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Baccanarists a society in the Church of Rome, founded in Italy by one Baccanari after the suppression of the Jesuits in 1773. Its object was to restore the order under a new name and form. Pius VI favored the organization, and it spread into Austria, Holland, and England. In 1814 its members were united with the re-established order of Jesuits, *SEE JESUITS*.

Baccanceld (or Beccanceld, probably *Bapchild, *near Sittingbourne, in Kent), where two councils *(Conciliutn Baccanceldense) *were held, viz.: **I. **In 692, by Wihtred, king of Kent, who renewed and confirmed the privileges of the Church in his kingdom. See Labbe, *Concil. 6:*1356. **II. **In 796 or 798, by Athelard, archbishop of Canterbury,, in which those privileges, etc., were again confirmed. See *ibid. 7:*1148.

Baccarini, Jacopo an Italian painter, was born at Roggio about the year 1630, and studied under Orazio Talami. He died in the year 1682. Two of his best works are *The Repose in Egypt *and the *Death of St. Alessio, in *the Church of San Filippo in Reggio.

Baccha (or Bacchantes) were priestesses: of the god Bacchus (q.v.). 'They were also called *Mcenades *(from *, *μαίνομαι*, to be mad) in *consequence of the frantic ceremonies in which they indulged in their sacred festivals. They wrought themselves up to a high pitch of enthusiasm, when with' dishevelled hair and halfnaked bodies, their heads crowned with ivy, and a thyrsus, or rod twined with ivy, in their hands, they threw themselves into the most ridiculous postures, celebrating the sacred orgies with the most hideous cries and firious gesticulations.

Bacchanal the sanctuary or inner temple of the god Bacchus.

Bacchanalia festivals celebrated in honor of Bacchus (q.v.). By the Greeks they were called *Dionysia, *in honor of *Dionysus *(q.v.), their name for Bacchus. Among the Romans the Bacchanalia were carried on in secret and during the night, when the votaries of the god of wine characteristically indulged in all kinds of riot and excess. At first only women were initiated, and the orgies were held during three (lays in every year; but after a time the period of celebration was changed from the day to the night, and the feasts were held during *five nights *of every month. Men were now admitted as well as women, and licentiousness of the coarsest kind was practiced. They became the focus of all public and private crimes. In B.C. 186 the senate passed a decree prohibiting such assemblies and authorizing the consuls to investigate and punish all violations of the statute, not only in the city of Rome, but throughout all Italy. Great numbers were apprehended and thrown into prison, while the most criminal were put to death. By this decree the Bacchanalia were finally suppressed. They were afterwards celebrated, however, in a more innocent form; although even then they gave great offence to persons of pure habits. *SEE LIBERALIA*.

Bacchiarius (2) an Italian monk and theologian, lived probably in the latter half of the 16th century. He wrote *Bacchiarii Monachi Opuscula de Fide et de Reparatione Lapsi, ad Codices Bibliothecce Ambrosiane, nec non ad Priores Editiones casfigavit, Dissertationibus et Notis augit Franciscus Florinus, Canonicus Theoldgus S. Patriarchajis Ecelesice Aquilejensis *(Rome, 1750). See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, s.v.*

Bacchiarius (or Baccharius) (1) was an ecclesiastical writer of the Latin Church, probably of the fifth century. It appears that he was of Irish descent, a disciple of St. Patrick and contemporary of St. Augustine. His book *De Fide, *and the letter to Zamarius, *De Reparatione Lapsi, *were inserted in the *Bibliotheca Patrum. *See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, s.v.*

Bac'chides (Βακχίδης*, son of Bacchus*)*, *a friend of Antiochus Epiphanes (Josephus, *Ant. *12:10, 2) and governor of Mesopotamia (ἐν τῷ πέραν τοῦ ποταμοῦ, 1 Maccabees 7:8), who was commissioned by Demetrius Soter to investigate the charges which Alcimus (q.v.) preferred against Judas Maccabaeus. He confirmed Alcimus in the high-priesthood; and, having inflicted signal vengeance on the extreme party of the Assidaeans (q.v.), he returned to Antioch. After the expulsion of Alcimus and the defeat and death of Nicanor, he led a second expedition into Judea. Judas Maccabaeus fell in the battle which ensued at Laisa (B.C. 161), and Bacchides re- established the supremacy of the Syrian faction (1 Maccabees 9:25, οἱ ἀσεβεῖς ἄνδρες; Joseph. *Ant. *13:1,1). He next attempted to surprise Jonathan, who had assumed the leadership of the national party after the death of Judas; but Jonathan escaped across the Jordan. Bacchides then placed garrisons in several important positions, and took hostages for the security of the present government. Having completed the pacification of the country (Joseph. *Ant. *13:1, 5), he returned to Demetrius (B.C. 160). After two years he came back at the request of the Syrian faction, in the hope of overpowering Jonathan and Simon, who still maintained a small force in the desert; but, meeting with ill success, he turned against those who had induced him to undertake the expedition, and sought an honorable retreat. When this was known by Jonathan he sent envoys to Bacchides and concluded a peace (B.C. 158) with him, acknowledging him as governor under the Syrian king, while Bacchides pledged himself not to enter the land again, a condition which he faithfully observed (1 Maccabees 9:70 sq.; Joseph. *Ant. *12:1, 6; 13:1; comp. 2 Maccabees 8:30). He must have been a different person from the Bacchides, the general of Antiochus Epiphanes in charge of the fortresses of Judaea, whom the Asmonaean priest Matthias, with his sons, slew with their daggers (Joseph. *War, *1:1, 2).

Bacchillus (Bacchylus, or Bacchylides), bishop of Corinth, about the end of the 2d century took a leading part, with Polycrates of Ephesus and Theophylus of Caesarea. in the Quartodeciman Controversy In A.D. 196 he held one of the councils convened in various parts of the Christian world to declare that the practice of their churches was in accordance with that of the Roman Church. Eighteen bishops assembled at Corinth under his presidency and pronounced against the Quartodecimans. He also wrote a letter on this point which Jerome commends as a graceful composition, but which seems to have been lost before Jerome's time. See Cave, *Historia Literaria, *i, 94.

Caecilian is the name of several saints. **1. **Jerome says that Cyprian was converted "sua-dente presbytero Caecilio," etc., a statement that has probably influenced most editors to substitute *Caecilius *for *Caecilianus *in the texts of the *Life of Cyprian, *by his own deacon, Pontius. Caecilianus is, doubtless, correct. He was *cetate *as well as *honore presbyter, *and Cyprian, as a deacon, probably lived with him, reverencing him greatly "as the father of his new life." He appears afterwards as *venerabilis sacerdos *(Bolland, *Acta Sanctorum, *Jun. 1, p. 264), and was inserted as *Sanctus Ccecilius *in the Roman martyrology (June 3) by Gregory XIII (see Morcelli, *Afr. Christiana, *ii, 76). **2. **An ecclesiastic who was first archdeacon, then (A.D. 311) bishop, of Carthage. When archdeacon, he resolutely supported his bishop, Mensurius (q.v.), in opposing the fanatical craving for martyrdom. When nominated as his successor this was remembered against him, and a party, headed by a wealthy but superstitious lady, Lucilla, prepared to fill the vacant see. Csecilian's party hastened matters; the election took place, and Caecilialn was consecrated by Felix, bishop of Aptunga. Secundus, primate of Numidia and bishop of Tigisis, was shortly invited to Carthage by the opposing party. He came, attended by seventy bishops, and cited Caecilian before them. Caecilian declined to appear, but professed his willingness to satisfy them on all personal matters, and offered to lay down his episcopal office and submit to re-ordination at their hands. Secundus and the Numidian bishops answered by excommunicating him, and ordaining Majorinus, a member of Lucilla's household, as bishop. In the resultant schism, Constantine took sides with the Caecilianists, and a council was called in the Lateran, Rome, A.D. 313. The personal charges against Caecilian were examined and dismissed, and his party proclaimed the representatives of the orthodox Catholic. Caecilian proposed a compromise, but his advances were rejected. A council was called at Aries, A.D. 314, which confirmed the validity of the ordination of Caecilian. This was endorsed by Constantine, Milan, A.D. 316. Cecilian lived until about A.D. 345. **3. **A martyr with others at Csesaraugusta (Saragossa), under Datianus, the praeses of Spain. His *natalis *was April 16 (see Usuard, *Mart.).* **4. **A martyr at Carthage with Dativus A.D. 304. *SEE CECILIA*, 2, above.

Caecilius is the name of several men in early church history. *SEE CAPELLA*. **1. **Caecilius Natalis, the pagan in the dialogue of Octavius, by Minucius Felix, is supposed by Tillemont to be no imaginary personage, but a real convert. Tillemont discusses his identity with Caelianus, and with the married presbyter who converted Cyprian (iv, 46, 47, 50; Jerome, *Viri Illus. *c. 67; Pontius, p. 3). **2. **A presbyter and friend of Cyprian. *SEE CAECILIAN*, 1. **3. **One of the seven bishops said to have been ordained by the apostles at Rome, and sent into Spain. The seven are celebrated together in a Choriambic hymn in the Mozarabic liturgy on May 15 *(Acta Sanctorum, *May iii, 441). **4. **The martyrdom of Caecilius on the farther side of the Tiber is assigned to Nov. 17 in the *Martyr. Hieron.* **5. **Bishop of Biltha, in proconsular Africa, a member of the Committee de Virginibus Subintroductis *(Ep. *4), A.D. 249, sat in each of the synods, *de Pace maturius danda, *etc., and as senior bishop spoke first in. the synod de Baptismo III. He is not impossibly the same bishop who is addressed by Cyprian on the subject of the mixed chalice *(Ep. *63)

Caedmon Or Cedmon, an Anglo-Saxon Benedictine and poet, born in Northumberland, died at Whitby in 676 or 680. He is' the first person of whom we possess any metrical composition in our vernacular. It is a kind of ode, of eighteen lines, celebrating the praises of the Creator, preserved in Alfred's translation of Bede. "Bede gives the following account. Caedmon seems to have had the care of the cattle of the monks of Whitby. It appears to have been the custom of our Saxon forefathers to amuse themselves at supper with improvisatore descants accompanied by the harp, as is still practiced at meetings of the Welsh bards. Caedmon, when the harp passed round among the guests, was fain, as it approached him, to shrink away from the assembly and retire to his own house. Once, after it had thus happened, as he was sleeping at night, some one seemed to say to him, 'Cadmon, sing me something.' 'He replied, 'I cannot sing;' and he told how his inability to sing had been the cause of his quitting the hall. 'Yet thou must sing to me,' said the voice. 'What must I sing?' said he. 'Sing me the origin of things.' The subject thus given him, he composed the short ode in question. When he awoke, the words were fast in his mind. Caedmon in the morning told his vision and repeated his song. The effect was, that the abbeas Hilda, and the learned men whom she had collected round her in her monastery at Whitby, believed that he had received from heaven the gift of song, and when on the morrow he returned with a poetic paraphrase of a passage of Scripture which they had given him to versify as a test of his inspiration, they at once acknowledged the verity, and earnestly besought him to become a member of their company. He composed numerous poems on sacred subjects, which were sung in the abbey. Sacred subjects were his delight, and to them he confined himself. He continued in the monastery for the remainder of his life, and there he died, as is conjectured, about 680. The authenticity of the little poem above mentioned is perhaps unquestionable. But, besides this, a very long Saxon poem, which is a metrical paraphrase on parts of the Scriptures, is attributed to Caedmon. An edition of it was printed at Amsterdam in 1655, under the care of Junius. Hickes expresses doubts whether this poem can be attributed to so early a period as the time of Caedmon. He thinks he perceives certain Dano: Saxonisms in it which would lead him to refer it to a much later period.' It has been again printed, with a much more accurate text, by Mr. Thorpe, as a publication by the Society of Antiquaries (Lond. 8vo, 1832). Mr. Thorpe is of opinion that it is substantially the work of Cedmon, but with some sophistications of a later period, and in this opinion our best Anglo-Saxon scholars appear inclined to coincide." — *Penny Cyclopvadia, s.v.*; Hoefer, *Biographie Generale, *8:84.

Caeilphinn *SEE CAELLAINN*.

Cael (Irish, *slender), *is a name of frequent use in early Irish Church history. **1. **At Oct. 26 the *Mart. Doneg. *cites Cael, virgin, as one of the four daughters of Maclaar, of the Dal Messincorb; and they were of Cill-na- ninghen" (the Church of the Daughters) by the side (of Tamlacht to the south" in Londonderry, or at Killininny, near Tallaght, County Dublin. But the *Mart. Tallaght *places their abode at Cillmaignend, *i.e., C*illmainham, near Dublin. **2. **Colgan mentions a *Caila, *whom he also calls *Caelius, *whose festival is Nov. 10, on which day *Mart. Doneg. *gives "Cael Craibhdeach," and the table to the *Martyrology *"Cael, the Devout (Caelius);" and another Caelius is connected with Athrumia, Feb. 17. But little more can be said of these. See Colgan, *Acta Sanctorum, *p. 318, n., 391, n. **3. **Cruimther Cael of Kilmore, celebrated as a saint May 25. Colgan *(Ac Sanctorum, *p. 709, c. 26) connects him with St. Endeus, but gives no account of his relation to Kilmore, to which he is attached in the calendars.

Caelan There are several saints of this name in the Celtic calendars, such as Caelan of Cilleo, celebrated June 30; Caelan of Doire or Doire-Chaolain, June 19; Caelan of Echinis, Sept. 25; and Caelan of Tigh-na-manach, Oct. 29. But the most notable is Caelan of Inis - Cealtra, July 29; who (under the names Caelan, Coelan, or Chilian) is usually considered the writer of the *Life of St. Brigida, *which stands as the sixth memoir of that saint in Colgan's *Trias Thaumaturgac *. He was a; monk of Inis-Cealtra (now Inishcaltra, County Clare), and probably flourished after the beginning of the 8th century. See Colgan, *Tr. Thaum. *p.'596, 597; O'Donovan, *Four Mast. *i, 187; O'Hanlon, *Irish Saints, *ii, 13; Lanigan, *Eccl. Hist. Ir. *i, 381,

Caelestius. *SEE CELESTIUS*.

Caelestius. (1.) One of the chief presbyters of Carthage, who summoned the neighboring bishops and those of Numidia to elect a bishop; and being disappointed at the election of Galilian, made a party against him. (2.) The Pelagian. *SEE CAELESTIUS***.**

Caelin (Or Celin) is the name of two early English ecclesiastics. **1. **A brother of bishops Cedda and Caedda, a priest in the household of Athelwold, king of Deira. He is, mentioned by Bede *(H. E. *iii, 23, ed. Giles) as introducing his brother Cedda to the notice and favor of his master, about A.D. 653. **2. **Provost of Ripon, who was allowed by Wilfrid, in the year 709, to seek a more retired life, The name occurs in the *Liber Vitce *of the Church of Durham. See Eddius, *Vita Saint Wilfridi, *cap. xi.

Caelius, Michael a Lutheran theologian of Germany, was born at Dobeln, Sept. 7, 1492. In 1519 he: was appointed pastor of the Roman Catholic Church at, Rochlitz. Leaving his Church and embracing that of the Reformation he was appointed in 1523 pastor at Pensan, in Bohemia; and, in 1525, dean and pastor at Mansfeld. He died in 1559. His writings on the Lord's Supper, and his exhortation to the ministers at the Diet of Augsburg, were edited by Cyriacus Spangenberg in 1569. See Jocher, *Allgemeines Gelehrten- Lexikon, s.v.*. (B.P.)

Caellainn (Or Caeilfhinn) commemorated as an Irish saint on Feb. 3, was the daughter of Cael, of the race of Ciar. Her church is now called Tearmon Caelaine and Tearmon Mor, parish Kilkeevin, County Roscommon. She was the special patron of her kinsmen, the Ciarraidhe, in Connaught, and the legend places her in the reign of Aedh, son of Eochaid Tirmcharna, king of Connaught, slain A.D. 574. See Colgan, *Acta Sanctorum, *p. 13, n.; O'Donovan, *Book of Rights, p. *100, n.

Caemghen Of Glendalough *SEE COEMGEN*.

Caemh (Or Caoimhe) is commemorated as a Scottish saint on April 4. *Mart. Doneg. *has "Caemh, virgin of Cill-Caoimhe," and *Mart. Tallaght, *"Coine, Cillicoine." Again, at Nov. 2, *Mart. Doneg. *gives "Caoimhe, the Albanan, of Cill-Chaoimhe," which Dr. Reeves *(Mart. Doneg. *p. 294, n.) interprets " of Alba the modern Scotland."

Caemhan Under this form, and that of *Caiman, Coeman, Caynan, Coemhoc, *and *Mochoemoc, *this name is of frequent occurrence among the saints of Ireland, and the work of identification is very difficult. **1. **Of Ard-Caemhain-set down on June 12-was the son of Coemloga aid Caemell, and appears to have been uterine brother of St. Coemgen. The *Mart. Doneg. *calls him Caomhan, or Sanct-Lethan, of Ard-Caomhain, in Leinster. Lanigan *(Eccl. Hist. Ir. *ii, 221, 223) fixes his date, as brother of St. Coemgen, to the period of the second class of Irish saints-that is, to the second half of the 6th century. **2. **Of Enach-Truim-on Nov. 3-is said to have beetn of the race of Labraidh Lore, king of Ireland. Along with St. Fintan and St. Mochumin of Tir-da- glas, St. Caemhan was under the direction of St. Colum, son of Crimthann of Tir-da-glas, and with the rest constantly followed him. He founded the monastery of Enach Truim, now Annatrim, Queen's Co.; and flourished A.D. 550. There he spent the remainder of his days, and died Nov. 3, the year unknown. **3. ***(Caomhan, Coman, Comman, Conan, Conran, *or *Convan). *In the table of the *Mart. Doneg. *he is called *Pulcherius. *According to Colgan *(Acta Sanctoruna, *p. 335), Caemhan belonged to a noble stock in Scotland, but withdrew to the Orkneys, where he built a monastery, and, after living in great sanctity as bishop and confessor, died there about 640. At Kirkwall and throughout the islands his memory was long revered. He is commemorated on Feb. 14, and many altars have been raised to his honor. **4. **Bree, whose day is Sept. 14. St. Caemhan Bree, of Roseach, is carefully distinguished from St. Mac Nissi (Sept. 3), who is known by the same name, and founded Connor. Ussher places his birth in Hibernia. 529, and his death in 615.

Caemhlach (Lat. Camulacus) Of Rathain commemorated Nov. 3-was one of the bishops of the first class, ordained by St. Patrick, and his house was at Rahen, Kings Co. He is called the Commiensian, and the *Hymn of Camelac *is in the Antiphonary of Bangor.

Caemhog is commemorated among the Irish on July 22. The sex of this saint is uncertain, either from the female termination given to the name, or from other circumstances. Kevoca, a saint of the male sex, is called Caemhog. Both Colgan and Lanigan regarded this person as female, and are in confusion as to identity; the one making her the same as *Caviltighern, *and the other taking her to be *Coemaca. *See Colgan, *Acta Sanctorum, *p. 586; Lanigan, *Eccles. Hist. Ir. *ii, 45, 223.

Caenchomhrac is commemorated in the Irish calendar on July 23. *Mart. Doneg. *(by Todd and Reeves, p. 199) gives him as bishop, first at Cluain-mic-Nois, and next at Inis Endaimh, in Lough Ribh, County Roscommon. He left Cluain on account of the popular veneration given him as a prophet, and sought for solitude in Lough Ree.-Smith, *Dict. of Christ. Biog. s.v.*

Caerlan (Or Cairlan) was an Irish prelate. A short memoir of this saint is given by Colgan *(Acta Sanctorum, *p. 744), from which we learn that he was born in the district of the Hy-Niellan or O'Niallan, County Armagh. He was over a monastery in the same place about 546; and was finally raised to the episcopate of Armagh, succeeding Feidlimid Finn in 578. His death took place in 588, and he is commemorated March 24. See also Lanigan, *Eccl. Hist. ῥof Ireland, *ii, 183; O'Donovan, i, 212, n., 213; Ware's *Bishops.*

Caernan is an Irish saint, commemorated Jan. 31. Among the disciples and relatives of St. Columba is enumerated "Cairnaan, filius Branduib, filii Meilgi," as coming with St. Columba on his first visit to Britain. But there is no proof to show whether the Cairnaan thus named is the Caernan of Jan. 31, or -he of Cluain each commemorated April 28

Caerularius, Michael, patriarch of Constantinople (A.D. 1043-1059). He was one of the chief promoters of the great schism between the Eastern and Western churches. In 1054 Pope Leo IX sent legates to Constantinople to accommodate matters; but they, being displeased at the treatment they received, left a written letter of excommunication, directed against the patriarch, on the altar of the church of St. Sophia, and departed, having shaken off the dust from their feet. The ostensible causes of difference between the churches, as detailed in a letter written by Caerularius and Leo, archbishop of Acryda, to John, bishop of Trani, were the following: that the Latins consecrated with unleavened bread; that they added the words *Flioque *to the creed of the Church; that they taught that the souls of the faithful make expiation in the fires of Purgatory; and that in some other respects they differed in their customs from those of the East. After this outrage on the part of the Roman legates, Caerularius called together a synod at Constantinople 1054, and excommunicated them and their adherents. Caerularius himself was a man of ambitious views and arrogant disposition, and little likely to ward off the final rupture with Rome, which in fact took place. However, the Emperor Isaac Comnenius took umbrage at his behavior, and, A.D. 1059, having caused him to be seized, sent him to Praeconnesus. Caerularius refused to resign the patriarchal throne as the emperor endeavored to compel him to do, but died shortly afterward in exile Baron. *Annal;s, *11, A.D. 1054; Moshelm, *Ch. Hist. *cent. 11, pt. 2, ch. 3; Neander, *Ch. History, *3:580.

Ebenezer (Hebrew with the art. E'ben *ha-E'ezer, *אֶבֶן הָעֵזֶר *stone of the help; *Sept. Α᾿βενέζερ; Josephus translates λίθος ἰσχυρός), the name given to a place marked by a monumental stone which Samuel set up as a memorial of the divine assistance in battle obtained against the Philistines (1Sa 7:12). — *SEE PILLAR*. 'Twenty years before this, the same spot (mentioned in the history under the same name by anticipation of its subsequent designation) witnessed the discomfiture of the Hebrew hosts, the death of the high-priest's sons, and the capture of the sacred ark by the Philistines (1Sa 4:1; 1Sa 5:1). Its position is carefully defined (1Sa 7:12) as between Mizpeh "the watch-tower," one of the conspicuous eminences a few miles north of Jerusalem and Shen, "the tooth" or "crag," apparently some isolated landmark. Neither of these points, however, has been identified with certainty-at least not the latter. According to Josephus's record of the transaction (Ant. 6:2, 2), the stone was erected to mark the limit of the victory, a spot which he calls *Corrhaea, *but in the Hebrew BETH-CAR *SEE BETH-CAR *(q.v.). Eusebius and Jerome affirm *(Onomast. *a.v. Α᾿βενετέρ***, **Abenezes) *that it lay between Jerusalem and Ashkelon, near (πλησίον, juxta) Bethshemesh. Now Bethshemesh stands on a low ridge on the south side of the rich valley of Sorar. On the opposite side of this valley, on a rising ground, about three miles north-west of Bethshemesh, are the ruins of an old village called *Beit-far. *The situation answers in every respect to that assigned to Beth-car; and the name may possibly be an Arab corruption of the latter. It lies in the direct route from Mizpeh to the plain of Philistia, and is just on the borders of the latter province, where a pursuing army would halt (Porter, *Handbook for Syr. and Pal. *page 283). But, as this is very far from the probable site of Mizpeh (Neby-Samwil), it is hardly possible to fix the position of Ebenezer at that of Beth-car. The monumental stone in question may rather have been set up at the point where the enemy began to flee, and we may therefore seek its locality nearer the Israelitish metropolis, possibly at the modern village Biddu, a short distance west of Neby-Samwil (Robinson, *Researches, *2:133, note). *SEE SHEN.*

Ebenezer On the strength of Jerome's location of this spot, near Bethshemesh, Lieut. Conder proposes *(Tent Work in Palest. *2:336) to identify it with the present *Deir Arban, *two miles east of Ain-Shems, "a large village on the lower slope of a high ridge, with a well to the north, and olives on the east, west, and north" *(Memoirs *of Ordinance Survey, 3:24).

Eben-zoheleth *SEE ZOHELETH.*

Eber Paul, a companion of Luther and Melancthon and an eminent Hebrew scholar and theologian, was born at Kissingen, November 8, 1511. He received his first instruction from his father, and continued his studies at Anspach. The sudden death of his mother caused his father to recall Paul from Anspach, and while on his way home he was thrown from his horse and became humpbacked. In 1526 he had so far recovered that he could resume his studies at Nuremberg, and in 1532 he entered the university at Wittenberg. Here he was employed as amanuensis to Melancthon, with whom he became so intimate that he consulted him on all important matters, and hence Eber received the name of Philip's Repository *(Repertorium Philippi). *He was also a faithful disciple of Luther. In 1536 he began to lecture on grammar and philosophy, and in 1541 he accompanied Melancthon to the Diet at Worms. In 1544 he was appointed professor of Latin grammar, in 1550 dean of the philosophical faculty, and in 1551 rector of the university. After the death of Forster (1556) he was appointed professor of Hebrew and chaplain to the royal chapel at Wittenberg. These positions he soon changed for others, and in 1559 he was made general superintendent of the electorate and, as doctor of theology, a member of the theological faculty of the university. From this time to' the day of his death, December 16, 1569, he devoted himself entirely to theology and to the faithful discharge of his duties as general superintendent of the electorate. After the death of Melancthon he was regarded as the head of the university. He took large part in the Adiaphoristic and Crypto- Calvinistic controversies but always showed himself moderate and learned. His principal works are: *Expositio Evangeliorum *(Francf. *1576): — Calendarium historicum *(1551, *4to): —Historia populi judaici a reditu ex Babylonico exilio usque ad ultimum excidium Jerosolymae *(Witeb. 1458; new ed. 1562, and translated into German, French, and Dutch): — Unterricht *u. Bekenntn. vom h. Sacrament des Leibs u. Bluts unseres Hermr *(Wittb. *1562): — Biblia Latina *(Vitemb. *1565): — Expositio Evangelicorum Dominicaliunz *(Frankf. 1576). — Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Gener. *15:599 sq.; Her*zog, Real-Encykl. *3:618 sq.; Plank, *Gesch. der protest. Theol. *4, Theil 1 (Lpz. 1798), 448-525; Sixt, Paul Eber (Heidelb. 1843, and another book by the same author, Anspach, 1857); Pressel, *Paul Eber nach gleichzeitigen *Quellen (1862); *Bibl. Sacra, 20 *page 644 sq.

Eberhard Johann August, a Rationalistic theologian of Germany, was born in 1739 at Halberstadt. He studied theology at Halle, and was in succession preacher at Halberstadt, Berlin, and Charlottenburg. The. latter position he obtained by express order of king Friedrich II. In 1778 he was appointed professor of philosophy at Halle, where he opposed the idealism of Kant and Fichte. He died in 1809,. Eberhard is a representative of what is called "the vulgar Rationalistic school" (Vulgar — *Rationalismus). *He wrote a considerable number of theological, philosophical, historical, and other works. Among his theological works are: *Nene Apologie des Socrates *(Berlin, 1772, 3d ed. *1788): — Vorbereitung zur natufrl. Theologie *(Halle, *1781): — Geist des Urchristenthums *(Halle, 1807-1808); and *Sittenlehre der Vernunft *(Berlin, 1781). — Brockhaus, *Conversations-Lex. s.*v. (A.J.*S.)*

Eberhard, Matthias a Roman Catholic prelate, was born at Treves, November 1, 1815. He studied at the clerical seminary of his native place, and received holy orders in 1839; in 1840 became chaplain of St. Castor's, at Coblentz; was called in 1843 as episcopal secretary to Treves, and appointed the same year professor of dogmatics at the clerical seminary there. In 1850 he became member of the chapter, and was consecrated in 1862 bishop of Treves. After Arnold's death, in 1864, his name was stricken from the list of candidates as *persona regi minus grata, but *he was elected in 1867 by the chapter. In 1869 and 1870 he was at Rome as member of the Vatican Council. The Prussian "Folk-Laws" brought him in 1873 in conflict with the government, and as he could not pay the fines, he was imprisoned in 1874. He died May 5, 1876, leaving *De Tituli Sedis Apostolicae, *etc. (Treves, 1846). (B.P.)

Eberle, Christian Gustav a Lutheran minister of Germany, was born in 1813, and died December 9, 1879, at Ochsenbach, in Wurtemberg. He published, *Luthers Glaubensrichtung *(Stutttgard, 1858): — *Luther ein Zeichen dem widersprochen wird *(ibid. 1860): — *Luthers Evangelien-Auslegung aus seinen homiletischen und exegetischen Werken *(ibid. 1857). See Zuchold, *Bibl. Theol. *1:302. (B.P.)

Eberlin Anton, one of the German reformers was born in Swabia towards the end of the 15th century. He entered the Franciscan order, and was chosen preacher of the Franciscan convent at Tubingen, from which, in consequence of some difficulties, he was, in 1519, transferred to Ulm. Here he became acquainted with Luther's writings, and having adopted his doctrines, had to leave Ulm in 1521. Repairing to Basle, he became very popular, but was driven away by the bishop of Basle. He found an asylum with Ulrich von Hutten and Francis of Sickingen, and wrote with them several works on ecclesiastical and monastical abuses. In 1522 he came to Wittenberg, where he became personally acquainted with Luther and with Melancthon, under the influence of whose teaching he wrote in the same year his *Vom Missbrauche christlicher Freiheit, *breathing a charitable spirit. In 1524 he went to Erfurt, where he preached for some time and thence to Wertheim on the Main (1526). He died soon after. His works, to the number of 34, were mostly of local interest; among the others, the most important one, entitled *Wie sick eyn Diener Gottes worts ym all seynem thun halten soll *(Wittenberg, 1525, 4to), has seen several editions, and can be found in A. H. Franke, *Monita pastoralia. *See Dollinger, *d. Reformation, *etc. 1:205; Strobel, *Liter. Museum*, 1:365; Herzog, *Real-Encyklop. *3:620.

Ebermann, Vitus a German Jesuit, was born in 1597. In 1620 he joined his order, was professor of philosophy and theology at Mayence and Wiirzburg, and died April 8, 1675, leaving *Bellarmini Controversiae Vindicatae: *— *Parallela Ecclesiae Verae et Falsae: *— *Anatomia Calixtina: *— *Irenicum anti- Calixtinum: *— *Irenicon Catholicon Helmstadiensi Oppositum: *— *Bellarminus Vindicattis *(4 volumes): — *Justa Expositio cum Lutheranorum Doctoribus. *See Jocher, *Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon, *s.v.; Alegambe, *Bibliotheca Scriptorum. Societatis Jesu. *(B.P.)

Ebert, Jacob an eminent Hebrew scholar, was born at Sprottau in 1549. He was professor of Hebrew and theology at the university then in Frankfort on the Oder, now in Berlin, and at one time its *rector magnificus. *So versed was he in Hebrew that he could write in that language. He died in 1614. His works are, *Historia Juram sentorium.(Frankfort *on the Oder, 1588, 8vo): *— Institutio intellectus cum elegantia *(ibid. 1597): — Electa *Hebraea *750 a *libro Rabbinico Mibchar Hapheninim *(1630, *12mo). — Tetrasticha febraea in textus *evangelicos, etc. — Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *xv. 609 sq. (J.H.W.)

Ebert, Samuel a Lutheran minister of Germany, was born at Leipsic, October 17, 1747; studied theology there; was appointed deacon at Taucha, near Leipsic; and itn 1791 preacher of St. George's, at his nativeplace. He died August 8, 1807, leaving *Homiletisches Magazin uber die evangelischen Texte *(Leipsic, 1780): — *Homiletisches Magazin uber die epistolischen Texte *(ibid. 1782; 2d ed. 1792): — *Homiletisches Magazin fur die Passionszeit *(ibid. 1783): — *Homiletisches Magazin uber den Katechismus Lutheri *(ibid. 1791). See Doring, *Die gelehten Theologen Deutschlands, *s.v. (B.P.)

Ebert, Theodor son of Jacob Ebert (q.v.), succeeded his father as professor of Hebrew at the university its Frankfort on the Oder. He shared also the honor of being rector with his father. Ebert died in 1630. Among his principal works are, *Vita Christi, tribus de curiis rhythmorum quadratorum hebraicorum *(Frankf. on the Oder, 1615, 4to): — *Animad psalticarum Centuria *(1619, *4to): — Manuductiones aphoristicae ad discursum atrium sectiones *xvi (1620, 4to)*: — Chronologia prcecipuorum Lingua Sancte Doctorum, ab O.C. ad suam usque aetatem *(1620, 4to): — *Eulogia juris consultorum et politicorum qui linguam hebraicam et reliquas orientales excoluerunt (1628): — Poetica Hebraica *(1638, 8vo), in which the Hebrew meters are more extensively exemplified than in any other work. — Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Gen. *15:610; Etheridge, *Intr. to Hebrews Literature, *page 374.

Eberus, Paul, D.D. a German clergyman, was born at Kitzingen, in Franconia, November 8, 1511, and was educated at Anspach. He was appointed to the professorship of philosophy in 1544, and in 1556 to that of Hebrew; in 1558 he gathered a Church in Wittenberg. He died December 20, 1589. Some of his works are, *Expositio Evangelion: *— *Dominicalium Calendarium Historicum *(Wittenb. 1550, 8vo, reprinted at Basle the same year).

Ebi'asaph (Hebrews *Ebyasaph', *אֶביָסָŠ prob. a contraction for אֲבַיאָסָŠ***, **Abiasaph; *Sept. Α᾿βιασάφ and Α᾿βισάφ, Vulg. *Abiasaph), *the son of Elkanah and father of Assir, in the genealogy of the Kohathite Levites (1Ch 6:23). B.C. cir. 1660. In verse 37 he is called the son of Korah, from a comparison of which circumstance with Ex 6:24, most interpreters have identified him with the *Abiasaph *(q.v.) of the latter passage; but (unless we there understand not three sons of Korah to be meant, but only three in regular descent), the pedigrees of the two cannot be made to tally without violence. *SEE ASSIR*. From 1Ch 9:19, it appears that he had a son named Kore. In 1Ch 26:1, his name is abbreviated to ASAPH *SEE ASAPH *.

Ebionites a sect of Judaizing Christians who received the doctrines of the Gospel very partially, and denied the divine nature of Christ. They do not appear to have been at any time numerous, and it is doubtful whether they ever obtained such consistency as to have a definite creed. **1. ***The Name*. — The name is derived from the Hebrew אֶביוֹן, *poor. *This term was anciently applied in derision to Christians in general (Epiphanius, adv. Haer. 29:1), and came later to designate Jewish Christians (Origen, *cont. Celsum, *2:1). First (Lexicon, s.v.) makes the derivation refer to Mt 5:3 making "Ebionites" equivalent to "oppressed pious exiles" (Isa 25:4). Eusebius *(Hist. Ecclesiastes *in, 27) fancifully derives the name from "the poverty and meanness of the Elbionite doctrine concerning Christ." Tertullian *(De Praescrip. Haeret. *c. 33) derives it from a founder, Edion, who maintained the authority of the Jewish law, and rejected the miraculous conception and divine nature of spirit. The derivation first above given is now generally adopted. **2. ***History*. — Dorner *(Person of Christ, *Edinb. translated 1:189 sq.) traces the Ebionitish tendency as far back as the Epistle to the Hebrews. "From that zeal for the law with which Paul had to contend, the Judaizing spirit was led not at first to impeach the Christology, but rather the Soteriology, or the work of Christ. But the consequence of the legal stand-point soon showed itself. The party which the Epistle to the Hebrews had in view must have over-estimated the law of the O.T. regarding holy times, places, acts, and persons alike, and have been wanting in the Christian knowledge which knows how to secure to the O.T. its abiding significancy, which it has as a divine institute without imperiling the newness and conclusive completeness of Christianity." Epiphanius traces the origin of Ebionitism to the Christians who fled to Pella after the destruction of Jerusalem, A.D. 66 *(adv. Hoer. *29:1). According to Hegesippus *(Hist. Ecclesiastes *4:22), one Thebutis, at Jerusalem, about the beginning of the second century, "began to corrupt the Church secretly on account of his not being made a bishop." "We find the sect of the Ebionites in Palestine and the surrounding regions, on the island of Cyprus, in Asia Minor, and even in Rome. Though it consisted mostly of Jews, Gentile Christians also sometimes attached themselves to it. It continued into the fourth century, but at the time of Theodoret was entirely extinct. It used a Hebrew Gospel, now lost, which was probably a corruption of the Gospel of Matthew" (Schaff, *Church History, *1, § 68, page 214). **3. ***Doctrines. — Dr. *Schaff sharply distinguishes Ebionism from Gnosticism as follows: "Ebionism is a Judaizing, pseudo-Petrine Christianity, or a Christianizing Judaism; Gnosticism is a paganizing or pseudo-Pauline Christianity, or a pseudo-Christian heathenism. The former is a particularistic contraction of the Christian religion; the latter a vague expansion of it" *(Church History, *§ 67). According to the same writer, "the characteristic marks of Ebionism in all its forms are, degradation of Christianity to the level of Judaism, the principle of the universal and perpetual validity of the Mosaic law, and enmity to the apostle Paul. But, as there were different sects in Judaism itself, we have also to distinguish at least two branches of Ebionism, related to each other, as Pharisaism and Essenism, or, to use a modern illustration, as the older deistic and the speculative pantheistic rationalism in Germany, or the two schools of Unitarianism in England and America. **1. **The common Ebionites, who were by far the more numerous, embodied the Pharisaic legal spirit, and were the proper successors of the Judaizers opposed in the epistle to the Galatians. Their doctrine may be reduced to the following propositions: **(a.) **Jesus is, indeed, the promised Messiah, the son of David, and the supreme lawgiver, yet a mere man, like Moses and David, sprung by natural generation from Joseph and Mary. The sense of his Messianic calling first arose in him at his baptism by John, when a higher spirit joined itself to him. Hence Origen compared this sect to the blind man in the Gospel who called to the Lord without seeing him, 'Thou son of David, have mercy on me!' **(b.) **Circumcision and the observance of the whole ritual law of Moses are necessary to salvation for all men. **(c.) **Paul is an apostate and heretic, and all his epistles are to be discarded. The sect considered him a native heathen, who came over to Judaism in later life from impure motives. **(d.) **Christ is soon to come again to introduce the glorious millennial reign of the Messiah, with the earthly Jerusalem for its seat. **2. **The second class of Ebionites, starting with Essenic notions, gave their Judaism a speculative or theosophic stamp, like the errorists of the Epistle to the Colossians. They form the stepping-stone to Gnosticism. Among these belong the Elkesaites" (Schaff, *Ch. Hist. *1, § 68, 214 sq.). The pseudo-Clementine homilies teach a speculative form of Ebionism, essentially Judaizing in spirit and aim [ *SEE CLEMENTINES*, 2, page 383]; and compare Schaff, *Ch. History, *1, § 69; Dorner, *Person of Christ, *Edinb. transl., page 203 sq.). **4. **Ebionism has reappeared, since the Reformation, in Socinianism (q.v.), and in the other forms of what is called Unitarianism (q.v.). Some Unitarian writers have undertaken to show that Ebionism was the original form of Christian doctrine, and that the Church doctrine as to the person of Christ was a later development; so Priestley, in his *History of the Corruptions of Christianity *(Birmingham, 1782). Bishop Horsley replied to Priestley in his *Charge to the Clergy of St. Albans *(1783), and in other tracts, collected in *Tracts in Controversy with Dr. Priestley *(Dundee, 1812, 3d ed.). Horsley, in this controversy, made use of Bull's learned treatment of the subject in his reply to Zwicker (see Bull, *On the Trinity, *Oxford, 1855, 3 vols.: 1:116; 2:376; 3:175 et al. See also Waterland, *Works, *Oxf. 1843, 6 vols.: 3:554 sq.). A far abler advocate of the Socinian view is Baur, in his *Christenthum d. drei erstess Jahrhunderte; Lehre v.d. Dreieinigkeit Gottes; Dogmengeschichte, *etc. Baur's position is clearly stated, and refuted by professor Fisher *(Am. Presb. and Theolog. Rev. *October 1864, art. 1). "Baur agrees with the old Socinians in the statement that the Jewish Christianity of the apostolic age was Ebionite. But, unlike them, he holds that we find within the canon a great departure from, and advance upon, this humanitarian doctrine of Christ's person. He professes to discover in the New Testament the consecutive stages of a progress which, beginning with the Unitarian creed terminates in the doctrine of Christ's proper divinity. There occurred at the end, or before the end, of the apostolic age, a reaction of the Jewish Christianity, which with Baur is identical with the Judaizing or Ebionite element; and this type of Christianity prevailed through the larger part of the second century." (See Fisher, 1. c., for a criticism of this view, and for a brief but luminous sketch of Ebionism. On the other side, see *N. Amer. Rev. *April, 1864, page 569 sq.). *Literature*. — See, besides the works already cited, Irenaeus, *Har. *1:26 (Ante-Nicene Library, verse 97); Gieseler, *Ueber die Nazarder und Ebioniten, *in Archiv fur A.&N. Kircheng., 4:279 sq. (Leipsig, 1820); Mosheim, *Comnmentaries, *1:220, 400; Neander, *Church Hist. *1:344; 350; Schliemann, *Die Clementinen *(Hamb. 1844), page 362 sq.; Herzog, *Real- Esacyklopadie, *3:621 sq.; Martensen, *Dogmatics *(Edinburgh, 1866), § 128; Shedd, *History of Doctrines, *1:106 sq.; Burton, *Ecclesiastes History,* Lect. 11; Burton, *Bampton Lectures *(Oxford, 1829), notes 73-84.

Eblis the name given to the *devil *by the Mohammedans.

Ebnerian Manuscript (CODEX EBNERIANUS, usually designated as No. 105 of the Gospels, 48 of the Acts, and 24 of the Pauline Epistles), a beautiful cursive Greek MS. of the entire N.T. except Revelation, consisting of 425 quarto vellum leaves; assigned to the 12th century; formerly belonging to Jerome *Ebner *von Eschenbach, of Nuremberg, and now in the Bodleian Library (No. 136). A facsimile and description are given by Tregelles, in Horne's *Introd.* page 220. *SEE MANUSCRIPTS, BIBLICAL*.

Eboda (Ε᾿βόδα), a city mentioned only by Ptolemy (17, 18) as situated in the sea- board quarter of Arabia Petraea (see Reland, *Palast. *p. 463), in 65.25 and 30.5, and marked on the *Peutinger Table *as lying on the Roman road 23 Roman miles south of Elusa (q.v.). Dr. Robinson *(Researches, *1:287) discovered the site in the modern *el-Abdeh *(otherwise *Aujeh, ib. *page 560), eight hours from the site of Elusa, at the junction of Wady es-Seram with Wadi el-Birein *(ib. *page 284). It contains extensive ruins, situated on a rocky ridge from sixty to one hundred feet high; especially the remains of an acropolis, of a capacious castle, and of a large Greek church, with numerous walls, columns etc., still standing, and several wells or reservoirs, but no inhabitants *(ib. *pages 285, 286).

Ebon Version Of The Scriptures Ebon is the most southerly of the Marshall Islands. These islands are the second group of Micronesia, beginning from the east with the Gilbert Island. The first Scripture in this language was from the gospel of Matthew, chapters 5 to 11. This translation was printed at Ebon, between 1858 and 1860. The work was done by the pioneer missionaries, Reverends E.T. Doane and G. Pierson. A version of Mark, prepared by Mr. Doane, was printed at Honolulu in 1863. The Reverend B.G. Snow prepared for the press the gospels of Matthew and John, and the Acts, and revised Mark for a reprint. In 1871 he prepared the gospel of Luke and a revision of Matthew for the press. In 1877 Genesis was issued from the mission press at Ebon, translated by J.F. Whitney, who also resumed the work on Romans, left unfinished by Mr. Snow, and translated the epistles from 1 Corinthians through Philippians. These were printed at the New York Bible House in 1882, together with the book of Genesis and the three epistles of John. The Reverend E.M. Pease, who joined the mission in 1877, has resumed the work of translation of the rest of the New Test. (B.P.)

Ebony (הָבנַי***, **hobni', stony, *q.d. stone-wood [comp. the Germ. *Steinholz, *"fossil- wood"], only in the plum. הָבנַים, hobnim' [text הָוֹבנַים for הוֹבֶנַרם**, **hobenim'], Sept. [by some confusion or misinterpretation, see Rosenmuller, *Schol. *in loc.] τοῖς εἰσαγομένοις, Symma chus ἐβένους, Vulg. Edentes] *hebeninos*) occurs only in one passage of Scripture, where the prophet Ezekiel (Eze 10:1-17:15), referring to the commerce of Tyre, says, "The men of Dedan were thy merchants; many isles were the merchandise of thine hand: they brought thee for. a present horns of ivory and *ebony." SEE DEDAN*. The Hebrew word is translated "'ebony" in all the European versions; but, as Bochart states *(Hieroz. *1:20, part 2), the Chaldee version, followed by B. Selomo and other Jews, as well as the Greek and Arabic versions, render it by *pea-fowl (pavonses). *Some of the Hebrew critics, however, as Kimchi, also acknowledge that Arabian *ebony *is meant. Of the correctness of this opinion there can now be no doubt. In the first place, we may allude to Dedan being considered one of the ports of Arabia on the Persian Gulf, or at least to the south of the Red Sea; and, secondly, as observed by Bochart, the terms *hobnim *and *ebony *are very similar, the latter word being variously written by ancient authors, as ἐβένη, ἔβενος, ἔβενον*, ebe*nus and *hebenus. *The last form is used by Jerome in his Latin, and ἔβενος by Symmachus in his Greek version. The Arabs have abnus, which they apply to ebony, and by that name it is known in Northern India at the' present day. Forskal mentions *abnus *as one of, the kinds of wood imported in his time from India into Arabia. Whether the Arabic name be a corruption of the Greek, or the Greek a modification, as is most likely, of some Eastern name, we require some other evidence besides the occurrence of the word in Arabic works on materia medica to determine, since in these Greek words are sometimes employed as the principal terms for substances with which they are not well acquainted. *Bardust *is, however, given by some as the Arabic name, *abnus *as the Persian. Naturalists have found the latter applied to ebony in north-west India, as did Forskil on the Red Sea. Ebony wood was highly esteemed by the ancients, and employed by them for a variety of purposes (Theophr. *Hist. Pl. *4:5; *Plin. H.N. *6:30, § 35; 12:4, § 8, 9; Strabo, 15:703; Pausan. 1:42, 5; 8:17, 2; Ovid, Met. 11:610; compare Barhebr. *Chron. *page 181). It is very appropriately placed in juxtaposition with ivory, on account of the beautiful contrast in color. Ivory and ebony are probably, however, also mentioned together because both were obtained from the same countries, Ethiopia and India; and, among the comparatively few articles of ancient commerce, must from this cause, always have been associated together, while their contrast of color and joint employment in inlaid work would contribute as additional reasons for their being adduced as articles characteristic of a distinct commerce. But it is not in Ezekiel only that ebony and ivory are mentioned together, for Diodorus, as quoted by Bochart, tells us that an ancient king of Egypt imposed on the Ethiopians the payment of a tribute of ebony, gold, and elephants' teeth. So Herodotus (3, 97), as translated by Bochart, says, "Athiopes Persis pro triennali tributo vehunt duos choenices auri apyri *(id est, ignem nondum experti), *et ducentas *ebeni *phalangas, et magnos elephanti dentes viginti." Pliny, referring to this passage, remarks, "But Herodotus assigneth it rather to Ethiopia, and saith that every three years the Ethiopians were wont to pay, by way of tribute, unto the kings of Persia, 100 billets of the timber of that tree (that is, ebene), together with gold and ivorie;" and again, "From Syene (which confineth and boundeth the lands of our empire and dominion) as farre as to the island Meroe, for the space of 996 miles, there is little ebene found: and that in all those parts betweene there be few other trees to be found but date-trees; which peradventure may be a cause that ebene was counted a rich tribute, and deserved the third place, after gold and ivorie" (Holland's *Pliny, *12:4). It is sometimes stated that the ancients supposed ebony to come only from India. This arose probably from the passage of Virgil *(Georg. *2:117): "Sola India nigrum fert ebenum." But the term "India" had often a very wide signification, and included even Ethiopia. Several of the ancients, however, mention both Indian and Ethiopian ebony, as Dioscorides and Pliny; while some mention the Indian, and others the Ethiopian only, as Lucan *(Phars.* 10:304): "Nigris Meroe fecunda colonis, laeta comis ebeni." The only objection to the above conclusion of any weight is, that *hobnim *is in the plural form. To this Bochart and others have replied, that there were two kinds of ebony, as mentioned by Theophrastus, Dioscorides, etc., one Ethiopian, the other Indian. Fuller and others maintain that the plural form is employed because the ebony was in pieces: "Refert ad ebeni palangas, quoe ex India et Ethiopia magno numero afferebantur. Φάλαγγας vocant Herodotus et Arrianus in Periplo. Plinius *palangas, aut phalangas, *variante scripturae, id est, fustes teretes, et qui navibus supponuntur, ant quibus idem onus plures bajulant" (Bochart, 1. c.). But the names of other valued foreign woods, as Shittim and Almuggim, are also used in the plural form. Besides *abnus, *Arab authors, as stated by Bochart (l. c.), mention other words as similar to and substituted for ebony: one of these is called *shiz, shizi; *also *sasem *and *semsem, *in the plural form semasim**, **described as "nigrum lignum ad patinas conficiendas.'" Hence, in the Koran, those who are tormented in Gehenna, it is said, will issue from the fire after a certain period of confinement in it: "They will go forth**, **I say, like the wood *semasin;" *that is, black, from being burnt in the fire. That such a wood was known we have the testimony of Dioscorides: " Some sell *sesamine *or acanthine wood for ebony, as they are very similar." Some critics, and even Sprengel, in his late edition of Dioscorides, read συκάμινα instead of σησάμινα***, ***for no other reason apparently but because συκάμινα denotes a tree with which European scholars are acquainted, while *sesamina *is only known to those who consult Oriental writers, or who are acquainted with the products of the East. Bochart rightly reprehends this alteration as being unnecessary, in view of the existence of the words *sesamina, sasinz, *or *semsem *among the modern Arabs, and cites a notice of Arrian to the same effect (Bochart, *l.c.*). 'The above word is by Dr. Vincent translated *sesamum; *but this is an herbaceous oil-plant. If we look to the modern history of ebony, we shall find that it is still derived from more than one source. Thus Mr. Holtzappfel, in his recent work on Turning, describes three kinds of ebony. **1. **One from the Mauritius, in round sticks like scaffold poles, seldom exceeding fourteen inches in diameter, the blackest and finest in the grain, the hardest and most beautiful. **2. **The East Indian, which is grown in Ceylon and the Peninsula of India, and exported from Madras and Bombay in logs from six to twenty, and sometimes even twenty-eight inches in diameter, and also in planks. This is less wasteful, but of an inferior grain and color to the above. **3. **The African, shipped from the Cape of Good Hope in billets, the general size of which is from three to six feet long, three to six inches broad, and two to four inches thick. This is the least wasteful, as all the refuse is left behind; but it is the most porous, and the worst in point of color. No Abyssinian ebony is at present imported: this, however, is more likely to be owing to the different routes which commerce has taken, although it is again returning to its ancient channels, than to the want of ebony in the ancient Ethiopia. From the nature of the climate, and the existence of forests ins which the elephant abounds, there can be no doubt of its being well suited to the group of plants which have been found to yield the ebony of Mauritius, Ceyoon, and India, the genus Diospyrus of botanists. Of this several species yield varieties of ebony as their *heartwood, *as *D. ebenum *in the Mauritius, and also in Ceylon, where it is called *kaluwara. *It is described by Retz "folis ovato-lanceolatis, acuminatis, gemmia hirtis;" and he quotes as identical *D. glaberrima *(Fr. Rottb. *Nov. Act. Havn. *2:540, tab. 5). *D. ebenaster *yields the bastard ebony of Ceylon, and *D. hirsuta *the Calamander wood of the same island, described by Mr. Holtzappfel as of a chocolate-brown color, with black stripes and marks, and stated by him to be considered a variety of ebony. *D. melanoxylon *of Dr. Roxburgh is the ebony-tree of Coromandel, and is figured among Coromandel plants (1, No. 46); it grows to be a large tree in the mountainous parts of Ceylon, and in the Peninsula of India — in Malabar, Coromandel, and Orissa. The black part of the wood of this tree alone forms ebony, and is found only in the center of large trees, and varies in quantity according to the size and age of the tree. The outside wood is white and soft, and is soon destroyed by time and insects, leaving the black untouched (Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2:530). Besides these, there is in the Peninsula of India a wood called: *blackwood *by the English, and *sit-sal *by the natives: it grows to an immense size, is heavy, close-grained, of a greenish-black color, with lighter-colored veins running in various directions. It is yielded by the *Dalberyia latifolia. *To the same genus belongs the Sissu, one of the most valued woods of India, and of which the tree has been called *Dalberyia sissu. *Theo wood is remarkably strong, of a light grayish hue, with darker-colored veins. It is called *sissu *and *shishum *by the natives of India. This is the name which we believe is referred to by Arab authors, and which also appears to have been the original of the *sesamina *of Dioscorides and of the Periplus. The name may be applied to other nearly allied woods, and therefore, perhaps, to that of the above *D. latafolia*. It is a curious confirmation of this that Forskill mentions that in his time *shishum, *with teak and ebony, was among the woods imported from India and Arabia. It is satisfactory to have apparently suck, competent confirmation of the general accuracy of ancient authors, when we fully understand the subjects and the products of the countries to which they allude (Kitto, s.v.). According to Sir E. Tennent. *(Ceylon,* 1:116) the following trees yield ebony: *Diospyros *ebenum, *D. reticulata, D. ebenaster, *and *D. hirsuta. *The wood of the first-named tree, which is abundant throughout all the flat country to the west of Trincomali, "excels all others in the evenness and intensity of its color. The center of the trunk is the only portion which furnishes the extremely black part which is the ebony of commerce; but the trees are of such magnitude that reduced logs of two feet in diameter, and varying from ten to twelve feet in length, can readily be procured from the forests at Trincomali" *(Ceylon*, l.c.) It bears a berry that is eaten by the natives when ripe. The leaves are elliptical, having numerous veins. The corolla or colored part is shaped like an antique vase, and bears eight stamans (Kitto, *Pict. Bible, *in loc. Ezekiel). There is every reason for believing that the ebony afforded by the *Diospyros ebenum *was imported from India or Ceylon by Phoenician traders, though it is equally probable that the Tyrian merchants were supplied with ebony from trees which grew in Ethiopia (Smith, s.v.). *SEE TYRE*. (See Smith's *Dict. of Class. Antiq. s.*v. Ebenus; *Penny Cyclop. s.v. *Ebony; Geiger, *Pharmaceut. Botanik, *1:697). *SEE BOTANY*.

Hafenreffer, Matthias (also *Haffenreffer), *a Lutheran theologian, was born June 24, 1561, at Lorch, in Wirtemberg, and died Oct. 22,1619. at Tübingen. He studied philosophy and theology at the last-named place, and in 1590 was made court-preacher and counselor of the Consistory at Stuttgart; in 1592 became professor of theology, and in 1617 chancellor and provost at Tübingen. To a profound and comprehensive learning, he united a sweet and peace-loving disposition, which led him to keep aloof for the most part from the theological strifes of his age, and to find his pleasures in directing and stimulating the studies of his pupils, to whose affectionate appreciation of him Val. Andreti and others bear testimony. His chief work, *Loci theologici certa methodo ac ratione in tres libros tributi *(Tübingen, 1600; an improved and enlarged ed; 1603), published at the request of Frederick, duke of Würtemberg, for the use of prince John Frederick was regarded as a model not only of Lutheran orthodoxy, but also of clearness and definiteness in conception, and expression and simplicity in style. It was the textbook of theology at Tübingen up to the end of the 17th century, supplanting Heerbrand's *Cosfenditus, *which had long been of almost symbolical authority there. By royal decree it was, in 1612, made the official textbook of dogmatics in the University of Upsala and other Swedish institutions of learning. Charles XII is said to have almost known it by heart. Hafelnreffer wrote also some controversial works against the Romanists and Calvinists, and a work entitled *Templum Ezechielis *(Tübingen, 1613, foi.). — Herzog, *Real-Encyklopadie, *5, 469. (J. W. M.)

Haferung, Johann Caspar a Lutheran theologian of Germany, was born February 14, 1669. He studied at Wittenberg, and died there May 17, 1744, doctor and professor of theology. He wrote, *De Defectibus Afflictionum Christi a Paulo Supplendis*: — *De Bileamo Incantatore et Propheta Periodica*: — *De Causis cur Christus Morte Crucis Voluerit Mori*: — *De Sanguine Jesu Christi: *— *De Mysterio Trinitatis, in Libris Apocryphis Obvio, *etc. See Moser, *Lexicon jetztlebender Theologen; *Freher, *Theatrum Eruditorum; *Neubauer, *Nachricht von den jetztlebenden Gottesgelehrten; Jocher, Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon, *s.v. (B.P.)

Haffner, Isaac a French Protestant minister and distinguished humanist, was born at Strasburg in 1751. After studying at Paris and visiting several of the (German universities, he was ordained, and soon acquired great reputation as a preacher in Strasburg. He became subsequently dean of the theological faculty of that city, and died there May 27, 1831. He had been instrumental in restoring in part the old university of Strashurg under the title of *Protestant Theological Academy, *which was afterwards changed to *Protestant Seminary. *At the inauguration he delivered an address printed under the title *Des Secours que l'etude des langues, de histoire, de la philosophie et de la literature offer à la theologie *(Strasb. 1803, 8vo); he wrote also *De l'Education littiraire, off essui sur l' organisation d'un etablissement pour les hautes sciences *(Strasb. 1792, 8vo). Discourses delivered on the anniversary of his 50th year in the ministry were published under the title *Jubil. d'Haffner *(French and German, Strasb. 1831, 8vo). See Oberlin, *Amanach d'AIsace; *M. Henrion,A*mnales biographiques *(1831,1854), vol 2; Hoefer, *Nour. Biog. Géneralé *23, 80.

Hafizi *(keepers), *a name given to Mohammedans who commit the entire Koran to memory, and are on that account regarded as holy men, intrusted with God's law.

Haft (נַצָּב*, nitstsab',firm), *the *handle *of a weapon, e.g. of a dagger (Jg 3:22). *SEE KNIFE*.

Haftorah (also *Haftaroth) *is the name applied to fifty-four portions or sections of the Pentateuch selected by the Jews for Sabbath reading in the synagogue, under Antiochus Epiphanes, who forbid them reading the law. Previous to his time the Pentateuch was divided into *sidras. *In Palestine the number of sections required three years for the public reading of the whole Pentateuch, but in Babylonia, the reading, arranged as above referred to, was done in one year. — Furst, *Kulturgeschichte, *1, 60; Etheridge, *Introduction to Hebr. Lit. p. *201. *SEE HAPHTARAT*. (J.H.W.)

Haftorang in Persian mythology, is the god and ruler of the planet Mars, the light- giver and health restorer. As he is the protector of the northern region and its stars, he may be the seventh constellation, because Hafti denotes *seven. *lagemann, Lorenz, a Lutheran theologian of Germany, was born at Wolfenbiittel, August 10, 1692. He studied at Jena, was preacher in 1719 at Bodenburg, in 1722 at Nordhausen, in 1728 at Hanover, in 1748 general superintendent, and died in 1752. He wrote *An Homerus Fuerit Philosophus Moralis? *(Jena, 1712), besides, a number of ascetical works. See Doring, *Die gelehrten Theologen Deutschlands, *s.v.; Jocher, *Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon, *s.v. (B.P.)

Ha'gab (Heb. *Chagab', *חָגָב*, *a *locust; *Sept. Α᾿γάβ), one of the Nethinim whose descendants returned from Babylon under Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:46). B.C. ante 536. *SEE HAGABA*.

Hag'aba (Heb. *Chagaba', *חֲגָבָא, a *locust, *a Chaldaizing form; Sept. Α᾿γαβά v.r. Α᾿γγαβά,Vulg. *Flagaba, *Ne 7:48) or HAGABAHE (Heb. *Chagabah', *חֲגָבָה *id.; *Sept. Α᾿γαβά,Vulg. *Hagaba, *Ezr 2:45), one of the Nethinim whose descendants returned from the captivity with Zerubbabel. B.C. ante 536. *SEE AGABUS; SEE HAGAB*.

Hagahash'teri (Heb. with the art. [which the A.V. has mistaken for part of the name] *ha- Achashtari', *הָאֲחִשׁתָּרַי, i.e. *the Achastarite, *prob. of foreign [? Persian] origin; according to Furst, an adj. from the word *achastar, *i.e. *courier *[compare: אֲחָשַׁתַּרָנַים, ", camels," Es 8:10,14]; according to Gesenius, *mule-driver; *Sept. οΑ῾᾿σθηρά v.r. Α᾿ασθἠο*, *etc., Vulg. *Ahasthari), *the last mentioned of the four sons of Naarah, second of the two wives of Ashur, the founder of Tekoa, of the tribe of Judah (1Ch 4:6). B.C. post 1618.

Hagany, John B. D.D. an eminent minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born in the city of Wilmington, Delaware, August 26, 1808, of Methodist parentage, and entered the itinerant ministry in 1831. His ministry was from the first very successful. During his long career of thirty-four years he filled many of the most important stations of his Church in the Middle States, among them Pottsvllle, Pa.; St. George's, Ebenezer, and Trinity churches, Philadelphia; the Vestry Street, Mulberry Street, St. Paul's, and Bedford Street churches, New York City; Sands Street, Brooklyn, and Thirtieth Street, New York, where he closed his labors with his life, June 28, 1865. Dr. Hagany was an eloquent preacher. He had a sweet-toned voice, a calm rather than a fervid temperament, a quick, tender sympathy, by which he was readily affected himself, and could readily affect others to tears. His memory was retentive, and enabled him to command instantly all his resources. In the early Methodist literature, and the English classics of the 17th century, he was unusually well read, and his citations from his favorite authors pleasantly spiced his conversation. Withal there was a vein of humor running through his speaking and writing which gave a flavor to both. His literary remains consist chiefly of essays contributed to religious and other periodicals. One of these, on John Wesley, furnished to Harper's *Magazine, *is one of the most striking characterizations of the great reformer extant. On the last Sunday of his life, June 25th, he preached to his congregation from the text, "Let me die the death of the righteous, and let my last end be like his." Not having finished his discourse, he announced that he would conclude it the next time he preached. On the evening of that day he was too unwell to go into the pulpit. On Wednesday afternoon he was sitting in his chair, reading from the sermons of Rev. Jonathan Seed, an old favorite of John Wesley. Meeting in Seed with a passage, which greatly pleased him, he called his wife, and began reading it aloud to her. While reading he was seized with a spasm of pain in the chest; the book was dropped, he leaned his head upon his hand, his arm upon the table before him, and in a few minutes it was all over. He had nearly completed his fifty-seventh year, and the thirty-fourth of his ministry. (G. R. C.)

Ha'gar (Heb. *Hagar'*הָגָי*, flight, *apparently from her abandonment of her mistress; but according to others, a *stranger, *from her foreign birth, *SEE HAGARENE *Sept. and N.T. ςΑγαρ), a native of Egypt, and servant of Abraham (Ge 21:9-10), perhaps one of the female slaves presented to Abraham by Pharaoh during his visit to Egypt (Ge 12:16), although she properly belonged to Sarah (Ge 16:1). The long continued sterility of Sarah suggested to her the idea (not uncommon in the East) of becoming a mother by proxy through her handmaid, whom, with that view, she gave to Abraham as a secondary wife (Genesis 15). B.C. 2078. *SEE ABRAHAM; SEE ADOPTION; SEE CONCUBINE*. This honor was too great and unexpected for the weak and ill-regulated mind of Hagar; and no sooner did she find herself likely to become the mother of her master's heir than she openly indulged in triumph over her less favored mistress. The feelings of Sarah were severely wounded, and she broke out to her husband in loud complaints of the servant's petulance. Abraham, whose meek and prudent behavior is strikingly contrasted with the violence of his wife, left her with unfettered power, as mistress of his household, to take what steps she pleased to obtain the required redress. (See Kitto's *Daily Bible Illust. *ad loc.) In all Oriental states where concubinage is legalized, the principal wife has authority over the rest; the secondary one, if a slave, retains her former condition unchanged, and society thus presents the strange anomaly of a woman being at once the menial of her master and the partner of his bed. This permission, however, was necessary in an Eastern household, but it is worthy of remark that it is now very rarely given; nor can we think, from the unchangeableness of Eastern customs, and the strongly-marked national character of those peoples, that it was usual anciently to allow a wife to deal hardly with a slave in Hagar's position. Left with this authority over her dotal maid-servant, Sarah was neither reluctant nor sparing in making the minion reap the fruits of her insolence; but whether she actually inflicted blows (Augustine, *Epist. *48), or merely threw out menaces to that effect, cannot be determined from the verb עגָה (to "*afflict") *there employed. Sensible, at length, of the hopelessness of getting the better of her mistress, Hagar determined on flight; and having seemingly formed the purpose of returning to her relations in Egypt, she took the direction of that country, which led her to what was afterwards called Shur, through a long tract of sandy uninhabited country, lying on the west of Arabia Petrsea, to the extent of 150 miles between Palestine and Egypt. Here she was sitting by a fountain to replenish her skin-bottle or recruit her wearied limbs, when the angel of the Lord appeared, and in the kindliest manner remonstrated with her on the course she was pursuing, and encouraged her to return by the promise that she would ere long have a son, whom Providence destined to become a great man, and whose wild and irregular features of character would be indelibly impressed on the mighty nation that should spring from him. — Obedient to the heavenly visitor, and having distinguished the place by the name of Beer-lahai-roi (q.v.), "the well of the visible God," Hagar retraced her steps to the tent of Abraham, where in due time she had a son; and, having probably narrated this remarkable interview to Abraham, that patriarch, as directed by the angel, called the name of the child Ishmael "God hath heard" (Genesis 16). B.C. 2078. Fourteen years after the birth of Ishmael the appearance of the long-promised heir entirely changed the relations of the family, though nothing materially affecting Ishmael took place till the weaning of Isaac, which, as is generally thought, was at the end of his third year. B.C. 2061. Ishmael was then fully capable of understanding his altered relations to the inheritance; and when the newly- weaned child, clad, according to custom, with the sacred symbolic robe, which was the badge of the birthright, was formally installed heir of the tribe (see *Biblioth. Bibl. *vol. 1; Vicasi, *Annot. *p. 32; Bush on Ge 27:15), he inconsiderately gave vent to his disappointed feelings by an act of mockery (Ge 21:9 the Hebrew word צָחִק, though properly signifying "to laugh," is frequently used to express strong derision, as in Ge 19:14; Ne 2:19; Ne 4:1; Eze 23:32; accompanied, as is probable on some of the occasions referred to in these passages, with violent gestures, which might very justly be interpreted as persecution, Ga 4:29). The procedure of Abraham in awarding the inheritance to Isaac was guided by the special command of God, and, moreover, was in harmony with the immemorial practice of the East, where the son of a slave or secondary wife is always supplanted by that of a free woman, even if born long after. This insulting conduct of Ishmael gave offence to Sarah, such that she insisted upon his expulsion from the family, together with his mother as conniving at it. So harsh a measure was extremely painful to Abraham; but his scruples were removed by the divine direction to follow Sarah's advice (see Kitto's *Daily Bible Illust. *ad loc.), "for," adds the Targum of Jonathan, "she is a prophetess" (compare Ga 4:30). Accordingly, "Abraham rose up early in the morning, and took bread, and a bottle of water (and gave it unto Hagar, putting it on her shoulder), and the child, and sent her away" (Ge 21:14). B.C. 2061. In spite of instructions, the two exiles missed their way. Overcome by fatigue and thirst, the strength of the young Ishmael first gave way, and his mother laid him down in complete exhaustion under one of the stunted shrubs of this arid region, in the hope of his obtaining some momentary relief from smelling the damp in the shade, while she withdrew to a little distance, unable to witness his lingering sufferings, and there "she lifted up her voice and wept." In this distress, the angel of the Lord appeared with a comforting promise of her son's future greatness, and directed her to a fountain, which, concealed by the brushwood, had escaped her notice, and from which she now revived the almost lifeless Ishmael. This well, according to the tradition of the Arabs (who pay great honor to the memory of Hagar, and maintain that she was Abraham's lawful wife), is Zemzem, near Mecca. (See Weil's *Bibl. Legends, *p. 82.) Of the subsequent history of Hagar we have no account beyond what is involved in that of Ishmael, who established himself in the wilderness of Paran, in the neighborhood of Sinai, was married by his mother to a countrywoman of her own, and maintained both himself and his family by the produce of his bow (Ge 21:20-21). *SEE ISHMAEL*. In Ga 4:24, the apostle Paul, in an. allegory, makes Hagar *(*τό ςΑγαρ*) *represent the Jewish Church, which was in bondage to the ceremonial law, as Sarah represents the true Church of Christ which is free from this bondage. (See Bloomfield's *Note, *ad loc.) Some commentators, however, have discovered an alliteration in. the name here with the Arab word for *stone (hajar). *According to Mohammedan tradition, Hagar *(Hfajir) *was buried at Mecca! (D'Herbelot, *Bib. Or. *s.v. Hagiar). Mr. Rowlands, in traveling through the desert of Beersheba, discovered some wells and a stone mansion, which he declares the Arabs still designate as those of Hagar! (Williams, *Holy City, *1, 465 sq.). *SEE ABRAHAM*.

Hagarene or Hag'arite [commonly *Ha'arite] *(Heb. *Hagri', *הִגרַי *fiugitive *[compare *Hagar, *from the same root as the Arab. *Hegirah, *i.*e. fight]; *but, according to First, s.v., a patrial from some ancestor Hagar, otherwise unknown; 1Ch 11:38, Sept. Α᾿ταρα‹*, Tulg. Agarai, *A.V. "Haggeri;" 27:31, Α᾿γαρἰτης*, Agariols, *"Haggerite;" in the plur. *Hagrim',*הִגרַים*.,l *Ps 83:6, Α᾿γαρηνοί*, Agareni, *"Hagarenes;" fully *Hagriim', *חִגרַאַים, 1Ch 5:10,19-20, Sept. in ver. 10 πάροικοι*, *in ver. 19, 20 Α᾿γαραῖοι,Vulg. *Aagarei, *A.V. "Hagarites;" Baruch 3:23, υὶοί ςΑγαρ*, Jilii Agar, *"Agarenes"), occurs apparently as the national or local designation of two individuals, and also of a tribe or region, probably the same Arab people who appear at different periods of the sacred history as foreigners to the Hebrews. *SEE ARABIA*. **I. **Of *individuals *it is twice used in connection with the royal staff in the time of David (q.v.). **1. **In 1Ch 11:38 of MIBHAR *SEE MIBHAR *(q.v.), one of David's mighty men, who is described as בֶןאּהִגרַי*, *υἱὸς Α᾿γαρι*, filius Agarai, *"the son of Haggeri, er, better (as the margin has it), "the Haggerite," whose father's name is not given. This hero differs from some of his colleagues, "Zelek the Ammonite" (ver. 39), for instance; or "Ithmah the Moabite" (ver. 46), in that, while they were foreigners, he was only the son of a foreigner-a domiciled settler perhaps. *SEE HAGGERI*. **2. **In 1Ch 27:31 of Aziz (q.v.), another of David's retainers, who was "over his flocks." This man was himself a "Hagarite," οΑ῾᾿γαρίτης*, Agareus. *A comparison of the next paragraph (II) will show how well qualified for his office this man was likely to be from his extraction from a pastoral race. ("A Hagarite had charge of David's flocks, and an Ishmaelite of his herds, because the animals were pastured in districts where these nomadic people were accustomed to 'feed their cattle" [or, rather, because their experience made them skilful in such employments], Bertheai *on Chronicles *[Clarke's ed.], 2, 320.) One of the effects of the great victory over the Hagarites of Gilead and the East was probably that individuals of their nation entered the service of the victorious Israelites, either voluntarily or by coercion, as freemen or as slaves. Jaziz was-no doubt among the former, a man of eminence and intelligence among his countrymen, on which account he attracted the attention of his royal master, who seems to have liberally employed distinguished and meritorious foreigners in his service. *SEE HAGGERITE*. **II. **Of a *people *three times who appear in hostile relation to the Hebrew nation. **1. **Our first passage treats of a great war, which in the reign of king Saul was waged between the trans-Jordanic tribes of Reuben, Gad, and half Manasseh on the one side, and their formidable neighbors, the Hagarites, aided by the kindred tribes of "Jetur, and Nephish, and Nodab," on the other. *(Kindred *tribes, we say, on the evidence of Ge 25:15. The. Arab tribes derived from Hagar and Ishmael, like the earlier stocks descended from Cush and Joktan, were at the same time generally known by the common patronymic of Ishmaelites or Hagarenes. Some regard the three specific names of Jetur, Nephish, and Nodab, not as distinct from, but in apposition with Hagarites; as if the Hagarites with whom the two tribes and a half successfully fought were the clans of Jetur, Nephish, and Nodab. See Forster's *Geog. of Arabia, *1, 186-189.) The result of this war was extremely favorable to the eastern Israelites: many of the enemy were taken and many slain in the conflict (ver. 21, 22); the victorious two tribes and a half took possession of the country, and retained it until the captivity (ver. 22). The booty captured on this occasion was enormous: "of camels 50.000, and of sheep 250,000, and of asses 2000" (ver. 21). Rosenmüller *(Bibl. Geogr. *[tr. by Morren], 3:140), following the Sept. and Luther, unnecessarily reduces the number of camels to 5000. When it is remembered that the wealth of a Bedouin chief, both in those and these times, consisted of cattle, the amount of the booty taken in the Hagarite war, though great, was not excessive. Job's stock is described as "7000 sheep, 3000 camels, 500 yoke of oxen, and 500 she-asses" (1, 3.). Mesha, king of Moab, paid to the king of Israel a tribute of 100,000 lambs and 100,000 rams (2Ki 3:4). In further illustration of this wealth of cattle, we may quote a passage from Stanley's *Jewish Church, *i, 215, 216: "Still the countless flocks and herds may be seen [in this very region conquered from the Hagarites], droves of cattle moving on like troops of soldiers, descending at sunset to drink of the springs-literally, in the language of the prophet, 'rams and lambs, and goats and bullocks, all of them fatlings of Bashan.' "By this conquest, which was still more firmly ratified in the subsequent reign of David, the promise, which was given as early as Abraham's time (Ge 15:18) and renewed to Moses (De 1:7) and to Joshua (Jos 1:4), began to receive that accomplishment which was consummated by the glorious Solomon (1Ki 4:21). The large tract of country which this accrued to Israel stretched from the indefinite frontier of the pastoral tribes, to whom were formerly assigned the kingdoms of Sihon and Og, to the Euphrates. A comparison of 1Ch 5:9-20 with Ge 25:12-18, seems to show that this line of country, which (as the history informs us) extended eastward of Gilead and Bashan in the direction of the Euphrates, was substantially the same as that which Moses describes as peopled by the sons of Ishmael, whom Hagar bore to Abraham. "They dwelt," says Moses, "from Havilah Iuito Shur, that is before Egypt as thou goest towards Assyria" — in other words, across the country from the junction of the Euphrates with the Tigris to the Isthmus of Suez; and this is the spacious tract which we assign to the Hagarites or Hagarenes. The booty taken from the Hagarites and their allies proves that much of this territory was well adapted to pasturage, and therefore valuable to the nomadic habits of the conquerors (Nu 32:1). The brilliancy of the conquest, moreover, exhibits the military prowess of these shepherds. Living amid races whose love of plunder is still illustrated in the predatory Bedouins of Eastern Palestine, they were obliged to erect fortresses for the protection of their pastures (Michaelis, *Laws of Moses, *art. 23), a precaution which seems to have been resorted to from the first. The sons of Ishmael are enumerated, Ge 25:16, "by their towns and by their *castles;" *and some such defensive. erections were no doubt meant by the children of Reuben and Gad in Nu 32:16, *17. SEE ISHMAELITES*. **2. **Though these eastern Israelites became lords paramount of this vast tract of country, it is not necessary to suppose that they exclusively occupied the entire region, nor that the Hagarites and their kindred, though subdued, were driven out; for it was probably in the same neighborhood that "the Hagarenes" of our second passage were living when they joined in the great confederacy against Israel with, among others, Edom, and Moab, and Ammon, and Analek (Ps 83:6 [Heb. 7; Sept. 72:6]). When this combination took place is of little importance here; Mr. Thrupp *(Psalms, *2, 60, 61) gives reasons for assigning it to the reigns of Jehoash and of his son Jeroboam 11. The psalm was probably written on the triumph of Jehoshaphat over the trans-Jordanic Bedouins (2 Chronicles 20). *SEE PSALMS*. The nations, however, which constituted the confederacy with the Hagarenes, seem to confirm our opinion that *these *were still residing in the district, where in the reign of Saul they had been subjugated by their Israelitish neighbors. Rosenmüller *(Bibl. Geogr. *[trans.] 3:141) and Gesenius *(Thesaur. *p. 365) suggest that the Hagarenes when vanquished migrated to the south-east, because on the Persians Gulf there was the province of Hagar or *Hagjar. *This is the district which the Arabian geographers have carefully and prominently described (compare De Sacy's *Chrestomathie Arube, *2, 123; Abllfeda [by Reinaud], 2, 1,137, who quotes Jakut's *Moshtarek *for some of his information; and Rommel's Commentary on Abulfeda, *De Prov. Hagiar, site Bahh-rain, *p. 87, 88, 89; D'Herbelot, s.v. Hagr). We will not deny that this province probably derived its name and early inhabitants from *Hagar *and her son Ishmael (or, as Rabbi D. Kimchi would prefer, from Hagar, through some son by another father than Abraham): but we are not of opinion that these Hagarenes of the Persian Gulf, whose pursuits were so different, were identical with the Hagarenes of the Psalm before us, or with the Hagarites of 1 Chronicles, whom we have identified with them. Nothing *pastoral *is related of this maritime tribe; Rommel quotes from two Arabian geographers, Taifashi and Bakiu, who both describe these Hagarenes of the coast as much employed in pearl-fishing and such pursuits. Niebuhr *(Travels in Arabia *[Engl. tr.], 2, 151, 152) confirms their statement. Gesenius is also inexact in identifying these *maritime *Hagarenes with the Α᾿γραῖοι of Ptolemy, 5, 19, 2, and Eratosthenes, in Strabo, 16:767, and Pliny, 6:28. If the tribes indicated in these classical authors be the same (which is doubtful), they are much more correctly identified by an older writer, Dr. T. Jackson *(Works *[ed. Oxon.], 1, 220), who says: "The seat of such as the Scripture calls *Hagares *was in the desert Arabia, betwixt Gilead and Euphrates (1Ch 5:9-10). This people were called by the heathen Α᾿γραῖοι, Agraei, rightly placed by Ptolemy in the desert Arabia, and by Strabo in that very place which the Scripture makes the eastern bounds of Ishmael's posterity, to wit, next unto the inhabitants of 'Havilal." Amid the difficulty of identification, some modern geographers have *distributed *the classical Agraei in various localities. Thus, in Forster's maps of Arabia, they occupy both the district between Gilead and the Euphrates in the north, and also the western shores of the Persian Gulf. The fact seems to be that many districts in Arabia were called by the generic appellation of *Hagarite *or *Hagarene, *no doubt after Hagar; as Keturah, another of Abraham's concubines, occasioned the rather vaguely- used name of Ketureans for other tribes of the Arabian peninsula (Forster, *Geog. of Arabia, *2, 7). In the very section of Abulfeda which we have above quoted, that geographer (after the author of the *Moshtarek) *reminds us that the name *Hajar *(Hagar) is as extensive in meaning in Arabia as *Shsam *(Syria) and *Irak *elsewhere; in like manner Rommel, within a page or two, describes a Hagar in the remote province of Yemen; this, although an unquestionably different place (Reinaud, 2, 1-137, note), is yet confounded with the maritime Hajar. In proof of the uncertainty of the situation of places in Arabia of like name, we may mention that, while Abulfeda, Edrisi, Giauhari, and Golins distinguish between the Hagarenes of the north-east coast and those of the remote south-west district which we have just mentioned, Nassir Edin, Olugbeig, and Büsching confound them as identical. Winer, *Realw. *s.v. Hagariter, mentions yet another *Chhqjcr, *which, though slightly different in form, might; be written much like our word in Hebrew חגרא, and is actually identical with it in the Syriac (Assemanni, *Biblioth. Orient. 3, *2, 753). This place was in the province of Hejaz, on the Red Sea, on the main route between Damascus and Mecca. Such being the uncertainty connected with the sites of these Arab tribes, we the less hesitate to place the Hagarees of the Psalm in the neighborhood of Edom, Moab, and Ammon, in the situation which was in Saul's time occupied by the Hagarites, "near the main road which led" [or, more correctly, in the belt of country which stretched] "from the head of the Red Sea to the Euphrates" (Smith's *Dict. of Geog. *s.v. Agrei; see also Bochart, *Phaleg *[edit. Villemandy], 4:2, 225). The mention both of Ishmaelites and Ragarenes in this Psalm has led to the opinion that they are separate nations here meant. The verse, however, is in the midst of a poetic *parallelism, *in which the clauses are *synonymous *and not antithetic (comp. ver. 5-11), so that, if "Edom and the Ishmaelites" is not absolutely identical in geographical signification with "Moab and the Hagarenes," there is at least a poetical identity between these two groups which forbids our separating them widely from each other in any sense (for the *dispersed *condition of the Hagarenes, see also Fuller, *Misc. Sacr. *2, 12). Combinations marked the relenting hostility of their neighbors towards the Jews to a very late period. One of these is mentioned in 1 Macc. 5, as dispersed by Judas Maccabaus. "The children of Baean" *(*υἱοὶ Βαίαν*) *of ver. 4 have been by Hitzig conjectured to be the same as our Hagarenes; there is, however, no other ground for this opinion than their vicinity to Edom and Ammon, and the difficulty of making them fit in with any other tribe as conveniently as with that which is the subject of this article (see J. Olshausen, *die Psalmen, *p. 345). **3. **In the passage from Baruch 3:23 there are attributed to "the Agarenes" qualities of wisdom for which the Arabian nation has long been celebrated, skill in proverbial philosophy (comp. Freytag, *Arob. Prov. *tom. 3, praef.); in this accomplishment they have associated with them "the merchants of Meran and of Theman." This is not the place to discuss the site of Meran, which some have placed on the Persian Gulf, and others on the Red Sea; it is enough to observe that their mercantile habits gave them a shrewdness in practical knowledge which rendered them worthy of comparison with "the merchants of Theman" or Edom. Forster makes these *Themanese *to be inhabitants of the maritime Bahrain, and therefore *Hagarenes *(1, 303); but in this he is flagrantly inconsistent with. his own good canon (1, 291): "The n me of the son of Eliphaz and of his descendants [the Edomites] is uniformly written Teman in the original Hebrew, and that of the son of Ishmael and his family [the Hagarenes or Ishmaelites] as uniformly Tema [without the *n*]*.*" The wisdom of these Themanese merchants is expressly mentioned in Jer 49:7, and Ob 1:8. The Hagarenes of this passage we would place among the inhabitants of the shores of the Persian Gulf, where (see 1) Gesenius and others placed "the Hagarites" after their conquest by the trans-Jordanic Israelites. The clause, "That seek wisdom on earth" [that is, "who acquire experience and intelligence from intercourse with mankind"] (οἱ ἐκζητοῦντες τὴν σύνεσιν οἱ ἐπἱ τῆς γῆς, is surely corrupt, because meaningless: by the help of the Vulgate and the Syriacit has been conjectured by some [by Havernick and Fritzsche, ad loc., for instance] that instead of οἱ ἐπι we should read τὴν ἐπὶ, q. d. "the wisdom [or common sense] which is cognizant of the earth its men and manners;" an attainment which mercantile persons acquire better than all else), seems to best fall in with the habits of a seafaring and mercantile race (see Fritzsche, *das Buch. Baruch, *p. 192; and Havernick, whose words he quotes: "Hagareni terram quasi perlustrantes dicuntur, quippe mercatores longe celeberrimi antiquissimis jamjam temporibus").

Hagemann, Johann Georg a Lutheran theologian of Germany, who died at Blankenburg in 1765, a superintendent, wrote *Betrachtungen uber die funf Bucher Moses* (Bruhswick, 1732-44): — *Von den vorwehmsten Uebersetzungen der heiligen Schrift *(Quedlinburg, 1747). See Jocher, *Allgemeines Gelehrten- Lexikon, *s.v. (B.P.)

Hagen, Friedrich Caspar a Lutheran theologian of Germany, who died April 13, 1741, member of consistory, court-preacher, and superintendent at Bayreuth, is the author of, *De Conventu Snobacenae *(Bayreuth 1717): — *De *θηριομαχίᾷ *Pauli *(Wittenberg, 1703; also found in *Thesaurus Novus Theol. Philol. *2:875 sq.): — *Memoriae Philosophorum, Oratorum, Poetarum, Historicorum, *etc. (Bayreuth, 1710): — *Die Ausgabe einer deutschen Bibel Lutheri. *See Baumgarten, *Merkwurdige Bucher, *9:107; Winer, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *1:751; Jocher, *Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon, *s.v. (B.P.)

Hagenau, Conference of a theological conference called by the German emperor in 1539 in order to bring about a reunion between Protestants and Roman Catholics. Having originally been convoked to Worms, it was transferred to Hagenau in consequence of an epidemic prevailing in the former city. It lasted from June 12 to July 16, 1540. As it was not deemed safe to send Luther without a special protection, and as Melancthon fell sick during the journey, the Protestants were represented by Brenz, Osiander, Capito, Cruciger, and Myconius; and the Roman Catholics by Eck, Faber, and Cochlaus. The conference led to no definite results. It was agreed that an equal number of representatives, chosen by the two parties, should meet at Worms, and resume the negotiations for a union. — Herzog, 19, 589. (A.J.S.)

Hagenbach, Karl Rudolf a Swiss theologian, was born at Basle, March 4, 1801. Besides the university of his native place, he studied at Bonn and Berlin, and in these places received the instruction of Lucke, Schliermacher, and Neander. Having returned to Basle, he commenced his. academical career by presenting *Observationes Historico-Hermeneuticae circa Origenis Methodum Interpretandae Scripturae Sacrae *(1823), and six years later he was made professor ordinarius in the theological faculty. For fifty years he belonged to the Basle University, and exerted a wide influence, not only as a teacher, but also as a preacher. He died June 7, 1874. Hagenbach's first important work was *Encyklopadie und Methodologie der theol. Wissenschaften *(Leipsic, 1833; 11th ed. by Kauitzsch, 1884; Engl. transl. by Crooks and Hurst, as volume 3 of *Library of Biblical and Theological Literature, *N.Y. 1884): — *Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte *(1840; 4th ed. 1867; Engl. transl. by Beech, Edinburgh, revised and enlarged by Dr. H.B. Smith, N.Y. 1861, 2 volumes; new ed. with preface by Plumptre, Edinburgh, 1880, 3 volumes): — *Grundzuge der Homiletik und Liturgik *(1863). His largest work is the *Kirchengeschichte von der altesten Zeit bis zum *19. *Jahrhundert *(Leipsic, 1869-72, 7 volumes; that part which treats of the 18th and 19th centuries has been translated into English by Dr. Hurst, N.Y. 1869, 2 volumes): — *OEcolampad und Myconius *(Elberfeld, 1859): — *Predigten *(9 volumes). Besides, he contributed to Herzog's *Encyklopicdia *and other theological reviews. See Eppler, *Karl Rudolf Hagenbach *(Guterslohe, 1875); PlittHerzog, *Real-Encyklop. *s.v.; Lichtenberger, *Encyclop. des Sciences Religieuses, *s.v.; Zuchold, *Bibl. Theol. *1:487 sq. (B.P.)

Hager, E.W., D.D. a Protestant Episcopal clergyman of the diocese of central New York, was a chaplain of the U.S. Navy. At one time he was rector of All Saints' Church, Worcester, Massachusetts, and subsequently of St. George's Church, Utica, N.Y. He died in Chicago, Illinois, July 7, 1880. See Whittaker, *Almanac and Directory, *1881.

Hag'erite [or *Ha'gerite] *(Heb. with the art. *haFIagri', *הִהִגרַי*, the Hagrite; *Sept. οΑ῾᾿γαρίτης*, *Vulg. *Agareus), *a designation of Jaziz (q.v.), one of David's agricultural officers (1Ch 27:31). *SEE HAGARITE*.

Haggadah (Heb. *anecdote, legend), *in the Talmud and with the Rabbis the name for traditional stories, legends, etc. used in the interpretation and elucidation of the law and the prophets. Many of the *haggadoth *in the Talmud are absurd and preposterous, and they are not held by the best Rabbins as authoritative. Maimonides says of them: "Beware that you take not these words of the hachimim (wise) literally, for this would be degrading to the sacred doctrine, and sometimes to contradict it. Seek rather the hidden sense; and if you cannot find the kernel, let the shell alone, and confess 'I cannot understand this'"*(Perush Hammishnayoth). — *Furst, *Kulturgeschichte d. Juden. *1, 74; Etheridge, *Introduction to Hebr. Lit. *p. 182; Jost, *Gesch. d. Juden. *1, 178; 2, 313. The Haggadah frequently refers to the Halachah *(rule, norm), *the oral law of tradition, brief sentences established by the authority of the Sanhedrim, in which the law was interpreted and applied to individual cases, and which were designated as the "sentences of the elders." *SEE MIDRASH*. (J. H. W.)

Kandekumaraio another name for the Hindu deity known as KARTIKEYA *SEE KARTIKEYA *(q.v.).

Kandele in the mythology of the Finlanders, is a musical instrument, like a zither; the magicians use it in all their magical cures and conjurations.

Kaneh. *SEE REED*.

Kanne, Johann Arnold a German mystic, was born at Detmold in 1773, and educated at the gymnasium of his native city. While but a youth he attempt-' ed the restoration of the exceedingly marred text of Varro, *De Lingua Latina. *He studied theology at the University of Gottingen, where the rational exegesis of Eichhorn nearly stifled all his religious belief. From Gott'ingen he went to Leipsic, thence as a teacher to Halle, and finally to Berlin. In 1805 he wrote at Wiirtemberg a work on the mythology of the Greeks (Weimar, 1805). His study of this subject led him to read the Old Testament, and ultimately resulted in the publication of *Die erste Urkunde* *der Geschichte, *with a Preface by Jean Paul (1808, 2 vols. 8vo). During the war with the French he joined the Prussian army, but was captured by the French, from whom he soon escaped, and then entered the Austrian- army. But, prostrated by disease, he was several times confined in the hospital at Linz, when, through the efforts of Jean Paul and president Jacobi, he was dismissed from the service. On Jacobi's recommendation, in 1809 he was called to the chair of history in the College of Science at Nuremberg. His sufferings in the army seemed to have accelerated his previous -religious decline, and his works published after his appointment at Nuremberg Sive evidence of his leaning towards extreme rationalism. He wrote in this period *Pantheon der altesten Naturphilosophie oder die Religion der Volker *(1811):*System der Indischen Mythe oder Kronus und die Geschichte des Gottmenschen *(1813). He was, however, soon afterwards induced to renounce his antichristian views laid down in these books. He made an attempt to derive all languages from one primitive language in his πάγγλωσστον, but his request to king Alexander to aid his philological undertaking received no hearing. In Nuremberg his moral and spiritual condition was for a long time a turmoil of conflicting emotions, but the reading of religious writings and elevated conversation with distinguished Christians brought about a spiritual regeneration. In 1818 he was called to the chair of Oriental literature in the University of Erlangen. Here he withdrew from all society, and lived in seclusion from the world, wholly absorbed in contemplative mysticism. Doubtless his papers would have afforded a clear view of the state of his soul, but, according to his friends, towards the close of his life he destroyed all documents relating to this subject. He died Dec. 17, 1824. His other religious works are: *Sammlung wahrer und erwecklicher Geschichten aus dem Reiche Christi und fur dasselbe *(1815-17,2 yols.; 1822, 3 vols.) *:-Leben, und aus dem Leben merkwiirdiger und erweckter Christen *(181617, 2 vols.):- *Fortsetzung *(1824):-Romane *aus der Christenwelt aller Zeiten *(1817) *:- Christus im A.T. *or *Untersuchungen uber die Vorbilder und messianischen Stellen *(1818, 2 vols. *8vo):-Biblische Untersuchungen oder Auslegungen mit und ohne Polemik *(1819-20, 2 vols. 8vo). He edited also the following: *Auserlesene christliche Lieder *(Erlang. 1818) *:- Weissagungen u. Verheissungen der Kirche Christi auf die letzten Zeiten. der f eiden. - Katholische Real-Encyklop. 5:*1036.

Kanon is one of the names by which the official list or register of the Church is known. It is also frequently spoken of as κατάλογος ἱερατικός*, list of the priesthood, *and hence spiritual persons were denominated κανονικοί*, canonici, *and οἱ τοῦ κανόνος*, men of the canon, *because their names were entered in the list. The word κανών had also other significations. The assent of the catechumens to a summary of the leading articles of the Christian faith was required, and this creed was variously designated; sometimes κανών*, the rule, *sometimes πίστις*, the faith, *and *symbolum, *a badge or token (see Riddle, *Christian Antiquities, s. y.). SEE CANON*.

Kanon in Japanese mythology, was the son of Amida. According to Picard *(Ceremonies et Coutumes' Religieuses, *7), this god is half fish, half man, or he crawls out of the throat of a proportionally large fish. The form, almost entirely female, is clothed in a light garment, the neck decorated with pearls, and the head with flowers. It has four hands, two of which are lifted up, and two are down. The latter carry a sceptre and a flower, the uplifted right hand is closed to a fist, the left carries a ring. Before this figure there lies a, large, open sea-shell, out of which a man projects in the position of worship. This idol stands in the temple of the god at Osaka, where it is worshipped as a fish or sea deity; also as creator of sun and moon.

Kanouse, Peter, a Presbyterian minister, was born in Boonton, N. J., August 20, 1784, of German descent; was educated for the ministry under Drs. Armstrong and Richards, and was licensed and ordained in 1822. He successively preached at Suckasunna, N. J.; Newark, N. J.; Wantage, N. J.; Newark, N. J.; Poughkeepsie, N. Y.; again at Wantage, N.J., and then as a home missionary in Dane Co., Wisconsin. He died May 30,1864. "He was an able and impressive preacher of the Gospel.. .bearing the 'fruits of the Spirit,' and instrumental in the conversion of many souls."-Wilson, *Presbyterian Hist. Almanac, 1866, . 216.*

Kansa, in Hindu mythology, is the name of a king of the race of Bhoja-considered also a daemon (Kalanemi) in human shape, and notorious for his enmity towards the god Krishna, *SEE VISHNU*, by whom he was ultimately slain.

Kant, Immanuel, designated by De Maistre" the philosopher of nebulous memory," acquired enduring renown as the author of the *Critical Philosophy, *as the father of the recent German or transcendental speculation, and as the most acute and profound metaphysician of the closing 18th century. The importance of his philosophical career is evinced by his furnishing the link of connection between the schools of Leibnitz, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume, and those of Hegel, Schellilg, and Comte. He closes one great and brilliant era of metaphysical inquiry; he commences another with singular fulness of knowledge, breadth of comprehension, perspicacity of discernment, and logical subtlety and precision. He exposed inveterate errors of procedure; he improved, sharpened, and refined the methods of investigation; he surveyed and plotted out the boundaries of metaphysical research; and he rendered more distinct and precise the nature of the inquiry, the subject with which it is concerned, and the instruments at our command for its investigation. These are inestimable services, the benefits of which are experienced even in the midst of the errors that have sprung from the system by which they were rendered. *Life. — *Kant was born at Konigsberg April 22, 1724, and spent his whole life there or in its immediate neighborhood, never having journeyed more than forty miles from his native place. He ended his tranquil life in the city of his birth, February 12, 1804. He was of Scotch origin. His father, John George Cant, removed from Tilsit, where his immigrant grandfather first settled, to Konigsberg, and followed the saddler's trade with little worldly success. His pinched fortunes were ennobled by stern and unostentatious integrity. All accounts commemorate the high character, intelligence, and austere piety of Anna Regina Reuter, the philosopher's mother-virtues affectionately attested by her illustrious son, who ascribes all that was best in himself to her example and instructions, and to the purifying influences of his childhood's home. He lost his mother when he was eleven years of age, his father in his twenty-second year (1746). They lived long enough to, transmit to him the memory of their virtuous example-'twas all they had to bequeath. After receiving the first rudiments of education at the charitable schools of the city, he was sent to the Frederick College in 1734, at the expense of his uncle, a substantial shoemaker. Here he remained for seven years under the care of Dr. Schultz, an eminent adherent of Wolf, at the time when the Wolfian philosophy was a subject of acrimonious controversy. He devoted himself chiefly to the classics and mathematics, the essential foundation of all thorough instruction, and had Ruhnken for his fellow-student. From the *Collegium Fredericianum *he passed in 1740 to the University of Konigsberg, and entered upon a course of theology; but his ill success in preaching discouraged him, and he attached himself to the mathematical and physical sciences, in the former' of which his first distinction was gained. During the latter period of his university career he supported himself by teaching in the humblest grades, in consequence of the increasing penury of his father, whose death in 1746 compelled him to withdraw from the university, and to seek a living from his own exertions alone. For the nine following years he was employed as a private teacher in or near Konigsberg, and finally in the noble family of Kayserling, by whom his merits were appreciated, and in whose society he acquired that polish of manner which distinguished him through life. He changed his family name of Cant to the more Germanic appellative Kant, but he did not thus divest himself of the Scotch characteristics of mind and morals. In the second year of his engagement in private tuition he published his first work, *Gedanken von der wahren Schatzung der lebendigen Kriafte (Thoughts on the true Measure of Living Forces, *1747), which was esteemed a valuable contribution to the famous controversy on the subject. In 1754 he discussed the question proposed for a prize by the Berlin Academy, *Whether the Earth had undergone any change consequent upon its revolution upon its Axis. *This essay facilitated his acquisition of the master's degree, in the next year. At this time he returned to the university as *privat-docent, *and maintained an uninterrupted connection with it thenceforth till the closing years of his life. He inaugurated his lectures by the composition of two theses: the first, *De Igni; *the second, *Dissertatio de Principiis Primis Cognitionis Ilumance, *which was the first manifestation of the direction of his mind to metaphysical inquiry, and also showed that he had fixed on the central point of all philosophy. While employed in private teaching he had diligently prosecuted his encyclopaedical studies, and had acquired the English language by his own exertions, in order to master the speculations of Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. Another kindred treatise belongs to this *year-Principioru m Primorum Cognitionis Metaphysicae Nova Dilucidatio, *as also his *Allgenzeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels (Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens). *The last work was issued anonymously, with a dedication to Frederick the Great. It is remarkable for its bold views, and for announcing the probable resolution of the nebulae into'stars, and the probable discovery of new planets-scientific predictions fulfilled in much later years by Herschel and Leverrier. This production occasioned a correspondence with Lambert (1761), the singularly profound president of the Berlin Academy, who espoused similar opinions. For fifteen years (17551770) Kant lectured to private classes in the university. His courses treated "peene de omni scibili,"but were marked by a special addition to the physical sciences, and, after 1757, to physical geography, a novel branch of knowledge which he continued to expound annually till the close of his academical career. A life so retired as Kant's, and so exclusively occupied with study and the duties of instruction, scarcely offers any events for biography beyond the development of opinions, the publication of the treatises in which such opinions are set forth, and the academic distinctions attained. The chronicler finds little to report more exciting than Dr. Primrose's migrations "from the blue chamber to the brown," and hence is compelled to mark the critical *moments *of his career by the notice of the principal works as they appeared. Such indications, however, have a value of their own, as they reveal the growth of speculations which have moulded the intelligence of the world, and mark the times and modes in which the revolutions of thought have been effected. In 1762 appeared Kant's criticism of the Aristotelian logic, in a treatise entitled *Diefalsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren (False Subtlety of the Syllogistic Figures).* The censors of Aristotle have usually misapprehended Both his doctrines and his aims, and have imagined to be erroneous dogmas which the Stagyrite had meditated more profoundly, and had treated with a juster regard to practical convenience than themselves. In the course of the next year, 1763, Kant gave to the public his *Der einzig mogliche Beiweissgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseyns Gottes (Ontological Demonstration of the Being of God), *in which he repudiated alike the deductions *a priori *of Anselm, Des Cartes, and Clarke, and the inductions *a posteriori *of the natural theologians, and regarded the conception of the possibility of God as attesting the reality of his existence. This treatise still bears the impress of the dominant Wolfian philosophy, which he had imbibed from his early teacher Schultz. In this year he contended for the prize offered by the Berlin Academy, his treatise on the *Principles of Natural Theology and Morals (Untersuchung uber die Deutlichkeit der Grundsatze der naturlichen Theologie und Moral) *receiving the second honors, while the first were adjudged to Moses Mendelssohn. Three years more elapsed before he received his first public appointment as underkeeper of the Royal Library, with the scant salary of fifty dollars., In this year he exposed the pretensions of Swedenborgianism, being always ready to assail new- fangled delusions, whether stimulated by enthusiasm or by imposture. At length, when approaching the end of his forty-seventh year, he was promoted to the chair of logic and metaphysics in his own university, with a stipend of three hundred dollars. He had suffered two previous disappointments. He had failed to obtain the professorship extraordinary of logic in 1756, and the ordinary professorship in 1758, and had declined the professorship of poetry in 1764, from distrust of his aptitudes and acquirements. He had refused invitations from Erlangen and Jena, from reluctance to abandon his people and his native home. Custom demanded an inaugural dissertation from the professor elect. Kant's subject was *De Mundi Sensibilis atque Intelligibilis Forma et Principiis. *This essay contained the first distinct anticipations of his characteristic system, though his philosophy did not receive form or coherent development for many ensuing years. The remainder of his life was, however, consecrated to its definite constitution and exposition. It early began to assume shape, for in 1772 he smoothed the way for a fuller discussion by his *Scheme of Transcendental Philosophy. *No desire of change, no temptation of worldly advancement and honor could seduce him from-his calm lucubrations. He refused to go to Halle, though a double salary was offered him. After eleven years of patient meditation he produced in 1781 his *Critique of the Pure Reason (Kritik der- reinen Vernunft), *which proclaimed a new philosophy, and ushered in a new cycle of specu*lation-novus ordo sceclorum metaphysicorum. *The work was modified in a second edition in 1787, to obviate the imputation of idealism and idealistic infidelity objected to it as to the previous system of Wolf. It long seemed as if this remarkable production-a revolution itself, and the parent of revolutions-would never reach a second edition. For six years it lay so unheeded on the publisher's shelves that he contemplated disposing of it as waste paper, when a sudden demand relieved his anxieties, and rendered a republication expedient. This timely interest in the book was scarcely due to Kant's *Prolegomena to Metaphysics (Prolegomena zu einer jeden kunfigen Metaphysik, die als Wissenschaft wird auftreten konnen, *1783), but may be attributed to striking notices of the doctrine in prominent German magazines. In 1785 the practical side of his system 'was exposed in his *Metaphysics of Ethics (Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten), *and in the following year its extension to physical speculation was attempted in his *Metaphysics of Natural Science (Metaphysische Aufangsgriinde der Naturwissenschaft). *In 1788 the positive aspect of his philosophy was presented in the *Critique of the Practical Reason (Kritik der praktischen Vernunft), *which treats of the principles and objects of the moral law, and constructs ethics on the formula, Act so that your principle of action may serve as a universal law. The foundation is narrow, and has the cold rigidity of Stoical pretension, but it was a stern and strict rule in the conception of its propounder, and was borrowed from his own line of conduct, and from the austere virtues of his parental home, as much as from the dictates of his reason. The defects of this canon will be indicated hereafter. The outline of the new philosophy was completed in 1790 by the *Critique of the Practical Judgment (Kritik der Urtheilskraft), *which is in some respects the most satisfactory work of the series. It is designed to unite the practical with the theoretical reason, the freedom of the will with the law of existence, by regarding the whole order of creation as a system of means effectually adapted to the attainment of beneficent aims. It is thus a tractate of teleology or of final causes. It is principally occupied with the theory of the beautiful and the sublime, and is in great measure a development of the *Observations on the Beautiful and the Sublime. (Beobabhtungen uber das Gefiihl des Schonen und Erhabenen, *1764), and the *Metaphysics of Ethics *(1785). Kant's metaphysics had thus been exhibited by himself in all its principal applications. It had attracted general notice; it had gathered around it numerous and enthusiastic disciples; it had secured for its author profound respect and earnest admiration. Distinguished men flocked to his lectures; princes and sovereigns commissioned learned scholars to hear his teachings and to report his doctrines. His life was surrounded with ease, and his days were crowned with honor. His salary had been increased, and had given what was wealth to one of his simple tastes and frugal habits. He had been twice appointed rector of the university. His industrious and meditative career had passed its grand climacteric, and was stretching serenely to its close. Just when the aims of life appeared to have been won, Kant was plunged into the only serious troubles which disturbed his tranquil existence. He became involved in a grave religious controversy by some articles in a Berlin magazine, afterwards reproduced in a volume under the title of *Religion within the Limits of Pure Reason (Die Religion inner halb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft, *1793). There was a ferment in the religious circles of Germany at this time, and Kant's philosophy had early excited alarms which appeared now to be justified. A doctrine which rejected the accepted arguments for the being of God, the validity of revelation, the immortality of the soul, and the creation of the world, offended too many convictions, unsettled too many inveterate habits of thought, and substituted too shadowy and too abstract speculations for accredited precepts and dogmas, not to produce discontent and censure. Nor were the alarms entertained unreasonable, as was shown by the subsequent developments of the transcendental philosophy. The agitation excited by Kant's theological innovations was partially allayed by a royal mandate directing him to observe silence on religious topics. The king's interference is supposed to have been induced by Kant's sympathies with the French Revolution, despite of the Reign of Terror. On the death of the king in 1797 he resumed-his expositions, considering his engagement as a personal one with that monarch. But before this time he had narrowed the sphere of his activity. In 1794 he withdrew from general society; in 1795 he discontinued all his instructions except in logic and metaphysics, and he closed his academic labors altogether two years afterwards. In 1798 he composed his *Strife of the Faculties (Der Streit der Facultaten), *reviving the religious dispute in which he had been entangled; and he bade farewell to the public in his *Pragmatical View of Anthropology (Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht). *The last work from his own pen was a protest against Fichte's doctrine, which gave to the new philosophy the. subjective or idealistic cast, against which his own efforts had always been strenuously directed. In this paper were manifested his own failing powers, and his incapacity to appreciate other systems than his own -a natural consequence of his habitual disregard of the history of speculation. His pupils published several other works from his notes and papers during the last years of his life. That life was not long extended after his retirement. His constitution gradually broke up; his health, so remarkably maintained, began to decline; appetite, teeth, strength, sight, voice, memory, all failed, and his pure, laborious, and honorable existence was terminated by an apoplectic attack, Feb. 12,1804, when he had nearly completed his eightieth year. His death produced profound emotion throughout Germany. The whole city of Konigsberg put on mourning; multitudes flocked to his funeral, and his remains were escorted to the grave by a solemn procession. A characteristic medal was struck to commemorate his fame. It bore an emblem and a motto appropriate to his doctrine, "Altius volantem cbercuit." He was worthy of such honor. He left to his countrymen the example of a career rich in wholesome fruits- simple, sincere, upright, laborious; devoted singly to the promotion of truth, and to the removal of error in the highest and most perilous regions of speculation, illustrated by seventy years of unbroken industry, and by half a century faithfully given to the instruction of successive generations of the young in various branches of learning, from the humblest rudiments of knowledge to the most recondite metaphysical research. Humble, modest, and true, his life was a nobler crown to his memory than all the honors that men could bestow. In person, Kant was small and delicately built. His blue eyes expressed benevolence, but his features were rugged, and seamed with the lines of habitual thought. Lavater mistook his portrait for that of a noted highwayman. His manners were kindly and courteous. He was very genial in company, full of mirth and innocent wit, and scrupulously abstinent of learned or metaphysical discourse. As a lecturer he was easy and attractive, displaying nothing of the repulsive aridity and elaborate awkwardness of his philosophical treatises. He was a reverential observer of all truth, and rigid in the practice of all justice. The like precise propriety regulated all his habits. He was plain in his tastes, abstemious in eating and drinking, chary of indulgences, frugal in his expenditures, methodical in every arrangement. "Early to bed and early to rise" was the rule of his life. His hour for rising was four in summer and five in winter; for bed, ten in summer and nine in winter. By this regularity and moderation he reached fulness of years with health, cheerfulness, and perfect serenity. He seems to have been deficient in poetic sensibility and poetic imagination. To this defect may be ascribed several imperfections in the exposition of his philosophy, and his total want of religious sentiment. Shortly before his death he declared that he had no determinate notion of a future state, but was inclined to believe in metempsychosis. This was the flaw in his mental and moral constitution which produced many flaws in his speculation. Like his illustrious contemporary Hume, whom he survived nearly thirty years, Kant was never married. He gave no "hostages to fortune," but illustrated Bacon's *dictum, *that " the best works, and of greatest merit for the public, have proceeded from unmarried or childless men." Of the works constituting Kant's bequest to posterity, the most noted and important are those that expound the "Critical Philosophy," and of this philosophy a brief notice remains to be given. *Philosophy. — *Kant's scheme of speculation is so comprehensive, so extensive, so intricate, so systematic, so full of divisions and subdivisions, that it is impossible to attempt any complete summary of it within the limits allowed by this article. Not the fullest, but the most compact mode of exposition is required.. Hence the notice of the numerous treatises not directly employed in the construction of the "Critical Philosophy" has been introduced into the biographical sketch. Hence, too, the reader who desires a formal outline of the system must be referred to some of the numerous synoptical views presented in German, French, English, and Latin. All that can be aimed at here will be to give a cursory account of the distinctive peculiarities of Kant's scheme. To do this, it may suffice to explain his relation to previous philosophy, to point out his characteristic method, and to note the chief developments and applications of that method. To show the exact relation of Kant to antecedent and contemporary modes of speculation would require a detailed account of the fortunes of philosophy from Bacon, and Gassendi, and Des Cartes. This is more than has been attempted by Rosenkranz. It must suffice to state that in the middle of the 18th century the Wolfian development and systematization of the philosophy of Leibnitz was predominant in Germany; the scepticism of Hume perplexed and alarmed Britain; and the materialism of D'Alembert, Diderot, and Condillac was fashionable in France. The philosophy of Leibnitz was an effort to escape the pantheistic tendencies of Cartesianism as evolved in the idealism of Spinoza and the theosophism of Malebranche. Hume's philosophy was the sceptical evolution of the sensationalism of Locke, generated by the collision between the *mechanicism *of Hartley and the Pyrrhonism of Berkeley. The infidel doctrine of the school of the French Encyclopsedia was the superficial deduction of the French intellectual anarchists from the partial appreciation of the tenets of Locke, whose own principles were vague and incoherent. The problem presented for solution was to find some ground of conciliation between all these divergent opinions, to detect and expose the fallacies on which they rested, to avoid the mischiefs caused or portended by them, and to discover a trustworthy and intelligible basis for human knowledge. The situation was in many respects analogous to that which characterized the Hellenic world at the time of Socrates. Kant undertook the investigation of this arduous and urgent problem, and, like Socrates, he proceeded by the critical investigation of the nature of knowledge and of the intellectual faculties of man. By this procedure he was gradually led to the determination of the conditions of the problem, and to the discovery of a solution partially true, and which appeared to himself complete and irrefragable. In metaphysics the method is the philosophy, and Kant's method gave to his system the appropriate name of the Critical Philosophy. It must be remembered that Kant's early guide was Schultz, an earnest partisan of Wolf; that Kant proceeds from, the Wolfian, that is, from the methodical Leibnitzian School; 'that he slowly emerges from the Wolfian circle, and that Wolfian characteristics may be traced throughout the whole construction of his scheme. The response made by Leibnitz to the th(sis of Locke -" Nihil est in intellectu quod non prius in sensu"-a dogma by no means Aristotle's, and only virtually Locke's -furnishes the key-note to the whole philosophy of Kant. "Nisi intellectus ipse," replied Leibnitz; thus distinguishing the faculty of thought from the impressions it receives, and offering a refutation at once of both the sceptical and the materialistic followers of Locke. The same just discernment may be found in Aristotle, though it has been little noticed *(Analyt. Post. *ii, xix). What was required was the discovery of some principle of intelligence, some interpretation of the process of human thought, which would withdraw the mind of man from the arbitrary government of a Providential compulsion, a blind necessity, or a mechanical regulation by material constitution or by external chance. Kant sought this principle in the constitution and limitations of the human mind. He analyzed the products and the processes of thought. He found that in every perception, in every judgment, in every generalization, the mind communicated, something of its own to what was presented as the object of knowledge; that in every apprehension, what was apprehended was moulded and determined by the intelligence which apprehended it. To use the language of the school, the form of knowledge was necessarily imposed by the constitution of the cognizant mind. This seems to have been the doctrine of Aristotle **(**τὴν ψυχὴν εῖναι τόπον εἰδών*, De Anim. 3:*iv), and was deduced from his teachings by his scholiast, Asclepius. It was slowly that Kant reached this conclusion, which became very prolific in his hands. He tells us that it was due to the examination of Hume's denial of any *nexus *between cause and effect, which of course reduced the universe to a disconnected dream, and rendered all knowledge the mere aggregate of impressions fortuitously succeeding each other. He found that the same difficulty which -had been exposed by Hume in regard to cause and effect existed in the case of all synthetic judgments a *priori, *or those which unite two unconnected conceptions in one proposition. Truth was thus deprived of all validity, and experience became fallacy. How could a firm foundation be attained'? Was experience as hollow, and spectral, and delusive as it had been represented by Hume? Three questions presented themselves for solution, each corresponding to a distinct branch of metaphysical inquiry: " What an I know?" "What ought I to do ?" "What may I hope for?" The answer to the first question; which was the investigation of the nature of knowledge and of the nature of the mind, was given in the *Critique of the Pure Reason. *The answer to the second, which embraced the theory of duty, was propounded in the *Critique of the Practical Reason. *The answer to the third, which contemplated the *summum bonum *under a peculiar aspect, was presented in the *Critique of the Judgment-a *very ambiguous designation. This distinction of subjects and division of treatises sprung from the distribution of the matter of philosophy then prevalent in Germany. The distribution had itself descended from Aristotle **(**θεωρητικὴ γὰρ καὶ πρακτικὴ καὶ ποιητικὴ λέγεται scil. ἐπιστήμη*. — Top. 6:*6; comp. *Metaph. 5:*1; 11:7; 12:9). **(1) ***The Critique of the Pure Reason *contains the essence of Kant's philosophy. It exhibits his method, illustrates his procedure, and presents his fundamental conclusions; The conception of the Pure Reason is in great measure his own, though both the name and what is denoted by the name are found in previous systems (Plotinus, *Ennead. 5:*3, 3; Leibnitz, *Theod. § 1; Nouv. Ess. *ii, 4:§ 3). The pure reason is reason in its essential constitution — ἐν δυνάμει, not ἐν ἐνεργείᾷ –the thinking faculty in its adaptation to thought-empty of the matter of thought, and distinct from its experiences. It is the mill without the grain which is to be ground by it. In analyzing the principle of thought, Kant detects an active as well' as a passive factor. In every act of thought there is the reception of the impression from the object of thought, and the subjective reaction thereby excited, which reaction communicates the rational form to the *conclusum, *and differentiates τὸ νούμενον*, *the subject of thought, from τὸ φαινόμενον*, *the object of thought. Kant distinguishes the agencies which supply the materials of knowledge into three-sense, understanding, reason. The distribution of the faculties of the mind is always hazardous, and often beguiling. The mind is one and complete. In the perceptions of sensation, the elements derived from the mind, and not from the impression, are space and time. Such elements are called *transcendental *because they transcend, precede, and formulate the experience. They are consequently the forms or conditions of sensations. They are not supplied by the sensation, but they are added to it by the mind in the act of perception. There are indications of this doctrine in Plotinus *(Ennead. *ii, 7,9), Leibnitz *(Nouv. Ess. *liv. ii, chap. v), and il other writers. It is intimated, indeed, by Aristotle, and is a natural deduction from the Ideas of Plato. It is singularly corroborated by recent expositions of the physiology of nervous action. In Kant's theory the phenomena of the external world are all subject to the conception of space, the phenomena of the mind to the conception of time. The sensationalist is thus refuted, as space and time are not obtained from sensation. The dogmatic idealist is refuted, as the matter of knowledge must be supplied by external impressions. The understanding co-ordinates the perceptions of sense, and forms them into judgments by giving to them unity and interdependence. The transcendental elements supplied in this action of the understanding are arranged by Kant in twelve categories. The name of categories is taken from the Organon of Aristotle, but Kant's categories are entirely diverse from Aristotle's. Kant observed that metaphysical science pursued a delusive round, without making progress or securing stability, while logic had received full, complete, and definite form from its great founder. He ascribed this difference of fortune to the fact that logic was simply the exposition of the procedure of the mind in reasoning, and he concluded that equal validity would be conferred on metaphysics, if it were reduced to an accurate representation of the procedure of the mind in the acquisition and employment of the materials of knowledge. Hence he invented a forced analogy between the two branches of speculation, and rendered his theory intricate, arbitrary, and obscure' by compelling it to assume a form fantastically corresponding with logical distinctions. In this spirit he devised his twelve categories, and arranged them according to the forms of propositions, in the manner exhibited in the following table: Logical Transcendental I. Quantity Universal, Particular, Singular II. Quality Affirmative, Negative, Indeterminate III. Relation Categorical, Hypothetical, Disjunctive IV. Modality Problematical, Assertory, Apodeictic Unity, Plurality, Totality Reality, Negation, Limitation Substance, Cause, Reciprocity Possibility, Existence, Necessity All judgments are framed by the mind under the influence of these categories, four of them-one from each class-being inevitably applied. in every instance. As, however, things are thus seen, not as they are, but as the intellectual predispositions make them appear to be knowledge is purely relative to the human mind-objective truth is not attainable, and all our experiences or knowledge have only a subjective validity. The mind cannot think except so far as it has been provoked by objective stimulation, therefore there is a real objective existence of things. It thinks under the control of the categories of the understanding, therefore knowledge is subjective in form, is moulded by the recipient mind, and cannot be known to correspond to the reality of things. The image is reflected from the mirror, but the object represented may be magnified or diminished, or strangely distorted by the character of the mirror, without being altered in itself. The image is all that constitutes-knowledge; there is, accordingly, no. assurance of agreement between the image and the object. Thus all knowledge is conditional only-conditioned by the forms of the understanding, which mould it into the form in which it is received. Some principle was required to give coherence, unity, confidence to the relative knowledge obtained through such mental experiences. This was supposed to be given by the consciousness of personality which bounded, adunated, and harmonized all the qualified judgments that could be entertained.' It seems a misapprehension on the part of Kant, and at variance with his system, to claim any necessary truth for judgments formed in this manner. There can be nothing more than a relative or contingent necessity-an impossibility of thinking otherwise than the constitution of the mind necessitates. In the highest region of the mind-the reason or the faculty of ideas — there is also subjection of the matter of knowledge to transcendental forms. But the functions of the reason pass beyond the limits of experience, and are only regulative. In this branch of the subject, which is designed to explain the combination of the judgments of the understanding into ratiocinative. conclusions, Kant introduces three *pure ideas, *which are deemed to be analogous to the three forms of the syllogism-categorical, hypothetical, and disjunctive. These ideas are, **1. **Absolute unity, or simple being, the soul, which gives origin to *Rational Psychology;* **2. **Absolute totality, the aggregate of phenomena in space and time, the world, which is the basis of *Cosmology; *and, **3. **Absolute reality, supreme existence, the First Cause, which is the subject of *Theology. *From this point the later German schools diverge by ascribing a real and not simply a subjective validity to the forms of the absolute. With Kant they are merely postulates of reason, having no assured objective existence. Rational psychology only exhibits the phenomena of mental consciousness without guaranteeing anything in regard to the essential nature of the mind or to the immortality of the soul. Rational cosmology is equally unable to attain to any positive knowledge in regard to the creation. It lands us finally in four pairs of transcendental ideas, each pair producing twin contradictions. These are Kant's celebrated *antinonies:* **1. **In quantity, it may be proved that the world is both limited and unlimited; **2. **In quality, that its elements are ultimately simple and infinitely divisible; **3. **In relation, that it is caused by free action, and by an infinite series of mechanical causes; **4. **In modality, that it has an independent cause, and that it is composed of interdependent members. Whichever of these alternatives be asserted, it cannot be exclusively maintained, for it results in hopeless paralogisms. Both must be in some sense true, yet both cannot be simultaneously entertained, because they are contradictory. Hence no certainty, no complete comprehensive knowledge can be attained. Metaphysics is simply inquisitive, speculative, critical, showing the limitations of the human mind, and the impossibility of knowing the reality of things, but at the same time furnishing glimpses of a reality which the mind can not compass-of existence and truth beyond the range of finite comprehension. It is the confession, if not the demonstration of the intellectual weakness of man. The same negative result is reached in rational theology. The ontological argument for the being of God-that of Anselm and Des Cartes, derived from the notion of perfect and independent existence-the cosmological argument of Clarke, which proceeds from the conception of contingent to that of necessary being-and the physicoteleological argument of the natural theologians, which infers a supreme intelligent Designer from the evidences of design in the creation, are all equally inconclusive. "Thus the soul, the world, and God are left by Kant's speculative philosophy as problems not only unsolved, but demonstrably unsolvable." To furnish a positive support for convictions on this subject indispensable for human guidance, and to give an authoritative rule for action, Kant constructed his ethical systems. **(2) ***Critique of the Practical Reason. — *Neither the name nor the conception of the practical reason was a novelty; both occur in Aristotle *(De Anim. 3:*10; ὸ μὲν γὰρ θεωρητικὸς νοῦς οὐθὲν νοεῖ πρακτόν*, *ibid. c. ix). They are found in Aquinas *(Summn. Theol. ii, *1, 90, and especially 91,3), in Roger Bacon *(Opus Majus, *p. 35, 44), and in most philosophers, medieval and modern, who have accepted the Aristotelian doctrine. Whatever, systems have recognised a moral sense, whatever theories have admitted a sustaining and guiding illumination of the conscience, whatever schemes acknowledge the inworking spirit, and whatever expositions of the mysteries of man assume an abiding faith as the foundation of moral action, entertain substantially the same fundamental doctrine as Kant's, though it is differently expanded and applied by them. The characteristic feature of Kant's ethical system is what he terms the " *Categorical Imperative." *Speculative philosophy affords neither absolute truth nor certain guidance. Practical philosophy rests upon the enlightened conscience-enlightened by its own indwelling light. The "categorical imperative" is a rule of action-a moral law deriving its authority from itself-intuitively received determining action by the idea- governing by the rational form, not by the matter-thus advancing to the realm of the absolute, the unconditional, the *noumenal, *and passing from the shadows of speculation to the realities of action and duty. The formula of this." categorical imperative" is, Act so that your action may be applied as a universal rule. It is obvious that a precept so vague and so abstract may represent an essential characteristic or property of right conduct, but cannot be accepted as its principle. It is indefinite, and it wants the authority of sovereign command. It would require the omniscient comprehension of all contemporaneous relations, and all possible consequences for the regulation of every act, and at best would result in transcendental utilitarianism. It is too abstruse to be promptly and habitually applied to all the occurrences of life, and by all grades of men. It is limited to finite intelligences, and is sufficiently elastic to allow each one's ignorance or obtuse conscience to be alleged as the individual rule of right. It might easily be stretched so as to sanction the Donatist thesis, " Quicquid libet, licet." On such a scheme, to employ the expression of Lyly's Euphues, *"it *is the disposition of the mind that altereth the nature of the thing." Our morals would be shifting and casuistical. The wish would continually be the father to the thought; and all enthusiasm, all fanaticism, all monomania might be presented as the canon of order. The conception of duty is the touchstone and stumbling-block of philosophy, and against it is shattered every scheme which does not rest upon the acceptance of revelation, and the acknowledgment of God, in whom we live, and move, and have our being." There is no other mode of passing the chasm which separates the negative results of speculative inquiry from the positive requirements of practical action. Speculative philosophy discusses the boundaries of the mind; practical philosophy is concerned with actions which are infinite in their consequences, and whose effects " wander through eternity." **(3) ***The Critique of the Judgment (Urtheilskraft — *Faculty of Judgment).- This is the third of the systematic treatises devoted to the construction of the critical philosophy. The designation is infelicitous and. ambiguous. The *Imagination *would be more appropriate, but would scarcely be applicable without some violence to the whole scope of the inquiry proposed. The department corresponds to the ἐπιστήμη ποιητική*, *or constructive science of the peripatetic distribution of knowledge and connects the domain of the pure with that of the practical reason. The imagination is the faculty of con*ciliation-of recreation-uniting *in emotional delight the obligations of action with the highest discoveries of speculation. In Kant's critique of the judgment are included the doctrine of the beautiful and the sublime, or esthetics, and the doctrine of final causes, or teleology. His theory of beauty accords in substance with that of Plato, or rather that of Plotinus, but from his own singular defect of imagination, and consequent limitation of view, it is denied the completeness, splendor, and fulness of far-reaching suggestion which illustrate that magnificent exposition of the grandest and most recondite subject of metaphysical speculation. In beauty. Kant contemplates only the latent beneficent design, the harmony of means and ends, without dwelling upon the more significant conception of the primordial plan, the archetypal perfection, from which the whole creation has declined, but towards which man's ideal ever strives to return. The terms in which the doctrine is expounded are often confused and indistinct, but the essential principle of beauty, which is not in things, but in the mind, is the intuitive perception of the concord between the ideal perfection suggested and the order of the universe observed. The principle of the sublime is the intuition of the discrepance between the finite powers of man and the infinite towards which he aspires, producing pain from the sense of limitation, but exaltation from yearning towards the limitless, beyond sense and conception, which is felt to be his natural home, his ultimate destination. In the discussion of teleology proper Kant en' deavors to restore some efficacy to that reasoning from final causes which in earlier treatises he had repudiated. This part of the subject is inadequately unfolded, but it presents many vast and suggestive views, and in some sort prepares the way for the last of Kant's treatises which can be specially noticed here. **(4) ***Religion within the Limits of Pure Reason. — *This is Kant's theology, and is the most unsatisfactory of all his efforts. It was an attempt to reconstruct the foundations of religious belief, which had been sapped and in great measure overthrown by his critical investigations. It was the work of his old age, and at all periods of his life he seems to have been at least as deficient in religious sentiment as in emotional imagination, which is closely allied to it. The work provoked much opposition at the time of its appearance, and caused the only serious annoyance of his life. It scandalized many religious minds, it was dangerously consonant with the revolutionary infidelity of France, and it presented the point of departure for the German rationalism of the 19th century. It treats the revelations of Scripture in regard to the fall of man, to his redemption, and to his restoration as a moral allegory, the data for which are supplied by the consciousness of depravity, and of dereliction from the strict principles of duty.. It is Strauss in the germ. It is utterly inconsistent with any scheme of religion, and serves to show Kant's profound sense of the insufficiency of his own doctrine for the solution of the highest enigmas of humanity. The wroi ποῦ στῶ-the solid *locus standi *was wanting to his elaborate system. The philosophy was wholly critical in its procedure, and negative in its results. It weakened or undermined those intuitive convictions-inexplicable, but irrefragable-which enable man "to walk by faith, and not by sight." This notice is too brief to allow the exhibition of the incongruities or fallacies of the transcendental system, or the suggestion of rectifications, as it has been too brief for any detailed account of the several parts of his complex and elaborate scheme: That scheme is a wonderful monument of patient industry, acute discernment, perspicacious analysis, and of bold and honest thought. It was soon felt to be unsatisfactory, and it engendered new swarms of speculative heresies; but its influences must be sought in Rosenkranz's history of Kant's doctrine, and in other treatises on the history of German speculation. *Literature.-The *bibliography of Kant's philosophy would make the catalogue of an extensive library, and would include nearly everything in the highest branches of metaphysics which has appeared since the publication of the Critique of Pure Reason. In all the general histories of modern speculation, much space is of course conceded to this subject. The following treatises may be examined with advantage. Kant, *Werke, *of course. The best editions are that of Hartenstein (Leipzig, 1838-9,10 vols.), and that of Rozenkranz and Schubert (Leipzig, 1840-42, 11 vols.), including a full biography of the philosopher by Schubert, and an elaborate .appreciation of the relations and influences of the philosophy by Rosenkranz. It gives also a chronological catalogue of Kant's multifarious writings. Recent translations into English are those of his *Critik of Pure Reason, *by Hayward (Lond. 1848, 8vo), and by Meiklejohn (Lond. 1856, 8vo); of his *Metaphysics of Ethics, *by Semple (Lond. 1856, 8vo); of his *Theory of Religion, *by the same (Lond. 1858, 8vo). There are biographies by Borowsky (1804 : this was revised by Kant); by Wasiansky, his private secretary, giving an account of his last years (1804); by Jachmann (1804); by Hasse (1804); and the ablest by Kunotischen of Jena (1860). For the appreciation of the doctrine the following works may be consulted: Nitzsch, *General and Introductory View *(Lond. 1796); Schmidt-Phiseldek, *Expositio Philosoph. Crit. *(Hafn. 1796); Mellin, *Encyclop. Dict. of the Kantian Philosophy *(1797, 6 vols.); Willich, *Elements of the Critical Philosophy *(London, 1798); Villers, *Philosophie de Kant *(Metz, 1801); Degerando, *Hist. Comp. de Philosophie *(Paris, 1804); Wirgman, *Principles of the Kantesian Philosophy *(London, 1824-a recomposition of an able article contributed to the *Encyclopaedia Londinensis *in 1812); Cousin, *Legons sur la Philosophie de Kant *(Paris, 1842; translated by A. G. Henderson, Lond. 1871, 8vo); Murdoch, *Sketches of Modern Philosophy *(1842); Barchou de Penhon, *Hist. de la Phil. Allemande depuis Leibnitz jusqu'a Higel *(Paris, 1837, 2 vols.); Erdmann, *Gesch. der neueren Philosophie; *Michelet, *Geschichte des letzten Systems; Willm, Histoire de la Philosophie Allemande *(Paris, 1847, 4 vols.); Morell, *Philosophy of the 19th Century *(1848); Chalybseus, *Histor. Entwickelung d. spekulativen Philosophie von Kant his Hegel *(4th edit. Leipz. 1848); E. Remhold, *Gesch. d. Philos. *(4th ed. Jena, 1854), vol. iii; Lewes, *History Philos. *(3d ed. 1871, 2 vols. 8vo), vol. ii; Hurst's Hagenbach, *Church Hist. 18th and 19th Cent. *(N. York, 1870, 2 vols. 8vo), lect. 4:sq.; Farrar, *Crit. Hist. of Free Thought. *Very instructive notices of Kant and his philosophy are contained in the *North British Review, *vol. 10:the *Encyclopcedia Britannica, *and in Appleton's *American Cyclopcedia. *The criticisms of Dugald Stewart in the *Supplement to the Encyclop. Britannica are *wholly unsatisfactory. (G. F. H.)

Kanthai and Bajusshiak in the mythology of the Kamtchatkians. Our figure represents both idols of the north Asiatic nations, especially of the inhabitants of Kamtchatka, just as they stand in the sacred corner of the common hut where the man keeps his weapons. They grant success in hunting and fishing, and therefore the latter is represented half fish-formed. They had no separate cultus, nor temples, nor priests.

Kantoplatonism the French term for a new mode of philosophizing which inclines to *Idealism *(q.v.). The Kantoplatonists are considered an offspring of the Platonic and Kantian schools of philosophy. The representative of Kantoplatonism is Cousin (q.v.).

Kanute**.** *SEE DENMARK*.

Kapalika a sect of Hindus, who formerly sacrificed human victims to Kali and other hideous monster gods. The devotee of this sect is thus described, "His body is smeared with ashes from a funeral pile, around his neck hangs a string of human skulls, his forehead is streaked with a black line, his hair is woven into the matted braid, his loins are clothed with a tiger's skin, a hollow skull is in his left hand for a cup, and in his right he carries a bell, which he rings incessantly, exclaiming aloud, '*Ho! Sambhu Bhairava *— *Ho! *lord of *Jali*.'"

Kapff, Sixt Carl a Protestant theologian of Germany, was born at Guglingen, Wurtemberg, October 22, 1805. He studied at Tubingen, where he became intimately acquainted with William Hofacker. After filling the positions of vicar at Tuttlingen, teacher at Hofwyl, and *repetent *at Tubingen, he became, in 1833, pastor of the colony of pietists at Kornthal. In 1843 he was dean at Munsingen, and in 1847 at Herrenberg. In 1850 he was made general superintendent and member of the superior consistory; and in 1852 he became the greatly beloved and influential pastor of the "Stiftskirche," at Stuttgart, where he preached twenty-seven years. He died September 1, 1879. Kapff was the most perfect representative of the type of piety prevailing in Wurtemberg in the last generation; as a preacher he was not eloquent, but his earnest manner won the heart. His influence as pastor was very great, and yet he found time to write. He published, *Predigten uber die alten Evangelien des Kirchenjahres *(3d ed. 1875): — *Predigten uber* *die alten Episteln *(6th ed. 1880): — *Conmmunionsbuch *(19th ed. eod.), etc. See Burk, in Plitt-Herzog, *Real-Encyklop.; *Lichtenberger, *Encyclop. des Sciences Religieuses, *s.v.; Carl Kapff, *Lebensbild von Sixt Carl Kapf *(Stuttgart, 1881); Zuchold, *Bibl. Theol. *1:645 sq. (B.P.)

Kaphar**.** *SEE KEPHAR*.

Kapharnaites**.** *SEE LORDS SUPPER; SEE TRANSUBSTANTIATION*.

Kapila the reputed author of the *Sankhya *(q.v.), one of the philosophical systems of the Hindus. As to the origin of Kapila, Hindu tradition is rather vague. Among his followers he is by some described as a son of Brahma, and by others, especially his later followers, as an incarnation of Vishnu He is also recounted to have been born as the son of Devahiti, and, again, is identified with one of the agnis or fires. Finally, it is said that there existed, in fact, two Kapilas-the first an embodiment of Vishnu; the other, the igneous principle in human disguise. The probability is that Kapila was simply, like the great majority of his educated countrymen, a Brahman. Spence Hardy *(Manual of Buddhism, p. *132) quotes a legend by which it may be shown that the Hindus regarded Buddha as a later existence of our Kapila, and that therefore Buddhism is the Sankhya philosophy modified; but professor Max Miller rejects this theory, and says that he has looked in vain for any similarities between the system of Kapila, as known to us in the Sankhya- satras, and the Abhidharma, or the metaphysics of the Buddhists. He adds, however, that if any similarity of the two systems could be established, such proofs would be very valuable. " They would probably enable us to decide whether Buddha borrowed from Kapila, or Kapila from Buddha, and thus determine the real chronology of the philosophical literature, of India, as either prior or subsequent to the Buddhist sera." See Professor J. E. Hall, *Bibliotheca Indica, Sankhyapr. *p. 14 sq.; Ballantyne, *Lecture on the Sankhya Philosophy *[Mirzapore, 1850]; Hardwick, *Christ and other Masters, *i, 208 sq.; Max Muller, *Chips from a German Workshop, *i, 223 sq. *SEE SANKHYA*.

Kapitorists**,** a sect of the Russian Church. *SEE RUSSIAN CHURCH*.

Kapp, Johann a Lutheran theologian of Germany, was born December 12, 1739. He studied at Leipsic and Erlangen, was in 1765 teacher at the gymnasium in Hof, in 1774 doctor of philosophy, in 1777 court preacher and professor of theology at Bayreuth. In 1801 he was made doctor of divinity, and died August 18, 1817, leaving, *Epistola super Dictis Biblicis Quibusdam Novi Testamenti *(Hof, 1767): — *Paralipomena de Mayis, Matth. *2:1 sq. (1771): — *Progr. Periculum Versionis Psalmi Secundi cum Brevibus Scholiis *(1781): — *Brevis Paraphrastica Explicatio Matth. *5:33-42 (1783), etc. See Doring, *Die gelehrten Theologen Deutschlands, *s.v. (B.P.)

Kapp, Johann Erhard a Lutheran theologian of Germany, was born March 23, 1696. He studied at Leipsic, was in 1720 doctor of philosophy, in 1727 professor, and died March 7, 1756. He published, *De Nonnullis Indulgentiarumn Quaestoribus *(Leipsic, 1720): — *De Chrysosthomi ad Caesareum Monachum Epistola, *etc. (ibid. 1723): — *Nachlese einiger grisstentheils noch ungedrucktemn Urkunden, *etc. (4 parts, 1727-33): — *Historia Concilii Lateranensis, *etc. (1731), etc. See Doring, *Die gelehrten Theologen Deutschlands, *s.v.; Wiier, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *1:8, 634, 740, 750. (B.P.)

Bacchini, Benedetto an Italian monk and man of letters, was born, Aug;: 31, 1651, at Borgo San Domino, in .the duchy of Parma. He studied at the Jesuit institution, and entered the Order of St. Benedict in 1668, when he took the praenomen *Bearnardin. *Prepared by his studies, he devoted his attention to preaching. Having become secretary of the abbot of St. Benedict of Ferrara, he accompanied him to Venice, Placentia, Parma, and Padua, and was known among the celebrated literati of the time. In 1683 he devoted himself entirely to the study of literature. In 1688 he became theologian of the duke of Parma, who desired to secure a man of such merit. In 1689 he introduced into the regulations of the Benedictine Order of St. Alexander of Parma certain modifications, which resulted in his being obliged to leave Parma. The duke of Modena appointed him in 1691 counsellor of the Inquisition. After some journeys in the interests of science, he refused the offers of cardinal Aguirre, who wished to retain him at Rome, and was appointed librarian of the duke. In 1704 he was made prior of his order at Modena. He received other ecclesiastical honors, and died at Ferrara, Sept. 1, 1721. He wrote, *Oratzione mell Esequie della Ser. Margherita de Medici, Duchessa di Parsma *(1670):-De *Ecclesiasticce Hierarchiec Originibus Dissertatio *(Modena, 1703). See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v.

Bacchis *SEE BACIS*.

Bacchu'rus (Βακχοῦρος; Vulg. *Zaccarus*)*, *given as one of the "holy singers" (τῶν ἱεροψαλτῶν) who had taken a foreign wife (1 Esdras 9:24); but no name corresponding with this is added in the genuine list (Ezra, 10:24).

Bac'chus the Latinized form (in the Auth. Vers. at 2 Maccabees 6:7; 14:33) of the heathen deity called by the Greeks DIONYSUS *SEE DIONYSUS *(q.v.). The latter occurs also in (the so-called) 3 Maccabees 2:29. In all these instances this mythic deity is named in connection with circumstances which would indicate that he was an, object of special abhorrence to the Jews; for in the first it is stated that the Jews were compelled to go in procession to Bacchus; in the second, the erection of a temple to him is threatened in order to compel the priests to deliver up Judas to Nicanor; and in the third, the branding with the ivy leaf, sacred to him, is reported as inflicted on them by way of punishment. This falls in with what Tacitus says, that it was a mistake to imagine that, because the priests of the Jews accompanied their singing with flute and cymbals, and had garlands of ivy, and a golden vine was found in the Temple, they worshipped Bacchus, for that this was not at all in accordance with their institutes (nequaquam congruentibus institutis, *Hist. v. *5). As Bacchus was the god of wine, and in general of earthly festivity and jollity, and as his rites sanctioned the most frantic excesses of revelry and tumultuous excitement, he would necessarily be an object of abhorrence to all who believed in and worshipped Jehovah. Probably also the very fact that some things connected with the Jewish worship had, as mentioned by Tacitus, and still more fully by Plutarch (*Symposiac. *4, qu. 6), led to the supposition that they reverenced Bacchus, may have produced in their minds a more determined recoil from and hatred of all pertaining to his name. In the pagan system Bacchus is the god of wine, and is represented as the son of Jupiter and Semele, the daughter of Cadmus. His mother perished in the burning embraces of the god, whom she persuaded to visit her with his attribute of royalty, the thunderbolt; the embryo child was sewn up in Jupiter's thigh, whence, in due time, he was produced to light. Mythology abounds with the adventures of Bacchus, the most noted of which are the transformation of the Tyrrhenian pirates, who carried him off to sell for a slave, into dolphins; his revenge on the scoffing Pentheus, and his invasion and conquest of India. Bacchus was generally figured as a young man of effeminate appearance (θηλύμορφος, Eurip. *Bacch. *853; Euseb. *Chron. *p. 29), with a garland of ivy binding his long hair (Strabo, 15, p. 1038); in his hand he bore a thyrsus, or rod wreathed with ivy, and at his feet lay his attendant panther. His companions were the Bacchantes, the Lenae, the Naiads and Nymphs, etc., and especially Silenus. His worship seems to have arisen from that "striving after objectivity" (Wachsmuth, *Hellen. Alterthumsk. *2:2, p. 113), which is the characteristic of a primitive people. The southern coast of Thrace appears to have been the original seat of this religion, and it was introduced thence into Greece shortly after the colonization by the *A*Eolians of the Asiatic coast of the Hellespont. The admission of the identity of Osiris and Dionysus by Plutarch and other mythological theorists, as well as Herodotus's simple statement of the assertions of the Egyptian priests to that effect, is no proof of the common origin of the worship of this divinity in Egypt and Greece; but there is no doubt that certain modifications of the Dionysiac rites took place after the commencement of the intercourse between the Ionians and the Egyptians (*Penny Cyclop. *s.v.). The worship of Bacchus was intimately connected with that of Demeter, and under the name of *Iacchus *he was adored along with that goddess at Eleusis. Virgil invokes them together (*Georg. *1:5) as the lights of the universe. According to the Egyptians, they were the joint rulers of the world below (Herod. 2:123). In a cameo he is represented as sitting with her in a chariot drawn by male and female centaurs. (For a fuller account of the mythological history and attributes of Bacchus, see Creuzer, *Aymbolik und Mythologie, *pt. 3, bk. 3, ch. 2 of Moser's Abridgment.)

Bacchus, St. lived in the 3d or 4th century. He was denounced to the emperor Galerius Maximianus, in whose army he served, as a Christian; and when he constantly refused to. sacrifice to Jupiter, he was sent to Antiochus, praefect of the. East, who had orders to torment him until he renounced the faith or died. After every other species of torture had failed, he was beaten to death with clubs at a little town of Syria called Barbalissa, on the Euphrates. His body was secretly interred, and afterwards translated to Rasaphe, in the diocese of Hierapoli. He was buried with his friend, St. Sergius, and is commemorated ,Oct. 7. One of the cardinal deacons at Rome derived his title from Sts.. Serginns and Bacchus, and a church was built in their honor by Justinian at Constantinople. See Butler, Oct. 7.

Bacchylus *SEE BACCHILLUS*.

Bacci, Carlo an Italian Benedictine and theologian, was born April 25, 1629. From Florence, where he taught theology, he went to Poland and there founded the Congregation of Cassini. He afterwards returned to Rome, where he died, in 1683. He wrote, *De Principiis Universee Theologice Miralis, seu de Acibus Humanis *(Florence, 1667). See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, s.v.*

Bacci, Giacomo Antonio rector of the Seminary of Lucca, died about 1760, and wrote *Ethicorunz Libri V in III Tomos Distsributi *(Lucca, 1760, 3 vols. 4to). See Landon, *Eccles. Dict. s.v.; Biog. Universelle, *s.v. *V'*

Bacciochi, Ferrante an Italian painter, was a monk of Ferrara', of the Order of Filippini, but of uncertain date. One of his best pictures was *The Stoning of Stephen *in the Church of San Stefallo.

Bace'nor (Βακήνωρ; Vulg. *Bacenor*)*, *apparently a captain of horse in the army of Judas Maccabeus, to whose detachment Dositheus belonged (2 Maccabees 12:35); or possibly it may have been only the title of one of the Jewish companies or squadrons.