites are a modern Mohammedan sect who resemble, in some degree, the ancient Greek stoics. Their faith and practice seems to be a confused mixture of Mohammedanism, Christianity, and Judaism. They pray at funerals for the souls of the departed, calling upon the dead to remember that "there is but one God only." They read the Bible in the Sclavonic tongue, and the Koran in the Arabic. They love Christians, and protect them from insults on the part of other Mohammedans. They believe that Mohammed is the Paraclete or Comforter. They hate images and the sign of the cross, and practice circumcision, claiming in this to follow the example of Christ.

Cadle, Richard F a minister of the Protestant. Episcopal Church, who died in November, 1857, at Seaford, Del., was for many years at the head of the mission among the Oneida Indians at Green Bay, Lake Michigan. In 1853 he took charge of the churches at Seaford, Laurel, and vicinity, in Sussex County, Del, He was an earnest and faithful minister of the Gospel. See *Amer. Quar. Church Rev. *1858, p. 612.

Cad'miel (Καδμίηλος v. r. Καδόηλος), one of the Levites whose "sons" returned from the captivity, and who assisted at the musical performances at the restoration of the temple worship (1 Esdr.5:26, 58); evidently the KADMIEL *SEE KADMIEL *(q. v) of the Hebrews texts (Ezr 2:40; Ne 7:43; Ne 12:24).

Cadmus in Greek legend, was the son of Agenor and of Telphassa or of Antiope. Agenor, king of Phoenicia, had, besides four sons, an extraordinarily beautiful daughter, Europa, whom Jupiter carried off in the form of a bull. When the disheartened father sent his sons and his wife away in search of her, with the command not to return without her, Cadmus and his mother reached Thrace, where the latter died. Having taken friendly leave of the Thracians, he went to Delphi to inquire of the oracle where his sister could probably be found. He was told to follow a cow of a certain description, and to settle there where she would fall exhausted. The cow wandered through Boeotia, and fell on the spot where the city of Thebes was built Then Cadmus desired to sacrifice the cow to Minerva and sent some of his attendants to a spring of Mars to get some water. This spring was guarded by a dragon of the god, who tore several of the attendants to pieces, whereupon Cadmus, assisted by Minerva, slew the dragon, broke his teeth, and, by the advice of the goddess, sowed them. From this seed there grew armed men, who killed one another. Only five of the sowed men (Spartans) were left remaining: Echion, Udeus, Chthonius, Hyperenor, and Pelor, and from them the Thebans derived their five tribes. Cadmus was compelled to serve the god eight years, for his injury to the dragon; at the expiration of which time, however, he had become so fully reconciled to the god that the latter gave him his daughter Harmonia as a wife. Minerva gave him the kingdom. The gods all came to the wedding, which was celebrated with the greatest brilliancy. The children of Cadmus were, Polydorus, Autonoe, Ino, Semele, and Agave. After a number of years Cadmus left Thebes, and in his old age he died, at the same time with his wife, or, as Ovid says, they were changed into snakes. He taught the Greeks the use of ores for weapons, and instituted writing by letters among them. See Smith, *Diet. of Gr. and Rom. Biog. and Mythol. *s.v.

Cado (Or Cataw) was a Welsh saint of the 6th century. See Rees, *Welsh Saints, *p. 232.

Cadoc (Cadocus, Docus, Cathmael, Cattwg The Wise) abbot of Llancarvan, in Wales, was the son of Gundleus (or Gwynllyw Filwe), and was educated by an Irish anchoret, Menthi. He then went to Gwent (or Caerwent), Monmouthshire, where he. studied under St. Fathai. From Gwent he removed to Glamorgan, and founded the monastery of Llancarvan, of which he became first abbot. He was the friend of Dubricius, and the means of the conversion of St. Iltritus, He was born, probably, about the beginning of the 6th century; Colgan and Lanigan assign 570 as the date of his death. He was commemorated Jan. 14. The fables of Cattwg the Wise are printed in the *lolo Manuscripts, *edited by E. William (1848). His *Life *is given in the *Acta Sanctorum *of the Bollandists, under Jan. 2, 602. Colgan *(Tr. Thaum. *152, 185, n.) seeks to identify the Mochatocars left by St. Fiac at Innisfail as the Cadocus of Wales, but the dates do not harmonize. He has also been confused with St. Sophias of Beneventum. His Scotch dedication was at Cambuslang, County 'Lanark.

Cadog a Welsh saint of the 5th century, was the founder of Llangadog Fawr Church, in Carmarthenshire, and others. He is not to be confounded with Cadoc (q.v.).

Cadogan, William Bromley, Hon. an English clergyman, was born Jan. 22,1751, and educated at Westminster School, and at Christ Church College, Oxford. He was presented to the vicarage of St. Giles, Reading, in 1774, and soon after to the rectory of Chelsea. He spent the greater part of his life at St. Giles in faithful and successful ministerial labors. He died Jan. 18, 1797. His publications consist of several single sermons; and after his death appeared *Discourses, Letters, and Memoirs of his Life,. *by Richard Cecil, M.A. (1798). See Chalmers, *Biog. Dict. *s.v.; Allibone, *Diet. of Brit. and Amer. Authors, *s.v.

Easter Celebration of**.** In the ancient Church the seventh day of Passion-week (q.v.), the great Sabbath, as it was called, was observed with rigorous precision as a day of fasting. Religious worship was celebrated by night; and the vigils continued till cock-crowing, the hour at which it is supposed our Lord arose. At this hour the stillness of these midnight vigils was broken by the joyful acclamation, "The Lord is risen! The Lord is risen! The Lord is risen indeed!" The day of Easter was celebrated with every demonstration of joy as a second jubilee. There was a solemn celebration of the Lord's Supper; the baptism of catechumens; appropriate salutations, and demonstrations of joy; the liberation of prisoners, and the manumission of slaves. Charities were dispensed to the needy. Courts of justice were closed. The heathen were forbidden to celebrate public spectacles in order that the devotions of Christians might not be interrupted. The week following was considered as a continuation of the festival. During this time, those who had been baptized at Easter continued arrayed in white, in token of that purity of life to which they were bound by baptism. On the Sunday following they laid aside their garments of white, and were welcomed as members of the Church. — Bingham, *Orig. Ecclesiastes *book 20, chapter 5.

Easter Controversies There was much controversy in the early Church as to the days on which our Lord's resurrection ought to be celebrated. The churches of Asia Minor celebrated the death of the Lord on the day corresponding to the 14th of the month Nisan, on which day, according to the opinion of the whole ancient Church, the crucifixion took place. The Western churches, on the other hand, were of opinion that the crucifixion should be annually commemorated on the particular day of the week on which it occurred, that is, Friday. The resurrection was accordingly commemorated by the former party on the day corresponding to the 16th of Nisan, and by the other party on the Sunday following Good Friday. The two parties also differed with regard to the fasting preceding Easter. The Western churches viewed the death-day of Christ exclusively as a day of mourning, and they did not terminate the time of fasting until the day of resurrection. The churches of Asia Minor, on the other hand, looking upon the death of Christ wholly as the redemption of mankind, terminated fasting at the hour of Christ's death (5 o'clock in the afternoon), and immediately after celebrated the Agape and the Lord's Supper. In addition to these two parties, both of which were within the old catholic Church, there was another, repudiated by the Church as heretical. This third party, an Ebionitic sect, agreed with the churches of Asia Minor in adhering to the commemoration of the day of the month (14th and 16th of Nisan), but differed from them in insisting upon the continuance of the obligatory character of the ancient law, and the consequent duty of Christians to celebrate the *Jewish *Passover. Both were called *Quartodecimani, *from the *fourteenth *(Latin *quartodecimus) *day of the month on which they commemorated the death of Christ. Eusebius mentions *(Hist.* *Ecclesiastes *5:23; *Vita Constant. *3:19) Palestine, Pontus, Gallia, Rome, Osroene, Corinth, Phoenicia, Alexandria, as churches following the Western practice. To these the emperor Constantine, in a circular enjoining the observance of a decree of the Nicene Council on the subject, adds all Italy, Africa, Spain, Britain, Greece. Thus the Western practice appears to have largely prevailed. Its adherents traced its origin to the apostles Peter and Paul, while the churches of Asia Minor rested their differing practice upon the authority of the apostle John. Both parties adhered to the name of *Pascha (Passover), *by which they understood sometimes the whole week commemorating the Passion, sometimes the specially festive days of this week. In the course of time (it is not known when) the death-day was distinguished as πάσχα σταυρώσιμον*, *and the day of resurrection as πάσχα ἀναστάσιμον*. *Irenaeus explicitly bears testimony that the bishops of Rome up to Xystus (at the beginning of the 2d century) kept peace with the adherents of the other practice. The first effort to come to an agreement on the controversy was made by bishop Polycarp, of Smyrna, about the middle of the 2d century, when on a visit to bishop Anicet, of Rome. The two bishops received each other with the kiss of peace, but neither of them was willing to sacrifice the practice of his predecessors. Nevertheless they parted in kindness, and peace continued to reign between the two parties. A few years later, the Ebionitish Quartodecimani caused great trouble at Laodicea (about 170), at Rome (about 180), where a certain Blastus was at their head, and in other places. Books against them were written by Melito of Sardis and Apollinaris of Hierapolis, both of whom were adherents of the practice of Asia Minor; by Clement of Alexandria and Hippolytus (about the middle of the 3d century). Of all these books only fragments are left. That of Hippolytus shows that at this time the Jewish Quartodecimani were regarded by the Church as heretics. The first serious dispute between the parties within the old Catholic Church broke out about 196, when bishop Victor, of Rome, issued a circular to the leading bishops of the Church, requesting them to hold synods in their provinces, and to introduce the Western practice. Some complied with this request; but the synod held by bishop Polycrates, of Ephesus, emphatically refused, and approved the letter of bishop Polycrates, who, in defense of the Asiatic practice, referred Victor to the authority of the apostles Philip and John, to Polycarp, and to seven of his relations, who before him had been bishops of Ephesus. Victor at first intended to excommunicate the Asiatic churches, and therefore issued an encyclical to the Christians of those regions, but whether he really carried out his threat is not certain; the words of Eusebius *(Hist. Ecclesiastes *5:24) on the movements of Victor are by some understood as implying a real execution of the excommunication, while the more common opinion is, that, in consequence of the indignant remonstrances against such a usurpation of power by the Western bishops, especially by Irenaeus, the threat was never executed. Thus far the controversy between the Asiatic and the Western churches had only concerned two points, namely, (1) whether the day of the week or the day of the month on which the death of Christ occurred should be commemorated; (2) when the fasting ought to be terminated. Now a third point of dispute arose, as to the time when the 14th day of Nisan really occurred. Many of the Church fathers are of opinion that, according to the original calculation of the Jews up to the time of the destruction of Jerusalem, the 14th of Nisan had always been after the spring equinox, and that it was only in consequence of a miscalculation of the later Jews that the 14th of Nisan occasionally fell before the equinox. They therefore insisted that the 14th of Nisan, which for both parties within the Church determined the time of Easter, should always be after the equinox. As the year of the Jews is a lunar year, and the 14th of Nisan always a full-moon day, the Christians who adopted the above astronomical view, whenever the 14th of Nisan fell before the equinox, would celebrate the death of Christ one month later than the Jewish Passover. As the Christians could now no longer rely on the Jewish calendar, they had to make their own calculations of the time of Easter. These calculations frequently differed, partly from reasons already set forth, and partly because the date of the equinox was fixed by some at the 18th of March, by others at the 19th, by others at the 21st of March. The Council of Aries in 314 endeavored to establish uniformity, but its decrees do not appear to have had great effect. The subject was therefore again discussed and acted upon by the OEcumenical Council of Nice, which decreed that Easter should be celebrated throughout the Church after the equinox, on the Friday following the 14th of Nisan. It was also provided that the Church of Alexandria, as being distinguished in astronomical science, should annually inform the Church of Rome on what day of the calends or ides Easter should be celebrated, and the Church of Rome should notify all the churches of the world. But even these decrees of the Council of Nice did not put a stop to all differences, and it was reserved to the calculation of Dionysius Exiguus (q.v.) to gradually introduce uniformity of practice into the whole Church. Some countries, like Great Britain, did not abandon their ancient practice until after a long resistance. At the time of Charlemagne uniformity seems to have been established, and no trace is to be found of the Quartodecimani. The revision of the calendar by Pope Gregory XIII, on the whole, retained the Dionysian era, but determined more accurately the Easter full moon, and made careful provision for avoiding any future deviation of the calendar from the astronomical time. By these minute calculations, however, the Christian Easter sometimes, contrary to the decrees of the Nicene Council. coincides with the Jewish Passover. This, for instance, was the case in 1825. — Mosheim, *Church Hist. *1:68; Neander, *Church Hist. *1:298; 2:301, 302 Mosheim, *Comm.* 1:523; Weitzel, *Die christliche Paschafeier der ersten Jahrhunderte *(1848); Rettberg, in *Zeitschrift fir historische Theologie, *1832, volume 2; Hefele, in Wetzer u. Welte, *Kirchen-Lex. *3:871; Steitz, in Herzog, *Real- Encyklop. *11:140; Steitz, *Die Differenz der Occidentalen u. der Kleinasiaten *(in *Stud. u. Krit. *1856). (A.J.S.)

Easter, John a distinguished Methodist Episcopal minister. Dates of his early life are wanting. He joined the itinerancy in 1782, and located in 1792. His ministerial career was "brilliant," and "his success almost unparalleled." In 1787, on Brunswick Circuit, Va., eighteen hundred souls were added to the Church under his ministry. William M'Kendree and Enoch George, afterwards bishops in the Church, were brought to God through his preaching. See Wakeley's *Heroes of Methodism, *p. 219; *Life and Times of Jesse Lee, *p. 356 et al.

Easter, John a Methodist Episcopal minister, was born in Norfolk Co., England, September 21, 1800, and joined the Wesleyan Methodists in 1824. In 1830 he emigrated to America, and settled in Geneva, N.Y. He entered the itinerancy in 1832, and took a superannuated relation in 1838. His death was caused by a rocket, at Geneva, on July 4, 1842. Mr. Easter was a man of great worth, and a useful and beloved preach*er. — Minutes of Conferences, *3:345.

Easter-candle *SEE PASCHAL TAPER*.

Easter-eggs The egg was the symbol of creation in Egypt, and of hope and the resurrection among early Christians; and the custom of giving colored pasch eggs on Easter morning is found in the East, in the Tyrol, in Russia, in Greece, in many parts of England, where it may be traced back to the time of Edward I, and was observed at Gray's Inn in the reign of Elizabeth. In France the pasch egg is eaten before any other nourishment is taken on Easter day. Tansy pudding, according to Selden, is a memorial of the bitter herbs eaten by the Jews; and peculiar cakes in some places formed the staple fare on this day. Paul II issued a form of benediction of eggs for England, Scotland, and Ireland. Henry VIII received a paschal egg in a case of silver filigree from the pope. The Jews regarded the egg as a symbol of death. — Walcott, *Sac. Archaeol. *s.v. *SEE EGG*.

Eastern Church a designation given, **1. **Specifically to what is commonly called the Greek Church, in distinction from the Western (or Latin Church). The title claimed by that Church itself is Καθολικὴ καὶ ἀποστολικὴ ἐκκλησία τῆς ἀνατολικῆς *The Catholic and Apostolic Eastern Church. SEE GREEK CHURCH*. Bishop Coxe, in the *Churchman's Calendar, *calls it the "Grand Trunk, or main stem of the Catholic Church." **2. **The name *Eastern Church, *or, more properly, *Eastern churches, *is given to Eastern Christendom, divided into the churches named in the following list, which gives their statistics to the close of 1867, as far as they can be ascertained: **1. ***The Greek Church. — Russia *(in Europe, 51,000,000; in Siberia, 2,600,000; in the provinces of the Caucasus no official account of the ecclesiastical statistics has yet been made; the total population of this part of the empire is 4,257,000, the population connected with the Greek Church may be estimated at about 1,500,000; hence total population of Russia connected with the Greek Church is about), 55,000,000; Turkey (inclusive of the dependencies in Europe and Egypt), about 11,500,000; Austria, 2,921,000; Greece (inclusive of the Ionian Islands), 1,220,000; United States of America (chiefly in the territory purchased in 1867 from Russia), 50,000; Prussia, 1500; China, 200; total, 69,692,700. The figures referring to Russia, Austria, and Prussia are from an official census; those concerning China are furnished by the Russian missionaries in Pekin; those on Turkey and Greece are estimates almost generally adopted*. SEE GREEK CHURCH; SEE RUSSIA*. **2. ***The Armenian Church. — According *to D. Petermann (in Herzog's *Real-Encyklopadie), *the total number of Armenians scattered in the world is about 2,500,000. Of these, about 100,000 are connected with Rome, and are called United Armenians; 15,000 are Evangelical Armenians, and all others belong to the National (or "Gregorian") Armenian Church. The number of the latter may therefore be set down at about 2,400,000. The great majority of them (about 2,000,000) live in Turkey, about 170,000 in Russia, and 30,000 in Persia. *SEE ARMENIAN CHURCH.* **3. ***The Nestorians, *including the *Christians of St. Thomas *in India, number about 165,000 souls, exclusive of those who have connected themselves with Rome, or have become Protestants. *SEE NESTORIANS.* **4. ***The Jacobites *in Turkey and India are estimated at about 220,000, but the information concerning them is less definite than that about the preceding churches. *SEE JACOBITES*. **5. ***The Copts and Abyssinians.-The *Copts may be roughly estimated at about 200,000, the Abyssinians at about 3,000,900*. SEE ABYSSINIAN CHURCH; SEE COPTS*. Together, therefore, the population connected with these Eastern communions embraces a population of about 76,500,000. All these bodies lay claim to having bishops of apostolical succession, and consequently all of them are embraced in the union scheme patronized by the High-Church Anglicans. Both the Low-Church and the Broad-Church parties dislike the idea of a union with the Greeks, Copts, Abyssinians, and the other Eastern communions; but the High-Churchmen, of all shades of opinion, are a unit on this subject. An important fact in the history of this movement is the official transmission of a Greek translation of the pastoral letter issue; (1867) by the Pan-Anglican Synod to all the patriarchs and bishops of the Greek Church (Schem, in *Methodist Quarterly Review, *1868, p. 280). On the Eastern churches, besides the articles on the separate churches in this Cyclopaedia, see Stanley, *Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church (N. Y. *1867, 8vo); Neale, *History of the Holy Eastern Church *(London, 1847-1850, 4 vols. 8vo). -A list of the patriarchates, sees, etc., of the Eastern churches is given in the *Churchman's Calendar, *1868, p. 36 sq.

Easterwine (or Eosterwini), coadjutor-abbot of Wearmouth, was the nephew of Benedict, the founder of that monastery, and was born in 650. At the age of twenty-four he renounced his secular prospects, was ordained in 679, and devoted himself with singular humility and affection to the duties of his recluse life. He died March 7, 686.

Eastlake, Sir Charles Lock an English painter, was born at Plymouth in 1793. He. studied under Fuseli at the Royal Academy, and at the Louvre, in Paris. He went to Rome in 1817, and remained there many years. In 1841 he was appointed secretary to the royal commission on the arts; from 1843 to 18 17 was keeper of the National Gallery; and in 1850 Wavs knighted, made president of the Royal Academy, and director of the National Gallery. He died in Pisa, December 23, 1865, Among his most noted works are, *Christ Weepinug over Jerusalem; Pilgrims Arriving in Sight of Rome; Christ Blessing Little Children; Hagar and Ishmael, *and the *Raising of Jairus's Daughter. *He wrote *Materials for a History of Oil Painting, *and *Contributions to the Literature of the Fine Arts *(posthumous; edited by lady Eastlake). A *History *of his life was published by lady Eastlake in London in 1870.

Eata (or Ecka) **(1) **First bishop of Hexham. A.D. 678, and the fifth of Lindisfarne, 681- 685, as originally from Northumbria, and abbot of Old Mielrose; he died October 26, 686. **(2) **An anchorite of Crayke, in Yorkshire, who died in 767.

Eating (properly אָכִל, *akal', *ἐσθίω*). *The ancient Hebrews did not eat indifferently with all persons; they would have esteemed themselves polluted and dishonored by eating with those of another religion or of an odious profession. In Joseph's time they neither ate with the Egyptians nor the Egyptians with them (Ge 43:32), nor in our Savior's time with the Samaritans (Joh 4:9). The Jews were scandalized at his eating with publicans and sinners (Mt 9:11). As there were several sorts, of meats the use of which was prohibited, they could not conveniently eat with those who partook of them, fearing to contract pollution by touching such food, or if by accident any particles of it should fall on them. *SEE FOOD*. At their meals some suppose they had each his separate table; and that Joseph, entertaining his brethren in Egypt, seated them separately, each at his particular table, while he himself sat down separately from the Egyptians, who ate with him; but he sent to his brethren portions out of the provisions which were before him (Ge 43:31 sq.). Elkanah, Samuel's father, who had two wives, distributed their portions to them separately (1Sa 1:4-5). In Homer, each guest is supposed to have had his little table apart and the master of the feast distributed meat to each *(Odyss. *14:446 sq.). We are assured that this is still practiced in China, and that many in India never eat out of the same dish, nor on the same table with another person, believing they cannot do so without sin, and this not only in their own country, but when traveling and in foreign lands. This is also the case with the Brahmins and various castes in India, who will not even use a vessel after a European, though he may only have drank from it water recently drawn out of a well. The same strictness is observed by the more scrupulous among the Mohammedans, and instances have been known of every plate, and dish, and cup that had been used by Christian guests being broken immediately after their departure. The ancient manners which we see in Homer we see likewise in Scripture, with regard to eating, drinking, and entertainments. There was great plenty, but little delicacy; great respect and honor paid to the guests by serving them plentifully. Joseph sent his brother Benjamin a portion five times larger than those of his ether brethren. Samuel set a whole quarter of a calf before Saul (1Sa 9:24). The women did not appear at table in entertainments with the men; this would have been an indecency, as it is at this day throughout the East. —*SEE BANQUET*. The Hebrews anciently sat at table, but afterwards imitated the Persians and Chaldaeans, who reclined on table-beds or divans while eating. (See Gier, *De vett. Ebr. ratione caenandi, *Lips. 1639). This mode of reclining at meals was common in the East, and also among the Greeks and Romans. Under the Roman emperors the couches were sometimes made semicircular. *SEE ACCUBATION*. At the present day, in the East, the custom is to sit or recline upon the floor at meat, and at other times on cushions. Many of the Arabs use no knife, fork, spoon, or plate in eating their victuals (these being used only by foreigners, and that as a special privilege); they dip their hands into the milk which is placed before them in a wooden bowl, and lift it to their mouth in their palm. Dr. Russell states, "The Arabs, in eating, do not thrust their whole hand into the dish, but only their thumb and two first fingers, with which they take up the morsel, and that in a moderate quantity at a time." The present mode of eating in Syria and Palestine is thus described by Dr. Jowett: "To witness the daily family habits, in the house in which I lived at Deir el Kamr (not far from Beyrout), forcibly reminded me of Scripture scenes. The absence of the females at our meals has already been noticed. There is another custom, by no means agreeable to a European, to which, however, I would willingly have endeavored to submit, but it was impossible to learn it in the short compass of twenty days' visit. There are set on the table, in the evening, two or three messes of stewed meat, vegetables, and sour milk. To me the privilege of a knife, and spoon, and plate was granted; but the rest all helped themselves immediately from the dish, in which it was no uncommon thing to see more than five Arab fingers at one time. Their bread, which is extremely thin, tearing and folding up like a sheet of paper, is used for the purpose of rolling together a large mouthful, or sopping up the fluid and vegetables. But the practice which was most revolting to me was this: when the master of the house found in the dish any dainty morsel, he took it out with his fingers and applied it to my mouth. This was true Syrian courtesy and hospitality, and had I been sufficiently well-bred, my mouth would have opened to receive it. On my pointing to my plate, however, he had the goodness to deposit the choice morsel there" *(Researches, *p. 210). Niebuhr's account is as follows *(Description of Arabia, *page 52). "The table of the Orientals is arranged according to their mode of living. As they always sit upon the floor, a large cloth is spread out in the middle of the room upon the floor, in order that the bits and crumbs may not be lost, or the carpets soiled. (On journeys, especially in the deserts, the place of this cloth is supplied by a round piece of leather, which the traveler carries with him, *Travels, *2:372.) Upon this cloth is placed a small stool, which serves as a support for a large round tray of tinned copper; on this the food is served up in various small dishes of copper, well tinned within and without. Among the better class of Arabs, one finds, instead of napkins, a long cloth, which extends to all who sit at table, and which they lay upon their laps. Where this is wanting, each one takes, instead of a napkin, his own handkerchief, or rather small towel, which he always carries with him to wipe himself with after washing. Knives and forks are not used. The Turks sometimes have spoons of wood or horn. The Arabs are so accustomed to use the hand instead of a spoon, that they can do without a spoon even when eating bread and milk prepared in the usual manner. Other kinds of food, such as we commonly eat with a spoon, I do not remember to have seen. It is, indeed, at first, very unpleasant to a European, just arrived in the East, to eat with people who help themselves to the food out of the common dish with their fingers; but this is easily got over, after one has become acquainted with their mode of life. As the Mohammedans are required, by their religion, very often to wash themselves, it is therefore even on this account probable that their cooks prepare their food with as much cleanliness as those of Europe. The Mohammedans are even obliged to keep their nails cut so short that no impurity can collect under thereon; for they believe their prayers would be without any effect if there should be the least impurity upon any, part of the body. And since, now, before eating, they always wash themselves carefully, and generally too with soap, it comes at length to seem of less consequence whether they help themselves from the dish with clean fingers or with a fork. Among the sheiks of the desert, who require at a meal nothing more than *pillau, *i.e., boiled rice, a very large wooden dish is brought on full, and around this one party after another set themselves till the dish is emptied, or they are satisfied. In Merdin, where I once ate with sixteen officers of the Waiwode, a servant placed himself between the guests, and had nothing to do but to take away the empty dishes, and set down the full ones which other servants brought in. As soon as ever the dish was set down, all the sixteen hands were immediately thrust into it, and that to so much purpose, that rarely could any one help himself three times. They eat, in the East, with very great rapidity; and at this meal in Merdin, in the time of about twenty minutes, we sent out more than fourteen empty dishes." *SEE DINE.* The Hebrews, like the modern Orientals, rose early, about the dawn of the day, when they breakfasted. They were accustomed to take a slight repast about noon; and this to husbandmen and mechanics was probably the principal meal (1Ki 20:16; Ru 2:14; Lu 14:12). Wilkinson says, "That dinner was served up at midday among the ancient Egyptians may be inferred from the invitation given by Joseph to his brethren: 'Bring these men home, and slay and make ready, for these men shall dine with me at noon' (Ge 43:16); but it is probable that, like the Romans, they also ate supper in the evening, as is still the custom in the East." Supper appears to have been the principal meal among the Hebrews, as it was among the Greeks and Romans. Among the Romans it anciently took place about three o'clock; but in the East, as at the present day in Persia, about six or seven in the evening, in order to avoid the enfeebling heat of the afternoon (Mr 6:21; Lu 14:16,24; Joh 12:2). In 1Sa 9:13, we read that the people would not eat of the feast until Samuel had arrived and consecrated the sacrifice. But this circumstance affords no evidence of the custom of asking a blessing on food. In the time of Christ, however, it was common before every meal to give thanks (Mt 14:19; Mt 15:36). *SEE MEAL-TIME.* In closing this subject, we may properly notice the obligations which are considered by Eastern people to be contracted by eating together. Niebuhr says, "When a Bedouin sheik eats bread with strangers, they may trust his fidelity and depend on his protection. A traveler will always do well, therefore, to take an early opportunity of securing the friendship of his guide by a meal." The reader will recollect the complaint of the Psalmist (Ps 41:9), penetrated with the deep ingratitude of one whom he describes as having been his own familiar friend, in whom he trusted *"who did eat of my bread, *even he hath lifted up his heel against me!" Hence, in part, no doubt, the corviviality that always followed the making of a covenant. Hence, also, the severity of some of the feelings acknowledged by the indignant man of patience, Job, as appears in several passages of his pathetic ex-postulations. It is well known that Arabs, who have: given food to a stranger, have afterwards thought themselves bound to protect him against the vengeance, demanded by consanguinity, for even blood itself. (See Layard's *Nineveh, *2d series, p. 217.) *SEE HOSPITALITY*. To "eat" is frequently spoken metaphorically in Scripture of the enjoyment or partaking of temporal or spiritual blessings (Jer 15:16; Eze 3:1; Re 10:9). Wemyss's *Symbol. Dict. *s.v. *SEE DRINK; SEE TASTE*.

Eaton, Asa, D.D. a Protestant Episcopal minister, was born at Plaistow, N.H., July 25, 1778. His preparatory studies were begun at the age of twenty-one, and he graduated from Harvard University in 1803. On October 23 of the same year Christ Church invited him to act as lay-reader, and he continued in this position until 1805, when he was ordained, and remained rector until 1829. In that year he became city missionary, laboring among the destitute until 1837. From 1837 to 1841 he was connected with St. Mary's Hall, a young ladies' school at Burlington, N.J. Then he returned to Boston, but without a regular charge, and died there, March 24, 1858. See, *Amer. Quar. Church Rev. *1858, page 341; *Necrol. of Harvard College, *page 178.

Eaton, George W., D.D., LL.D. a distinguished Baptist scholar, was born near Huntingdon, Pennsylvania, July 3, 1804, and graduated from Union College, Schenectady, N.Y., in 1829. Upon his graduation he was appointed tutor, which position he held a year or two. In 1831 he became professor of languages in Georgetown College, Kentucky, and in 1833 professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Hamilton College. He subsequently filled the professorships of ecclesiastical and civil history, and of systematic theology, and was appointed president of Madison University and of the Hamilton Theological Seminary, holding the latter position until his death, August 3, 1872. Dr. Eaton was a man of the widest and warmest sympathies, earnest in his convictions, and able to maintain them with fervid eloquence. (J.C.S.)

Eaton, Horace, D.D. a Presbyterian minister, was born in Sutton, N.H., October 7, 1810. He studied at Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., and graduated from Dartmouth College in 1839 and from the Union Theological Seminary in 1842. For six years he was pastor of the Sixth Presbyterian Church in. New York city, and thereafter of the First Presbyterian Church in Palmyra, N.Y., until his death, October 21, 1883. See *Providence Journal, *Oct. 23, 1883. (J.C.S.)

Eaton, John was born at Kant in 1575, and studied at Oxford. In 1625 he was made rector of Wickham Market, Suffolk, where he died in 1641. His writings: are Antinomian. They are, *The Discovery of a most dangerous dead Faith *(London 1641, 12mo): The *Honeycomb of free Justification *(London 1642,. 4to). He was imprisoned for this last work by the Long Parliament. — Wood, *Atheniae Oxonienses; *Hook, *Eccl. Biog. *4:526.

Eaton, Joseph a veteran Baptist minister, was born at Wells, Maine, June 22, 1743. He was converted at the age of twenty-two, licensed to preach in 1793, and in 1798 was ordained pastor of the Church in Wells, the service being performed in Berwick. After his resignation, in 1820, Mr. Eaton was engaged for several years in evangelistic labors in the section of the country in which he lived. His death took place in December 1831. See Millett, *History of the Baptists in Maine, *page 442. (J.C.S.)

Eaton, Joseph H., LL.D. a Baptist minister, brother of Reverend G.W. Eaton, D.D., was born in Berlin, Delaware County, Ohio, September 10, 1812. He graduated from the Hamilton Literary and Theological Institution (now Madison University) in 1837, and for three years thereafter was engaged in teaching. He was elected professor in 1841, and in 1847 president of what is now Union University, Murfreesborough, Tenn. His ordination took place in 1843, and he was pastor of the Church in the same place, having also the oversight of several county churches. His health broke down under these excessive labors, and he died, January 12, 1859, See Cathcart, *Baptist Cyclop. *page 358. (J.C.S.)

Eaton, Peter, D.D. a Unitarian minister, was born at Haverhill, Massachusetts; March 25, 1765. He studied under the Reverend Phineas Adams, graduated from Harvard College in 1787, taught a school for one year at Woburn, and then passed some time in the study of theology. Having received license, he preached his first sermon in Boxford, January 10, 1789, and in October following was installed as pastor there. In 1819 he preached the annual sermon before the Legislature of Massachusetts, and in 1820 resigned his charge at Boxford. In 1845 he removed to Andover, where he remained until his death, in April 1848. Dr. Eaton published many valuable *Sermons. *See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *8:222.

Eaton, Samuel a Congregational minister, was a native of England, and took his degrees at Magdalen College, Cambridge. He entered into the ministry of the Established Church, but, on account of his Puritanism came to New England with the Rev. John Davenport in 1637, and was co-pastor with him at New Haven. He returned to England in 1640, and formed a Congregational church at Duckenfield, Cheshire. By the Act of Uniformity he was compelled to cease preaching in 1662, and died June 9, 1665. He published *A Defense of sundry Positions and Scriptures alleged to justify the Congregational Way *(1645; second part, 1646): — The *Mystery of God incarnate, or the Word made Flesh cleared up, *etc. *(1650): — Vindication, or further Confirmation of the Scriptures, produced to prove the Divinity of Jesus Christ, distorted and miserably wrested and abused by Mr. John Knowles, *etc. (1651): *— Treatise of the Oath of Allegiance and Covenant, showing that they oblige not *(replied to *1650): — The Quakers Confuted, *etc. (1659). — Sprague, *Annals, *1:98.

Eaton, Thomas, D.D. a Scotch clergyman, graduated from Glasgow University; was licensed to preach in June, 1807; presented by lord Douglas to the living of Kirriemuir in 1809, and ordained March 22, 1810. He died April 5, 1856, aged seventy*-*nine years. In him learning, knowledge, modesty, and moral worth were combined with meekness and piety. He published six different works, chiefly of a local theological character. See *Fasti Eccles. Scoticanae,* 3:777.

Hadad-e'zer (Heb. *id., *הַדִדנעֶזֶר*, Adad *is his *help *[ *SEE HADAD*, No. 1]; Sept. Αδραέζερ in 2 Samuel 8, but Α᾿δαρέζερ v.r. Α᾿δαδέζερ in 1Ki 11:23; Vulg. *Adarezer *in both passages), less correctly HADAREZER (Heb. *idt., *הרעֶזֶר*. ln. *[ see under HDADA; yet some MSS. have *Hadadezer *throughout]; 2Sa 10:16,19; 1Ch 18:3-10; 19:16,19; Sept. Α᾿δραζάρ v.r. Α᾿δρααζάρ, Vulg. still *Adarezer), *king of the Aramitish state Zobah, a powerful opponent of David. He was defeated by the Israelites in his first campaign, while on his way to "establish his dominion" (B.C. cir. 1035) in the neighborhood of the Euphrates, with a great loss of men, war chariots, and horses, and was despoiled of many of his towns (2Sa 8:3; 1Ch 18:3), and driven with the remnant of his force to the other side of the river (19:16). The golden weapons (שֶׂלֶט, A.V. "shields of gold") captured on this occasion, a thousand in number, were taken by David to Jerusalem (18:7), and dedicated to Jehovah. The foreign arms were preserved in the Temple, and were long known as king David's (1Ch 23:9; Song 4:4). A diversion highly serviceable to him was made by a king of Damascene Syria [ *SEE HADAD*, 5], who compelled David to turn his arms against him (2Sa 10:6-14; 1Ch 19:6-14). The breathing-time thus afforded Hadadezer was turned by him to such good account that he was able to accept the subsidies of Hanun, king of the Ammonites, and to take a leading part in the confederacy formed by that monarch against David. B.C. cir. 1034. The first army brought into the field was beaten and put to flight by Abishai and Joab; but Hadadezer, not yet discouraged, went into the countries east of the Euphrates, and got together, the forces of all his allies and tributaries, which he placed under the command of Shobach, his general. The army was a large one, as is evident from the numbers of the slain; and it was especially strong in horse- soldiers (1Ch 19:18). They crossed the Euphrates, joined the other Syrians, and encamped at a place called Helam (q.v.). To confront so formidable an array, David took the field in person, and in one great victory so completely broke the power of Hadadezer, that all the small tributary princes seized the opportunity of throwing off his yoke, of abandoning the Ammonites to their fate, and of submitting quietly to David, whose power was thus extended to the Euphrates (2Sa 10:15-19; 2Ch 19:11). But one of Hadarezer's more immediate retainers, REZON ben-Eliadah, made his escape from the army, and, gathering round him some fugitives like himself, formed them into one of those marauding, ravaging "bands" (גּדוּר) which found a congenial refuge in the thinly peopled districts between the Jordan and the Euphrates (2Ki 5:2; 1Ch 5:18-22). Making their way to Damascus, they possessed themselves of the city. B.C. cir. 980. Rezon became king, and at once began to avenge the loss of his countrymen by the course of" mischief" to Israel which he pursued down to the end of Solomon's reign, and which is summed up in the emphatic words, "He was an adversary (a 'Satan') to Israel"… "he abhorred Israel" (1Ki 11:23-25).

Ha'dad-rim'mon (Heb. *Hadad'-Rimmon', *רַמּוֹן הֲדִד the names of two Syrian idols; Sept. κοπετάς ροὼνος,Vulg. *Adadremmon), *the name of a place in the valley of Megiddo, alluded to in Zec 12:11 as a type of the future penitence of the Jews; probably by a proverbial expression from the lamentation for Josiah, who was mortally wounded not far from this spot (2Ch 35:22; 2Ch 25). (There is a treatise by Wichmanshausen. *De planctu Hadadr. *in the *Nov. Thes. Theol. — phil. *1, 1101; exegetical remarks on the same text have also been written in Dutch by Vermast [ Gonda, 1792, 1794], in German by Mauritii [Rost. 1764. 1772], and in Latin by Froriep [Erf. 1776].) According to Jerome (*Comment. on Zechariah *1. c. and *Hos. *1), it was afterwards called *Maximliunoopolis *(see Reland. *Palcest. *p. 891), which, according to the *Jerus. Itin., *lay 17 Rom. miles from AEesatea, and 10 from Esdraelon; being situated, according to Dr. Robinson (new ed. of *Researches, 3, *118), a little south of Megiddo (now Lejjun) (see *Bibliotheca Sacra, *1844, p. 220). The name has been thought to be derived from the worship of the idol Hadad-rimmon (Hitzig *on Isaiah 17, *9; Movers, *Phin. p. *297); but, according to the Targum of Jonathan (followed by Jarchi), it is an ellipsis for *Hadad, *son of *Tab-rimmon, *the alleged opponent of Ahab at Ramoth-Gilead. As it contains the names of two principal Syrian deities, it may have been an old Syrian stronghold, and hence Josiah may here have made his last stand in defense of the plain of Esdraeloa. 'Such a site, therefore, does not ill agree with the position of the modern *Runlaneh, *a village "at the foot of the Megiddo hills, in a notch or valley about 1 hour S. of tell Metzellim" (Van de Velde, *Memoir, *p. 333; comp. *Narrative, *1, 355; De Saulcy, *Dead Sea,* 2, 311). Schwarz's attempt *(Palest. *p. 159) to identify Hadad-Rimmon with Gath-Rimmon of Jos 21:25, as the Kefar Uthni of the Talmud *(Götting, *fol. 76, a), and a present Kafer Guth, said by him to be located about 24 miles from Lejjun, beyond Sepphoris, is without foundation.

Ha'dar a various reading of two Heb. names. *SEE ETS-HADAR*. **1. **CHADAR'(חֲדִר, perhaps *chamber; *Sept. Χοδδάν*; *Vulg. *Hadar), *a son of Ishmael (Ge 25:15); written in 1Ch 1:30, *Chadad'(*חֲדִד*, *Χονδάν*, Hadad); *but Gesenius supposes the former to be the true reading of the name. It has not been identified, in a satisfactory way, with the appellation of any tribe or place in Arabia, or on the Syrian frontier; but names identical with, or very closely resembling it, are not uncommon in those parts, and may contain traces of the Ishmaelitish tribe sprung from Hadar. The mountain *Hadad, *belonging to Teyma, *SEE TEMA*. on the borders of the Syrian desert, north of el-Medineh, is perhaps the most likely to be correctly identified with the ancient dwellings of this tribe; it stands among a group of names of the sons of Ishmael, containing Dumah, Kedar, and Temna. *SEE HADAD*, 2. **2. **HADAR'*(*הֲדִר, perh. *ornament; *Sept. Α᾿ράδ v.r. Α᾿ράθ*; *Vulg. *Adua), *one of the Edomitish kings, successor of Baal-Hanan ben-Achbor (Ge 36:39); and, if we may so understand the statement of ver. 31, about contemporary with Saul. The name of his city, and the name and genealogy of his wife, are given. In the parallel list in 1 Chronicles 1, he appears as HADAD. We know from another source (1Ki 11:14, etc.) that 'Hadad was one of the names of the royal family of Edom. Indeed, it occurs in this very list (Ge 36:35). *SEE HADAD*, 4.

Hadare'zer the form of the name of the town mentioned in the account of David's Syrian campaign, as given in 2 Samuel 10, and in all its occurrences in the Heb. text (as well as in both MSS. of the Sept. and in Josephus), except 2Sa 8:3-12.; 1Ki 11:23, where it is more correctly called HADADEZER *SEE HADADEZER *(q.v.).

Hadarniel in the Talmud, is an angel of the heaven of fixed stars, and commander of fire; therefore more than twelve thousand flashes of lightning come from his mouth at every word he utters.. He would. not allow Moses to wander through the air, when the latter came, at the command of God, to receive the law. God chided him, therefore he offered his services, to go before Moses, and announce his words.

Hadas *SEE MYRTLE*.

Had'ashah (Heb. *Chadashah', *חֲדָשָׁה*, new; *Sept. Α᾿δασά v.r. Α᾿δασάν), a city in the valley of Judah, mentioned in the second group between Zenan and Migdal-gad (Jos 15:37). It has generally been thought (Winer, *Realw. *s.v.) to be the same with the *Adasa ('Accaas) *of Josephus *(Ant. 12,* 10, 5) and the Apocrypha '(1 Macc. 8:40, 45), and likewise of the *Onomasticon *(s.v.), which, however, must have lain rather in the mountains of Ephraim, apparently near the modern village *Surda. SEE ADASA*. Schwarz *(Phys. Descript. of Pal. *p. 103) inclines to identify it with a little village *el-Chadas, *stated by him to lie between Migdal and Ashkelon, the *el-Jora *of Van de Velde's *Map. *According to the Mishna *(Erub. *5, 6), it anciently contained 50 houses only (Reland, *Palaest. *p. 701). *SEE JUDAH, TRIBE OF*.

Hadas'sah (Heb. *Hadassah', *הֲדִסָּה*, myrtle; *comp. the Gr. names *A Myrto, *etc.; Sept. omits, Vulg. *Edissa), *the earlier Jewish name of ESTHER (Es 2:7). Gesenius *(Thesaur. *p. 366) suggests that it is identical with ςΑτοσσα*,* the name of the daughter of Cyrus (Herod. 3. 133,134).

Hadassi, Jehuda a learned Karaite Jew, was born towards the end of the 11th century, at Jerusalem, and died between 1150 and 1160. He is the author of a great work, bearing upon the literature of the Karaite Jews, entitled, אֶשׁכֹּל הִכֹּפֶר, also סֵפֶר הִפֶּלֶס, first published at Koslov, 1836. See Furst, *Bibl. Jud. *1:353; *Geschichte der Karaer*, 2:211 sq.; De' Rossi, *Dizionaro Storico *(Germ. transl.), page 120. (B.P.)

Hadat'tah (Heb. *Chadattah', *חֲדִתָּה. a Chaldaizing *form=nova; *Sept. omits, Vulg. *nova), *according to the A.T. one of the towns of Judah in the extreme south "Hazor, Hadattah, and Kerioth, and Hezron," etc. (Jos 15:25); but the Masoretic accents of the Hebrew connect the word with that preceding it, as if it were Hazor-chadattah, i.e. New Hazor, in distinction from the place of the same name in ver. 23. This reading is expressly sanctioned by Eusebius and Jerome, who speak *(Onomast. *s.v. Asor) of "New Hazor" as lying in their day to the east of and near Ascalon. (See also Reland, *Palcest. *p. 708.) But Ascalon, as Robinson has pointed out *(Researches, *new ed. 2, 34, note), is in the Shefelah, and not in the south, and would, if named in Joshua at all, be included in the second division of the list, beginning at ver. 33, instead of where it is, not far from Kedesh. Still the total (29) in ver. 32 requires as in much abbreviation in the enumerated list of cities in this group as possible. — *SEE HAZOR- HADATTAH*.

Haddah *SEE EN-HADDAH*.

Haddock, Chas. B., D.D. a Congregational minister, was born in Salisbury, N. H., in the summer of 1796. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1816. Immediately after graduating, he entered Andover Theological Seminary, where he remained two years. He was then compelled to desist from his studies, and made a journey to the South. He returned in 1819 invigorated in health, and was at once chosen the first professor of rhetoric in Dartmouth College, which position he held till 1838, when he was chosen professor of intellectual philosophy. In 1850 he received the appointment of charge d'affaires at the court of Portugal which he held till 1855. He spent the remainder of his life at West Lebanon. For about twelve years he preached at White River Village, Vt., and for several years he supplied the pulpit at the upper and lower churches of Norwich, Vt. For a year or two he preached at West Lebanon, and for the last two years and a half of his life he preached at Queechy village, Vt. He died at West Lebanon, N. H., Jan. 15, 1861. As a preacher he was always acceptable, and never more so than during the last year of his life. — *Congregational Quarterly, *1861, p. 213.

Hadelin (Lat. Hadalinus), Saint priest and confessor, who died about 690, was one of the disciples of St. Remacle, and when that saint resigned his bishopric of Fougeres, that he might retire into the peaceful monastery of Stanislawow, lately founded by St. Sigebert, king of Austrasia, he took with him the pious Hadelin. Remacle sent Hadelin into Dinant, on the Meuse, in 669, and finding a quiet retreat at Celles, on the Lesse, he dwelt there in a cave, and built a little chapel, on the site of which afterwards rose a collegiate church. St. Hadelin is the patron of five churches in the diocese of Liege and Namur. His hermitage still exists, and has never been without a pious successor. The body of this saint was buried there, but was translated to Vise, in the diocese of Liege, in 1338. He is mentioned in the martyrologies of Ado, Wyon, Menardus, those of Liege, Cologne, etc. There are two ancient lives, one by Notker, bishop of Liege (971-1007). See Baring-Gould, *Lives of the Saints *(sub. February 3, his day), 2:49.

Hadeloga (or Adaloga), Saint commemorated February 2, is said to have been the first abbess of the nunnery of Kissingen, and a daughter of Charles Martel, in the 8th century.

Hades a Greek word (]σης, derived, according to the best established and most generally received etymology, from privative a and ἰδεῖν, hence often written ά‹δμς), means strictly *what is out of sight, *or possibly, if applied to a person, *what puts out of sight. *In earlier Greek this last was, if not its only, at least its prevailing application; in Homer it occurs only as the personal designation of Pluto, the lord of the invisible world, and who was probably so designated-not from being himself invisible, for that belonged to him in common with the heathen gods generally-but from his power to render mortals invisible-the invisible-making deity (see Crusius, *Homeric Lexicon, *s.v.). The Greeks, however, in process of time abandoned this use of *hades, *and when the Greek Scriptures were written the word was scarcely ever applied except to the place of the departed. In the classical writers, therefore, it is used to denote *Orcus, *or the infernal regions. In the Greek version of the Old Testament it is the common rendering for the Heb. שׁאוֹל, *sheol, *though in the form there often appears a remnant of the original personified application; for example, in Ge 37:35, "I will go down to my son," εἰς ]δου*, *i.e. into the abodes or house of hades δύμους or οϊvκον being understood). This elliptical form was common both in the classics and in Scripture, even after *hades *was never thought of but as a region or place of abode. **1. **The appropriation of *hades *by the Greek interpreters as an equivalent for *sheol *may undoubtedly be taken as evidence that there was a close agreement in the ideas conveyed by the two terms as currently understood by the Greeks and Hebrews respectively-a substantial, but not an entire agreement; for in this, as well as in other terms which related to subjects bearing on things spiritual and divine, the different religions of Jew and Gentile necessarily exercised a modifying influence; so that even when the same term was employed, and with reference generally to the same thing, shades of difference could not but exist in respect to the ideas understood to be indicated by them. Two or three points stand prominently out in the views entertained by the ancients respecting *hades: *first, that it was the *common *receptacle of departed spirits, of good as well as bad; second, that it was divided into two compartments, the one containing an Elysium of bliss for the good, the other a Tartarus of sorrow and punishment for the wicked; and, thirdly, that in respect to its locality, it lay under ground, in the mid-regions of the earth. So far as these points are concerned, there is no material difference between the Greek *hades *and the Hebrew *sheol. *This, too, was viewed as the common receptacle of the departed: patriarchs and righteous men spoke of going into it at their decease, and the most ungodly and worthless characters are represented as finding in it their proper home (Ge 42:38; Ps 139:8; Ho 13:14; Isa 14:9, etc.). A twofold division also in the state of the departed, corresponding to the different positions they occupied, and the courses they pursued on earth, is clearly implied in the revelations of Scripture on the subject, though with the Hebrews less prominently exhibited, and without any of the fantastic and puerile inventions of heathen mythology. Yet the fact of a real distinction in the state of the departed, corresponding to their spiritual conditions on earth, is in various passages not obscurely indicated. Divide retribution is represented as pursuing the wicked after they have left this world-pursuing them even into the lowest realms of *sheol *(De 32:22; Am 9:2); and the bitterest shame and humiliation are described as awaiting there the most prosperous of this world's inhabitants, if they have abused their prosperity to the dishonor of God and the injury of their fellow-men (Ps 49:14; Isa 14). On the other hand, the righteous had hope in his death, he could rest assured that, in the viewless regions of *sheol, *as well as amid the changing vicissitudes of earth, the right hand of God would sustain him; even there he would enter into peace, walking still, as it were, in his uprightness (Pr 14:32; Ps 139:8; Isa 57:2). That *sheol, *like *hades, *was conceived of as a lower region in comparison with the present world, is so manifest from the whole language of Scripture on the subject, that it is unnecessary to point to particular examples; in respect to the good as well as the bad, the passage into *sheol *was contemplated as a descent; and the name was sometimes used as aῥ synonym for the very lowest depths (De 32:22; Job 11:7-9). This is not, however, to be understood as affirming anything of the actual locality of disembodied spirits; for there can be no doubt that the language here, as in other cases, was derived from the mere appearances of things; and as the body at death was committed to the lower parts of the earth, so the soul was conceived of as also going downwards. But that this was not designed to mark the local boundaries of the region of departed spirits may certainly be inferred from other expressions used regarding them-as that God took them to himself; or that he would give them to see the path of life; that he would make them dwell in his house forever; or, more generally still, that the spirit of a man goeth upwards (Ge 5:24; Ps 16:11; Ps 23:6; Ec 3:21; Ec 12:7). During the old dispensations there was still no express revelation from heaven respecting the precise condition or external relationships of departed spirits; the time had not yet come for such specific intimations; and the language employed was consequently of a somewhat vague and vacillating nature, such as spontaneously arose from common feelings and impressions. For the same reason, the ideas entertained even by God's people upon the subject were predominantly somber and gloomy. *Sheol *wore no inviting aspect to their view, no more than *hades *to the superstitious heathen; the very men who believed that God would accompany them thither and keep them from evil, contemplated the state as one of darkness and silence, and shrunk from it with instinctive horror, or gave hearty thanks when they bound themselves for a time delivered from it (Ps 6:5; Ps 30:3,9; Job 3:13 sq.; Isa 38:18). The reason was that they had only general assurances, but no specific light on the subject; and their comfort rather lay in overleaping the gulf of *sheol, *and fixing their thoughts on the better resurrection some time to come, than in anything they could definitely promise themselves between death and the resurrection-morn. In this lay one important point of difference between the Jewish and the heathen *hades, *Originated by the diverse spirit of the two religions, that to the believing Hebrew alone the sojourn in *sheol *appeared that only of a temporary and intermediate existence. The heathen had no prospect beyond its shadowy realms; its bars for him were eternal; and the idea of a resurrection was utterly strange alike to his religion and his philosophy. But it was in connection with the prospect of a resurrection from the dead that all hope formed itself in the breasts of the true people of God. As this alone could effect the reversion of the evil brought in by sin, and really destroy the destroyer, so nothing less was announced in that first promise which gave assurance of the crushing of the tempter; and though as to its nature but dimly apprehended by the eve of faith, it still necessarily formed, as to the reality, the great object of desire and expectation. Hence it is said of the patriarchs that they looked for a better country, which is a heavenly one; and of those who in later times resisted unto blood for the truth of God, that they did it to obtain a better resurrection (Heb 11:16,35). Hence, too, the spirit of prophecy confidently proclaimed the arrival of a time when the dead should arise and sing, when *sheol *itself should be destroyed, and many of its inmates be brought forth to the possession of everlasting life (Isa 26:19; Ho 13:14; Da 12:2). Yet again, in apostolic times, Paul represents this as emphatically the promise made by God to the fathers, to the realization of which his countrymen as with one heart were hoping to come (Ac 26:7); and Josephus, in like manner, testifies of all but the small Sadduceean faction of them, that they believed in a resurrection to honor and blessing for those who had lived righteously in this life *(Ant. 18, *1, 3). This hope necessarily cast a gleam of light across the darkness of *hades *for the Israelite, which was altogether unknown to the Greek. Closely connected with it was another difference also of considerable moment, viz., that the Hebrew *sheol *was not, like the Gentile *hades, *viewed as an altogether separate and independent region, withdrawn from the primal fountain of life, and subject to another dominion than the world of sense and time. Pluto was ever regarded by the heathen as the rival of the king of earth and heaven; the two domains were essentially antagonistic. But to the more enlightened Hebrew there was but one Lord of the living and the dead; the chambers *of sheol *were as much open to his eye and subject to his control as the bodies and habitations of men on earth; so that to go into the realms of the deceased was but to pass from one department to another of the same all-embracing sway of Jehovah. *SEE SHEOL*. **2. **Such was the general state of belief and expectation regarding *hades *or *sheol *in Old-Testament times. With the introduction of the Gospel a new light breaks in, which shoots its rays also through the realms of the departed, and relieves the gloom in which they had still appeared shrouded to the view of the faithful. The term *hades, *however, is of comparatively rare occurrence in New-Testament scripture; in our Lord's own discourses it is found only thrice, and on two of the occasions it. is used in a somewhat rhetorical manner, by way of contrast with the region of life and blessing. He said of Capernaum, that from being exalted unto heaven it should be brought down to *hades *(Mt 11:23) —that is, plainly, from the highest point of fancied or of real elevation to the lowest abasement. Of that spiritual kingdom, also, or church, which he was going to establish on earth, he affirmed that "the gates of *hades *should not prevail against it" (Mt 16:18), which is all one with saying that it should be perpetual. *Hades *is contemplated as a kind of realm or kingdom, accustomed, like earthly kingdoms in the East, to hold its council chamber at the gates; and whatever measures might there be taken, whatever plots devised, they should never succeed in overturning the foundations of Christ's kingdom, or effectually marring its interests. In both these passages *hades *is placed by our Lord in an antagonistic relation to his cause among men, although, from the manner in which the word is employed, no very definite conclusions could be drawn from them as to the nature and position of *hades *itself. But in another passage — the only one in which any indication is given by our Lord of the state of its inhabitants-it is most distinctly and closely associated with the doom and misery of the lost: "In *hades," *it is said of the rich man in the parable, "he lifted up his eyes, being in torments" (Lu 16:23). The soul of Lazarus is, no doubt, also represented as being so far within the bounds of the same region that he could be descried and spoken with by the sufferer. Still, he was represented as sharing no common fate with the other, but as occupying a region shut off from all intercommunion with that assigned to the wicked, and, so far from being held in a sort of dungeon-confinement, as reposing in Abraham's bosom, in an abode where angels visit. With this also agrees what our Lord said of his own temporary sojourn among the dead, when on the eve of his departing thither — "Today," said he, in his reply to the prayer of the penitent malefactor, "shalt thou be with me in paradise" (Lu 23:43) But paradise was the proper region of life and blessing, not of gloom and forgetfulness; originally it was the home and heritage of man as created in the image of God; and when Christ now named the place whither he was going with a redeemed sinner paradise it bespoke that already there was an undoing-of the evil of sin, that for all who are Christ's there is an actual recovery immediately after death, and as regards the better part of their natures, of what was lost by the dis. obedience and ruin of the fall. *SEE PARADISE*. But was not Christ himself in *hades? *Did not the apostle Peter on the day of Pentecost apply to him the words of David in Psalm 16, in which it was said, "Thou wilt not leave my soul in *hades, *neither wilt thou suffer thine Holy One to see corruption," and argue apparently that the soul of Christ must have indeed gone to *hades, *but only could not be allowed to continue there (Ac 2:27-31)? Even so, however, it would but concern the application of a name; for if the language of the apostle must be understood as implying that our Lord's soul was in *hades *between death and the resurrection, it still was *hades *as having a paradise within its bosom; so that, knowing from his on lips what sort of a receptacle it afforded to the disembodied spirit of Jesus, we need care little about the mere name by which, in a general way, it might be designated. But the apostle Peter, it must be remembered, does not call it *hades; *he merely quotes an Old-Testament passage, in which *hades *is mentioned, as a passage that had its verification in Christ; and the language of course in this, as in other prophetical passages, was spoken from an Old-Testament point of view, and must be read in the light which the revelations of the Gospel have cast over the state and prospects of the soul. 'We may even, however, go farther; for the Psalmist himself does not strictly affirm the soul of the Holy One to have gone to *hades; *his Words precisely-rendered are, "Thou wilt not leave (or abandon) my soul to *hades -that *is, give it up as a prey to the power or domain of the nether world. It is rather a negative than a positive assertion regarding our Lord's 'connection with *hades *that is contained in the passage, and nothing can fairly be argued from it as to the local habitation or actual state of his disembodied spirit. *SEE INTERMEDIATE STATE*. The only other passages in the New Testament in which mention is made of *hades *are in Re 1:18, where the glorified Redeemer declares that he has the keys of death and of *hades; *Re 6:8, where death is symbolized as a rider, smiting all around him — with weapons of destruction, and *hades *following to receive the souls of the slain; Re 20:13-14, where death and *hades *are both represented as giving up the dead that were in them, and afterwards as being themselves cast into the lake of fire, which is the second death. In every one of these passages *hades *stands in a dark and-forbidding connection with death-very unlike that association with paradise and Abraham's bosom in which our Lord exhibited the receptacle of his own and his people's souls to the eye of faith; and not only so, but in one of them it is expressly as an ally of death in the execution of judgment that *hades *is represented, while in another it appears as an accursed thing, consigned to the lake of fire. In short, it seems as if in the progress of God's dispensations a separation had come to be made between elements that originally were mingled together — as if, from the time that Christ brought life and immortality to light, the distinction in the next world as well as this was broadened between the saved and the lost; so that *hades *was henceforth appropriated, both in the name and in the reality, to those who were to be reserved in darkness and misery to the judgment of the great day, and other names, with other and brighter ideas, were employed to designate the intermediate resting-place of the redeemed. It was meet that it should be so; for by the personal work and mediation of Christ the whole Church of God rose to a higher condition; old things passed away, all things became new; and it is but reasonable to suppose that the change in some degree extended to the occupants of the intermediate state the saved becoming more enlarged in the possession of bliss and glory, the lost more sunk in anguish and despair. *SEE DEATH*. **3. **Such being the nature of the scriptural representation on the subject, one must not only condemn the fables that sprung up amid the dark ages about the limbus or antechamber of hell, and the purgatorial fires, through which it was supposed even redeemed souls lad to complete their ripening for glory, but also reject the form in which the Church has embodied its belief respecting the personal history of Christ, when it said "descended into hell." This, it is well known, was a later addition to what has been called the Apostles Creed, made when the Church was far on its way to the gloom and superstition of the Dark Ages. Though the words are capable o; a rational and scriptural explanation, yet they do not present the place and character of our Lord's existence in the intermediate state as these are exhibited by himself; they suggest something painful, rather than, as it should be, blessed and triumphant; and, if taken in their natural sense, they would rob believers of that sure hope of an immediate transition into mansions of glory, which, as his followers and participants of *his *risen life, it is their privilege to entertain. *SEE HELL*. **4. **There are two other terms so often associated in Scripture with *hades *as to render their signification in some measure synonymous. **(1.) ***Abyss (*ἄβυσσος *== *ἄβυθος*, without bottom). *The Sept. uses this word to represent three different Hebrew words: 1. מצוֹלָה *a depth *or *deep *place (Job 41:23); or צוּלָה, the *deep, *the sea (Isa 44:27). 2. אֵּהִב *breadth, *a broad place (Job 36:16). 3. תַּהוֹם, a *mass *of waters, the sea (Ge 8:2, etc.), the chaotic mass of waters (Ge 1:2; Ps 104:6), the subterraneous waters, "the deep that lieth under" (Ge 49:25), "the deep that coucheth beneath" (De 33:13). In the N.T. it is used always with the article, to designate the abode of the dead, *hades, *especially that part of it which is also the abode of devils and the place of woe (Ro 10:7; Lu 8:31; Re 9:1-2,11; Re 11:7; Re 17:8; Re 20:1,3). In the Revelation the word is always translated in the A.Vers. "bottomless pit," by Luther "Abgrund." In 9:1, mention is made of "the key of the bottomless pit" *(*ἡ κλεὶς το῏υ φρέατος τῆς ἀβ.*, the key of the pit of the absss), *where *hades *is represented as a boundless depth. which is entered by means of a shaft covered by a door, and secured by a lock (Alford, Stuart, Ewald, De Wette, Diisterdieck). In ver. 11 mention is made of "the angel of the abyss," by whom some suppose is intended Satan or one of his angels. *SEE ABYSS*. **(2.) ***Abaddon (*ἀβαδδών*, *from the Heb. אֲבִדּוֹן, *destruction, *the place of the dead, Job 26:6; Pr 21:1), the name given in Re 9:11 to "the angel of the abyss," and explained by the writer as equivalent to the Greek (ἀπολλύων, *destroyer. *The term may be understood either as a personification of the idea of destruction, or as denoting the being supposed to preside over the regions of the dead, the angel of death. The Rabbins frequently use this term to denote the lowest regions of *sheol *or *hades (Erubin, *fol. 19:1; *Sohar Num. *fol. 4; *Sohar Chudash, *fol. 22; comp.Eisenmenger, *Entdecktes Jud. *2, 324 sq.); and the addition, "angel of the abyss," seems to favor the supposition that the president or king of this place is alluded to here. But it may be doubted whether the angelologly of the Rabbins finds any sanction from the N.T., and it accords better with the general character of the passage to suppose a personification here of the idea of destruction, so that the symbol may find many realizations in the history of the Church: as there are many Antichrists, so doubtless are there many Apollyons. The identification of Abaddon with the Asmodseus of the Apocrypha and the Talmud rests upon no solid basis. *SEE ABADDON*. **5. **A full view of the extensive literature of this subject more appropriately belongs to other heads; we here notice only a few treatises specially bearing upon the opposite states of the dead: *Jour. Sac. Lit. *October, 1852, p. 35 sq., April, 1853, p. 56 sq.; July, 1853, p. 413 sq.; Bickersteth, *Hades and Heaven *(Lond. 1865). *SEE HEAVEN*.

Ha'did (Heb. *Chadid', *חַדיד*, pointed, *perh. from its situation on some craggy eminence, Gesenius, *Thesaur. *p. 446; Sept. Α᾿δώδ in Ne 11:31, elsewhere unites with preceding word, Λοδαδίδ*; *Vulgate *Hadid), *a place in the tribe of Benjamin, in the vicinity of Lod and Ono, whose inhabitants returned from the captivity to their old seat under Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:33, where some copies read חָרַיד, HARID; Ne 7:37; Ne 11:34). It is probably the same with one of the cities called ADIDA *SEE ADIDA *(q.v.) by Josephus *(War, 4, *9, 1), but not that of the Apocrypha (1 Macc. 12:38; comp. Josephus, Ant. 13:15, 2). In the time of Eusebius and Jerome *(Onomast. *s.v. Adithaim), a town called *Aditha (*Α᾿δαθά*) *existed to the east of Diospolis (Lydda). According to Schwarz *(Phy. Description If Palestine, *p. 134), it was identical with the present "village *el-Chadida, *situated 5 Eng. miles east of Lud, on the summit of a round mountain:" probably the same with that seen by Dr. Robinson, and called by him *"el- Haditheh, *a large village just at the mouth of a wady, as it issues from the hills east of Ludd into the plain" (new edit. of *Researches, 3, *143, note). This district, although, within the territory of Dan, belonged to Benjamin. The same place is described by the old Jewish traveler ha-Parchi as being "on the summit of a round hill," and identified by him, no doubt correctly, with Hadid (Zunz, in Asher's *Benj. of Tudela, *2, 439).

Hadid The modern site, *Hadithek, *is laid down on the *Ordnance Map *as three miles east of Ludd, and is described in the accompanying *Memoirs *(2:297; comp. page 322) as "a moderate-sized village on a terraced tell at the mouth of a valley at the foot of the hills, with a well to the east. There are remains of a considerable town round it; tombs and quarries exist; and the mound on which the village stands is covered with pottery."

Hadith a name given by Mohammedans to the sayings of Mohammed, which were handed down by oral tradition from one generation to another. There are said to be six authors of these traditions, among whom are Ayesha, the wile of the prophet; AbuHoreira, his intimate friend; and Ibn-Abbas, his cousin-german. The collection of these traditions made by Khuarezmi numbers 5266 savings, all of which the devout Mohammedan ought to commit to memory, or, where that cannot be done, to transcribe them.

Hadj *(Hadgi, llaj, *Arab.), pilgrimage*, *especially to Mecca. The name *hadj *is also given to the body of pilgrims to Mecca; and the word is defined to mean "aspiration." Every Mohammedan, male or female, is bound, once at least in his lifetime, to make the *hadj *to Mecca. Some Mohammedan authorities, however, hold that a substitute may be employed; while lunatics, slaves and minors are free from the obligation. The solemnities at Mecca are held in the twelfth month of the Mohammedan year; and the male pilgrims, arriving at certain points near Mecca, put on the sacred habits and prepare their minds for the ceremonies. Arriving at Mecca, each pilgrim walks seven times around the Kaabah; next he visits Mount Arafat, twelve miles from Mecca, for prayer and instruction. The next night is spent in devotion at Mogdalipha, and the next day the pilgrim visits a sacred monument at the spot where Mohammed went to pray. The ceremonies end with sacrifices. Every returning pilgrim is styled Hadgi (Haji) thereafter.

Had'lai (Heb. *Chadlay', *הִדנלִי, *resting; *Sept. Α᾿δδί v.r. Ε᾿λδα‹*, *Vulg. *Adali), *the father of Amasa, which latter was one of the Ephraimites who opposed the enslavement of the captives of Judah in the civil war between Pekah and Ahaz (2Ch 28:12). B.C. ante 738.

Kalika Purana one of the sacred writings of the Hindus, which is chiefly devoted to a recital of the different modes of worshipping and appeasing the goddess Kali (q.v.). *SEE PURANAS*.

Kalinak in Hindu mythology, is a monstrous thousand-headed snake. Vishnu sought to capture it, riding on his giant bird, Garndha. When the serpent saw him coming it hid in the river Jumna, whose water it poisoned. When Vishnu, in his ninth Avatar, was still a boy, he decided to deliver the world from this reptile and its offspring. The reptile encircled him with a thousand fangs, but the god walked on its heads and crushed them all but one. He then sent it to the infernal regions, where its poison is used to torture the damned.

Kaliph (more generally CALIPH), originally a deputy or lieutenant, but afterwards applied chiefly to the successors of Mohammed. As a representative of the prophet and Islam, the caliph exercised a power which was primarily spiritual, and in theory, therefore, he claimed the obedience of all Mohammedans. In practice the claim was soon disregarded, and the Fatimite caliphs of Africa and the sovereigns of the Ommiad dynasty of Spain each professed to be the only legitimate representatives of Mohammed, in opposition to the Abasside caliphs of Bagdad. The latter caliphat reached its highest. splendor under Haroun al-Raschid, in the 9th century; but his division of the empire among his sons showed how completely the caliph had lost sight of the spiritual theory of his office. For the last two hundred years the appellation of caliph has been swallowed up in shah, sultan, emir. and other titles peculiar to the East. See Brande and *Cox, Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art, *i, 350.

Kalir, Eleasar Ha one of the oldest Jewish poets of Italy, generally regarded as the founder of the synagogual poetry of the non-Sephardite Jews in Europe, flourished about the beginning of the 8th century. Of his personal history nothing further is known. He wrote some one hundred and fifty different sacred poems, many of which were inserted in the liturgies of the Babylonian, Italian, German, and French Jews. He was a disciple of Jannai, and was greatly admired by his contemporaries. See Gratz, *Gesch. d.-Juden, 5:*181 sq.; Sachs, *Religiose Poesie d. Juden in Spanien, p. *180 sq.; Zunz, *Synagogale Poesie d. Mittelalters, p. *128 sq. *SEE LITURGY, JEWISH; SEE MACHSOR, SEE SYNAGOGUAL POETRY*.

Kalisch, Marcus M. a Jewish writer and commentator, was born at Treptow, Prussia, May 16, 1828. He studied at Halle and Berlin, and took the degree of doctor of philosophy in 1848. In the same year he left his native country on account of political disturbances, and went to England, where he took up a permanent residence. He became secretary to chief rabbi Adler, at London. Here he published his *Historical and Critical Commentaries on Genesis, Exodus, and Leviticus *(1855-72, 4 volumes): — *Hebrew Grammar *(1863,1865, 2 parts): — *Bible Studies:* **I. ***The Prophecies of Balaam; *or, *The Hebrew and the Heathen* (1877); **II. ***The Book of Jonah *(1878). Kalisch died August 23, 1885. (B.P.)

Kalisch, Marcus, Ph.D., M.A. a Jewish scholar, was born at Trepton, Pomerania, Prussia, May 16, 1828. He was educated at Berlin University, and subsequently studied at Halle. In 1849 he left Prussia and settled in England, filling the post of secretary to the chief rabbi. In 1852, through the kindness of the Rothschilds, leisure was secured him for his work in the preparation of a commentary on the Old Testament. Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, and Jonah were all that he could finish. He also wrote on the *Prophecies of Baalam, *and a *Hebrew Grammar. *He died August 23, 1885.

Kaliyuga, or the KALI AGE, is the fourth or last age of the *Maha, *or great age, *SEE YUGA*, and bears some resemblance to the Iron Age of classical mythology. The Hindus, recognising, like all religionists of antiquity, that man by sin-has fallen from his high estate, have divided the world's existence into four periods, which are marked by successive physical and moral decrements of created beings. They hold that the present period is the last one, that it consists of 432,000 solar sidereal years, and that the Kali Age began B.C. 3102. "In the Krita (or first) age," Manu says, "the (genius of) Truth and Right (in the form of a bull) stands firm on his four feet, nor does any advantage accrue to men from iniquity. But in the following ages, by reason of unjust gains, he is deprived successively of one foot; and even just emoluments, through the prevalence of theft, falsehood, and fraud, are gradually diminished by one foot (i.e. by a fourth part)." The estimate in which Kaliyuga, our present age, is held by the modern Hindus may be gathered from one of their most celebrated Puranas, the Padma-Purana. In the last chapter of one of the books (Kriyayogasara) of this Purana, the following account, which we take from Chambers, *Cyclopaedia *(s.v. Kaliyuga), is given of it: "In the Kaliyuga (the genius of) Right will have but one foot; every one will delight in evil. The four castes will be devoted to wickedness, and deprived of the nourishment which is fit for them. The Brahmans will neglect the Vedas, hanker after presents, be lustful and cruel. They will despise the Scriptures, gamble, steal, and desire intercourse with widows... For the sake of a livelihood, some Brahmans will become arrant rogues... The Sudras will endeavor to lead the life of the Brahmans, and, out of friendship, people will bear false witness…. they will injure the wives of others, and their speech will be that of falsehood. Greedy of the wealth of others, they will entertain a guest according to the behest of the Scriptures, but afterwards kill him out of covetousness; they are indeed worthy of hell. The twice-born (i.e. the first three castes) will live upon debts, sell the produce of cows, and even their daughters. In this Yuga men will be under the sway of women, and women will be excessively fickle ... In the Kaliyuga the earth will bear but little corn'; the clouds will shed but little rain, and that, too, out of season. The cows will feed on ordure, and give little milk, and the milk will yield no butter'; there is no doubt of that. ... Trees, even, will wither in twelve years, and the age of mankind will not exceed sixteen years; people, moreover, will become grayhaired in their youth; women will bear children in their fifth or sixth year, and men will become troubled with a great number of children. In the Kaliyuga the foreigners will become kings; bent upon evil; and those living in foreign countries will be all of one caste, and out of lust take to themselves many wives. In the first twilight of the Kaliyuga people will disregard Vishnu, and in the middle of it no one will even mention his name." There is a remarkable identity of the Hindu belief with that of the Hebrew as to redemption from this sinful state by a Messiah. See Hardwick, *Christ and other Masters, *i, 303 sq., 329 sq.; Weber, *Indische Studien, *ii, 411; Wilson, *Asiatic Researches, 10:*27 sq.; Alger, *History of the Doctrine of a Future Life, *p. 111 sq.

Kalkar, Christian Andreas Herman, Ph.D., D.D. a Lutheran minister, was born at Stockholm, Sweden, November 26, 1802, of Jewish parentage. He studied law and theology at the University of Copenhagen. In 1827 he became adjunct in the cathedral school at Odense, and in the same year head master; in 1842 he visited most of Western Europe, and in 1843 became pastor at Gladsaxe, near Copenhagen, which position he resigned in 1868. He received the medal of the Haager Society; was Knight of the Danish Order; member of the Leyden Society of Literature, and of the Danish Bible Society; president of the Danish Missionary Society, 1860-73; member of the royal commission to revise the Danish Bible, 1866-74; president of the Danish branch of the Evangelical Alliance, and presided over the Copenhagen Conference in 1884. He is the author of a *Commentary on the Old Testament, *and of several works on missions. He died February 2, 1886.

Kalki (or Kalkin, also called Kalighi), the *tenth Avatar, *or incarnation of Vishnu, which is yet future, and in which he will appear at the close of the Kaliyuga (q.v.), "when the practices taught by the Vedaz and the institutes of the law shall have ceased." According to the Vishnu-Purana, he will then be born "in the family of *Vishnuyasas *(i.e., possessing the glory of Vishnu), an eminent Brahmin of Sambhala village, endowed with the eight superhuman faculties. He will then destroy all the barbarians and thieves, and all whose minds are devoted to iniquity." The expectation of the Hindf, in reference to the deliverance from present evils by Vishnu, is remarkably similar to the Hebrew expectation of the coming Messiah.

Kallah. *SEE TALMUD***. **

Kal'lai (Heb. *Kallay', *קִַלִּי*, runner; *Sept. Καλλαϊv*),' *a chief priest, son of Sallai, contemporary with the high-priest Joiakim (Ne 12:20). B.C. post 536.

Kalmuck Mythology is nearly related to that of Thibet, the latter extending through India, China, Cashmere, Tartary, and far north. But this mythology has been greatly altered and modified by climatic, social, and other circumstances. According to the fables of the Zongarian Kalmucks and Tartars, the earth was originally covered with water. A great wind-storm arose, causing such a commotion of the waters that from the ensuing chaos eighty mountains sprung up, half of which formed a great range. Seven gods descended from heaven to visitthe earth, and several of them satisfied their hunger. The earth then contained honey, and not knowing its origin, two of the deities ate of the honey, and so lost the privilege of returning with the other five. They then populated the earth. There are a thousand deities, who reign alternately. Six have finished their reign; the seventh, Shak Jumeni, rules at present. Maidiri (the prophet), will follow. But before he begins, the world will come to an end, the destroyer will come, surrounded by seven suns, which will'set fire to the world. A rain-storm, following, will put out the fire, and Maidiri will go to heaven to take possession of his throne. Then the earth will be entirely depopulated, all men having gone to paradise, and the inhabitants of hell will come up to inhabit it. Their spirits take possession of other animals, from the lowest insect upwards, and thus the transmigration will continue, until the worst spirit of hell shall have become human, and worthy of paradise. To reach that happy place is usually only possible at the end of each world period, but those men who have led a holy life reach the gates of paradise at death.

Kalmuckian Version By way of supplement to the article *SEE RUSSIA, VERSIONS OF*, 21, we will add that the British and Foreign Bible Society has published, in 1884, the four gospels, in the translation of professor Pozdnejeff, who is also preparing the remainder of the New Test. (B.P.)

Kalmucks (Tatar *Khalimik, *i.e. apostates), also called *Olok or Eleutes, *a Mongolian tribe of nomads, a portion of whom live under Chinese rule, while the greater number, during the last two centuries, have settled in or belong to Russia. They are similar to the Mongols proper, but inferior to them in point of civilization. They are divided into nobles, people (serfs), and priests; the last have, in particular, a very great influence among the Buddhistic Kalmucks. They are divided into tribes (Uluss), at the head of which are Tchaidas; and the tribes are subdivided into Aimaks (of from 150 to 300 families each), at the head of which are the Saisans. They call themselves *Derben Eret *(Dorbin-Oirat), i.e. the four allies, because, from time immemorial, they have been divided into four chief tribes: **1. **The Dsongars, after whom Dsongaria is called, formerly the most powerful of the tribes, but subsequently subdued by the Chinese, and now extant only in small number. **2. **The Koshotes (i.e. warriors); under princes from the family of Jenghis Khan, numbering from 50,000 to 60,000; they voluntarily placed themselves under the sceptre of Russia, and are loyal subjects; their favorite drink is the kumiss (fermented horse milk). **3. **The Derbets, living, in the 16th and 17th centuries, on the Volga and Ural, now on the Don and the Ili. **4. **The Torgots (Torga-Uten), or Kalmucks of the Volga, have, for the most part, left Russian territory; only the tribe Zoochor, under the prince Dundukor, a grand-uncle of the powerful khan Ayuka, remained. Dundukor himself was baptized, and, by order of Alexander I, the title passed over to his son-in-law Norkasov. Some of the Kalmucks live scattered in the government of Simbirsk (15,000 souls, all in connection with the Greek Church), others east of the Ural, on the Jhet River (professing Islamism), and in several commercial towns of Russia, altogether about 120,000 souls, of whom 73 per cent. live in the government of Astrachan. The majority of the Kalmucks are still Buddhists. They were all originally adherents of that form of Buddhism known as *Lanaism, *which the Mongols in general received from Thibet. In Dsongaria they have two celebrated temples; the one is situated on the Tekes, the other on the Ili. In the latter resides the Tchamba Lama in the winter, and with him a number of priests, who here teach reading and writing. They are joined by pious pilgrims and numerous Chinese merchants, who set up their shops around the temple. The chiefs of the Chinese Kalmucks used to receive from the mandarin the insignia of their rank, but of late the virtual independence of Dsongaria has severed the former relation of the Kalmucks to the Chinese government; and, after the occupation of Kultsha by the Russians in May, 1871, the Chinese Kalmucks generally declared their submission to the Russian government. The language of the Kalmucks is a branch of the Mongolian language; grammars of the language have been published by Bobrovnikov (Kasan, 1849) and Zwieck (Donaueschingen, 1857). The literature consists almost exclusively of translations of Buddhistic writings from India. A collection of legends (Siddhi-Kur), with German translation, was published by *Jiilg *(Leipzig, 1866). (A. J. S.)

Kalonymus Ben-Kalonymus, a Jewish writer of some note, was born in Italy in 1287, but lived for some time in Southern France, and was there picked up by king Robert of Naples. He returned with the latter to his native land, and filled some important offices in his service. Kalonymus was an accomplished scholar, translated into Hebrew medical, astronomical, and philosophical works of the Arabians, wrote a number of satirical treatises on the low moral state of his contemporaries, and labored in this and other ways to ameliorate the miserable condition of his countrymen. He died about 1337. The best of his later works is אבן בחן, or *The Stone of Weeping *(Naples, 1489; translated into Jewish German, Frkft. 1746). He also edited with great ability a part of the Arabian Encyclopaedia of the Sciences (known as "Treatises of the Honest Brethren") for the use of the Italian Jews. See Grattz, *Gesch. d. Juden; 7:*305 sq.; Zunz, in Geiger's *Zeitschrift, *ii, 313; 4:200 sq.; Fligel, *Zeitschrift der deutsch. Morgenland, Gesellsch. *1859. (J. H.W.)

Kalottinocracy is a new word sometimes used instead of *hierarchy. *The word is derived from the French *calotte *(cap, such as the Roman Catholic clergy wear), and the Greek κρατεῖν (to govern).

Kalpa designates in Hindu chronology the Brahminical period of one day and night, and corresponds to a period of 4,320,000,000 solar sidereal years, or years of mortals, measuring the duration of the world, and, according to many, including even the interval of its annihilation. The *Bhavishya- Purana *admits of an infinity of kalpas; other Puranas enumerate thirty. A great kalpa comprises not a day, but a life of Brahma. In Vedic literature, kalpa is a Vedanga (q.v.). See Hardy, *Manual of Buddhism, p. 1 *sq., 7 sq. *SEE KALPA-SUTRA*.

Kalpa-Sutra is, in Vedic literature, the name of those Sanscrit works which treat of the ceremonials usual at a *Vedic *sacrifice. *SEE VEDA*. In Jaina literature it is the name of the most sacred religious work of the *Jainas *(q.v.). It chiefly relates the legendary history of Mahavira, the last of their twenty-four deified saints, or Tirthankaras, but contains also an account of four other saints of the same class. The author of the work was Bhadra Bahu, and it was composed, Stevenson assumes, in the year A.D. 411. It is held in high respect by the Jainas, who, out of the eight days which, in the middle of the rains, they devote to the reading of their most sacred writings, allot no less than five to the Kalpa Sutra. See Stevenson, *The Kalpa-Sutra and Nava Tatva *(London, 1848).

Kalteisen, Heinrich, a celebrated Dominican of the 15th century, was born near Coblentz, and educated at Vienna and Cologne. In the latter city he was afterwards professor of theology, preaching at the same time. Later he removed to Mentz, and became general inquisitor of Germany. He was present at the Council of Basle, and took quite a prominent part in the deliberations against the Hussites. He was one of the four doctors on the Roman Catholic side who disputed with the Bohemians. *SEE HUSSITES; SEE BASLE, COUNCIL OF*. In 1443 pope Eugenius IV made him Magister sacri Palatii, and in 1452 pope Nicholas V created him archbishop of Drontheim. He died in 1465. Kalteisen's literary abilities are generally spoken of as moderate. He wrote much, but little has. been published. See Basnage-Canisius, *Lect. Antiq. 4:*628 sq.; Quetif and Echard, *Script. Ord. Prced. *ii, 828; Schrochk, *Kirchengesch. 34:*707; Wetzer u. Welte, *Kirchen-Lex. vi, *15.

Kalthoff, Johann Paul a Roman Catholic theologian, who died at Munster in 1839, is the author of *Jus Matrimonii Veterum Indorum *(Bonn, 1829): — *Grammatik der Hebr. Sprache *(Ratisbon, 1837): — Hand*buch der Hebr. Alterthumer* (Miinster, 1839). See Zuchold, *Bibl. Theol. *1:643; Farst, *Bibl. Jud. *2:167 sq.; Winer, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *1:143. (B.P.)

Babcock, Samuel a Methodist Episcopal minister, who in the early days of Methodism entered the itinerancy withinn tlie bounds. ot the Pittsburgh Conference, and *did *valiant service until his death. ini 1864' or 1865. Mir. Babcock was characterized as a preacher by earnestness and pathos, and-his efforts were blessed with many extensive revivals. See *Minutes of Annual Conferences,* 1865, p. 28.

Babcock, Samuel B., D.D. a Protestant Episcopal clergyman of the Diocese of Massachusetts was rector in St. Paul's Parish, Dedham Mass., for many years, covering nearly the whole of his ministerial life. He died Oct. 25, 1873. See *Prot. Episc. Almanac. *1874; p. 139.

Babe (עוֹלעֵל, *olel', *or עֹלָל*, ola', *so called from its *petulance, *Ps 8:2; Ps 17:14, elsewhere "child" or "infant תִּעֲלוּלַים, *taalulim', *from the same root, Isa 3:4; once נִעִר, *na'ar, *Ex 2:6, usually a *"lad;" *Gr. βρέφος, prop. an unborn *foetus, *Lu 1:41,44, but also a very young child, Lu 2:12,16; 1Pe 2:2; νήπιον*, *strictly an *infant *[i.e. as yet unable to talk], but likewise used of children generally, Mt 11:25; Mt 21:16; Lu 10:21; Ro 2:10; 1Co 3:1; Heb 5:13). This term is used figuratively in Isa 3:4, to represent the succession of weak and wicked princes who reigned over the kingdom of Judah from the death of Josiah to the destruction of the city and Temple. In the New Testament, the term refers to those who are weak in the Christian faith and knowledge, being ignorant and inconstant: or being but just *born again, *begotten from above, they require that heavenly nourishment which is suited to their nature — "the sincere milk of the word" (1Co 3:1; Heb 5:13; 1Pe 2:2). *SEE CHILD*.

Babek was the head of a heretical sect among the Mohammedans which arose in the beginning of the 'second century. of the Hegira. He made an open profession, of: impiety, and embraced no religion or sect then known in Asia. He was called the founder of the mercy religion. His practices. and teachings were gross and licentious to the last degree.

Ba'bel (Heb. *Babel', *בָּבֶל, *confusion; *and so the Sept. Σύγχυσις, Ge 11:9), originally the name applied to the *Tower of Babel *(Ge 11:9), but afterward extended (in the Heb.) to the city of Babylon (Ge 10:10), which appears to have grown up around it, and finally to the whole province of Babylonia (Eze 23:17, margin), of which this was the capital. For these latter, *SEE BABYLON; SEE BABYLONIA*. **1. ***Origin of the Tower. — *From the account in Ge 11:1-9, it appears that the primitive fathers of mankind having, from the time of the Deluge, wandered without fixed abode, settled at length in the land of Shinar, where they took up a permanent residence. As yet they had remained together without experiencing those vicissitudes and changes in their outward lot which encourage the formation of different modes of speech, and were therefore of one language. Arrived, however, in the land of Shinar, and finding materials suitable for the construction of edifices, they proceeded to make and burn bricks, and using the bitumen, in which parts of the country abound, for cement, they built a city and a tower of great elevation. A divine interference, however, is related to have taken place. In consequence, the language of the builders was confounded, so that they were no longer able to understand each other. They therefore "left off to build the city," and were scattered "abroad upon the face of all the earth." The narrative adds that the place took its name of Babel (confusion) from this confusion of dialect. *SEE CONFUSION OF TONGUES*. **2. ***Its Design. — *The sacred narrative (Ge 11:4) assigns as the reason which prompted men to the undertaking simply a desire to possess a building so large and high as might be a mark and rallying-point in the vast plains where they had settled, in order to prevent their being scattered abroad, and thus the ties of kindred be rudely sundered, individuals be involved in peril, and their numbers be prematurely thinned at a time when population was weak and insufficient. The idea of preventing their being scattered abroad by building a lofty tower is applicable in the most remarkable manner to the wide and level plains of Babylonia, where scarcely one object exists different from another to guide the traveler in his journeying, and which, in those early days, as at present, were a sea of land, the compass being then unknown. Such an attempt agrees with the circumstances in which the sons of Noah were placed, and is in itself of a 'commendable nature. But that some ambitious and unworthy motives were blended with these feelings is clearly implied in the sacred record, which, however, is evidently conceived and set forth in a dramatic manner (ver. 6, 7), and may wear around a historical substance somewhat of a poetical dress (Bauer, *Mythol. *1, 223). The apostate Julian has attempted to turn the narrative into ridicule; but even if viewed only as an attempt to account for the origin of diversity of languages, and of the dispersion of the human family, it challenges consideration and respect. The opinion of Heeren (*Asiatic Nations, *2, 146) is far different and more correct: "There is," says he, "perhaps nowhere else to be found a narrative so venerable for its antiquity, or so important in the history of civilization, in which we have at once preserved the traces of primaeval international commerce, the first political associations, and the first erection of secure and permanent dwellings." A comparison of this narrative with the absurd or visionary pictures which the Greeks and Romans give of the primitive condition of mankind, will gratify the student of the Bible and confirm the faith of the Christian by showing the marked difference there is between the history contained in Genesis and the fictions of the poet, or the traditions of the mythologist. (See Eichhorn, *Diversitatis linguaram ex traditione Semitica origines, *Goett. 1788; also in the *Biblioth. d. bibl. Lit. 3, *981 sq.) **3. ***Traditions concerning it*. — Versions more or less substantially correct of this account are found among other nations. The Chaldaeans themselves relate (Abydenus, quoted by Eusebius, *Prepar. Evang. *1, 14 comp. *Chron. Armen. *1, 38 and 59) that "the first men, relying on their size and strength, raised a tower reaching toward heaven in the place where Babylon afterward stood, but that the winds, assisting the gods, brought the building down on the heads of the builders, out of the ruins of which Babylon itself was built. Before this event men had spoken the same tongue, but afterward, by the act of the gods, they were made to differ in their speech." Plato also reports *(Polit. *p. 272) a tradition that in the Golden Age men and animals made use of one common language, but, too ambitiously aspiring to immortality, were, as a punishment, confounded in their speech by Jupiter. In the details of the story of the war of the Titans against the gods may also be traced some traditionary resemblance to the narrative of the Bible (see Pliny, 7:1, 11 and 112; Hygin. *Fab. *143). "The sibyl," says Josephus *(Ant. *1, 4, 3), "also makes mention of this town, and of the confusion of language, when she *says *thus: 'When all men were of one language, some of them built a high tower, as if they would thereby ascend up to heaven; but the gods sent storms of wind and overthrew the tower, and gave every one his peculiar language; and for this reason it was that the city was called Babylon'" (comp. Philo, *Cpp. *1, 406). The. same writer *(ib. *2) assigns as the reason of this overthrow and confusion the displeasure of God at seeing them act so madly under the influence of Nimrod, "a bold bad man," who, in order to alienate the minds of the people from God, and to take revenge for the Deluge which had destroyed their forefathers, induced them to build a tower too high for the waters to be able to reach. Aben Ezra (in loc. *Gen.) *has given a more probable explanation. "Those," he says; "who built the Tower of Babel were not so insensate as to imagine they could by any such means reach to heaven; nor did they fear another Deluge, since they had the promise of God to the contrary; but they wished for a city which should be a common residence and a general rendezvous, serving in the wide and open plains of Babylonia to prevent the traveler from losing his way; in order that while they took measures for their own convenience and advantage, they might also gain a name with future ages." *SEE NIMROD*. **4. ***Its subsequent History. — *The "Tower of Babel" is only mentioned once in Scripture (Ge 11:4-5), and then as incomplete. No reference to it appears in the prophetic denunciations of the punishments which were to fall on Babylon for her pride. It is therefore quite uncertain whether the building ever advanced beyond its foundations. As, however, the classical writers universally, in their descriptions of Babylon, gave a prominent place to a certain tower-like building, which they called the temple (Herod. *ut inf.; *Diod. Sic. 2:9; Arrian, *Exped. Alex. *7, 17, etc.), or the tomb (Strabo, 16, p. 738) of Belus, it has generally been supposed that the tower was in course of time finished, and became the principal temple of the Chaldaean metropolis. *SEE BEL*. Certainly this may have been the case; but, while there is presumption in favor of it, there is some evidence against it. A Jewish tradition, recorded by Bochart *(Phaleg, *1, 9), declared that fire fell from heaven, and split the tower through to its foundation; while Alexander Polyhistor *(Frag. *10), and the other profane writers who noticed the tower (as Abydenus, *Frs. 5 *'and 6), said that it had been blown down by the winds. Such authorities, therefore, as we possess, represent the building as destroyed soon after its erection. When the Jews, however, were carried captive into Babylonia, struck with the vast magnitude and peculiar character of certain of the Babylonian temples, they imagined that they saw in them not merely buildings similar in type and mode of construction to the "tower" (מִכדָּל) of their scriptures, but in this or that temple they thought to recognize the very tower itself. *SEE BABYLON*. **5. ***The "Tower of Belus," presumed to occupy its site. *— Herodotus describes the temple in his own simple but graphic manner (i. 181). "In the other division of the city is the temple of the god Belus, with brazen gates, remaining till my own time, quadrangular, and in all of two stadia. In the middle of the sacred enclosure there stands a solid tower of a stadium both in depth and width; upon this tower another is raised, and another upon that, to the number of eight towers. An ascent to them has been made on the outside, in a circle extending round all the towers. When you reach about half way you find resting-places. In the last tower is a large temple, and in the temple lies a large bed well furnished, and near it stands a golden' table; but there is no image within; nor does any one remain there by night, only a native female, one whom the god has chosen in preference to all others, as say the Chaldseans who are priests of that god. And these persons also say, asserting what I do not believe, that the god himself frequents the temple and reposes on the couch. And there belongs to the temple in Babylon another shrine lower down, where there stands a large golden image of the god, and near it is placed a large golden table, and the pedestal and throne are gold, and, as the Chaldaeans say, these things were made for eight hundred talents of gold. And out of the shrine is a golden altar; and there is another great altar where sheep-offerings are sacrificed, for it is not permitted to sacrifice upon the golden altar, except sucklings only; but upon the greater altar the Chaldaeans offer every year a thousand talents' worth of frankincense at the time when they celebrate the festival of the god. And there was at that time in the temple a statue of twelve cubits of solid gold; but I did not see it, and relate merely what was told me by the Chaldaeans. Darius Hystaspis wished to have this statue, but did not dare to take it; but Xerxes, his son, took it, and slew the priest who forbade him to move the statue. Thus is this sacred place adorned; and there are also in it many private offerings." These offerings, made by individuals, consisting of statues, censers, cups, and sacred vessels of massive gold, constituted a property of immense value. On the top Semiramis placed three golden statues of Jupiter, Juno, and Rhea. The first was 40 feet high, and weighed 1000 Babylonish talents. The statue of Rhea was of the same weight: the goddess was seated on a golden throne with lions at each knee, and two serpents of silver. The statue of Juno was erect like that: of Jupiter, weighing 800 talents; she grasped a serpent by the head with her right hand, and held in her left a scepter enriched with gems. A table of beaten gold was common to these three divinities, weighing 500 talents. On the table were two goblets of 10 talents, and two censers of 500 talents each, and three vases of prodigious magnitude. The total value of the precious articles and treasures contained in this proud achievement of idolatry has been computed to exceed six hundred millions of dollars. From the Holy Scriptures it appears that when Nebuchadnezzar conquered Jerusalem and levelled most of the city with the ground, "he brought away the treasures of the temple, and the treasures of the king's house, and put them all into the temple of Bel at Babylon" (2 Chronicles 37:7). The brazen and other vessels which Solomon had caused to be made for the service of Jehovah are said to have been broken up by order of the Assyrian monarch, and formed into the famous gates of brass which so long adorned the superb entrances into the great area of the temple of Belus (comp. Hecataeus ap. Joseph. *Ant. *1, 4, 3). The purposes to which this splendid edifice was appropriated may be partly gathered from the preceding statements. These purposes varied in some degree with the changes in opinions and manners which successive ages brought. The signal disappointment inflicted on its original founders show that even in its origin there was connected with it something greatly displeasing to God. It seems, indeed, always to have existed in derogation of the divine glory. Consecrated at the first, as it probably was, to the immoderate ambition of the monotheistic children of the Deluge, it passed to the Sabian religion, and thus, falling one degree from purity of worship, became a temple of the sun and the rest of the host of heaven, till, in the natural progress of corruption, it sank into gross idolatry, and, as the passage from Herodotus shows, was polluted by the vices which generally accompanied the observances of heathen superstition. In one purpose it undoubtedly proved of service to mankind. The Babylonians were given to the study of astronomy. This ennobling pursuit was one of the peculiar functions of the learned men denominated by Herodotus Chaldaeans, the priests of Belus; and the temple was crowned by an astronomical observatory, from the elevation of which the starry heavens could be most advantageously studied over plains so open and wide, and in an atmosphere so clear and bright as those of Babylonia. To Nimrod the first foundations of the tower are ascribed; Semiramis enlarged and beautified it (Ctesias ap. Diod. Sic. 2:7); but it appears that the temple of Bel, in its most renowned state, was not completed till the time of Nebuchadnezzar, who, after the accomplishment of his many conquests, consecrated this superb edifice to the idolatrous object to whom he ascribed his victories. That the observatory on the tower was erected in remote times there is good reason to believe. Prideaux mentions *(Connection, *1, 123) the circumstance that when Alexander made himself master of Babylon, Callisthenes, the philosopher, who attended him thither, found astronomical observations ascending upward 1900 years. *SEE ASTRONOMY*. **6. ***Evidence as to its present Remains. – *After the lapse of so many centuries, and the occurrence in "the land of Shinar" of so many revolutions, it is not to be expected that the identification of the Tower of Babel with any actual ruin should be easy, or lead to any very certain result. The majority of opinions, however, among the learned, make it the same as the above-described temple of Belus; and as to its modern locality, the predominant opinion has been in favor of the great temple of Nebo at Borsippa, the modern *Bits Nimrud, *although the distance of that place from Babylon is a great difficulty in the way of the identification. When Christian travelers first began to visit the Mesopotamian ruins, they generally attached the name of "the Tower of Babel" to whatever mass, among those beheld by them, was the loftiest and most imposing. Rawulf, in the 16th century, found the "Tower of Babel" at *Felugiah; *Pietro della Valle, in the 18th, identified it with the ruin *Babil *near Hillah; while early in the present century Rich and Ker Porter revived the Jewish notion, and argued for its identity with the *Birs. *There are, in reality, no positive grounds either for identifying the tower with the temple of Belus, or for supposing that any remains of it long survived the check which the builders received when they were "scattered abroad upon the face of the earth," and "left off to build the city" (Ge 11:8); yet the striking general similarity of its form and construction to those structures, taken in connection with its evidently great antiquity, create a presumption in favor of the identification that it is difficult to resist. *SEE SHINAR*. Nor, indeed, does the Birs Nimrud lie much, if any, farther distant from Hillah (the modern representative of Babylon) than do (in an opposite direction) some other ruins (e.g. especially the mound called *Babil, *the only other rival to the honor of representing the ancient Tower of Babel and temple of Belus in the vicinity), which were yet undoubtedly included within the ample circuit of the ancient walls; in fact, the Birs itself will fall within the line of the outer walls of Babylon, if laid down of the extent de, scribed by Herodotus. *SEE BABYLON*. Its pyramidal structure, also, with the numerous contractions of its successive stages, still traceable in the ruins, favors the identification (see below). **7. ***Description of "Birs Nimrud," its supposed modern Relic. — *The appearance of this massive ruin is deeply impressive, rising suddenly as it does out of a wide desert plain, with its rent, fragmentary, and fireblasted pile, masses of vitrified matter lying around, and the whole hill itself on which it stands caked and hardened out of the materials with which the temple had been built. Its dreary aspect seems to justify the name which the remnant of the captivity, still abiding among the waters of Babylon, give to the place, namely, "Nebuchadnezzar's Prison;" an appellation which may have been assigned from the circumstance of that monarch's being confined there, under the care of the priesthood, during the period of his madness, or from the King of Israel's having been incarcerated within its precincts by Nebuchadnezzar after his last conquest of Jerusalem (2 Kings 25). A very considerable space round the tower, forming a vast court or area, is covered with ruins, affording abundant vestiges of former buildings, exhibiting uneven heaps of various sizes, covered with masses of broken brick, tiles, and vitrified fragments — all bespeaking some signal overthrow in former days. The towerlike ruin on the summit is a solid mass 28 feet broad, constructed of the most beautiful brick masonry. It is rent from the top nearly half way to the bottom. It is perforated in ranges of square openings. At its base lie several immense unshapen masses of fine brickwork, some changed to a state of the hardest vitrification, affording evidence of the action of fire which seems to have been the lightning of heaven. The base of the tower at present measures 2082 feet in circumference. Hardly half of its former altitude remains. Of the original pyramidal form, the erections of Semiramis and Nebuchadnezzar appear to have begun at the stage of the former overthrow. From its summit, the: view in the distance presents to the south an and desert plain; to the west the same trackless waste; toward the north-east marks of buried ruins are visible to a vast distance. The bricks which compose the tower are mostly stamped with several lines of inscription, in the cuneiform or Babylonian character. Some extend to four, or even seven lines, but the dimensions of all are the same. The bricks of Babylon are of two kinds, sun-dried and fire-burnt. The former are larger and of a coarser make than the latter. Their solidity is equal to that of many kinds of stone. They are composed of clay mixed with chopped straw or broken reeds, in order to increase their compactness. This is the sort of brick which the children of Israel made while in Egyptian bondage. The unburnt bricks commonly form the interior or mass of a building. This is the case with the great tower, while it was faced with the more beautiful fabric made in the furnace or kiln. See full particulars in Rich's *Memoir of Babylon and Persepolis; *Ker Porter's *Travels in Persia; *comp. Ritter, *Erdk. *11, 876 sq. **8. ***Type and Character of the Building. — *It must be allowed that the Birs Nimrud, though it may not be the Tower of Babel itself, which was at Babylon (Ge 11:9), yet, as the most perfect representative of an ancient Babylonian temple-tower, may well be taken to show, better than any other ruin, the probable shape and style of the edifice. This building appears, by the careful examinations recently made of it, to have been a kind of retreating pyramid built in seven receding stages. "Upon a platform of crude brick, raised a few feet above the level of the alluvial plain, was built of burnt brick the first or basement stage-an exact square, 272 feet each way, and 26 feet in perpendicular height. Upon this stage was erected a' second, 230 feet each way, and likewise 26 feet high; which, however, was not placed exactly in the middle of the first, but considerably nearer to the south-western end, which constituted the back of the building. The other stages were arranged similarly, the third being, 188 feet, and again 26 feet high; the fourth 146 feet: square, and 15 feet high; the fifth 104 feet square, and the same height as the fourth; the sixth 62 feet square, and again the same height; and the seventh 20 feet square, and once more the same height. On the seventh stage there was probably placed the 'ark, or tabernacle, which seems to have been again 15 feet high, and must have nearly, if not entirely, covered the top of the seventh story. The entire original height, allowing three feet for the platform, would thus have been 156 feet, or, without the platform, 153 feet. The whole formed a sort of oblique pyramid, the gentler slope facing the N.E., and the steeper inclining to the S.W. On the N.E. side was the grand entrance, and here stood the vestibule, a separate building, the debris from which, having joined those from the temple itself, fill up the intermediate space, and very remarkably prolong the mound in this direction" (Rawlinson's *Herodotus, *2, 480-3). The *Birs *temple, if the same called the "Temple of the Seven Spheres," was ornamented with the planetary colors (see the plan), but this was most likely a peculiarity The other chief features of it seem to have been common to most, if not all of the Babylonian temple-towers. The feature of stages is found in the temples at Warka and Mugheir (Loftus's *Chaldcea,* p. 129 and 168), which belong to very primitive times (B.C. 2230); that of the emplacement, so that the four angles face the four cardinal points, is likewise common to those ancient structures; while the square form is universal. On the other hand, it may be doubted whether so large a number of stages was common. The Mugheir and Warka temples have no more than two, and probably never had more than three, or at most four stages. The great temple of Belus at Babylon (if Babil) shows only one stage; though, according to the best authorities, it too was a sort of pyramid (Herod., Strab.). The height of the Birs is 153.5 feet, that of Babil 140 (?), that of the Warka temple 100, that of the temple at Mugheir 50 feet. Strabo's statement that the tomb of Belus was a stade (606 feet in height) would thus seem to be a gross exaggeration. Probably no Babylonian tower ever equaled the Great Pyramid, the original height of which was 480 feet. *SEE PYRAMIDS*. **9. ***Its Materials and Manner of Construction. *— On these points more light is to be obtained from the Warka and Mugheir buildings than from the Birs. The Birs was rebuilt from top to bottom by Nebuchadnezzar, and shows the mode of construction prevalent in Babylon at the best period; the temples at Warka and Mugheir remain to a certain extent in their primitive condition, the upper stories alone having been renovated. The Warka temple is composed entirely of sun-dried bricks, which are of various shapes and sizes; the cement used is mud; and reeds are largely employed in the construction. It is a building of the most primitive type, and exhibits a ruder style of art than that which we perceive from Scripture to have obtained at the date of the tower. Burnt bricks were employed in the composition of the tower (Ge 11:3); and though perhaps it is somewhat doubtful what the *chemar *(חֵמָר "slime") used for mortar may have been (see Fresnel in *Journ. Asiatique *for June, 1853, p. 9), yet, on the whole, it is most probable that bitumen (which abounds in Babylonia) is the substance intended. *SEE BITUMEN*. Now the lower basement of the Mugheir temple exhibits this combination in a decidedly primitive form. The burnt bricks are of small size and of an inferior quality; they are laid in bitumen; and they face a mass of sun-dried brick, forming a solid wall outside it ten feet in thickness. No reeds are used in the building. Writing appears on it, but of an antique cast. The supposed date is B.C. 2300, but little later than the era commonly assigned to the building of Babel. Probably the erection of the two buildings was not separated by a very long interval, though it is reasonable to suppose that of the two the tower was the earlier. If we mark its date, as perhaps we are entitled to do, by the time of Peleg, the son of Eber, and father of Reu (see Ge 10:25), we may perhaps place it about B.C. 2400. *SEE DISPERSION OF NATIONS*. **10. ***Advantages of this form. — *It is not necessary to suppose that any real idea of "scaling heaven" was present to the minds of those who raised either the Tower of Babel, or any other of the Babylonian temple-towers. The expression used in Genesis (Ge 11:4) is a mere hyperbole for great height (comp. De 1:28; Da 4:11, etc.), and should not be taken literally. Military defense was probably the primary object of such edifices in early times; but with the wish for this may have been combined further secondary motives, which remained when such defense was otherwise provided for. Diodorus states that the great tower of the temple of Belus was used by the Chaldaeans as an observatory (2, 9), and the careful emplacement of the Babylonian temples with the angles facing the four cardinal points would be a natural consequence, and may be regarded as a strong confirmation of the reality of this application. M. Fresnel has recently conjectured that they were also used as sleeping-places for the chief priests in the summer time *(Journ. Asiatique, *June, 1853, p. 529-31). The upper air is cooler, and is free from the insects, especially mosquitoes, which abound below; and the description which Herodotus gives of the chamber at the top of the Belus tower (1, 181) goes far to confirm this Ingenious view. **11. ***Confirmation from other Pyramidal Temples. *Mr. Taylor *(Fragments *to Calmet's *Dict.) *has given views of several similar structures now extant, of which we copy two. The first, rising in several steps or stages, is at Tanjore, in the East Indies; and affords, it is presumed, a just idea of the Tower of Babel. It is, indeed, wholly constructed of stone, in which it differs from that more ancient edifice, which, being situated in a country destitute of stone, was, of necessity, constructed of brick. On the top of this pyramid is a chapel or temple, affording a specimen of the general nature of this kind of sacred edifices in India. These amazing structures are commonly erected on or near the banks of great rivers, for the advantage of ablution. In the courts that surround them innumerable multitudes assemble at the rising of the sun, after having bathed in the stream below. The gate of the pagoda uniformly fronts the east. The internal chamber commonly receives light only from the door. An *external *pathway, for the purpose of visiting the chapel at the top, merits observation. The next is an ancient pyramid built by the Mexicans in America; it agrees in figure with the former, and has on the outside an ascent of stairs leading up one side to the upper story, proceeding to the chapels on its summit. This ascent implies that the chapels were used from time to time, and no doubt it marks the shortest track for that purpose, as it occupies one side only. **12. ***Literature. — *Kircher*, Turris Babel *(Amst. 1778); Zentgravius, *De turri Babel *(Vitemb. 1774); Hoynovius, *De turri Babylonica *(Regiom. 1694); Colombus, *De causis tur. Bab. *(Regiom. 1675); Cyrill. Alex. *De Turri *(in his *Opp. *1, 44); Heidegger, *De Turri Babel *(in his *Hist. Patriarch. *1); Saurin, *Tour de Babel *(in his *Disc. *1, 135; and *Dissert. *p. 75); Calmet, *Le Tour de Babel *(in his *Commentaire, *1, pt. 1, diss. 34); Delany, *Of the Building of Babel *(in his *Rev. Examined, *2, 79); Berington, *The Tower of Babel *(in his *Dissertations, *p. 407); Drew, *Babel *(in his *Script. Studies, p. *39); Deyling, *De ortu Babelis *(in his *Observat. 3, *24); Dietric, *Turris Babylonica *(in his *Antiq. *p. 116); Perizonii *Origg. Babylon. c. *9; Hezel, *Ueb. d. Babyl. Stadt-u. Thurmbau *(Hildb. 1774); anonymous, *Tractatus de locis quibusd. difcil. *(Frcf. 1839); Kurtz, *Hist. of the Old Covenant, *§ 29.

Babel in the book of Baruch, the Gnostic Justin, is the name of the first of the, twelve maternal angels born to Elohim and Edem (Hippolytus, *Haer. 26:*151). She is identical with Aphrodite, and is enjoined by her mother to cause adulteries and desertions among men in revenge for the desertion of Edem by Elohim. When Hercules is sent by Elohim to overcome the maternal. angels, Babel, now identical with Orphale, beguiles and enfeebles him. She may possibly be the *Baalti, *or female, Baal of various Shemitic nations; but it is better, on the whole, to take Babel as a form of *Barbelo.*

Babenstuber, Ludwig a German philosopher, was born at Leiningen, Bavaria, in 1660. In 1682 he joined the Order of the Benedictines, and acted for a number of years as tutor at the Salzburg University. In 1716 he retired to his monastery in Ettal, and died there in 1726. He published, *Problemata et Theoremata Philosophica *(Salzburg, 1689 ) *:-Questiones Philosophicce *(ibid. *1692) :- Qucestiones Metaphysicce *(ibid. 1695) *Regula Morum seu Dictamen Conscientic *(ibid. 1697):*Tractatus de Jure et Justitia *(ibid. *1699):-Deus Abseonditus in Sacramento Altaris *(ibid. 1700):-De *Sfatu Parvulorum sine Baptisno Morieitium- *(ibid. eod.):*Philosophia Thonistica Salisburgensis *(Augsburg, 1706, 1724) *:-Deus Trinus *(Salzburg, 1705)*:— Deus Unus *(ibid. *1706).:-Peccatutm Originale (ibid. *1709), etc. See Jocher, *Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon, *s.v. (B. P.)

Baber, James a Presbyterian minister, was born in Hanover County, Va., July 25, 1794.. He was educated at Hampden Sidney College, Va., and spent three years at the Associate Reformed Seminary. N. Y. In 1819 he entered Princeton Theological Seminary, where he spent two years. He was licensed as a minister in 1821, and his ministry extended over a large part of the states of Maryland and Virginia. He died Aug. 19, 1863. See Wilson, *Presb. Hist. Almanac, *1865, p. 73.

Babeur (or Baburen), Dirk a Dutch painter, was born in 1570. His master was Peter Neefs, and he excelled as a representer of the interior of churches. In the Church of San Pietro in Montorio at Rome may be seen a *Descent of Christ into the Tomb *executed by him. -He died in 1624. See Spooner, *Biog. Hist. of the Fine Arts, *s.v.: Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v.

Ba'bi *(*Βαβί v. r. Βηβαί*), *a chief Israelite whose "son" returned from Babylon (1 Esdras 8:37); evidently the BEBAI *SEE BEBAI *(q.v.) of the genuine text (Ezr 2:11), which also recurs in the same verse of Esdras.