샤프-헤르초크 종교백과

NICHOLAS, WILLIAM: Irish Methodist; b. at Wexford (82 m. s. of Dublin), County Wexford, Dec. 22, 1838. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1879), held numerous pastorates in his denomination in Dublin and Belfast from 1861 to 1895, when he was made president and theologi- cal professor in the Methodist College, Belfast, both of which positions he still retains. He is a member of the London Council of the Evangelical Alliance and of the Senate of the Royal University of Ireland. In theology he is a broad evangelical, and has ^Tit- ten Sermons on Jesus the Christ (Dublin, 1883) ; The Case Against Home Rule (1886); Newman and Ritu- alism (London, 1889) ; and Christianity and Social- ism (1893; Femley Lecture).

NICHOLS, WILLIAM FORD: Protestant Epis- copal bishop of California; b. at Lloyd, N. Y., June 9, 1849. He was educated at Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. (A.B., 1870), and Berkeley Divinity School from which he was graduated in 1873. He was ordered deacon in 1873 and priested in 1874. He was curate of Holy Trinity, Middletown, Conn. (1873-75), rector of St. James's, West Hartford, Conn. (1875-76), Grace, Newington, Conn. (1876- 1877), Christ Church, Hartford, Conn. (1877-87), and St. James's, Philadelphia (1887-90), private secre- tary to Bishop Williams of Connecticut (1871-76), professor of church history in Berkeley Divinity School (1885-87), and assistant secretary of the House of Bishops (1886). After having declined to be bishop coadjutor of Ohio in 1888, he was con- secrated bishop coadjutor of California in 1890, and three years later became bishop of the diocese. Bibliography: W. S. Peny, The Episcopate in America, p. 323, New York, 1895.

NICHOLSON, ISAAC LEA: Protestant Episco- pal bishop of Milwaukee; b. at Baltimore, Md., Jan. 18, 1844; d. at Milwaukee, Wis., Oct. 29, 1906. He was graduated from Dartmouth College (A.B., 1869) and Virginia Theological Seminary (1871), being ordered deacon in the same year and priested in 1S72. He waa curate at St. Thomas's, Hanover, N. H. (1871-72) and of St. Paul's, Baltimore (1872- 1875), and rector o( the Church of the Ascension, Westminster, Md. (1875-79), and of St. Mark's, Philadelphia (1879-91). In 1891 he was conse- crated bishop of Milwaukee, after having declined the proffered see of Indianit in IS83. BlBUocRArBT' W. S. Perry, Tha Epueooali in Amrrira, p. 333. New York. ISfiS.

NICHOLSON, WILLIAM RUFUS: Reformed Episcopal; b. in Green County, Miss., Jan. 8, 1822; d. at Philadelphia, Pa., June 7, 1901. He gradu- ated from La Grange College, Ala., 1S40; became pastor of the Poydras Street Methodist Episco- pal Church, New Orleans, La., 1842; entered the Protestant Episcopal Church, and became rector of St. John's, Cincinnati, O., 1S49; of St. Paul's, Boston, 1859; of Trinity Church, Newark, N. J., 1872; he then entered the Reformed Episcopal Church, and took charge of the Second Reformed Episcopal Church, Philadelphia, 1874. In 1876 he was consecrated bishop, and later was chosen dean of the Reformed Episcopal Theological Semi- nary of Philadelphia. He wrote, besides numerous tracts on doctrinal subjects, The Bearing of Prophecy on Inspiration in The Ina/iired Word, ed. A. T. Pieraon (Xew York, 18S8).

NICOL, THOMAS: Church of Scotland; b. at Castleton of Kincardine, parish of Fordoun, Ivin- cardineshire, Oct. 21, 1846. He was educated at the universities of Aberdeen (M,A,, 1868), Edin- burgh (B.D,, 1871), and Tubingen (1871), after which he was minister at Kells, Kirkcudbrightshire (1873-79), and Tolbooth Parish, Edinburgh (1879- 1899). Since 1899 he has been professor of divinity and Biblical criticism in the University of Aberdeen. He was also editor of the Church of ScoUqtuI MiatiiM Record from 1880 to 1900, CroaU lecturer in 1897- 1898, and Baird lecturer in 1907, and has been con- vener of the Church of Scotland Jewish Mission Committee since 1890. In addition to translating J, T, Beck's Paetoratlehren de» Neuen Tettamerda (Gdteraloh, 1880) in coUaboration with J. A. M'Cly- laont (Patioral Theology of the New Testament, Edinburgh, 1885), and editing the Church ofScoOand Sabbaih School Teachers' Book (1890), he has written Recent Eiploraiiims in BMe Lands (1892); Secent Archaology and the Bible (Croall lectures; 1898); The Present PosUion and Prospects of BStlical Science (1899); and The Four Gospels in the Earliest Churek HUlory (1908).

NICOLAITANS: A sect mentioned in the Apo^ alypse of John which had adherents in some of the churches of Asia Minor. The community of Efht- 8US is praised on account of its oppo- Cenitsred bj sition to them (ii. 6), while the St John. community of Pergamos is blamed (ii. 14-15) because it suffered such people in its midst. The latter community is re- proached with the sin into which the Israelites were once led by Balaam, namely, that of unchastitj and of the partaking of meat offered to idols, and also with adopting such teachings (ii. 15, 24). The same sect is certainly alluded to in the address to the '' Angel " of the conmiunity of Thyatira: " I have a few things against thee, because thou mdltr- est that woman Jezebel, which calleth herself a prophetess, to teach and to seduce my servants to commit fornication, and to eat things sacrificed unto idols " (ii. 20). Since according to the better reading the text does not give " the wife " but '' thy wife " (cf. Zahn), the reference is not to the vife of any one of the conununity (Holtzmann, Weii- sficker, Bousset, etc.), and stiU less to the priestess of the Chaldean sibyl Tambethe, in Thyatin (Schilrer and V6lter). It would seem more plausi- ble to understand by " angel," the bishop, and to suppose that his wife was accused (Zahn and otheis); but that she should be leading such an immond life in Thyatira without restraint is incredible in view cf the praise awarded to the angel of the community. It is much more probable that in these words the weakness of King Ahaz toward his idolatrous wife Jezebel is compared with the weakness of the gov- emment of the community toward the Nicolaitans, and that Jezebel is only regarded as a type of the sect. While the Nicolaitans encountered eneigetie resistance in Kphesus and gained few adherents in Pergamos, in Thyatira they exercised a wide-spread influence. It is probable that their leaders laid claim there to the possession of prophetic inspiratiGO (ii. 2()) and to a knowledge of " the depths of Satan " (ii. 24). This probably signifies a dualistic con- ception, by which evil is referred to the powers of the under-world, thus doing away with human guilt. It is these leaders of the sect, not Jewish teachers (Zahn), disciples of John (Eichhon), or Judaizcrs (Ewald, Gebhardt), who are the false apostles mentioned in the address to the church at Ephesus (ii. 2). The picture thus derived of the Nicolaitans strongly resembles that of the antinomian libertin- ism in Corinth, as shown in the epistles to the C^orin- thians. It may be inferred therefore that the fonner also had its origin in the Gentile Christianity of Paul. However, what was merely a tendency io 169 Vloolai NiooUui Corinth, became here a sect led by agitators. In Corinth also the evil custom prevailed of eating meat sacrificed to idols (I Cor. viii.) and unchastity (I Cor. V. 1 sqq.), in connection with Relation the claim of possessing superior knowl- to PauL edge (I Cor. iv. 6 sqq., v. 2, viii. 1, xv. 12 sqq.). But in Ephesus, from the simple extenuation of these sins by an appeal to Paul's doctrine of freedom in Christ, there arose a teaching combined with dualistic speculations. Thereupon the spiritual pride of the libertines in- creased to such an extent that their leaders claimed prophetic gifts (il. 20) and apostolic rank (il. 2). Nevertheless, the view is unfoimded that the Apoc- alypse of John combats in these passages the apostle Paul and his helpers (Baur, Schwegler, Holtzmann, Hilgenfeld, etc.); for Paul was no longer living, while all the statements in question refer to a con- temporary condition, and the helpers of Paul laid no claim to apostolic rank. Besides this, these very sins are just as sternly condemned by Paul as they are in the Apocalypse; for example, unchastity (I Cor. v. 1 sqq., vi. 12 sqq.), as well as the eating of meat sacrificed to idols (x. 18 sqq.). Paul also refers here to the warning example of Israel's cor- ruption by Balaam (I Cor. x. 8), and in general he peremptorily disposed of the libertinistic tendency (II Cor. vi. 14 sqq., xii. 20, xiii. 10). Another un- tenable view is that which finds the Montanists in the false apostles, the Balaamites, and the prophet- ess Jexebel (Hev. il. 2-14), while the Nicolaitans who differ from these signify Gnostics like the Ophites (V5lter). The reproach of unchastity and of eating meat sacrificed to idols is in too great discord with the ascetic morality of the Montanists; and nothing indicates Gnostics of the second century. Equally groimdless is the conjecture that the pas- sages mentioning the Nicolaitans were a later interpolation (Volter). What the Chureh Fathers have to say about the Nicolaitans rather opposes the contention that they first originated in the second century. Patristic or indeed that, apart from the Nicolai- Data. tans of the Apocalypse, there was any sect of that name in the second century (Neander and others). That the Nicolaitans are not mentioned until the time of Irenseus does not signify that they originated or reappeared during the interval. It is true that in every list of heretics the Nicolaitans are named after Basilides and Sa^ tomilus; but the order in the lists of heretics is in no wise chronological (cf . Lipsius, QueUen der dUeren KeUergeschichte^ pp. 28, 35, 47), and the comparative agreement of these lists is explained by their com- mon dependence upon Irenseus. The latter, how- ever, expressly says {Har.y III., xi. 1) that the Nicolaitans, '' long before " Cerinthus, held a simi- lar doctrine and that John wrote his Gospel against both. This shows that he placed the Nicolaitans in apostolic times, and his ranking them after Basilides and Cerinthus is only because of the similarity of their doctrines to those of these heretics. What he relates of the Nicolaitans, however, is almost ex- clusively derived from the Apocalypse. It is still clearer that everjrthing Tertullian says of them comes from the Apocalypse. His remark (Hasr,, xxxiii.) that in his time there were also Nicolaitans, only of another kind, called the heresy of Gains, ex- pressly excludes the idea that there was any con- temporary sect of this name. The statements of Hippolytus are foimded on those of Irenseus. In all the patristic data concerning the Nicolaitans the only statements to be regarded as based on histori- cal tradition independent of the Apocalypse are tiie assertion of Irenseus that their teacher was Nicolaos, one of the seven deacons of the primitive commim- ity (Httr.f I., xxvi. 3), and the statement, probably earlier than Hippolytus, that this Nicolaos had been led into grievous errors through jealousy of his wife. It is possible that this last statement may be mythical, and that even the first is only based on conjecture; since, however, it is assumed in the Apocalypse that the name Nicolaitan was known to its readers, it is at least probable that this name is not derived as a symbolical designation from that of Balaam (" lord " or *' conqueror of the people "; Vitringa and Hengstenberg), but from the name of the leader of the sect. In the Middle Ages violations of the rule of cel- ibacy were often designated by the name of the Nicolaitan sect, borrowed from the The Apocalypse, but there is absolutely no Bohemian connection between the Nicolaitans of Sect the Apocalypse and a sect of the same name which arose in Bohemia in the fourteenth century and maintained itself there as well as in Moravia imtil the seventeenth century. This sect derived its name from the Bohemian peas- suit Nicklas of Wlasenic (d. 1455), who was imitated by his followers in his rejection of ecclesiastical authority and his claim to an immediate and new revelation. F. Sieffert. Bibliography: The reader should consult the commen- taries on the Apocalypse (see under John thb Apostlb); and the works on the history of the Apostolic Age, e.g., those by C. von Weiss&cker, 2 vols., London, 1894-05, and A. C. McGiflFert, pp. 625-626. New York, 1897. Con- sult further: C. W. F. Walch, Hidorie der KeUereien, i. 167 sqq., Leipsic, 1762; E. Burton, Heresies of the Apos- tolic Age, Oxford, 1829; J. H. Blunt, Dictionary of SecU artd Heresies, pp. 371-373, PhUadelphia, 1874; D. Vdl- ter, ErUalehuno des Apokalypse, pp. 10 sqq., Freiburg, 1882; E. SchQrer, in Theologische Abhandlung C, Von Weizs&cker zu 70. GebuHstag geundmet, pp. 38 sqq., ib. 1892; Seesemann, in TSK, Ixvi (1893), 47 sqq.; F. Vigouroux, Dictionnaire de la Bible, fasc. xxviii., cols. 1616-18, Paris, 1906; DB, iii. 547-548; EB, iii. 3410- 3412.

NICOLAS, MICHEL: French Protestant; b. at Nimes May 22, 1810; d. at Montauban July 28, 1886. After studying theology at Geneva (1827-32) and in Germany (1832-34), he was assistant pastor for a short time in Bordeaux. He was then pastor in Metz from 1835 to 1838, and in 1839 was appointed professor of philosophy at Montauban, a position which he retained until his death. After 1860 he turned from philosophy to theology, especially to introduction and church history. Together with Reuss, Colani, and A. R^ville, Nicolas sought to revise the bases of Christian belief with the assist- ance of historical criticism, and to consider Chris- tianity as a historical magnitude from the standpoint of evolution. In 1861 he published, in the first volume of hlH 6luiU« critiquei lur la BibU, four essays on the Old Testament in the Graf-WellhnufleQ spirit, following this in 1803 with a similar series of studies on the New Testament. He batl already publiabed a number of translations and independent works on pliilosopliy, and a literary history of his native city and its vicinity, aa welt as his Hittaire det iloeirinei rrUgirti»n dct Juifn pendant le» deux iiiictei anUrieuTca a I'brc chritienne {1S60); andinhis LfR Ei'angilea apocryphes (186-^) and Le SymboU det apfitre» (1S(!T) his historical and critical studies found tlieir culmination. His last book was his llintoin: <le I'aruienne aeaiitmit dt Montauban {1598- 10.59) el Ju Fuylauima {1660-S68B) (1885). He was likewiae a cioHe student of Huguenot history, his imiiiuBcript collectioiu) on this theme filling ten Btuul volumes; but he is chiefly noteworthy as one of tlie pioneers in introducing German methods and Rsulls ta French Protestantism. (En a EN Lachbnuann.) Bibliography: A Mlt wta written by E. Rahaud, Vara, l!<tM: sail H aknlcb by t:. SUpfer is in the &t>ida it l\t- alogi' ri J'hidoirf publubnl by the PiutnlaDt luulty at I'liris. 19U1,

NICOLE, PIERRE: Port Royalist; b. at Char- tres (Oct. 13, 1625; d. at Port Royal Nov. 16, 1695. -\rter nveiviiig from his father a thorough prelimi- nnr>- education, he studied philosophy at the College d'llareourt anil tlion devoteil himself to theology. Hb intention of coniiiiuinfi his studies at the Sor- boniie was frustrated by his connections with Port Ruyid. where he soon became one of the most im- portant teuchera. Here he collaborated on the priHlucIiuiis of thai school, frequently gathered ma- teri:J for other books (a.-* for the " Prot'incial Let- ten '' of Pascal), and beoame intimately associated with .\nt(une .\tnaud anil especially with Pascal (H-v,). He accompanied Amaud in all bis wander- iiitCM untU at liist, wearj- of his unsettled life, he be- Miuchl the archbishop of Paris for permission to reiiim. He thu.'< brotight upon himself the bitter repninchc^ of the Port Royalists, against whom he sought to defend himself in letters and in an " Apol- lo." In U176 he etidc-ivored to secure priest's orili'rs, but the bishop of Chartres refused to admit Nicole was » prolific writer. With .\TTiaud he pit-pared tlie famous iM/ique dr Forl-Royal (Paris, Uvitt), anil aIhu. under the {aeudonrm of Wendrock, nuiile a Littin translation of Pascal's Prorincialrx (t'lilopie. lliftS). In La fVrp,'(ui« df la foi dr ViifU»t fallwli^ue Ixiurhiinl I'furhiintlu. or La PciHe PtrptiuUi- \ I<ltU\ he endeavoml to clear Port Royal of the chtiiiEe of Oalvinisin. anil this work «asfcllowed by Prrfit'tuiif dt la Jm ik I'i^lut ealMujUf »ur rnirhariair. ar tln>i\Jr Prrf^luU/ \3 \-oU.. 1669-761. Apparently in iniitAtion of the " Pronncial Leilen," he «TOIe ten Ltttm giir I'hfriru ima^inairr, or Lts tmaginaiir* (leMV and eight letters entitled La ViiMawtPM (Ifi&veei— both published viih his A|B>iAMMniv(CUogne. 1704V Ui» EaaU M Toh, 167) 8i|t].) CDJoyed among mme of his coQtemporaries, such as Madame de Sfvignd, an admiration which they no longer elicit. la hit polemics against Calvinism Nicole exceeded alt otlier Jansenists in bitterness, as is evinced by hi* Prt- jugfa Ifgitimca conlrc le calvinisme (1671), FrUti^ai rlfonnii ctmuaincM da scAisma (IGSl). and L'nilt de. I'tgtiae (lt>87}. He likewise prepared a series of edifying and instructive works, ajnong which mij be mentioned : Traiti aur I'oraiaon, or Traiii de fa 7>ri*re (1679); Inelnictiom t/Uologiquet tur laioat- merde (1700); /nsfrucMons Ihijdogiquea el mania lur U tymbole (1706); InMrucUona thfologiipiea d morates sur I'oraiaon dominicaU, la aalutolion ai\^ lic{\te, la aalnte mene el let autre* pritrei de (VjliK (1706), and ln»triKtion» IhMofpque* ei morales turia dfcalogue (1709). Nic<de was neither a deep thjnltef nor a great character. He was rather a TTun of vast learning and humanistic epiril. diffident snil very averse to controversy. (C. Pfesdeh.) SiBuoaHu-Hr: Hia lile, by Goujet. ia ui ibe last volumeof the £uau de maraie, ut nip. Consult funhFr: J. Br loijBe, Hi^. dr rabbanc dt Pari-Rouat. vol, v.. ColofU ITS3; C. ClfmeaMl. JfuT. Qfnlrale de Port-Soyal. Anour dam. l785-fl7; C. A. Siinie-Beuvi-. Port-Ro^. roll iiL- iv.. Palis, IS«0-M: Licbteubcrgcr. ESR. a. a34~a:<;. nicoLL, sm wn.LiAH Robertson : Fite Church of Scotland; b. at Lumsden (30 m. n.w. of Aberdeen), Aberdeenshire, Oct. 10, 1651. He ■m educated at the University of Aberdeen (M.A., 1S70) and the Free Church Collie, Aberdeen, aft«r whiiA he was minister at Dufftown, Banffshire (1S74-77), and Kelso, Roxburghshire (1377-m). In 18S0 be became the editor of The Houmhold Library o/Eifo- aition, and in 18S5 of The Expoeitor, while since ISSS he has edited The Foreign BAlical LibraTy, The Tie- ologirai Educator, The Expositor's Bible, The Erpon- tor's Onek Teilameni, The BrUiak Wrtkly, The Bookman, Woman al Home, The Britith Monthly, taii other publications and series. In 1909 he was nude a knight. Among his numerous publications epedal mention may be made of his Calls to Christ (Lon- don, 1877); Sons* "/ ^^ (2 series, Edinburgh and London, 1$79-Ji5); The Incarnate Sarioiir (Edin- burgh, 1S31); The Lamb of God (1883); Keyoflhr GniT« (London, 1S93); Ten-Minute Senmm* {ISSi); Litrrary Anecdotes of the Nineteenth Century (in col- laboration with T. J, Wise; 2 vola., lS95-«); Tie Return to the Cross (1897); The Church't One fms- dalum: Christ and Sectmt CrUicitm (1901); GorJen of Suta: Mf/nictd Expositions leHh an Essay m Christian MyAieism(,\9t^y, Lamp of Sacrifict iim, sermons): Ian Madareti: Life of the Ren. Join Watson (1908); and My Father: an Abadteti^nn Minister. ISIiSI (1903). Biiuociupht: J. F. Sloddul, it. Rabcrtwn .VimU. E<Uir and PmurktT. LoDiloD. 1903.

NIETZSCHE, FRIEDRICH WILHELM: Ger- man philosopher; b. at Roecken (18 m. h.w. of Leip- sic) Oct. 15, 1844; d, in Weimar (51! m. s.w. of Leipsic) Aug. 25, 1901). His preparatory educa- tion was received at Pforta, and his ailvanceil at the universities of Ronn iind Leipsic; be evinceil on early maturity, and before pasang his examina- tions lie was appoint^il extraordinary professor of classical philology at Basel on recommi'iulatinn of Friedrich Wilhelra RitaclJ, Ixjeoming ordinary pro- fessor in 1870, and resigning in 1879. He had, meanwliilc, in 1876, been attnaked by a disease ■which affected eye and brain, and nbluined leave of absence. In search of health he live<l for a num- ber of years in various places — in Wniee, in Swit- aerland, Turin, Genoa, and Niiza, going to a sani- tarium in Jena, and finally (1888) being pronounced hopelessly in)<ane, remaining thereafter in the care of his devoted sister at Weimar. He was a pro- hfic writer, and his works ore exerting an iofluence on modem thinking in religion and pbilosophr which seems rather out of proportion to thdr real and permanent value. The nature of his illnes, a^ well as the fact that he was broken in health at a compaiatively early age, prevented his philosophy taking the systematic form which a longer and sounder condition of health would doubtless havt brought about. Nietzsche was a protectant against the established order of things, no less against the faith and morals of Christianity than against tbc idea of the supremacy of the 8tat«. His philosophj is that of an Individ uaiist, anarchist, and anti- democrat. His doctrine of the " superman " in- volved the right of the highly endowed to with- draw all rights from the mass in order that, ewn by treading upon the ordinary populace, he might develop his own personality and put into eiEcu- tion the " will to power." The aphoristic brillianw. vigor, and uncompromising Uioraughnem with which ho pushed his logic t^ its utmost condusions have compelled a larger notice of his work thin under ordinary circumstances would be conceded to a thinker of his school. It brought him Into re- volt from his teachers and those whom be odk acknowledged as his masters— auch oi Straus Schopenhauer, and Wagner. His principal writings are; IXe Gcburt der Tragt- die am dem OeisU der Mu»ik (Leipeic, 1872); f/n- teitgem/Uae Brtrachtungen (4 (Ktrts, 1873-76]; MenacMiclies, AlUumertiichlichea. Bin Bueh fit frne Geieter (3 parta, Chemniti, 1878-80); Marytn- Tdthe. Gedanken fiber moralische VorurleUf (1^1]; Die frdtdiehe WimeriMhaft (1882); AUo tpndi ZartUhuitra (4 parts, Chemnit* and Ldpsic, 1883- 1891) ; JemeiU von Gut und BOte. Vortpid tu war Philoaophie der Zuhtnft (Leipsic. 1886); Zur Gt- nealogie der Mvral [\mi)\ Der FrJf ffoffner (1888); GSUendammerung, oder Wie man ntU dew BamMt phUomrphiert (1889). An edition of his Werke is in two porta (8 vols., Leipsic, 1895; 7 vols., 1901-041, which contains important works and fragments not published separately; and there are three vols, of his Bnefe (Berlin (uul Leipsic, 1900-05). An Eng. tmnsl. of his Wmka has been appcoritig, to be roca- pletc in 11 vols. (London ond New York, 1896- 1009). Besides this edition, a number of his works have been translated separately, some of than » number of times: The Case againel Wagner (Lon- don. 1899); Thia Spake Zarnthustra: a Book fcr all or none (London and New York, 1901, and often); Dawn of Day (190H); Br/fond Good and Evil. Prt- liide to a Philosophy of Ihe Fiitart (1907); Humor.. aii loo Human: Book for Fret Spiriix (Chicago, 1908, London, 1909); The Birth of Tragedy; m HrUeiiism and Prsinmism (1909); The WiB lo Power; an allemplrd Trangvaluatiim of ail Valuft (2 vols., London, 1909); Thoughts oui of Srastm (1909). BiBuooRitPHT: The authciritntlve biocrmphr is by hii oi- Wr. ElisnbFth FOntcr-NiEtBcbs. 2 vols.. Lpipaic, IRSJ- IBM. Coruiill further: Qrsce N. Dolno. PhOoirjA^ i/ Friedneh KitUMlir, New York. 1001; T. Common. .Virfi- tcht (u Critir, Pliila'ophrT, Pott and Pnrphrl: Ctioia Sf ItrtuHW from hit [Port.. London. 1901. New York. 19nS; H. I.. Mmrknn, Philompliv of Frirtlrich Nittiteiit. Bos- ton, 190tl; idem. The Oid of Nufche. ib. 1910; C. A- Benumlli. ^rani Otcrbitt! iind Frirdrich NirUadin. Eine FrtianUeJiall. Jens. 190S; J. M. Kenaedy. Tin Quiniu- Kw of NultTkt. London, 1909; H. A. Mllg»e, Pritd- rick NUUtcht: hit Life and Work. London and New York, ISOS; A. R. Orage. NitliKlu in OuUiiu dnd Ajihoritm, New York. 191(1.

NILES, WILLIAM WOODRUFF: Protestant Episcopalian bishop of New Hampshire; b. at Hatley, P. Q., May 24, 1832. He was educated at Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. (A.B., 1857; tutor 1857-5S) and at the Berkeley Divinity School, MiJ- dletown. Conn., from which he was graduated in 1S61. He waa ordered deacon in 1861 and advanced to the priesthood in 1862. Ho was rector of St. Philip's, Wiscasset, Me. {1861 -64), professor of Latin in Trinity College (1864-70), and rector of St. John's, Warehouse Point, Conn. (1868-70). In 1870 he was consecrated bishop of New Hampshire. He is a member of the board of managers of the Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society of the Protestant Episcopal Church. He was likewise a member of the committee for revising the Prayer Book and marginal readings in tbe Bible, and in 1866-67 waa editor of The Churchman. Bibliography: W. S. Perry. The Epiecopale in Anierica. p. 305. New York. 1SS5.

NIMBUS: A symbol used by Christian artists from the fourth century to distinguish representa- tions of the persons of the Trinity, Biblical and saintly personages, and sometimes em- Origin, perors, kings, and other magnates. It Early consists of a circular or rectangular History. illuminated space surrounding the head of the figure, with sometimes a number of lighter stripes or rays going out from the head. This usage has its precedent in several non-Christian religions — Brahmanism, Buddhism, Slavic paganism, and especially the religions of Greece and Rome. The choice of the attribute is somewhat surprising in view of the descriptions of divine and angelic appari- tions in the Bible and the apocryphal and patristic literature. God and the angels appear to man there, it is true, amidst light, but also amidst clouds, fire, and lightning (Gen. xv. 17; Ex. iii. 2, xiii. 21, xix. 16, 18; Num. ix. 15, xiv. 14, etc.). In the narrative of the transfiguration of Christ, the radiance of his countenance and the glory in which Moses and Elijah appeared are emphasized (Matt. xvii. 1; Mark ix. 2; Luke ix. 28) ; but neither in the New Testament nor in extrarcanonical literature is there any indi- cation of a phenomenon analogous to the nimbus. In direct reference to passages like those cited above, primitive Christian and early medieval art depicted God (or the hand of God) amidst clouds at the sacri- fice of Isaac and the giving of the law, and in flames at the burning bush, Christ with an aureole and later a mandorla, angels amidst clouds, etc. But at the same time the figiu'es of God and Christ or their emblems, the angels, etc., appeared with even greater frequency with the nimbus, entirely without reference to any scriptural or patristic expressions, Nimbus Nimes 176 Since pre-Christian art had been accustomed to depict not only gods and heroes but emperors and their families with the nimbus, the question arises from which usage the Christian artists borrowed their own. Without entering into a detailed discussion, it may be observed not only that if the nimbus was borrowed from the usage in regard to gods, it would be difficult to explain why it did not become preva- lent before the fourth century, and also why the corona of rays, frequently used for Zeus, Serapis, DionyBius, Apollo, etc., was not adopted. When, on the other hand, it is known that the nimbus, from Constantine on, became one of the most usual tokens of imperial rank (not only for the emperors them- selves but for the members of their families), both difficulties are removed by the adoption of the latter theory. Support is added to this conclusion by the fact that in the hundreds of sarcophagus-reliefs origi- nating in Rome and Italy the nimbus is scarcely ever used even in the fifth century, while in the smaller number found at Ravenna, done under Byzantine in- fluence, it occurs comparatively often. The same evidence is afforded by the paintings in the Roman catacombs, which represent Christ \ivith the nimbus where he appears as teacher or lawgiver. The figure of Christ in the apse of Santa Pudenziana at Rome reminds the beholder at once of that of Constantius II. in the chronograph of 354 ; both figures are seated majestically on a throne covered by a lai^ge cushion, and both wear the nimbus — the only difference being in the clothing, the gesture of the right hand, and the object held in the left, a book with Christ and a scepter with the emperor. Evidently the nimbus was merely a token of rank. If the mosaics of the glorified Christ in the two niches at Santa Costanza in Rome are to be con- sidered as old as the others existing Chronolog- in the former mausoleum, they are the ical Devel- oldest examples of the use of the nim- opment bus; but as this is justly disputed, the first place in proved antiquity must be assigned to the enthroned Christ with his symbol the lamb at Santa Pudenziana in Rome, belonging to the last decade of the fourth century. Christ has a circular golden nimbus with a border of green, the Iamb one of blue. The nimbus is found even earlier for Christ in pictures in the catacombs, one of which (Gamicci, ixvii. 1), not earlier than tiie pontificate of Damasus, shows a simple circular nimbus; and the same kind, of a bluish hue, is found on the heads of Peter and Paul, who appear thus for the first time in mosaic in the triumphal arch of San Paolo fuori le Mura, probably belonging to the time of Leo the Great (Gamicci, ccxxxvii.). The mosaics in the nave of Santa Maria Maggiorc, which De Rossi and others place in the pontificate of Liberius, are especially significant; here for the first time ap- pears the circular golden nimbus for God, a white one with green border for the three guests of Abra^ ham (Gen. xviii. 2), and a green one for " the captain of the Lord's host " (Josh. v. 13), which last picture places the nimbus for angels in the fourth century. Angels similarly a<lorned appear several times in the arch of San Paolo, dating from Sixtus III. Mary with the nimbus, oddly enough, does not ap- pear in any designs which can be certainly dated in the fourth century. The qrmbola of the four evan- gelists seem to have been finally intioduoed into Christian art toward the end of this oentuiy, and tt Santa Pudenxiana the evangelists appear rtOl with- out the nimbus; at San Paolo ICaik and John have it, and in several cases only the emblem of Matthew is thus distinguished, presumably as a mark of special dignity. The extension of the nimbus to personages not yet mentioned does not occur tiD the fifth century. It is found in the case of John the Baptist in the baptistery, and possibly in that of Laurence in the tomb of Galla Flacidiay at Ravenoa, and thereafter with increasing frequency. When eariy western art came to an end, with the close of the sixtii century at Rome and a hundred yean later in the provinces, the use of the nimbus was wide-spread, but not governed by any fixed rules; and thus the Middle Ages revived it, to use it more extensively than ever. In Renaissance art is found a certain aversion to the use of this adjunct. As to form, the earliest Christian examplea do not differ essentially from the Greek and RomaD; but a characteristic innovation is introduced when the head of Christy or of his ^jrmbol the Form and lamb, is found with the nimbus ooo- Variations. taining the monogrammatie f(»m Jj^or f (see Jesus Christ, Monogram or), sometimes flanked by A and Q, or with a cixmb. The cross became more and more usual, for the Father and the Holy Spirit as well. It must be remembered, however, that the use of the monopam and cross preceded the nimbus in the order of time^ and are found in a few veiy eariy instances placed above the head. Different parts of the world show their own preferences in this matter. In the Roman and Italian sarcophagi both the plain and the erod- form nimbus are wanting; those of Gaul show the plain nimbus, but not the monogram or cross; thos^ of Ravenna, on the other hand, frequently use monogram and the A and 0. The cross gradual!: became preferred over the monogram, and in Middle Ages was the usual distinguishing maA Christ. The monogram, however, is the c^der fonKm* possibly belonging to the end of the fourth centuiy^ while the cruciform nimbus was an invention of tts^ fifth; and not before the sixth is a rectangul*^ nimbus found, in the migority of cases denoting that the person was still alive at the time of tb^ representation. In Italy and Greece, and later in Germany, God the Father was designated in the lestf ancient art by a triangular nimbus with rays pro- ceeding from it; and instances occur in Italy of the hexagonal form as an attribute of the cardiiml vir- tues. In the Middle Ages Christian art devdoped a form of the nimbus which somewhat resembles the pre-Christian corona of rays. The beams of Hghi proceeding from the head of the figure form a sort of sun or sometimes, especially in the case of Quist, a cross. To this form the way led through the kind of nimbus found in Gothic carvings, in which the effect of the disc-shaped frame is hdghtened by the introduction of rays, so that it was a simide matter to omit the frame altogether. Renaissanoe ait either reduced the nimbus to a faint radiance va- rounding the head, or dropped it altogether. (NlKOLAUB MClubs.) 177 Nimbus Klmes Bibliography: L. Stephani, in MSmoirea de Vacadhnxe dea acienceM de St. PHerAourg, 6th sen, ix. 361-500, 1850; F. C. C. Hunter, Sinnbilder und Kundvoratellunoen der aUtn Christen, ii. 20 sqq., Altona, 1825; C. C. F. Siegel. Chruaieh-kircMicKe AUerthUmer, i. 436-437. iii. 301 sqq., 4 voIb., Leipmc, 1836-38; A. N. Didron, leonofftaphie chritienne, pp. 4 sqq., Parifl, 1843, Eng. transl., i. 22 sqq., London, 1849; J. A. Martagny, DicUonnaire de» antiquilU chritiennea, pp. 435-437, Paris. 1865; F. X. Kraus, Real- BneyklopAdie der chrietlichen AUerihUmer, ii. 496 aqq., Freiburg, 1886; Mre. A. Jameson, Sacred and Legemdary AH, i. 27-28, Boston, 1893; DCA, ii. 1398-1402; KL, v. 1628-31.

NIMROD: According to Genesis, a son of Cush, a mighty hunter, and a founder of kingdoms All known of Nimrod is contained in the verses Gen. x. 8-12. It is clear that the recital falls into two parts: verses 8, 10-12, describe Nimrod as the founder of two great kingdoms (verse 11 should read " Out of that land he went forth to Asshur ") ; verse 9 declares that he was a mighty hunter. The pas- sage therefore probably contains two traditions and shows the hand of an editor, since verse 9 would naturally find its place at the end. While it would be incorrect to attribute the foundation of both a Babylonian and an Assyrian kingdom to any such single personality as Nimrod, it is quite possible that the principal cities of Assyria were established by Babylonian colonists (see Asstjua, VI., 3, § 1). The earliest Babylonian and Assyrian cities are correctly named by the writer. After Babylon, Erech (Uie modem Warka) occupies the first place (see Baby- lonia, rV., § 5); here Ishtar was worshiped from ancient times, and it is the scene of the Gilgamesh epic (see Babylonia, VIII., 3 § 2). Accad follows, probably Agade (Akkad), the birth-place of Saigon I. (see Babylonia, IV., § 11), although Accad commonly signifies Northern Babylonia. Calneh is perhaps Nippur (see Babylonia, IV., § 11; cf. H. Hilprecht, ExcavaJtuma in Bible Lands, pp. 410 sqq., Philadelphia, 1903). In Assyria, after Nineveh, Rehoboth-Ir (A. V. "the city Rehoboth ") is named, probably meaning " open city." Calah, southeast of Nineveh (see As- syria, rV., § 3), was for a long time the residence of the Assyrian kings. Resen can not easily be iden- tified and the addition, " the same is a great city," is somewhat obscure (see Assyria, IV., § 4). The fact that Asshur, the oldest Assyrian city, is not mentioned, shows that the passage is not very early. Who was this founder of the cities of the Babylonian empire? The Biblical writer seems to have derived the name from marad, " to rebel "; the founding of the Babylonian empire is combined with the build- ing of the Tower of Babel as a revolt against God's supremacy. Association of Nimrod with the Gil- gamesh of Babylonian legend is doubtful; another hypothesis connects him with the national god of Babylonia, Marduk (J. Wellhausen, Composttion des Hexateucha, p. 308, Berlin, 1889). An Egyptian or Ethiopian origin based on Nimrod's descent from Cush is unlikely and the better reference is to an Asiatic Cush connected with the Kosshites or Kas- shites who settled in Babylonia about 1700 and ruled the land imtil the twelfth or eleventh century B.C. (see Cush, Cushites). Nimrod as a hunter was probably an independent figure. Himting-scenes are often depicted in Baby- lonian sculptmies, both in connection with historical and with mythological personages. This would be significant if it were possible to identify Nimrod with Gilgamesh, for the latter is represented as a great hunter. Gen. vi. 1-4 speaks of " giants . . . men of renown " (see Giants); the similarity of the expression makes it likely that the writer of Gen. x. 9 regarded Nimrod as one of these giants. In this way might be explained the term " before the Lord," as these beings sprang from a divine race and stood nearer to God. Nimrod might be, and indeed was, compared with the Greek hunter Orion who drove the Pleiades before him. (R. Kittel.) Vinok Vitschmann 180 Bibliography: J. Grivd, in TSBA, in (1874), 136 sqq.; P. Haupt, NimrodepoBt in Asayriologiache Bibliothtk^ III., ii., Leipeic, 1891; A. JemroiaSt Itdvbar-Nimrodtih., 1891; T. Q. Pinches. The O. T. in the Light of the , . . Recorda , , . of Aaeyria and BabyUmiat pp. 127-131. London. 1902; DB. iii. 552-553; EB, iii. 3417-19; JE, ix. 309-311; the later commentaries on the paosace; and the literature under Noah.

NINCK, CARL WILHELM THEODOR: Ger- man philanthropist; b. at Staffel near Limburg (20 m. e. of Coblenz) May 28, 1834; d. at Hamburg Sept. 17, 1887. He studied at Halle, Erlangen, and Herbom. In 1858 he was chaplain at Westerburg where he created a revival of religious interest that extended to the surrounding neighborhood. In 1865 he was called to Frucht. There he promoted a tract society which he had previously organized at Westerburg and which now became a department of the Evangelical Association of Nassau. Ninck became manager and secretary of this tract society of Nassau, a position he held imtil 1873. He acted as hospital and field chaplain during the wars of 1866 and 1870-71. For his services in the latter war, especially aroimd Metz and Strasbui^g, he received the Iron Cross. In 1873 he went to Hamburg to take charge of the Anscharkapelle in St. Michael's parish, established in 1860 for home mission work. Wilhelm Baur had served there from 1865 to 1871 when he was called as court preacher to Berlin. Ninck's great organizing talent and tireless energy found full scope in this field. Impelled from within by an ardent Christian devotion and Evangelical enthusiasm, there was scarcely an interest in domes- tic missions in which he was not active. He founded the Parish Sisters for the purpose of looking after the poor and sick of the congregation and built a home for them called Bethlehem. This was followed by a series of institutions erected on the heights of Anschar, near Eppendorf, one for morally endan- gered girls; the Louisenhof, for girls who had gone astray for the first time; a home for retired deacon- esses; and other like institutions. He published the Nachbar, a religious journal, which attained a circulation of 100,000 copies. He also published the Kinderfreund in which he developed a special talent for interesting young people. In 1884 he undertook a joiuney to Palestine and afterward wrote Auf bibliachen P/aden (Hamburg, 1885). (Carl Bertheau.) Bibuggrapht: Lives have been written by T. Rottebohm, Hamburg. 1888; F. Cimtz. Herbom. 1890; and F. W. H. Koopmann, in BUder atu der chrietlichen Lubeath&tiokeit in Hamburg, p. 85. Berlin (18997).

NIPPOLD, FRIEDRICH WILHELM FRANZ: German Protestant; b. at Emmerich (60 m. w. of Munster) Sept. 15, 1838. He was educated at the universities of Halle (1856-68), Bonn (1858-60; Ph. D., 1860), Amsterdam, and Leyden (1860), after which he traveled in the East (1861-63) . He became privat-docent at the University of Heidelberg in 1865; associate professor there in 1867; full pro- fessor at Bern in 1871; and professor of church history at Jena 1884-1907, retiring as emeritus in 1907. Theologically he belongs to the liberal school. Among his numerous writings, special mention may be made of his Handbtich der neueeten Kirchengeachichte aeU der Reetauration von 1814 (Elberfeld, 1867, 3d ed., 5 vols., 1901-06; Eng. transl. in part, The Papacy in Vie 19th Cen- tury, New York, 1900); Der Jeeuiten-Orden von seiner Wieder- hersldlung bis sur Oegenwari (Mannheim, 1867); Aus Qeth- semane (sermons; Elberfeld, 1867); Christian Carl Josias, Freiherr von Bunsen (3 vols., Leipsic, 1868-71); Welche Wege fOhren nach Romf (Heidelberg. 1869); Ein Blick von Worms auf Jerusalem (Mannheim, 1860); jEgyptens SteUung in der Religion und Kultur (Hamburg, 1869); Stille Stunden, Aphorismen aus Richard Rothes Nachlass OVittenbcrg, 1872); Die altkatholische Kirche des Erzbistums Utrecht (Heidelberg, 1872); Richard Rothe, ein christliches Lebens- bUd (2 vols., 1873-74); Ursprung, Umfang, Hemmnisse und Aussichten der altkatholischen Bewegung (Berlin, 1873); Die gegenvArtige Wiederbelebung des Hexenglaubens (1875); Die Oleichnisse Jesu von dem voachsenden Soot, vom grossen Abendmahl und vom sterberulen Weizenkom (Bern, 1877); Die rdmiseh-katholische Kirche im Kdnigreich der Nieder- lande (Leipsic, 1877); Religion und Kirchenpolitxk Fried- riehs des Grossen (Berlin. 1879); Die Theorie der Trennung von Kirche und Slaai geschiehtlich bdeuchtet (Bern. 1881); Zur geschichtlichen WUrdigung der Religion Jesu (10 parts, 1884-93); Die ThUmmelschen Rdigionsprozesse (2 vols., Halle, 1888); Tagebueh des Peter von der Heyden, S. J. (Barmen, 1889); Die j'esuitischen Schriftstdler der Gegen- wart in Deutschland (Leipsic, 1895); Das ErUwicklungsgang des Lebens Jesu (Hamburg, 1895) ; Die intemationelle Seite des papstlichen PoUtik (Leipsic. 1895); Kleine Schriften zur inneren GeschichU des Kathblizismus (2 parts, Jena. 1898- 1899); Das deutsche Christuslied des neunsehnten Jahr- hunderts (Leipsic, 1902); and Bischof von Anger, die Ber- liner Pbtitik wnd die evangelische Mission (Berlin, 1905). lie has edited, among other works. Bemer BeitrOge zur Ge- schichte der Schweiz (Bern. 1884); the fifth edition of K. R. Hagenbach's Kirchengeschichte (3 vols.. Leipsic, 1885-87); R. Rothe's Gesammelte Reden und AufsQUe (Elberfeld, 1885); H. von Boyen's Erinnerungen aits meinem Ltben (2 vols., Leipsic. 1889); and A. von Theiner's Einfahrung der er- Mwungenen Ehdosigkeit bei den christlichen Geistlichen und ihre Folgen (Barmen, 1891-98).

NITZSCH, FRIEDRICH AUGUST BERTHOLD: Son of the following; German Protes- Hiit theologian; b. at Bonn Feb. 19, 1832; d. at Kiel Dec. 21, 1898. He studied at the Fried- rirli-Willu'lnis-Oymnasium in Berlin and at the uni- versities of Berlin, Halle, and Bonn, being influenced finally by the work of Ritschl. After passing his theological examination, he taught for a year and a half, became a licentiate in 1858, the subject of his thesis being Qucestiones Rmmundana, dealing with natural theology. In 1859 he became privat- liocent at Berlin and was called as professor of sys- tematic theology to Giessen in 1868 and in 1872 to Kiel, where he remained until his death. In his literary activity Nitzsch was occupied chiefly with works on the history of dogma. His System dea Boethius umi die ihm zugeachriebenen theologischen Schri/ten. Eine kritiache Untcrauchung (Berlin, 1860) characterizes the system of Bo<^thius as eclectic !ind as a link between scholasticism and ancient philosophy, but as not in harmony with C'hristianity. Ijater works were Auguatinua Lehre vom Wunder (ISfWS) in which he treated Augustine's apologetics; aufi tlie mature fruit of his researches in the history of dognm, GrumlriaH der chriatlichen Dogmenge- achichie; eraier Teil: Die jHUristiM'he Periode (Berlin, 1870). The \inchangeable result of the development of dogma Xitzsch finds in the thesis that Jesus of Nazaretli is the Messiah and as such has provided for the s:dvation of the world. Thus the historical chanicter of the kingdom of Ootl is establislied once for idl, the connection with Old-Testament revelation is ensurotl. ami Jt^us is proclaimed as the ::bsolute principle of s:dvation and revelation. In the de- partment of dogmatics Xitzsch wrote Lehrbuch der ei'tingeliat'hen Dogmatik (1SS9-92) in which, as well a.s in contributions to theological journals, he took the part of the so-called mediating theology, and so came into touch with Ritschl and Lipsius. (A. Tmus.) Bibliography: O. Raumicnrtcn, in DeuUch-rvanoeHache HUutrr, xxiv. 110-i;i;i.

NITZSCH, KARL IMMANUEL: German Protes- tant, one of the most distinguished representatives, in the nineteenth centur>-. of the mediating theolog;>'; b. at Borna U*» »"■ s-^-t* of I^eii-vsic), Saxony. Sept. 21, 17S7: d. in Berlin Aug. 21. 1S6S. His theological training was stvunxi at Wittenberg, where his father. Karl Ludwig Xitzsch VM-^'-^* ^^'^^ professor; and he l>ecame docent in ISIO with the dissertation, D*- U'iitanientia diuxiecim fhiiriarcharum, and in ISll w;is onlainevl :ks assistant pastor of the Schlosskirche. In 1S17 he wa^ appointeil pn»fessor in the recently foundt\l SiMuinarj- at Wiitenlx^rg. and in 1S22 ac- cepi^Ni a call to the I'niversity of Bonn. In 1S29 he publiihtHi his System dt" christlichen Lehre vOlh eil., Bonn. IS.^1: Eiig. tninsl.. I-Miuburgh. 1849). Thid work defined his position toward rationalism, supemacundism. and Schleiermacher. He said him- self that he luul ** learned more from his father, Daub, aiul Schleienuacher than from any other tMcher^s but had been obliged to draw back from them all more or less." He diffexv^l from Schleier- nuwfaier in the doctrine of God's relation to the worid. Iha divine attributcM. etc.. and al^o substituted for ^a ** Chxutiau cousciousue^ '* the Word of God itaelf . Notwithstaziding these diffe^ ences, however, he ^'as willing to be placed at the side of Twesten as the principal repzesentative of Schleiermacher 's theology; and he was never tired of magnifying that theologian's services in making a sharp distinction between metaphysics and the- ology. In this period, Nitzsch wrote his able reply to Mohler's work on symbolics (Eine proiestantiathe BearUwcrtung der Symbolik Mdhlera, Hambuig, 1835) and made valuable and frequent contributioDs to the TSK, under the editorial care of Ullmann and I'mbreit. Most of these dissertations appeared, after the author's death, under the title Gesammelte Abhandlungen (2 vols., Gotha, 1870). During the Bonn period (1822-47) Nitisch also acted as uni- vendty preacher, and took a veiy active part in ecclesiastical affairs, such as the re>ision of the Liturg}', and the measures locddng to the imion of the Lutheran and Reformed communions. In the interest of the union he wrote, among other thingtr, Urkundenbuch der evangeliachen Union (Bonn, 1853} and Wiirdigung der van Dr. Kahnia gegen die evangd- iaehe Union und deren theologiache Vertreter gerithkUn Angriffe (Berlin, 1854). Nitzsch was called in 1847 to the University of Berlin, where he continued to labor as professor till his death. He was also honored with a seat in the highest ecclesiastical council (Oberamaiatorium, changed in 1852 to the Oberkirdienraih), and was elected a representative to pariiament in 1849. In 1854 he was appointed provost of the Nikolaikirche. The most important literary woric of the Berlin period, and of his entire life, was his Praktiache The- dogie (3 vols., Bonn, 1847-67; 2d ed., 1859-68). The first book treats of the theory of church life; the second, of the practise at the present time. Besides these various works, vdimies of sermons also ap- peared from his pen, a complete revised edition at Bonn in 1867. (F. NiTZSCHf)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Beyschlag. Karl Immanuel Nitzsch eine Lebensbild der neueren deutsch-evangelischen Kirche Geschichte, Berlin. 1872.

NITZSCH, KARL LUDWIG: German Pn>te»- tant; b. at Wittenberg Aug. 6, 1751 ; d. there Dec 5, 1&31. He studied theology at Wittenberg (1770- 1775), and. after acting as private tutor for several years at Brandis near Leipsic, became pastor at Beucha in 1781, pastor and superintendent at Borna in 1785, and cathedral superintendent and consist orial assessor at Zeili in 1788. In 1790 he became pastor and professor of theology at Vni- tenbeig. Proceeding from Kant, Nitzsch sought to mediate between rationalism and supematuralism. Revelation, he held, is not the di\ine communication of a supernatural content foreign to the human spirit, but the promulgation of a divine content which is inherent in man in a latent manner, but suppressed by sensuality and egoism. While he did not deny the supernatural factor of revelatioa like the rationalists, he was no less opposed to the supematuraliscs in regarding the essence of Christian revelation as moral and rational. A revelation that reveals an>-thing not to be grasped by reason is for him no revelation at all. He attributed the chdu^ acter of revelation also to the old covenant, though he considered it only a reveiaHo nomaUieiiea as op- posed to, but preparatory to, the reveiaHo didacHca of the New Testament. His principal treatises were collected in two volumes, De revdatUme rdigi- anis eiiema eademque pMica prolunones academiccB (Leipsic, 1808) and De discrimine revdoHonis imper- atoruB ti didacHc<B proluaumeB academiccB (2 parts, Wittenberg, 1830). A short summary of his doc- trinal system, as he taught it in his lectures, is given in his treatises, C^e&er daa HeU der Welt (1817); Ueberdaa Header Kvrche(lS21); and Ua)er doe HeU der Thedogie (1830). (F. NrrzacHf.) Bibliography: E. A. D. Hoppe, DtnkmaL dea verewioltn Dr. C. L. NiUKK Halle, 1832; J. C. H. von Zobel, Dm LA«m und Wirk4n dmr Padonn tmd SujmifittindeiUtn in der , , , Stadt Boma, pp. 06-72, Boma, 1849.

NOBLE, SAMUEL: Swedenborgian; b. in Lon- don Mar. 4, 1779; d. there Aug. 27, 1853. In 1810 he was one of the founders of the London society for publishing the works of Swedenborg, and, in 1812, of The Intellectual Repository and New Jerusalem Magazine, being its chief editor and contributor. In 1820 he left his profession of engraving to enter the Swedenborgian ministry in London. He issued two noticeable original books, issued as lectures: Plenary Inspiration of the Scriptures Asserted (London, 1825); and An Appeal in Behalf of the Doctrines of the Eternal World and Stale, and of the Doctrines . . . held by the Body of Christians . . . (1826); a trans- lation of Swedenborg's Heaven and Hdl; and other works expository of Swedenborgian doctrine. Bibliography: Memoir by W. Bruce affixed to tiie 3d and later editions of the Appeal; DNB, xii.. 84-^.

NOEL, BAPTIST WRIOTHESLEY: En^ Baptist, brother of the first earl of Gainsborough; b. at Leightmount, Scotland, July 16, 1798; d. at Stanmore (11 m. n.w. of St. Paul's, London) Jan. 19, 1873. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge (M.A., 1821); began the study of law, but changed his intention, took orders, and became minister of St. John's Chapel, Bedford Row, London. There he manifested an interest in home and foreign mia- sions, in elementary education, in the welfare of the poor as affected by the Corn Laws, and in the Evan- gelical Alliance (q.v.). The issue of the Gorham Case (q.v.), together with his Evangelicalism, caused him to change his ecclesiastical affiliations, and be was rebaptised by immersion, Aug. 9, 1849. He be- came minister of John Street Chapel the following September, remaining there tiU his retirement in 1868. His publications were numerous, sonie of them controversial, some notes of travel, and nu- merous sermons and lectures. Among them may be noted: A Plea for the Poor (London; 1841; on the Com Laws) ; Doctrine of the Word of God respedmq Union among Christians (1844) ; Essay on the Unin of Church and StaU (1848); The Messiah (1848; five sermons) ; Notes of a Tour in Suntaedand (1848); Essay on Christian Baptism (1849); and Neles </a Tout in the Valleys of Piedmont (1855). He was also a writer of hymns — " We give ourselves to thee " is by him — and compiled A Selection of Psalms and Hymns for Congregational and Social Worship (1838), and Hymns about Jesus (1868). Bibliography: DNB, zli. 81-00; Julian, Hymmtlogth ^ 809.

NOMINATIO REGIA: The right of the sover- eign to nominate to an ecclesiastical position. As early as the fifth century (the Merovingian period) the Frankish kings exerted a potent influence in the filling of the episcopal seals, while under the Caro- lingians and (Serman emperors this developed into a veritable right of nomination, so that only in a few bishoprics were the ancient electoral rights of the clergy and people preserved, and this solely by special imperial privileges. It was not until the concordat of Worms, in 1 122, which ended the dis- pute regarding Investiture (q.v.), that the ancient electoral rights of the German bishoprics were re- established, the emperor merely retaining the privi- lege <rf being present nt the election and of accord- ing to the elected bishop the investiture, before his consecration. Contrary to this rule, however, the popes, who in the mean time had attained a decisive influence in the filling of the episcopal seats, granted to many princes the right to nominate the bishoiM m their own lands, partly by means of concordau and partly by special indult (concession). At present this Bo-cidled nominatio regia exists (nith few tx- ceptions) in Austria, Bavaria, and (until the iHcnt separation of Church and State) also in Praace, u well as in the Roman Catholic states of Centnl and South America. It, like the election by the eatbt- (Iral chapter, constitutes merely a presentatioo, al- though it involves a coasideraticn of the requiiii* canonical qualifications, and the nominee aci)uim the right M administer the episcopal jurisdiction only through the papal confirmation, which in this cose is called iriafifuha canonica. E. Sehuxc.

NON-CONFORMISTS: A term applied to the 2,000 clergymen who, in 1662, after the Restoration, left the Church of England rather than submit to the Act of Uniformity (q.v.) which required assent to the Book of Common Prayer. Later it came to apply to the Protestant dissenters and in general to those who at any period in English history, since the establishment of Protestantism^ have refused to conform to the doctrines and practises of the estab- lished Church. In the place of Puritanism before the Restoration now came, after the Restoration, political non-conformity, which has its seat princi- pally among the middle or lower-middle classes, the yeomanry of former times. The Act of Uniformity was followed by other repressive measures: in 1664, the Conventicle Act (q.v.) declaring it unlawful to be present at any religious meeting not conducted according to the usages of the Church of England where more than five persons in addition to the family were assembled; in 1665, the Five-Mile Act (q.v.) intended to banish the ministers from their friends; and, in 1673, the Test Act (q.v.), incapaci- tating every person from holding any public office who had not publicly taken the sacrament of the Lord's Supper according to the usages of the Church of England. In an effort to unite the opposition to the estab- lished Church, the Roman Catholic King James II. suspended, by a Declaration of Liberty of Conscience in 1687, the execution of all penal laws in ecclesias- tical matters and all tests and oaths. As a result ministers were released from jails and restored. The Toleration Act of 1689, under William III., secured to Protestant dissenters a legal existence together with freedom of worship and government under the con- dition of self-support. This act did not repeal the penal statutes, which were, however, no longer en- forced. The benefits conferred by it were much curtailed by the Occasional Communion Act, at the accession of Queen Anne, which excluded from ci\il office those non-conformists who had qualified imder the Test Act (q.v.) ; and by the Schism Bill, which restricted the work of education to certificated churchmen. These restrictions were removed under Geoige III., and the Test Act was repealed in 1743. The non-conformists have since enjoyed religious liberty, but the agitation has continued, having for its end ecclesiastical disestablishment. In 1836, the dissenters were allowed marriage by their own ministers and rites, and the tithes were commuted THE NEW SCHAFP-HERZOO into rent chargea, though in the latter form they are yel a. source of bitter oRt^nse. Hegiatration of births, deaths, and maiTi^igt:^ waa transferred from Church io State and a. charter given to the free University of London, imposuig no religious teet«. Along edu- cational lines, the great univeraitieB were thrown open to young non-confonnista in 1871, andft^^tem of state schools established which rendered non-con- fomuBts independent of the estabUahed Church for primary education; and their latest agitation was the unsuccessful Elilucation Bill in 1906, providing for optional religious education in all statj; schools. In 18S0 non-confonnists aecured the enactment of the Burial I.aws Amendment by virtue of which diEisenting ministers muy conduct funerals in church- yards and in the consecrated parts of cemeteries, but the customary fees must still be paid to the clergy of the established Church. Though divided by distinctions of sect, yet as a compact, aggressive body, thuy hold the balance of power, outnumber the adherents of the Church of England, and stand as the representatives of hberality in doctrine as well as in polity. The chief organisation through which non-conformity is to work cooperatively for the promotion of dissenters' rights and religious liberty are the " General Body of Protestant Min- isters of the Three Denominations " (Presbyterian, Independent, and Baptist) constituted in 1727 and still meeting annually; the " Liberation Society "; and the " Free Church Council." See Ijbehtv, REuaiouB. Bibliography: The literstun under ConaUBaATiOMAiJSTBi PraiTiNs; and Libehtt. ItiuQiooB, ia pcrlinunt; A. S. Dyer, Skttcha of Eno'uA MBncon/nTmOu. LoiHlon, 1881; T. Price, HiM. of Produtaiu N rmemformity in t'nfllanii, 2 tdIs.. London. t836-3S; J. A. Jam«, PraU^ant Nvntm- fomi/y, ib., 1849; T. CoIeioHn. The t.OOO Cmfa^r, of leet. ib,. 1880; idem. TAb BtvUA CmfoKtri ajlrr Ihi Rrfimtiatim Io Ihe Daum o/ tAr ComimmtDaiM. ib., 1862; R. Vaughon, £>vluA Nmamfamity, ib., 1802; T. Km. Prulritant NmujinlannitD in Wida, ib., 1883: J. Ilani- mond. EngliA Nanconformi/u. ib., 1803; C. S. Home, JVon- nnformili, in the imh Ceniuru, ib., 1005.

NON-JURORS: The name originally applied to those members of the Church of England who re- fused the oath of allegiance to William and Mary in 1680, on the ground that they were bound by their oaths to James 11. Their number included the archbishop of Canterbury, and tlie bishops of Bath and Wells, Chichester, Ely, Gloucester, Nor- ivich, Peterborough, and Worcester, and about 400 of the clergy. Five bishops were deprived of their sees in ltI91, having died in the mean time. The name came to apply to the separate organization ■which was formed, congregations belonging to which continued to exist until the death of the last bishop, Booths, in 1S05, though the importjince of the movement ceased with the death of Bishop Hickes in 1715. The separation iritrodueed many changes from the usages of the established Church. A book of DeiflfiofM /or PrimUive Cutholica was compiled upon the basis of the Book of Common Prayer, but differing quite widely from it. BcBUoaiiipiTT: T. Lathbury, Hiil. of tht Nonitiron, Lod- doQ. 18fl2; J. Cosin, Tl<t Noma of Uu . , . Nonjuron . . . . Ihar Plata a{ Abode: Ihe PariAtt v>lim their Landt lay. .... erl. E. E. Rilcourt and J. O. Payne. London. 1^; Miu A. StriclUnnd, Lisa of 0,t Sniim Bitluiiii 1, London. ISSS; W. H. Hntlm. Tin fmprwrfud t'l Engliih Church aetS-r J, B. Overton. The Nanjaror,. Thrir Uvst, Ptindfittmi WriHrmi. ib.. 1002; and tbe litenUue under Kbh, Tmaiti Law, Wiujah; SANCHorr. Wiujah.

NONE: The service for the ninth hour in tbe Breviary (q.v.), recited normally at 3 P.M., though frequently earlier, even before the community meets in monastic houses during Lent. Its structure i» the some as that of Terce and Sext (qq.v.).

NONNA: Wife of Gregory Nazianzen. See GREGORY NAZIANZEN.

NORRIS, JOHN: English clergyman, usually mentioned in connection with the Cambridge Pla- toniats (q.v.); b. at Collingbourne- Kingston (14 m. »(i4l crlaluntfS)- n.e. of Salisbury), Wiltshire, 1657; d. at Bemerton (2 m. w.n.w. of Salisbury), Wiltshire, 1711. He was educated at Winchester School and Exeter Col- lege, Oxford (B.A., 1680), and was later appointed a fellow of All Souls' {M.A., 16S4). From 1692 until his death he was rector of Bemerton, the parish earlier held by George Herbert. Though an Oxford man, and thus, one might suppose, under the do- minion of Aristotle, he early devoted himself to the study of Plato, and kept up a correspondence with More on metaphysical problems. In fact, it was he who handed on tiie tradition of idealism to Berkeley in the next generation. As a P1atont»t, be was nat- urally in opposition to the method of Locke, with whom he found himself in conflict also as the prin- cipal English disciple of Malebranche. His E»aay tovtardi the Theory oj an Ideal and IntelligMe World (2 vols., London, 1701-04), represents this side of his teaching, though his most popular work was the Miscellanies (Oxford, 1687), poems, essays, 'letters, Bibliography; Consiilt, baridM the literaturB under Cah- ■aiDOB PuTDNiBTn. A. Ii Wood. Alhrmr Ozorutimoi. ed. P. Blin. iv. SSa-SM. London, 1820; Julian, Hymmilaaf p. 8101 DNB, xli. 132-134.

NORTH, BROWNLOW: Evangelist of the Free Church of Scotland; b. at Chelsea (a suburb of Lon- don) Jan. 6, 1810; d. at Tullichewan Castle (15 m. n.w. of Glasgow) Nov. 9, 1875. He was a grandson of Brownlow North, bishop of Winchester, and a grandnephew of Lord North. He studied at Eton, and at Magdalen College, Oxford, and graduated from the university in 1S42, with a view to holy orders, but was refused ordination. He had no settled occupation, and the most of hia time was spent on the estates of relatives in Scotland. lie was careless of religious duties, and known as a seeker of pleasure, until Nov., 1854, when, as he was visiting at Dallas Moors, Scotland, his whole spirits ual nature underwent a radical change. For months he read nothing but the Bible, meanwhile conduct- ing religious meetings. His success aa an evangelist was rapid, and during later years he visited every important town in Scotland and some places in Eng- huid. In 185(1 the Free Church of Scotland formally recognized him aa an evangelist. He took part in the great revivals of Ireland in 1S59 and Scotland in 1860.

NORTON, ANDREWS: American Unitarian; b. at Hingham, Mass., Dec. 31, 1786; d. at Newport, R. I., Sept. 18, 1853. He passed in 1801 from the Derby Academy at Hingham to Harvard, where he was graduated in 1804. He then studied theology and preached for a short time during 1809 at Augusta, Me.; in Oct., 1809, he became tutor in Bowdoin Col- lege, and in 1811 tutor of mathematics at Harvard for a few months. Theology in New England was then in a very excited condition. In 1812 he pub- lished The General Repository^ a liberal theological journal. It was too scholarly and perhaps too bold for the public and lived only two years. In 1813 he became librarian of Harvard College and lecturer on Biblical criticism and hermeneutics. In 1814 he published the writings of his deceased friend, Charles Eliot. When the Harvard Divinity School was founded in 1819 Norton was elected professor of Biblical literature; he filled that chair until 1830 and took an active part in all university matters. After giving up the professorship he occupied himself without rest in literary and theological re- searches. In 1833 he issued A Statement of Reasons for not Believing the Doctrine of Trinitarians Con- cerning the Nature of God and the Person of Christ (Cambridge, 11th ed., 1876). In 1833 and 1834, with his friend Charles Folsom, he edited The Select Journal of Foreign Periodical Literature. In 1819 he had begun his most important work. The Evidences of the Genuineness of the Gospels (3 vols., Boston, 18.'^7-44; 2(1 ed., 1846; summary in one volume, 1807). Norton published also several addresses, in- cluding a Discourse on the Latest Form of Infidelity (Cambridge, 18.'i9), a refutation of Strauss's views, many valuable articles in the North American Re- ^neWf the Christian Examiner ^ and the Christian Disciple, and several hymns of no mean merit. He collected a few of his shorter writings in Tracts Con- cerning Christianity (Cambridge, 18;V2). C. E. Nor- ton edited his unfinished Internal Evidences of the Genuineness of the Cos })els (Boston, 1855). Although he was one of the leaders of the liberal school of theology, he was opposed to the name ** I'nitarian " and to the founding of the ** Unita- rian Association." His book upon the genuineness of the Gospels is the chief work upon that subject in the nineteenth centurj' in the English language, but the theological position of its author was largely a bar to its acceptance in several orthodox circles. He attacke<i Strauss with vigor as a Judas. He was ^ith his whole heart and in all relations of life a Christian, and he devoteti himself to the most un- wearying study of the Scriptures, but by no means lost sight of other interests. He did much to open the treasures of foreign litenitures to his country- men. Caspar RexI: Gregory. Bibliography: J. H. Allen, in Arnericnn Church Hidory Sfrim, X. 207-2l>9. New York, 1S94.

NORTON, JOHN: Puritan and Pilgrim divine; b. at Bishop Stortford (11 m. n. e. of Hertford), Hert- fordsliire, England,May 9, 16()6; d. at Boston, Mass., Apr. 5, K^CVS. He was educated at Cambridge (B. A., l<i'J7); became tutor in the grammar-school at Stratford, and curate; his dislike for ceremonies led him to embrace Puritanism, and in 1635 he emi- grated to America, preaching thereafter at Plym- outh, and at Ipswich after 1636. He was appointed to write an answer to the questions on church government of William Appolonius of Middleberg, Holland, which resulted in his Reaponaio ad iotam quastionum syllogen (London, 1648). He was in- fluential in the Cambridge Sjmod of 1646 which drew up the Cambridge Platform. In 1652, on the death of John Cotton, he was called to Boston, but not installed till 1656. He was a violent opponent of the Quakers, and by appointment of the Massa- chusetts council wrote against them his Heart of New England Rent at the Blasphemies of the Present Generation (" Cambridge in New England," 1659). He was also directed by the General Court of Massa- chusetts to refute William Pynchon's Meritoriout Price of our Redemption (1650), which resulted in his Discussion of That Great Point in Divinity, the Suffer- ings of Christ (1653). Besides the worics already named, he wrote: A Brief . . ,Treaiiae containing the Doctrine of Godlinesse (London, 1647) ; The Ortho- dox Evangelical (1654); Ahd Being Dead Yet Speak- eth, or the Life and Death of Mr. John Cotton (1658; reprinted, with memoir. New Yoric, 1842) ; a Brief Catechism Containing the Doctrine of Godliness ("Cambridge, New England," 1660, new ed., 1666); and the posthumously published Three Choice and Profitable Sermons ("Cambridge, New England,*' 1664). His unpublished manuscript, Body ofDiri- nity, is in the keeping of the Massachusetts His- torical Society. Bibliography: A. W. Maelure, in Lives of the Chief FaAtn of New England, ii. 175-248, Boston. 1870; J. B. Felt. Ecd. HiM. of New England, vol. i., pasBim, Bostoo, 1855; W. B. Spraffue, Annate of the American Pulpit, i. 54-50. New York. 1859; W. Walker. Creeds and Plaifomt of Congregationatiem, New Yoric, 1893; idenk, in Amerioan Church Hietory Series, iii. 174. 177. 216; F. H. Foiter, GnkHic Hiel. of the New England Theology, Chicaco. 1W7; DNB. xU. 214-215. NORTON, THOMAS. See Sternhold, Thomas.

NORWAY: The northernmost country of Europe (capital Christiania), bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by Sweden, on the south by the Skager Rack, and on the west by the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean; area, 124,129 square miles; population (1900) 2,239,880. AiXff the futile attempts of King Hakon the Early Good (d. 961) to introduce Christianity Christian into Norway, the two Kings Olav Conversion. Tryggvesson (996-1000) and Olav Haraldson, sumamed the Holy (lOlS- 1030), finally succeeded in establishing the new religion. Prior to this, Norway was imder the con- trol of the Vikings (or bands of warriors, who would invade neighboring countries, plundering and burn- ing or otherwise destroying what they could not carry away), who held sway for 200 years. It was while on these crusades into the different adjacent countries that these Viking bands came in touch ^-ith Christianity, the leaders just mentioned beinf baptized, the first in England, the second in Nor- mandy. Both of them set themselves the task of Christianizing their mother country, to which end they brought back ifvith them bishc^M and priests from England who preached to the people, exhorting 196 Norton them to embrace Christianity, while the kings sup- 4>orted the preachers by using force wherever oppo- sition showed itself against the new movement. Among these bishops, who thus became the real foimders of the new faith^ the Anglo-Saxon Sigiuxl, who accompanied Olav Tryggvesson, has been named by some historians the " Apostle of Norway," while his nephew, Grimkjell, figured as missionary bishop imder Olav the Holy, rendering his king efficient service in establishing the new faith after the pattern of the Anglo-Saxon Church. While engaged in battle against his own rebellious people. King Olav Haraldson fell near Stikklestad (July 29, 1030) ; and there resulted a thoroughgoing change in the minds of the people. Within a short time, the people came to r^ard the fallen king as a great saint, at whose grave mighty miracles were supposed to occur, and whose self-sacrifice immortalized itself with a glori- ous halo. Of the history of the Church of Norway in the middle ages, little more is worthy of mention than that it was identical with that of the other Eu- ropean countries of that time; the Church most important event of this period History being that Norway, like Jutland, lost m the its independence, becoming in 1536 a Middle province of Denmark. Thus it became Ages and self-evident, that when Denmark de- the Refor- cided in the same year to introduce the mation. Reformation, this applied also to Nor- way; although the people themselves were but little prepared for such a thoroughgoing spiritual revolution, the old order was abolished. The last Roman Catholic archbishop had to fiee before the Danish authorities. Such bishops as re- mained were unfrocked, monasteries were destroyed, and the vested lands together with all other property of the bishoprics and monasteries were confiscated. Only the priests were allowed to remain to preach after their accustomed manner, until such time as Protestant ministers could be educated to replace them. The real work of evangelizing the country was left in the hands of Protestant officialdom, called superintendents at first, and later bishops, whose duty it was to establish the new church discipline and provide the congregations with Evangelical pas- tors. In every diocesan city a seminary was estab- lished for the education of ministers where theology and humanism were taught in the conciliatory spirit of Melanchthon. Among the bishops of the time of the Reformation were several very thorough men: such as Torbj5ren Olafsdn Bratt of Drontheim, who studied two years at Wittenberg and for a time was a member of Luther's household; Geble Pederson of Bergen, a fine and pious figure and prominent schoolman; Jens Nilsdn of Oslo, a thorough dis- ciplinarian and humanist; and Joi^n Erichs5n of Stavanger, the most prominent personality identi- fied vi-ith the Protestantism of the sixteenth century. The latter, an imperious but sane advocate of church arder, earned for himself the title " Norway's Luther," by his strong, clear, ardent. Evangelical lermons. At the close of the Reformation cen- iury, the organization of the Protestant Church vas fully established. Every parish was presided fver by an evangelically trained minister, and from every pulpit Lutheran doctrine was proclaimed. In spite of this, the people, with but few happy ex- ceptions, were but little imbued with the spirit of the Gospel until Pietism relieved the period of slow growth under orthodoxy. The Evangelical Lutheran Church is the official or State Church of Norway, acknowledged as such in the constitution. While separation from the State Church is tolerated, it is obligatory upon all whose position bears any relation to the State The Church to be members of the same; Evangelical such are the king and his ministers, Lutheran theological professors in the universi- Organiza- ties, religious teachers in the public tion and schools, ministers, bishops, and the Statistics, like. Otherwise, any one is at liberty to separate from the established church without any material sacrifice; but all members of the State Church are required to have their children baptized and instructed in its con- fession of faith. The Norwegian parliament (Stor- thing) makes all the laws of the church. The king is the highest ecclesiastical potentate, who operates through his council or the minister of public wor- ship and instruction. These also administer with constitutional accountability the properties of the church, which amount to 30,000,000 crowns ($8,040,000). According to the last census (1900), 2,187,200 of the entire population were accounted members of the State Church; there were 10,286 Methodists, 5,674 Baptists, 1,969 Roman Catholics under a vicar apostolic, 501 Mormons, 175 Quakers, and 642 Jews. For administration of the State Church, the country is divided into six chapters or bishoprics, whose administrators are appointed by the king. The ministeriiun of each chapter has the right of representation. Each bishopric is again subdivided into provost districts whose heads are called provosts, and who are elected by the clergy, but appointed by the king. The provost is an inter- mediary between the bishop and the clergy, but is at the same time pastor of a congregation. All appointments in the individual congregations are made by the king. Besides a chief pastor in the larger congregations, there are resident chaplains. All incomes are fixed by the act of 1897. The bishop of Christiania is primus inter pares and receives the highest salary. There is a nile without exception that no one can be appointed in the State Church without an official examination in theology at the University of Norway. The children who belong to the State Church receive their religious instruc- tion in the public schools, which are entirely inde- pendent of the Church. The bishop has oversight of the training of religious teachers, the proper ad- ministration of the affairs of the parishes by the pastors, and the spiritual progress of the congrega- tions; and he is required to visit in person each parish once in three years; the necessary traveling expenses being paid by the exchequer. In every diocese there is an official who with the bishop directs all material interests. Norway also takes a lively interest in home and foreign missions, whose admin- istration is in the hands of private societies not con- trolled by the State. The principal missionary so- ciety has its headquarters in Stavanger, and supports Ifodrwlcn VovaUan 196 missionaries in Zululand, China, and, principally, Madagascar. It has about 80 workers in the field, while itfi schools are attended by 48,000 children, and its churches number 62,000 comrounicantfi. (A. C. Bang.) Bibuoqhaphy: K. Maurer. Die Bekehrung dea norwegi- 9chen Stammea turn ChriaUfUhttmt 2 vols., Munich, 1866; J. B. Pratt, LtUera on the ScatkHnavian Ckvrche*, London, 1865; P. Zom. Stoat und Kirche in Norwegen, Munich, 1875; L. Dane, Nordena Hdgener, Chrifltiania, 1881; A. C. Bang, Udaigt over den norake Kirkea Hiatorie after Reformationen, Christiania, 1883; idem, Udaigt over den norake Kirkea Hiatorie under Katholiciamen, ib. 1887; idem, Kirkehiatoriake SmaaUykker, ib. 1890; idem. Den norake Kirkea Hiatorie, 1636-1600, ib. 1805; idem. Den Norake Kirkea Oeiatlighed i ReformaJtiona-Aarhundredel 1666-1600, ib. 1897; H. Boyeson, The Story of Nonvay, Lon- don, 1886; G. F. Maclear, Apoatlea of Mediaeval Europe, pp. 172-200, ib., 1888; F. Nippold, Handbuchder Neueaten Kirch- engeaehichte, u. 431 sqq., Berlin, 1901; L. H. S. Dietrich- Bon. Omrida af den Hrkelige Kundarkaologi, Christiania, 1902; T. W. Willaon, Hisl. of the Chitrch and Stale in Nor- toay, 10th-16th Century, London, 1903; H. G. Heggtveit, Den Norake Kirke i del nittende Aarhundrede, Christiania, 1905; W. 8. Monroe, In Viking Ixind: Norway. iU Peo- plea, ila Fjorda, and iU Fjelda, London, 1908; J. V. Kvam, Den norake Kirkea Biakoper after Reformationen, Chris- tiania, 1910; Schaff, Chriatian Church, v. 1, p. 861.

NORWICH: Capital of Norfolk, England, and, since 1091, the seat of a bishop. It is situated on the Wensum, and has a population of 111,728 (1901). The cathedral, prevailingly Norman, was begun in 1096 by Herbert Losinga, who transferred thither the bishopric from Thetford. After a fire in the thir- teenth century it was rebuilt, and additions were made till the fifteenth century. The bishopric was founded at Dunwich, 630, the bishopric of Elmham was founded in 673, which latter seems after c. 850 to have superseded Dunwich, while the seat was located at Thetford in 1070, and was transferred as above to Norwich. Bibliography: Historical Handbook to Norwich Cathedral, London, 1890; W. Lefroy, Norwich Cathedral, ib., 1897; C. H. B. Quennell, The Cathedral Church of Norwich, ib. 1898.

NOTES OF THE CHURCH: A term employed to embrace certain fundamental characteristics of the Church to which appeal may be made either in controversy or teaching. Some of those earliest asserted are: the antiquity of the Church and its priority to heretical communities (Tertullian, Hcer., xii., XX.); the unity of the teachings of the Church and apostolic succession (Irenaeus, //or., passim); ecumenical consent, the name Catholic, and the continued existence of the Church from the times of the apostles (Augustine and Jerome, passim). Bellarmine increased the number of the notes of the Church to fifteen, including such points as the con- tinuance of miracles and prophecy and the unhappy end of those opposed to the Church. Luther as- signed to this category the true and uncorrupted preaching of the Gospel, baptism, the Lord's Sup- per, the keys, a legitimate ministry, and service in the vernacular {De ecdesiw notis. Opera, ed. 1550, vii. 147). Calvin (" Institutes," IV., i. 10) gives only truth of doctrine and correct administration of the sacraments. The Anglican view, while not alto- gether concordant as set forth by different divines, acknowledges as notes antiquity, continuous dura- tion through the ages, apostolic succession in the bishopric, interunion of members and their union with Christ, and sanctity of doctrine. Perhaps the most fundamental and acknowledged are those of the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed — " One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic.'' Bibliography: J. Taylor, Diaauaaive from Popery, part ii., London, 1667-68; R. Field. Of th€ Church, II., i. 5. new ed., ib.. 1847; W. Palmer. Treatiae on the Church </ Chrial, i. 17-21. ib.. 1838.

NOTT, ELIPHALET: American clergyman and educator; b. at Ashford, Conn., June 25, 1773; d. at Schenectady, N. Y., Jan. 29, 1866. His parents, who were farmers, died while he was still a boy. He studied the languages and mathematics, and taught school. He entered Brown University in 1790, and was licensed to preach in 1795. He was pastor and teacher at Cherry Valley, N. Y., in 1796-97, and pas- tor of the First Presbyterian Church, Albany, N. Y., in 1798-1804. In 1804 he was elected to the presi- dency of Union College, an office which he filled for more than sixty-two years, with eminent dignity and ability. When he entered upon his duties, the institu- tion had only fourteen students and was in great pe- cuniary straits. Under his management it became one of the strongest literary institutions in the coun- try. He paid much attention to natural science, es- pecially to the laws of heat; and obtained about thir- ty patents for inventions in that department, one of which was the first stove for burning anthracite coal. As an educator he was practical, unconventional, and greatly beloved. On the platform, he advocated temperance, opposed slavery, and always figured as an earnest exponent of civil and religious liberty. He was original, scholarly, and impressive as a preacher and is considered one of the greatest pulpit orators of his time. His eulogy on the death of Alexander Hamilton, delivered at Albany, July 29, 1804, remains a classic. He published Councils to Young Men (New York, 1810); Lectures on Temper- ance (Albany, 1847); and the Resurrection of Christ (New York, 1872). Bibliography: C. van Santvoord and T. Lewis, Memoir of Eliphalet Nott, New York. 1876.

NOURSE, EDWARD EVERETT: Congrega- tionalist; b. at Bayfield, Wis., Dec. 24, 1863. He was educated at Macalester College, St. Paul (1886- 1887), Lake Forest College (1884^86, 1887-88; B.A., 1888), Hartford Theological Seminary (grad., 1891; fellow, 1893-94), and the University of Jena (1894- 1895), and was ordained by the presbytery of Chip- pewa, Wis., in 1893. From 1895 to 1898 he was pastor of the Second Congregational Church, Berlin, Conn.; since 1898 he has been connected with Hart- ford Theological Seminary, as instructor (1898-90), associate professor of Biblical theology (1900-05), and professor of Biblical history and theology (since 1905). He has likewise been a lecturer at Mount Holyoke College since 1901 and at the Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy since 1904. In the- ology he is a liberal conservative. Besides con- tributing articles on New-Testament topics to the New International Encyclopaedia (New York, 1902- 1906), and in addition to his activity as associate editor of A Standard Dictionary of the Bible (1909), he has written Genesis and the Religious Development of Israel (Hartford, 1906).

NOWACK, WILHELM GUSTAV HERMANN: German Lutheran; b. at Berlin Mar, 3, 1850. He was educated at the University of Ber- Un (Ph.D., Halle, 1872; Th. Lie., Berlin, 1873), ud became privut^locent there in 1^75, and exir»ur- dinary professor in 1S80. He was also supply U St. Gertrud'a, Bcriin(l«7fi- 77), and pastor at the orpliin asylum at Rummcl^sburg, an eastern suburb of Ber- lin (1877-81). Since 18S1 he has been professor of Old- Testament exegesis and Hebrew at the Uni- versity of riirasburg. He is also a canon of SL Thomas, Strasburg, a member of the Hupreme con- sistory, and an overseer of the Protestant gymna- sium at Strosburg, as well as a member of th Deutsche Morgenlilndische Gesellschaft and of the Straaburg Wissenschaftliche Geoellachaft. Id tlw- ology he is an adherent of the historical critical school. He has written: Die Bedeulung da Hirrmr ymuafUr die aUUttamenlliche TejikrUik (Gdttingen, 1875): t^ tutyriarJi-babylonuchen Keilin»chi/ln und do* AlU Tatament (Berlin, 1878); Der Pn- phH HoBta erklAH (1880); Die sonofen PraUmt in Israd und drrm Bedculung far dU rttigiSir E*lr wicktlung duxa VoUat (Strasburg, 181)2); RAii- Uehe Archiiotogie (2 vols., Freiburg, 18M); » Zuk-iin/Uhoffnungen IrratU in der aatyriidieit Zot (TQbingen, IWi); and TexbiMgobt der Ueitwm PropheUn in Kiltel'a BibW (1906). He has pre- pared the second edition of E. Bertheau and F. Hitsig's commentaries on Proverbs and Eccle- siastes for the Kurtgefanla exegttiaehti Han^xtA rum Allen TeMamerd (Leipdc. 1883); the third edition of H. Hupfeld's commentary on the Psalms (2 vols., Gotha, 1SS8); and .Amos sod Hosea for Religiontge»chichUwhe Volk*biidter (Tu- bingen. 1908). Since 1892 he has been the ediiw- in-chief of the HaruikmnmeiUar turn Alten Tettamt^, to which he has contributed the vdumes on the Minor Prophets (Gottingen, lSi)7; 2d ed., 1903), Judges and Ruth (1900), and Samuel (1902).

NOWELL, ALEXANDER: Dean of St. Paul's and preacher of the Elizabethan period; b. at Read Hall, Whalley (37 m. n.e. ot Liverpool), County of Lancaster, 1307 or 1508; d. at London Feb. 13,' 1601 or 1602. He was educated at Mlddleton, near Manchester, and it Brasenose Colle)^, Oxford, which he entend at thirteen. He was the " chamber^fellow " of Focw the mnrtyrologist, and was made bachelor otait» In 153G and master in 1540. In 1543 he was appoiatetl master of Westminster School, London, he beinjt the second incumbent of that position : wasliceaMd to preach in 1550. and in 1551 received a stall it Westminster. He adopted the principles ot the Reformation, and, at the accesdon of Mary, Bed to the continent, where he tamed at Strasburg ind Frankfort, in intimate intercourBc with the enlMi who subsefjucntly became eminent under Din- beth. Returning to England at Elisabeth's acces- sion, he was made archdeacon of Middlesex; and canon of Canterbury in 1560; and was appointed one of the commissioners to visit several trf (be dio- ceees; and dean of St. Paul's. It was during his in- cumbency, on June 4, 1561, that the spire of the cathedral was burned. Nowell was regarded as one of the first scholars in the realm, and took a prom- inent part in all ecclesiastical inatt«ra. In liiG3 he was chosen prolocutor of the lower house of the convocation of Canterbury, and presided over those sessions which revised and settled the Articles of ileligion. In 1565 he had a controversy with Thoma.^ Doratan, who attacked John Jewel's Apology. Ilia •ervices were in great demand on all public occa- sions and he was chosen to m^e the first public stmouneement from the puJpit of the destruction of the Armada before tlie lord-niayor, aldermen, and others. Nowell is the author of one or more catechisms, which were " approved and nlloned '' by the cle^y of convocation. In 1563 The Cate- cAwm was presented to the upper, and a Catechii- muM piuTOruni to the lower, house of convocation. Whether these were identical, or two different cate- chisms (and in this case both written by Noweli), it ia difficult to determine. R. Churton holds to the latter view. In 1571 a catechism by Nowell was printed in Latin; it was appointed to be read at Oxford in 1373 and studied at Cambridge in 15S9. This was called Ttm Large CatechUm followed by Mowdl with The Middle CaUchism a:id The Short Cateckism, The translation of the large catechism was published by Thomas Norton (Brasenose Col- lege, Oxford, 1750; latest ed., G. E. Corrie, with an appendix containing sermon of Nowell preached before Parliament, 1563, London, 1853J. It is, therefore, probable that Nowell was the aifcbor of The first part of the catechism now in use in the dmrchof En^nd, published in 1549. It was pre- scribed by Archbishop Parker of Canterbury to be taught; and it heads a list of books for the e:itirpa- tion of hereof which the University of Oxford pre- Kribed in 1570. : R. Churtoo, Tht Li/t n{ A. Naicdl, Oriofd, I; J. Stn-pe. ■ ■■■■"■ ■ ■■ 1824^ ii 1T21: , T are Fouad. nOYES, noiz, GEORGE RAFALL: Unitarian; b. at Newburyport, Mass., Mar. 6, 1798; d. at Cam- bridge. Maijs., June 3, 1868. He was graduated at Harvard College, 1818, studied theology there, and was licensed in 1322, He was pastor at Brookfield and Petersham, Maas., and from 1840 till his death Hancock professor of Hebrew and oriental lan- guages and De;Uer lecturer on Biblical literature in Harvard University. He was a fine scholar, espe- cially in sacred philology, and published original trsnalations. with notes: of Job (Cambrid^, 1827); Paalms (Boston, 1831); Prophets (3 vols., 1833- 1837); Proverbs, Ecclesiaatcs, and Canticles {1346); the New Testament (from TiBchendorf's text, 7th and 8th editions, 1868). HOYES, JOHH HUMPHREY. See Commdnism, II., 8. irUELSEII, JOHH LOmS: Methodist Episco- pal bishop; b. at Zurich, Sn-itxerland. Jan. 19, 1867; oune to the United States in 1886 and graduated ttt Drew Tfaeidogical Seminary, 1890; became pas- tor of a Cerman Methodist Episcopal Church in Sedalia, Mo., 1890; professor of ancient languages, St. Paul's College, Mo., 1890; professor of exegetr ical theology. Central Wesleyan Seminary, 1894, and of the same in the Naat Theological Seminary, Berea, O., 1899, was elected bishop May 19, 1908. Since 1897 he has edited the Deuttch-atnerikaniache ZeUschrifl/ur Thedogie unrf Kirche (Berea, 0,); and has written, Die Bedeutung des Eeangtliurm Jo- hannesfikr die chritUiclie Lehre (Berlin, 1903); Dm Ltben Jesa in WortUnU der vier Ei'angelien (New York, 1904); John Wealeg, auageiedhlle Predigtea (I'JOS); Lulher, Ihe Leader (1906); and Kurige- faaete GeschichJe des Methodimnua (1907). BUERHBERGER, nom-bar'ger, AOGUSTIH; German Roman Clathoiic; b. at Habelachwerdt (60 m. s.s.w. of Broslau) Jan, 6, 1854; d. at Brealau Apr, 20, 1910. He was educated at the universities of Breslau and Prague, and was ordained to the priesthood in 1879. He was then curate of the Anima at Rome till 1881, after which he was a gymnasial teacher at Neisse and Breslau until 1884. He became privat-docent at the University of Bres- lau in 1892, associate professor of church history in 1894, and professor of the history of dogma, patris- tics, and the hiatoiy of ecclesiastical organization in 1901. He wrote: Aus der llierarischen Hinler- lasaenschafl dea heiligen Boni/aliut und dea heiiigeA Biirchardui (Neisse, 1888); Ueber sine ungedrvckfe Raivmenaammlung aus dem achlen Jahrhundert (Maim, 1890); De Sancti Bonifalii Germania apoa- toll vitit codicufn T/ianuscriplorum ope denuo edendia (Breslau, 1892); Vila Sonrfi Bonifatii audore Wil- liboldo (1895); IHe Namen Vynfrelh-Boni/nliua (1896); Zur Kirchengtachiehle dea neunukTiten Jahr- hunderla (3 vols., 1897-1900); Dieromimhe Synode vom Jahr 743 (Mainz, 1898); Neue Dohurrumie nir Geachichif de-a Pater A. Faidhabera (1900); Daa Epiiaph dea Pater A. Faulhaben (Habelachwerdt, lii02); and Zum aoeihundertjShrigen Beateken der kalholiach-theologiarhen FakidSJU Brealau (Bicslau, 1904).

NUMBERS, SACRED: The numbers and com- pit tut ions, as well as the few technical expressions, found in the Bible show familiarity with the four basal operations of arithmetic and an elementary knowledge of fractions. Hebrew words like aaphar, "count," mispar. "number," pakadh, "enroll," jnanah, "determine numerically," Hebrew minyan, " number," roth, " sum," Knowledge gara, " subtract," ha'odepk, " the of Com- remainder," are examples of evidences putation. of this knowledge. Instances of addi~ tion are found in Num. i,, xxvi,; of subtraction in Gen. xviii, 28 sqq.; of multiplication in Lev. xxv. 8; Num. vii, 88; of division. Num. xxxi, 26 sqq. More complicated operations are in- dicated in Lev. xxv. 50 eqq., xxvii. 18, 23. Frac- tions like one-third, one-fourth, one-fifth, one-sixth, one-, two-, and three-tenths occur, while in Zecb. xiii, 8 two-thirds, in Gen. xlvii. 24 four-fifths, and Neh. xi. 1 nine-tenths are found. A decimal sys- tem is implied in the powers of ten so frequently iiwd or implied. The employment of the letters of Numbers THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOa d04 the alphabet as numbers was known in times be- fore the Ptolemies, and among the Jews it is proved by Maccabean coins. In earlier times the Hebrews used the system of the Babylonians, which was em- ployed also by Assyrians and in the West, even in Egypt, and extended eastward into India. From the foregoing it follows that the derivation, at- tempted by many exegetes, of critically suspected numbers from written numbers indicated by letters is to be accepted with the greatest caution, since such changes could have arisen only in a period after the text was fixed. Corrections of niunbers like those of the Chronicler, looking to the systematic sub- stitution of lower numbers, is useless, since those numbers are in the texture of the Chronicler's work. Among diverse peoples certain nimibers were employed in such a way that the question is raised whether originally a eymbolic meaning was not in- herent. This question is raised in interest when there is noted the frequent employment of a niun- ber in connection with sacred things. From the notice of the last fact, the inference has been drawn that under all much-used numbers a Symbolism symbolical meaning lay hidden; to of Numbers this supposition strength was given by in GeneraL the early endeavor in Jewish circles to give a significance to words through the niunerical value of the component letters (as when the 318 of Gen. xiv. 14 is connected with Eliezer, or the eighty-five priests of I Sam. xxii. 18 is connected with the Hebrew for " priests," or the 603,000 Hebrews of Num. i. 46 is brought into rela- tions with the Hebrew for " Children of Israel ")• This method of exegesis received strength from the idea taken over from Greek philosophy, that num- bers and numerical relations are fundamental in the universe, and there arose not only a Jewish but a Christian Cabala (see Cabala), followers of which yet exist. Although the disciples of the cabalistic school differ from each other so much in methods and results, while they attempt to obtain access to " deeper meanings," new arbitrary arrangements are continually " discovered " to which significance is given. K. C. W. F. B&hr gave an impulse to this sort of research in his Symbolik des mosaischen CuLtus (2 vols., Heidelbeig, 1837-39), followed by Kurtz (in TSK, 1844, pp. 315 sqq.), Kliefoth (in Theoloffische ZeUschrift, 1862, pp. 1 sqq., 341 sqq., 509 sqq.), and Kliefoth's pupil L&mmert, who yet could not agree with his master. Are there, then, in the Bible numbers used immistakably in a symbolical sense? If so, they must have been in- telligible not only to the author, but to the reader. At least the numbers seven, twelve, ten, and three are used symbolically in the Bible. This use is based upon two standards, arithmetical and his- torical. The former is the general ground which has led divcise nations to use these numbers in the same symbolical manner. Natural facts have strengthened the usage, as when seven is related to the moon's periods and twelve to the ratio of the moon's course to the sun's. Three had significance as the simplest group of units, seven as a double group with a central point, twelve as four times the group of three and also as the first number divisible by four niunbers, ten as the basis of decimals. These qualities explain the wide use of these num- bers as sacred. While aU cases can not be explained on the ground of derivation from Babylonia^ the wide influence of that region upon culture and re- ligion in the pre-Christian world, espedally upon the Old Testament and thus upon the New Tegu- ment and consequently later upon Christian peoples, is now fully recognised, and this is in some caees traced backward to the eariy pre-Semitic dviliift- tion of Babylonia. It seems probable that the em- phasis upon certain numbers originated in the re- ligious field, and that thence the symbolic agnifi- cance spread to other domains. Especially is this true of the number seven, the word for wfaieh m Smnerian the Semitic Babylonians translated by a word Tnft<ming '* completeness." The coincideDee of this number with natural phenomena, as the length of a moon's phase, would emphasise the number's supposed qualities (see Webk). Further, the em- ployment of sacred numbers in the Old 'Testament shows more or less consciousness of an original idea of this sort; sometimes, however, this employment is secondaiy in its reference. The use of these nmn- bers in sacred connections influenced their empkij- ment in other relations. To the relations of aacred import were added also historical relations; some- times the latter are first in mind. Some numbers usually conv^ certain definite ideas. Thus three recalls deity, four the woild or mankind, five half of completion, ten fuU oooqde- tion, twelve the people of God. If it Seven, be asserted that three has m'gnififanne Three, for the Christian doctrine of the Trin- and Four, ity, that four recalls the quarters d the earth or the winds, and so on, this may be granted; but if it be claimed that, whenever th^ and like numbers appear with a semblanoe of significance, a concealed and mystical referenee to the assim[ied symbolical meaning is present, this is a cabalistic eis^esis against which protest is a press- ing duty. On seven see Seven, the Sacbed Xm- BER. To the evidence there furnished may be added Zech. iii. 9, iv. 10, where the seven eyes connote di- vine omniscience and forethought, and iv. 2 sqq., where the seven lamps symbolize the divine ful- ness of light. Similar ideas of completeness are in- volved in Isa. XXX. 26; Dan. iii. 19; Deut. xxvm. 7, 25. Seven-day periods are frequent (see Week). Multiples of seven are numerous: twice seven, Lev. xii. 5; thrice fourteen, Matt. i. 17; ten times seven, Deut. X. 22; Ex. xxiv. 1; Num. xi. 16, 24; Lwke X. 1; Gen. 1. 3; Dan. ix. 2; eleven times seven, Judges vii. 14; Ezra viii. 35; and seven multiplied by multiples of ten is of conmion occurrence. Next to seven three occurs often, and seems to derive its significance from its arithmetical qualities as some- thing absolute — the beginning, middle, and end. In this Babylonian conceptions seem to meet and greet Roman and Greek ideas. But that the number three in the Old Testament has mgnififtim^ for the doctrine of the Trinity must be rejected. Gen. xm 2 sqq. speaks not of an appearance of Yahweh in triple form, but of his theophany accompanied by two companions. The threefold blessing of Num. vi. 24 sqq. and the trisagion of Isa. vi. 3 are merety a kind of superlative. A support for the doctrine 205 Ntunbars of the Trinity used to be found in the ethnic triads; but it is to be remembered that the great triads of Babylonia and Egypt came out of a threefold divi- sion of the universe, with which the doctrine of the Trinity has nothing to do. To what the conspicu- ous prominence of the number three is due will probably remain a basis of debate. Examples of its use are: II Cor. xii. 2, the third heaven; Exod. iii. 14, the threefold feast; Dan. vi. 10, three daily seasons of prayer; Gen. xl. 10 sqq., three-day period; three-month period, Exod. ii. 2; triple salutation, I Sam. xx. 41. In many other relations three appears; cf. Judges vii. 16; Deut. xix. 7; Josh, xviii. 4; Job. ii. 11; I John V. 7. Multiples of three are to be noted, as in the ten times three of the month, the thirty sh^els of Exod. xxi. 32; in the 300 of Gen. xlv. 22 and other passages; in the 3,000 of I Mace, (fre- quently); in the 3,600 of II Chron. ii. 1; and in iJie 30,000 so often appearing, as in Josh. viii. 3. The relations of the number four to the universe at burge appear often; cf. Gen. ii. 10; Jer. xlix. 36; Dan. vii. 2, viii. 8; Zech. ii., vi. 1 sqq.; Ezek. i. 5 sqq.; Rev. iv. 6, vii. 1; Exek, xiv. 21; Judges xi 40. Multiples of four figure largely: so forty. Gen. XXV. 20; Josh. xiv. 7; Ex. xvi. 35, expressing a generation; Acts xiii. 21, vii. 30; Judges iv. 3 (where twenty is the half of forty); Gen. vii. 4 sqq. Forty days is a very conmion period of time in the Old Testament; Jonah iii. 4; Acts i. 3. Indeed, forty enters into other computations, as where it is combined with twelve to indicate a certain period (I Kings vi. 1; upon which the commentaries should be consulted, giving hints as to variations of this computation). So 400 appears as a round number: Gen. XV. 13; Judges xxi. 12, often; 4,000 is also known, I Sam. iv. 2; Matt. xv. 38; Acts xxi. 38; 40,000 occurs in Judges v. 8; II Sam. x. 18; and 400,000 in Judges xx. 2, 17. The nimiber five appears as the half of ten; cf. I Kings vii. 39, 49; Matt. xxv. 2; also as a roimd number, I Sam. xvii. 40, xxi. 3; Isa. xix. 18; I Cor. xiv. 19. Five also is of importance The Nam- in penalties and the like, as in Ex. bers Five xxii. 1; Num. iii. 47, xviii. 16; the to Twelve, same idea is foimd in Gen. xliii. 34, xlv. 22; one-fifth also makes its ap- pearance in legislative directions, as in Lev. v. 16, xxii. 14, and often; while multiples of 'five appear in the regulations of Lev. xxvii. respecting the vow; cf. fifteen in Hos. iii. 2. Multiples of five are em- l^oyed: in measures. Gen. vi. 15; Ezek. xl. 15; in compensation, Deut. xxii. 29; frequently in mat- ters regarding population or the army (e.g., Ex. xviiL 21; Deut. i. 15); periods of fifty days or years are to be noted (Lev. xxiii. 16, xxv. 10-11), in this case the motive is seven times seven plus one. Higher multiples used are 500, 5,000, and 500,000. The number six is seldom employed as lynibolical. The six years of Ex. xxi. 2 correspond to the six work-dajTS of the week (Ex. xx. 9); the six steps of Solomon's throne are related to the twdve lions (I Kings x. 19); further instances are the six wings of the seraphim (Isa. vi. 2) ; the reed of six cubits (Ezek. xl. 5); cf. also one-sixth in Esek. xlv. 13. Multiples of sa are 60, 600, 6,000, and 600,000. The number eight occurs generally as the next number to seven, as in the case of cir- cumcision (Gen. xvii. 12), in offerings (Ex. xxii. 29 sqq.; Niun. vi. 10), and in feasts (Lev. xxiii. 36). Nine, as the square of three, might be expected fre- quently, but is rare, and generally signifies ten minus one (Neh. xi. 1; Luke xvii. 17), occurring as ninety-nine (100 minus one; Matt, xviii. 12). Round numbers in multiples of nine are 900 and 9,000. The number ten is naturally of frequent occurrence: as a basal measure for the Temple (I Kings vi. 3), as the number of the command- ments, as denoting the number of vessels, etc., in the Temple (I Kings vii. 27-38) ; in the ritual fre- quently (e.g., Ex. xii. 3), including the tenth (see Tithes). The use of the powers of ten is of course common. Thus 100 as a round number and as a multiplier is used (Eccles. vi. 3; Gen. xxvi. 12; Matt. xiii. 8); so 1,000 (Ex. xx. 6; Matt. xiii. 8); and 10,000 (Judges iv. 6 sqq.; I Sam. xv. 4; Matt, xviii. 24); as well as 100,000 (I Kings xx. 29); and such passages as Dan. vii. 10; Rev. v. 11 show the use of this number to suggest laige ideas. Other uses are shown in Lev. xxvi. 26; Neh. v. 11; Lev. xxvi. 8; Judges xx. 10, etc., in which various pro- portions that involve the number are employed. In Matt. XX. 6 sqq. the number eleven is used sym- bolically. The common use of the number twelve is somewhat remarkable, whether that is influenced by its being the product of three and four or the sum of five and seven or the number of the months and the zodiacal signs — certainly of the last there are no signs among the Hebrews, where the use most general refers to the number of tribes. Nat- urally the multiples of twelve appear also in rela- tion to the tribes; 12,000 (Num. xxxi. 5), 24,000 (Num. xxv. 9), 144,000 (Rev. vii. 4). There is room for question whether the number seventy (ut sup.) is a roimd number for seventy-two; this is familiar through the use of that term for the trans- lators (six times twelve) of the Old Testament into Greek. One usage worthy of notice here is poetic, in which a lower and a higher number are con- joined for rhetorical heightening of effect (Isa. xvii. 6; Amos. i. 3 sqq.; Mieah v. 5; Prov. xxx. 15 sqq., notable; Eccl. xi. 2). On the mystical numbers in Dan. viii. 14, xii. 11; Rev. xiii. 18-19 consult the commentaries. (E. KAUTZScHf.) Bibuoorapht: Isidore of Seville. De numeris, in MPL, Ixxzi.; K. C. W. F. B&hr, Svmbolik des moaaischen CuUuM, i. 119-206. HeidelbenK. 1837; C. Auber. HxM. et thSorie du aymbolimie rdiffieux, i. 97-155, Paris. 1870; R. Hirael. in Abhandlungen der aAchaiachen Geseilaehaft der Wiaamaehaflen (1885). 1 sqq.; S. Kraus, in ZATW, xix. 1 (1899), 1 sqq., and part 2, pp. 38 sqq.; H. Gunkel, Zum reliffionaoeachichtlichen VerHAndnxa dea N. T., pp. 43-44, 81, Q5ttingen, 1903; W. H. Roscher. in /ibhand- Itangen der aOchaiaehen Geadlachaft der Wiaaenachaften^ xxi. 4 (1903), xxiv. 1 (1904). xxvi. 1 (1907). xxvii. 4 (1909); A. Jeremias. Daa A. T. im Lichte dea alien Orienta^ pp. 56 sqq., Leipdc, 1906; E. Mahler, in ZDMO, Ix (1906). 834 sqq.; B. Stade. in ZATW, xxvi (1906). 124 sqq.; E. Kdnig, in ZDMG, bd (1907). 474 sqq.; Schrader, KAT, ii. 614 sqq.; E. W. Hopkins. Oriental Studiea of the Orienlal Club of Philadelphia, pp. 141 sqq.; H. Q. Wood, Ideal Metrology in Nature, Art, Religion, and Hiatory, Dorchester, Mass., 1908; Vigour- oux, Dietionnaire, fasc. xxviii. columns 1677-97; DB, iii. 560-567; EB, iii. 3434-3439; JE, ix. 348-350; the literature under Cabala and the commentariea on the BibUoal

NUN: A word applied in modern English to the members of cloistered female religious orders. In late and medieval Latin the cognate form is found in both masculine and feminine forms {nannus and n<mna)f explained by Forcellini as applied to elders in token of respect. In this sense the modern Ital- ian retains the words rumno and nonna for " grand- father " and " grandmother." Jerome coordinates the terms casta ei nonna^ Amobius sanctus et non- nus. The word rumnua in this sense was used in monastic phraseology, as in the Rule of St. Bene- dict, chap. Ixiii., which forbids the monks to call each other simply by their names, requiring the prefix of frater from the elder to the younger and nannus from the younger to the elder. This usage has long been obsolete, while the feminine form has passed into the vernacular of several modern lan- guages in the sense given at the beginning of this article. See Monasticism. (A. Hauck.)

NUREMBERG, RELIGIOUS PEACE OF: A temporary settlement of the difficulties between the Roman Catholic and Protestant states of the empire, agreed upon at Nuremberg in 1532. The dangerous position in which the Protestants had been left by the decisions of the Diet of Augsburg (Nov. 19, 1530) forced them to renew their efforts to form an alliance for mutual protection. The jurists succeeded in persuading Luther and the elector that if the emperor did not keep his oath to them they were justified in taking measures for self-defense; and soon after Christmas, 1530, the Schmalkald League came into existence (see Philip THE Magnanimous). By the expiration of the time of grace allowed to the Protestants (Apr. 15, 1531) their position had notably improved; and the Turks were threatening to attack not mere- ly Hungary but the Austrian crown-lands. Ferdi- nand advised his brother the emperor to come to some compromise with the Protestants so as to win their support, against this danger. The league was attaining an unexpected degree of solidarity, and the Roman Catholic states were disquieted by rumors of warlike preparations on their part. Clement VII. himself was considering the possi- bility, if there were no other means of warding off the peril of the Turks on one side and of a general council on the other, of conceding to the Protes- tants the marriage of the clergy and communion in both kinds. The first step toward agreement was taken when the emperor ordained (July 8, 1531), in a decree not immediately published, that the action of the Reichskammergericht in the cases before it growing out of the decision of the Diet of Augsburg should be suspended until the next diet. Further nego- tiations throughout the autumn of 1531 came to nothing. The Protestant leaders decided not to appear at the Diet of Regensburg (Apr., 1532) but to meet simultaneously at Schweinfurt and begin then a serious effort to reach an agreement. The negotiations progressed very slowly, the Leaguers clinging to the advantage they had gained, and Ferdinand so convinced of his ultimate sucoesB that his representatives scarcely ventured to com- municate to him the proposals of the other ade. When the diet met, the Roman Catholic states, turning a deaf ear to the Protestant demands, caUed for the execution of the Augsburg Recess and its maintenance until the assembling of a council. The emperor saw nothing to do but to act without them and make peace at all costs; and Luther on his side stron^y urged the securing of essentials by the abandonment of opposition on such points as the dispute over the validity of Ferdinand's election. Tlie sultan was now actually canying his threats into ex- ecution, and some of the Protestant states were moved by patriotism and fear of the reproach that they were standing idly by to witness the destruction of Christendom into mobilizing for the emperor's support. After tedious negotiations, an agreement was reached on July 23, and the Peace of Nuremberg was promulgated on Aug. 3. The emperor, in his own name, guaranteed to the Evangelicals the maintenance of the status quo until the meeting of a council, or, if this should not take place within a year, until the next diet. It was not an absolute guaranty of the quashing of the suits before the Reichskanuneiigericht, but a private " assurance " on the part of the emperor, which was still furthtf weakened by the requirement that a formal appli- cation should be made in each case. In a woid, it was rather a truce than a peace; but it signified, after all, a considerable victory for the Evangel- icals. The Augsbui^ Recess, on which the Romao party in the diet had so strongly insisted, was an- nulled; the legal status of the Protestant churches was assiued at least for the time; and Luther was right in his contention that it secured quite suf- ficient advantages even for those who should in future become Protestants, although they were not expressly included in its operations. Under its pro- tection, the Reformation nmde great progress in the next few years, and it remained a useful point of departure for later negotiations. (T. Kolde.) Bibliography: F. von Besold. GexhichU der deutxhenRf formation, p. 641. Berlin, 1890; H. Baumsarten. Gt- achicMe KaHa V.. iii. 638 sqq.. Stuttgart. 1892; O. Wincfcel- mann. Der KhmdUealdiache Bund 16SO-SM und der N9n- herger Reiigionafri«ie, Strasburg, 1892; J. Ficker. in ZKG, xii. 582 aqq.; J. Janssen. Hist, of the German Peoph^ t. 326 sqq.. St. Louis. Mo., 1903; Cambridge Modem Hit- tory, ii. 218. 221. 232. London and New York. 1904.

NYSTROEM, JOHAN ERIK: General Baptist; b. at Stockholm Sept. 8, 1842. He was graduated at the University of Upsala, 1866; was teacher of languages in the New Elementary School of Stock- holm, 1867; in Greek and Hebrew in the Baptist Seminary there, 1867-72; secretary of the Swedish Evangelical Alliance, 1872-78; and missionary to the Jews at Beirut, Syria, 187g-«l. In 1872 he traveled in aid of the Baptist building-fund, through Germany, England, and Scotland; and in 1885 was elected a member of the Swedish Parliament for three years. He is the translator of B. E. NichoU's Help to the Reading of the Bible (1866) ; and of Merle d'Aubign6's History of the Reformation in the Time of Calvin (1874-77) and is the author (in Swedish) of " Bible Dictionary " (1868) and " Library of Bib- lical Antiquities " (1874).

NYVALL, DAVID: Lutheran; b. at Vail, in the parish of Karlskoga, Vftrmland, Sweden, Jan. 19, 1863. He was educated at the gymnasium of Gftfle, the University of Upsala (1882-84), and the Carolingian Medical Institute, Stockholm (1884- 1885). Leaving Sweden for the United States, he was instructor in a private school in Minneapolis, Minn. (1886-87), pastor of the Swedish Evangelical mission church, Sioux City, la. (1887-88), instruc- tor in the Swedish department of the Chicago Theo- logical Seminary (1888-90), instructor and princi- pal of a private school in Minneapolis and assistant editor of the weekly VeckoUadet (1890-91), presi- dent of the same school when enlarged and taken under the control of the Swedish Evangelical Mis- sion Covenant (1891-94), and president of the North Park College, Chicago (the new Covenant school), and instructor in New Testament, Swedish, and other subjects in the same institution (1894-1905). Since 1905 he has been president of Walden College, Mc- Pherson, Kan. He has also been secretary of the Swedish Evangelical Mission Covenant (1896-1903). In theology he is an orthodox Lutheran. He has written: Versi och Saga (Minneapolis, Minn., 1890), poems; Minneablad (Chicago, 1892), six addresses to the. young; Medacls (1898), three patriotic ad- dresses to the young; Sdken Guds Rike (1901), ad- dresses to the young; SkogadriUar (1901), poems; and My Buness (McPherson, Kan., 1905), eight addresses to the young.

III.: " Thou art able to swear without wrongdoing if thy oath has these three accompaniments of which the prophet [Jeremiah] speaks when he says: ' Thou shalt swear the Lord liveth, in truth and judgment and justice/ " It is correct but not directly derived from the canon law to say that the object of the oath and the purpose of its use should be conso- nant with the divine character. The development of the general legal doctrine of the oath must then proceed along these lines. The correct consequences from the first condition, judicium in jurante (" the judgment in swearing "), involve notice of the following hindrances or dis- qualifications to taking oaths: (1) the person is under age. The canon law only expressly forbids that any one who is not of the age of reason should be forced to take an oath (XXII., v. 14), but in practise this has rightly been construed as forbid- ding such an oath under all circumstances. Later laws have extended the term of responsibility in oath-taking. The German law puts it at sixteen. (2) The person taking the oath is to be of sound mind and sober. The canon law is 2. Judg- very explicit on this point: only one ment in who is jejunus, " fasting/' can prop- Swearing, erly take a solemn oath (XXII., v. 16), consequently such an oath was, as a rule, taken only before noon. (3) That the person have not committed perjury. The condition of judicium in jurarUe logically obliges that the oath must not be taken by those who are without any knowledge of God. Of practical importance is it to know whether the person is only pretending to be an atheist in order to avoid being put under oath — as frequently happens — but even where the per- son is self-deceived into thinking that he is an atheist or only shams atheism there is a manifest impropriety in administering the oath as it borders on blasphemy to compel a person who professes to be an atheist to call upon God as his witness that he is speaking the truth. From the second condition, justUia in objedo, " the justice in the object," the canon law omitted to deduce the right consequences. Yet 3. Justice the canon law compels by legislation in the such oaths as are intended to establish Object the plea of nullity only in case it af- fords protection to the oath-taker, as a wife in giving consent to the transfer of title to her dower, or a daughter renouncing her inheritance; indeed Boniface VIII. would compel the secular judges to treat as valid what according to the com- mon law was null because it had been sworn to. The glossator Martinus induced the Emperor Fred- erick I. to rule according to this principle that an oath not otherwise invalid could not be nullified by a person taking it who nevertheless had no right to take it {AutherUica " Sacramenta puberum " on L. 2 C. cuiv. vend. ; cf . F. C. von Savigny , Geachichte dea Rdmischen Rechta im MiUdalter, iv. 162-170, Hei- delberg, 1834-51). It is plainly a desecration of the oath that the canon law made a tool of it to vitiate rather than to promote worthy purposes in- tended by the civil law. And it thereby, aside from the injury often done indirectly to a third party, gives occasion to a very frequent misuse of the oath, whereby from the religious standpoint it can be al- lowed only when later legislation withdraws entirely from the promissory oath its legal efficacy and makes it only of accessory importance, even as it has ac- cording to Roman law. But this is to deprive it of all legal obligation, whereas the proper object of the oath was to increase this obligation. From the definition of an oath as a promise given to God the canon law draws the inference that in respect to every promissory oath the Church as the organ of ecclesiastical jurisdiction was to decide: (1) Whether the oath was binding, and here first of all comes in the interpretation of the oath, for if it should turn out that the oath was intended to effect a sinful piupose then it was not only not binding but it was perjury and as such must be punished by church penalties; and (2) in case it is binding, at least toward God, it was for the spiritual judges to de- cide whether it should be carried out or whether the Church acting in the place of God should release the person from his oath (reUixio jwramenti or ab9ih luiio a juramento in the Evangelical sense). The connection in which this theory of relaxio jnramtrUi stands with the fundamentally false mediating posi- tion between God and the individual which the Roman Church on all occasions arrogates to itself is easy to understand, and it is no less easy to per- ceive that it must have as its consequence that the pope has the right to release from the oath of alle- giance whenever, in his judgment, the magisterial rights have been forfeited. But on the Protestant side there should be just as little doubt that the theory and its consequences are to be rejected as absolutely worthless, as if forsooth the competency of the Church to decide matters of right depended on the binding power of an oath. It is a lament- able confusion of ideas that formerly the rdaxio juramenii was counted among the episcopal rights of the sovereign (cf . J. H. BOhmer, Jua ecdesiasticum ProUstantium, 5 vols., Halle, 1720-63). All that the Church can properly do in relation to oaths is to appeal to the conscience, according to the Word of God. The decision of troubles arising from legal matters the Church can only leave to the courts whether such matters be sworn to or not, and the courts on their part can not enforce obligations which are without standing in the civil law. Here should be clearly brought out that the efficacy which the canon law gives to the promissory oath as dis- tinguished from what it has in civil law is to be contrasted with the importance which in truth at- taches to it when the parties to the oath do not stand on equal footing to the law so that contracts between them involve moral and not legal duties and claims. Here of course the commimity of ob- jective religion supplants the community of objec- tive rights. Before any international law could be recognized there was an impulse of the deepest azMl truest quality for contracts between peoples who were strangers to one another, and between indi- viduals of such nations, which contracts were sealed with oaths so that they might have the greatest possible force. From the demand for Veritas in menUf " truth in the mind,'' flows first of all the inadmissibility and inefficacy of mental reservation in the case of oaths: and further that an oath which had been extorted or which rested on vital error had the importance of a true, proof -bringing and binding oath, although canon law does not unconditionally concede tins point respecting the promissory oath. In respect to its form the idea is excluded that an oath is an appeal to any other than God. Nothing further is necessary to express this intention to call God to witness than the use of the words " I swear." In order to surround the oath-taking with due solemnity, as where it is given in courts and in pub- lic offices, certain formulas have come into use, which partly rest upon the idea that bodily con- tact with an object considered by the swearer to be sacred, as a copy of the Gospels or a reliquary, has a tendency to excite a stronger religious feeling- So arose the formula of the solemn " bodily " oath: " So help me God and his holy Gospel " (or ** Word '0> with the addition in some formulas. 211 Oath Obadlah '' and all saints." But inasmuch as the addition just mentioned was rejected by Protestants, section 107 of the Imperial Recess of 1555 ordered that in the imperial courts it should be 4. Cus- dropped and Romsm Catholics and tomaiy Protestants alike be sworn on their Fonnulas. calling upon God and the Holy Gospel merely. There is an old custom which excepts the cleigy, later at least bishops, from touch- ing the Gospels. These laid their hands on their breasts when taking an oath, just as in former days German women did when swearing. In still later times the so-called " bodily oath " was taken not by touching any sacred object but by raising two or three fingers or by touching the judge's staff, or by merely raising the hand. Finally, it is proper to remark here that solenm oaths should be adminis- tered only in apartments suitably furnished and in OS orderly associations as possible. It is true that it has been uiged that the greater care sur- rounding the administration of the oaths, so often now missing, should be taken the more the sad in- crease of perjury is noticed. Yet one should not be blind to the fact that the carrying-out of these de- sires would encoimter great, indeed, almost insujv mountable difficulties, particularly in this that the execution of the best legal and magisterial arrange- ments depends on the capacity and willingness of the persons chaiged with carrying them out. And such considerations make the diminution of the number of oaths as much as possible very desirable, and recent legislation has this object. But it is an error to think that for these considerations an oath should not be administered when the matter in dis- pute is *' trifling.'' This is to make the amoimt of money involved the criterion of the importance of the matter, and to overlook the ideal of the law which strives to do justice entirely irrespective of the pecuniary value of the point involved. (E. Sehling.) Bibliography: For general, historical and illustrative ma- terial consult: R. Hirael, Der Eidt ein Beitrag zu seiner Oeaehicht4, Ldpeic, 1902; W. Lockhart. On Oaths, Edin- burgh. 1882; F. Friedmann, Ueber die Schwurgerichte, Berlin, 1886; J. LafiForsue, Du aerment en droit remain, Toulouse, 1888; L. Ott, Beitrdge tur Kenntnias dee grie- ehiachen Eidee, Leipaic, 1896; C. Ford, On Oaths, London, 1903 (a standard legal authority). On I. consult: J. Happel, Der Eid im A. T., Leipsic, 1873; Smith, Rel. of Sent., pp. 164 sqq.. 461-462; Nowack, ArchAologie, ii. 262 sqq.; DB, iii. 575-577; EB, iii. 3451- 3454; and the works on O. T. theology. On II., consult for the X. T.: DCO, ii. 254-256; and the works on N. T. theology, as well as DB and EB ut sup. For usage in the Church see III. below, and consult: M. D. Conway, The Oath and ita Ethics, London, 1881; G. Freudenstcin, Reehlsbelefirun-j in Schvnirgerichts-V erfahren von Frank- rrich, England und Deutsehland, Minden. 188:^, I. M. Capes, in Fortnightly Review, v (1866). On III. consult: C. F. St&udlin. Geschichte der Voratellitngen und Lehren vom Eide, Gdttingen. 1824; K. F. Gdschel, Der Eid nach Principe, Begriffe und Oebrauche, Beriin, 1837; F. G. L. Strippelmium, Der Oeriehtseid, Caswl, 1855. A valuable literatiire is indicated in Richardson, Encyclopaedia, p. 786.

OBLATES: A monastic term applied to children bound over to a monastery, to be brought up as monks. The Benedictine Rule (chap, lix.) prescribes that if any noble offers his son to a monastery, if the boy is a minor he shall be offered with a peti- tion, the accompanying gift and his hand being wrapped in the altar-cloth. The origin of the in- stitution is obscure, but it is certainly much older than the Benedictine Rule. The provisions in the longer rule ascribed to St. Basil do not correspond to later usage; but Jerome and Salvian are ac- quainted with it. It was first completely aban- doned by the mendicant orders. (A. Hauck.)

OBLATIONS: In early times the faithful pre- sented at the assembly for common worship gifts in kind. From these were taken the elements of bread and wine required for use in the holy com- munion. Other gifts were distributed according to need. Justin Martyr (q.v.) in his description of the Sunday worship of Christians says, " When our prayer is ended, bread is brought and wine and water, and the president offers both prayers and thanksgivings, according to hi,'' abOity, and the people aaaent, saying Amen; and there is a distri- bution to each and a reception of what baa been blessed, and to those who are absent a portion is Bent by the deacons; and they who are well-to-do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who suc- cors the orphans and widows, and those who through sickness or any otlier cause are ia want " (Apot., i- 67; Eng. transl. in^A'F, i. 186). A general term for such odcringa was " oblations." In process of time, and as gifts of money were gradually sub- stituted for offerings in kind, the word came to be used in a more reatncled Bense: (1) for the bread ftnd wiae, before or after consecration; (2) for any gifts besides money, or perhaps for gifts of money (or reli^oua purposes (and particularly tor the sup- port of the clergy) other than R-lma for the poor. There is some debate as to the exact force of the word in connection with alms, in the Prayer for the Chureh in the eiisting Anglican Pruyer Book and in the preceding rubric of the American Bc>ok (cf. The Journal of Thedagical Studies, i. 321). The formal presentation of gifts of bread and wine, though not used for the sacrament, at Milan is a survival of the old custom of offerings in kind, as i>> perhaps the use of pain betii, " blessed bread," In Bome parts of France and Switzerland. According to the rule of the 6rst English Prayer Book (154!!) the bread and wine tor the communion were to be paid for by the parishioners in tiu^, instead of themselves providing the elements. They are now provided at the charge of the parish. The presen- tation of alms at the lime of the eucharist had be- come almost extinct in the West — not entirely, as the " tnaas-penny " tealifiee — when it was revived in the 6rst English Prayer Book. It is litting that along with prayers, alms (in the widest sense) should go up before God. In the great central act of morehip mankind offers him in the elements of bread and wine and in money representatives of the gifts whirh he has bestowed, as an acknowledg- ment that all things come of him, and in order that they may be used for the accomplishment of his purpoaes. Of these natural gifts the bread and wine thus offered in acknowledgment of God's sover- eignty are blessed by him for iiigher purposes, and returned to the givers as the meaiw whereby they receive the spiritual food of the Lord's body and blood for the strengthening and refreshing of the soul. A. C. A. Hall. BiBUwuupar; Binghun. Oriiint, V.. iv. 1-3, VIII,, vi. 22. XII.. U.-ir.; F, Beiieadia. Di oblatianibiu. Venii'i-. 1743 (Italiim od.. 17361; L. Ducherae. ChriMan WatMp: iU Ori-rin and EnoltiHon. pp. 84, 173, 204. etc.. Loo- don. 1904; J. H. Bluet. Aniwtaitd Beak of Common Pnvtr. pmia [comult Index). New York, IMS: Kl,

OCTAVE: A term in Roman Catholic liturgies denoting the celebration throughout an entire week of certain great festivals, and also the eighth day, or conclusion of the festival, which has a higher rank than the others. Like the festivals them- selves, the octaves differ in dignity. Those of Eas- ter and Pentecost are of such high rank that neither the celebration of saints' days nor votive masses are permitted within them; those of Christmas and Corpus Christi allow the observance of sainta' days but not of votive maases; other octavee permit both. Each day of the octave has part of the serv- ice proper to itself, while the eighth approximates more closely to that of the feast. The original in- stitution of octaves is of historical interest as ahow- ing the inclination of the early Church to perpetuate the liturgical institutions of Israel, according to which the Passover was celebrated for seven days (or eight, including the day of preparation), the first and last being of special importance, while the Feast of Tabernacles lasted for eight. (E. lUNKBt.) Bibliography: Vicauniiu, fitctiaiuuun. fuo. xxviii.. aob. 1735-37. OLD ORDER BRETHREN. See Dijnkbbb, III. ODES OF SOLOMON. See Solouon, Odbs of.

ODILO: Fifth Abbot of Cluny. See Clcnt, Abbet and Congreoation of, { 3.

ODO: Second abbot of Cluny. See Cluny, Ab- bey AND Congregation of, § 2.

OESTERLEY, WILLIAM OSCAR EMIL: Church of England; b. at Calcutta July 13, 1866. He received his education at Brighton College and at Jesus College, Cambridge (B.A., 1889; M.A., 1893; B.D., 1902; D.D., 1908); became curate at Houghton-le-Spring, Durham, 1891, and at St. Botolph, Colchester, 1895; secretary of Parochial Missions to the Jews at Home and Abroad, 1897; secretary and sub-warden of the Society of Sacred Study, London, 1908; warden of the International Society of the Apocrypha, 1908; and examiner in the Hebrew and Greek Testaments for the Univer- sity of London, 1909. He is the author of St. Francis of Assisi: Lessons from a noble Life, in six Addresses (London, 1901); Walks in Jewry (1901); Studies in the Greek and Latin Versions of Amos (1902); Old Latin Texts of the Minor Prophets (Oxford, 1904) ; Codex Taurinensis (Y) (1906); The Religion and Worship of the Synagogue (London, 1907); The Evolution of the Messianic Idea (1908); Our Bible Text (1909); The Doctrine of the Last Things; Jew- ish and Christian (1909); The Jewish Doctrine of Mediation (1910) ; The Psalms in the Jewish Church (1910); and contributed Philemon and James to the Expositor's Greek Testament (1910), and Eccle- siasticus to the Cambridge Bible for Schools and Col- leges (1910); and has been editor of Church and Synagogue since 1897.

OETINGER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH: Theologian and theosophist of Wuerttem- berg; b. in Goeppingen May 6, 1702; d. in Murr- hardt Feb. 10, 1782. His is the most characteristic figure in the ecclesiastical history of WUrttemberg during the eighteenth century. After five years' study in the University of Tubingen (1722-27) and a year of travel (1729-30), he was private teacher in Tubingen (1731-38), with an interval devoted to another journey (1733-37), during which time he came into close contact with the Moravians and Zinzendorf, later, however, breaking with them. He was pastor in three places: Hirsau, near Calw, 1738-43, Schnaitheim, 1743-46, and Walddorf, 1746-52; dean in Weinsberg, 1752-69, and Herren- berg, 1759-66; while at the close of his active career he was prelate in Murrhardt (1766-82). In his choice of a profession, his aim to be in the immedi- ate service of God decided him in favor of theology and against jurisprudence. At the university, the theology and theosophy of Jacob B^hme (q.v.) gained with him the ascendency over the rational- istic philosophy of Christian Wolff (q. v.); at the same time he was also a student of the Biblical scholar Johann Albrecht Bengel (q. v.). The study of the natural sciences constituted a fourth element of Oetinger's intellectual life. All this formed the foundation of his later philosophy which found succinct expression in his Theologia ex idea vUob deducta (Frainkfort, 1765), his only sjrstematic work. In his pastoral work he came face to face with the low standard of the religious life of his people, which stimulated him to a systematic regulation of his activities as pastor, catechist, and guardian of souls (cf . his Etwaa Oamea vom Evangelio, Tobingen, 1739; on Isa. xl.-lxvi.), disclosing new and popular, yet thorough, methods for the exposition of the Gospels and the instruction of youth. In his third pastorate at Walddorf he displayed a comprehen- sive actiWty both pastoral and literary. Here he devoted his whole energy to the investigation and fostering of the general sense of truth. Besides two important works on this theme (Inquiaitio in aensum communem, Heilbronn, 1753; Sittenlehre SalotnoTUf Tobingen, 1758), he wrote here the sys- tematic work noted above and found time to pur- sue the study of chemistry. In Weinsberg his homi- letic activity became especially pronounced, as is shown by his Reden ntich dem allgemeinen Wahr' fieitagefUhl (Heerbrand, 1759). To his great regret his successful activity provoked an often unworthy opposition. His Bibliachr^mblemaiischea WOrier- buck (Frankfort, 1778), still valuable, belongs to this period. The zenith of his literary activity was reached in Herrenbeig, stimulated by his researches in natural science and the prophecies of Sweden- borg, though he was later repelled by Swedenborg's rationalistic tendencies. The remainder of his liter- ary work in Herrenberg is devoted to problems of the higher philosophy, of theosophy, and of prophecy. During his incumbency at Murrhardt he allowed himself scarcely any repose. Besides several volumes of sermons, there is an aftermath of shorter writings from this period. It was characteristic that he closed his literary career with the Versuch einer Aufldsung der 177 Fragen au8 Jacob Bdhmef a proof that the disciple had remained faithful to his master. Only in his last years did the pen fall from his hand. His imposing figure, in the fulness of manhood and the dignity of old age, is surrounded by a multitude of legends, the historical value of which can not yet be determined; yet they possess a special significance, because they serve to show how far his religious personality towered above that of his contemporaries. The permanent effects of Oetinger's activity are shown by the fruits of his endeavors in the field of speculative theology and theosophy; Schelling, Rothe, Auberlen, Hamburger have all learned from him, the two latter taking up the thread where he dropped it. Oetinger lives on in the circles of Piet- ism by dint of his powerful sermons as well among the cultured as among simple peasants, who love to nourish themselves with the strong meat of his doctrine. His Werke were edited by K. C. E. Ehmann, 11 vols., Stuttgart, 1858-63. (J. Herzog.) Biblioorapht: Of firat importance is Oetinger's Setott- biographies ed. J. Hamberger. Stuttgart, 1849; and next is J. Henog, F. C. Oetinger; L(hen«- ttnd Charakterbild, 1902. Consult further: C. A. Auberlen, Die Theotophie F. C. Odtinoen^ TObingen. 1847; K. C. E. Ehmann, F. C. OeHngerB Ltben und Briefe, Tdbiiiffeo. 1864; F. Rciff, Benod und ssiiM SchuU, Heidelbers, 1882; O. van WAcb- ter, Bengel und OeHnger, QQteirioh. 1880; Vigoaronz. Dietumnairet fase. zxviii., ods. 1753-54. OBTTLIy tn% SAMUEL: German Lutheran; b. at St. Gall (40 m. n.e. of Zurich) July 29, 1846. He was educated at the universities of Basel, Gdt- tingen, and Zurich (1866-70), and was a Swiss pas- tor (1870-78). He was then i^pointed professor of the Old Testament at the University of Bern, where he remained until 1895, when he accepted his present position of professor of the same subject at the University of Greifswald. He has written commentaries on the historic and poetic hagiograpba (in collaboration with W. Volck and J. Meinhold) for H. Strack and O. Zikik\er*B Kurtge/aaaler Kcm- mentor tu den heiligen Scknften des Alien und Neum TestamenU (2 vols., NOrdlingen, 1888^89); Ideal und Leben (a collection of Biblical essays, Gotha, 1895); Daa Kdnigsideal dee Alien TestamenU (Greifswald, 1899); Amos und Hosea, swei Zeugen gegen die Anwendung der Evduiionstheone auf dk Religion Israels (GOtersloh, 1901); Wir haben ge- glaubt und erkanni (a collection of sermons; 1902); Der Kampf um Babd und Bibel (Leipsic, 1902); Das Gesetz Hamurabis und die Thora Israels (1903); Oeschichie Israds bis su Alexander dem Oroasen (Calw, 1905); Die Auioriidt des Alien Testamenlet fUr den Christen (Gross-Lichterfelde, 1906); Da» 460 jdhrige Jubildum der Universiidt Gre^iwdd (Greifswald, 1906); and Die revidierte LMerbibd (1908).

OFFICIAL: A term in canon law denoting an alternate in matters of jurisdiction. Thus the arch- deacons, from the sixth century down, were the chief deputies of the bishops with relation to the potestas jurisdictionis, but after the twelfth century the archdeacons' encroachments were opposed by a line of synods; and even the bishops sought to restrict the undue power of the archdeacons by the institution of special officials, " extra-diocesan/' and " principal officials " or " vicars-general." The two last terms were often used S3monymously, and are still so used in all Italian districts, in Hungary, Dahnatia, and the East. In other instances, the two terms were differentiated, a special substitute, the " official," being appointed for the episcopal jurisdiction; another, the vicar-general, for the episcopal administration, as is still the case in Belgium, Spain, England, Africa, and in most German dioceses. When by action of the Council of Trent the archdeacons had been deprived of jurisdiction in matrimonial and criminal matters, the extra-diocesan officials became fewer, so that, as a rule, jurisdiction and administration are con- solidated in the hands of the vicar-general. Under this officer's presidency, there properiy exists the general vicariate, or ordinariate, also termed con- sistory; but where the actual jurisdiction, particu- lariy in affairs of matrimony, is exercised by a q[>ecial deputy of the bishop, he is assisted by a special coUegiate tribunal, the so-called " official- ate," or canndorium. E. Sbhuno.

O'HARA, HENRY STEWART: Church of Ire- land, bishop of Cashel, Emly, Waterford, and Lis- more; b. at Coleraine (28 m. n.e. of Londonderry), County Londonderry, Ireland, Sept. 6, 1843. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1865), and was ordered deacon in 1867 and ordained priest in 1868. He was curate of Ballyrashane, County Antrim (1867-68) and of Kildollagh, County Londonderry (1868-69), after which he was rector of Coleraine (186^-92), examining chaplain to the bishop of Down (1892-94), vicar of Belfast (1894- 1899), and dean of St. Anne's Cathedral, Belfast (189&-1900), as well as canon of St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, and chancellor of Connor Cathedral (1897-1899). In 1900 he was con- secrated bishop of Cashel, Emly, Waterford, and Lismore.

OINTMENT: A spicy preparation employed for personal and religious purposes. While the inven- tion of ointment is ascribed by Pliny to the Per- sians, India, Egypt, and Greece were in possession of it in far earlier times. This substance served in antiquity as medicine, as a cosmetic, and in wor- ship. All three uses are referred to in the Bible. The Old Testament uses for the term '' to anoint " dashen (Ps. xxiii. 5), " to rub with fat," also suk, " to pour ointment over one " (exclusively of cos- metics) and finally mashah, originally a technical term for anointing an object with oil, but applied exclusively to the use of ointment in worship. As a noun only shemen, " oil," is used in the Hebrew; in the Aramaic of Ezra meaah occurs; the Septua- gint and the New Testament use daion. For ointment, especially perfumed ointment, myron is generally used in the New Testament. The Old Testament does not distinguish between " oil " and " ointment "; ahemen is used for both. The oil used for ointment was extracted from olives, nard, and myrrh. The expensive perfumed oint- ments in liquid form were preserved sealed in costly alabaster flasks to keep them pure and protect them from fermentation. A " horn " (Hebr. keren) or vial (Hebr. pak) served as the vessel of anointing (I Sam. X. 1, xvi. 1; I Kings i. 39; II Kings ix. 1 sqq.). The preparation of ointments was a spe- cial trade (Ex. xxx. 25, 35, xxxvii. 29; Neh. iii. 8), and the oil was mixed with foreign, often very ex- pensive, drugs. The first man mentioned in the Bible as having prepared ointment for uses of worship is Bezaleel (Ex. xxxi. 2 sqq.)- In the principal passage (Ex. xxx.) are mentioned as constituents of the holy ointment, myrrh, cinnamon, calamus (rhizoma calami), cassia, and olive-oil. It was used on the Tabernacle and its utensils and furnishings (Ex. xxx. 26-28). The holy oil was kept in the holy place (I Kings i. 39), according to the Talmud be- side the ark of the covenant and the vessel with manna. According to Ex. xxx. anointing as an act of worship was performed only by the high priest. '' To anoint " seems to be often a metaphorical designation for entrusting somebody with an office, as in the anointing of prophets (I Kings xix. 16; cf. Isa. Ixi. 1). In the New Testament the term is often used for the reception of the Holy Spirit (Acts iv. 27, X. 38; II Cor. i. 21 sqq.)- In this sense Christ as the high priest is the especially anointed one. For the use of oil in the Christian Church see Baptism, III., 1, § 4, 2, §§ 1-2; Chrism; Extreme Unction; Sacramentals. (R. Zehnpfund.) Bibliography: H. B. Tristram, Natural HiM. of the Bible, p. 485, London, 1867; W. Djrmock. Pharmocographia Indiea, ii. 233-238, London, 1891; Beniinger, ArchAoloaie, pp. 85-86. 131. 254, 358. 365. 372; DB, in. 590-594; EB. iii. 3471-72; JE, i. 611-613. ix. 391-392; DCO, ii. 227. 265.

O'KELLY, JAMES: Methodist clergyman; b. probably in southern Virginia c. 1757; d. there Oct. 16, 1826. Little is known of his early life. In 1778 he was admitted into the itinerant Method- ist ministry and labored with great success in south- em Virginia; and in 1784 was ordained as elder. He antagonized Francis Asbury, and at the first general conference of the Methodist Church at Baltimore in 1792 offered a resolution to the effect that " after the bishop appoints the preachers at conference to their several circuits, if any one think himself injured by the appointment, he shall have liberty to appeal to the conference and state his ob- jections; and if the conference approve his objec- tions, the bishop shall appoint him to another cir- cuit." The resolution was rejected, and subse- quently O'Kelly withdrew (see Methodists, IV., 1, S 4) and with his followers formed a new body entitled ''The Republican Methodists," a popular' term borrowed from the political agitation of the time, and inunediately put into effect by leveling all ministers to the same grade. In 1801 the name was changed to " The Christian Church," in con- sequence of which it suffered two divisions, and although numbering at one time several thousand, it so declined that at the time of O'Kelly's death only a remnant remained. He was also an active opponent of slavery from press and pulpit and was charged with denying distinct personality in the Trinity, affirming that ** God was Father from eternity, Redeemer in time, and Sanctifier for- evermore." Bibuoorapht: J. M. Buckley, in American Church Hit' tory Series, v. 283-285 et paasizn. New York, 1896; A. StevenB. Hiat. of the M. E. Church in U. S. A., in. 16-37, ib. 1864; J. Lednunit Hiat. of the Rise of Methodism in America^ chap, xxiii., Philadelphia, 1859; Bennett, Me- morials of Methodism in Virginia, chap, ix., Richmond, 1871; J. A. Faulkner. The Methodists, pp. 161-162. ib. 1903; and, in general, literature under Methodists.

OLAF, SAINT: King of Norway 1015-30. See Norway.

OLD ORDER BRETHREN: See Dunkers, IU.

OLDENBURG: Grand-duchy consisting, for ecclesiastical purposes, of the duchy of Oldenburg and the principalities of LObeck and Birkenfeld; situated in the northwestern part of the German Empire, bordering on the North Sea; area, 2,479 square miles; population, 544,713 (1905). Ltibeck was the seat of a bishopric, founded in 946 and ceasing in 1523. The Evangelical Lutheran Church prevails in the duchy of Oldenburg, there being only one Reformed congregation. The Reformation arrived with the appointment by Coimt Johann XVI., in 1573, of Hermann Hamelmann as super- intendent, who introduced the Lutheran organiza- tion. During the Danish epoch (1667-73) Olden- burg remained Lutheran, and with the reign of the Hobtein-Gottorp house came a rationalisih, the in- fluence of which is traceable in the hymn-book of 1791. There foUowed in 1849 a new church con- stitution more liberal in confession and separating Chuich from State. It assigned the most impor- tant functions of government to the congregations and a synod; so that upon an appeal by the con- KTvatives to the general council in 1852 the result was that the house of deputies of Oldenburg granted a new constitution which went into effect in 1853. ThoB rests upon the basis of the Scriptures and the Augsburg Confession and makes the grand-duke the ruling hiMd of the Church subject to the limits pre- scribed by the constitution. In the principality of LObeck the Lutheran Church likewise prevails under the control of the civil government, the first eeelesiastic of Eutin being titled church counselor of the government. In Birkenfeld the twelve Lu- theran and the two Reformed congregations ac- o^yted the plan of union toward the end of the fourth decade of the last century and in 1875 the Evangelical body secured a synodical constitution. The total number of professing Evangelicals in the duchy of Oldenburg and the principality of La- beck, in 1905, was 442,400 and of Roman Catholics 98,518, while belonging to other Christian faiths are 1,547, and of Jews 2,029. (A. von Broeckeb.) Bxbuoorapht: N. J. E. Nielsen, Zur Statistik der olden- burgiachen evang.-liUh. Kirehe, Oldenburg. 1881; W. Hayen, Oldenburgiachea Kirchenrecht, ib. 1888; L. Schanen- burg, Hunderi Jahre Oldenburgiacher Kirchengeaehiehte, 2673-2667, 4 vols., ib. 1894-1903; E. lUigens, OeaehiehU der lubeckiaehen Kirehe 26SO-2896, Paderbom, 1896; G. Sello. AU-Oldenburg, Oldenburg. 1903; J. Schneider, Kirchlichea Jahrbuch (an annual).

OLGA, SAINT: Russian grand-duchess. She came of a, poor family, but became the wife of Grand Duke Igor of Kief, and governed tlie coun- try with great success during the minority of her son Sviatoslav. In 952 she went to Constantinople, embraced Christianity, and was baptized by the Patriarch TheophilaJctes, assuming the name of Helena in honor of the mother of Constantine. After her return to Kief, she ia said to have labored for Christianity, though without any palpable effect. Her day of commemoration ia July 11 (new style, 21). PMi*, 187B.

OLIN, STEPHEN: Methodist divine; b. at Leicester, Vt., Mar. 2, 1797; d. at Middletown, Conn., Aug. 18, 1851. He was graduated from Middlebury College in 1820; entered the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal Church; and, after several appointments, was professor of English lit- erature in the University of Georgia. 1827-34; presi- dent of Randolph Macon College, Virginia, 1834- 1837; and president of Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., from 1842 till his death. From 1837 to 1841 he traveled in Europe, Egypt, and Palestine, the fruits of which Journey were, Travels in Egypt, Arabia Petraea, and the Holy Land (New York, 1843); and Greece and the Golden Horn (New York, 1854). His Works, consisting of sermons, sketches, lectures, and addresses, appeared (2 vols.. New York, 1852). Bibliography; Life and Ltllcri e{ Stephen Olin, 3 voli., New York, 1S53 <ed. his wife).

OLIVERS, THOMAS: Wesleyan preacher and hymn-writer; b. at Tregynon, in Montgomeryshire, Wales, in 1725; d. at London Mar., 1799. Illiterate and profligate as a youth, he was converted under Whitefield's preaching, became in 1753 one of Wes- ley's most active preachers, and was his supervisor of the press in 1775-88, doing much work in the Calvinistic-Arminian controversy. He wrote A De- acHpHve and Flainiive Elegy on the Death of the Late Reverend John Wesley (London, 17!)1); and in 1791 four hymns, whereof" The God of Abraham praise " (Nottingham, n.d.) is generally allowed to be one of the noblest odes in the language. Bibliography: A biographical sketch by J. Klrli ia in lui edition of Olivers' Hymns and an Essay, London, 1868; and an autobiography is in T. Jackson 'a Life* of Earty UMadiM Preochtrt. vol. i., ih. 1837; cf. DNB. xlii. IM; Juliu, Rv^nolotni. p. Se7; a. W. DuSeld, English Hymns, pp. S30-A21, New York, 1886.

OLIVES, MOUNT OF, OLIVET: A mountain range east of Jerusalem, the modern Jabal ul-Tur. For the topography and description see Jerusa- l£M, T. Olivet is first mentioned in the Bible in connec- tion with David's flight from Absalom (II Sam. iv. 30). It was the scene of the worship of Chemosh and Molech (qq.v.), set up by Solomon (I Kings id. 7), destroyed by Josiah (II Kings xxiii. 13, 14); thence, also, the people, by order of Ezra, got the branches for the feast of tabernacles (Nch. viii. 15). The allusions to it in the New Testament are more numerous. Itisthuadexcribedby P.Schafr(7Arou9h BiiAe Lands, p. 272, New York, 1878): " It is very prominent in the closing scenes of our Savior's min- iatiy. In Bethany, on the eastern slope of Olivet, he had his moat intimate friends— Lazarus, Martha, and Mary — -and performed his last and greatest miracle (Luke x. 38-42; John xi.). From Mount Olivet he made his triumphal entry into Jerusalem (Luke Jtix. 29-38). Here he spent the nights inter- vening between the entry and his passion, and re- turned every morning to teach in the temple (Luke xxi. 37), Descending from this mountain, he wept over the ungrateful city, and foretold her fearful doom (Luke xix. 41-14; cf. ver. 37). To it he re- paired on the night of his betrayal (John xviii. 1); from it he ascended to heaven to take possession of his throne (Luke xxiv. 60; Acts i. 12). " Gethsem- ane was upon the hither slope of Olivet; and so upon the same mountain pressed the feet of Jesus when in the depths of his humiliation and in the heights of his triumph." Tradition wrongly puts the ascension upon the so-called " Mount of Ascension "; indeed, our Lord's footstep is shown in the Mohammedan mosque which now covers the spot. There Helena, the mother of Constantine, built (325) a basihca; and OUutod other churches and convents were built there by crusaders. The Patriarch Modestus, in the begin- ning of llic seventh century, built there a rotunda, open in the middle, because tradition stiid that the place of the ascension must not be covered by a. roof. This building waa several times destroyed and rebuilt. The present Chapel of the Ascension is octngoiial, and was rebuilt after the earthquake of 1S:)4. On the spot txaditionaJly pointed out, Etajids to-day a Mohammedan mosque, around whose court " are ranged the altars of various Christian churches." Bibliography: T. Toblor. Die Silnahiiudle and dtr Or&mi, St Gal], 1B531 P. BchsS. tit Bup.; J. Mklin, La 8aud> Litux, ii. 400-470, 3 voli., Paris. lSSl-S7i IJtvin de HsmioD. CMid'^lr\dinitniT dt la liTTc-niiUB, i. ^36-303. 3d ed., ib. 18X7; K. Bsudekur. PofMimi and Si/ria, pp. 7Z-79, Loipaic. etc., IWO; \igoawoax, DicHonnain, fuc. ixii., cola. 1770-1703; nsd the literature under Jbhuba- LXUi and Pauditihe.

OLMSTED, CHARLES TYLER: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Central New York; b. at Cohoes, N. Y., Apr. 28, 1842; educated at Trinity College, Hartford, Conn, (A.B., 1865), and pursued his theological studies at St. Stephen's College, Annandale, N. Y. He was or- dered deacon in 1867 and priested in the following year, and was professor of mathematics at St, Stephen's College (1860-68). He was assistant in Trinity parish, New York City (1868-84); rector ot Grace Church, Utica, N. Y, (1884-99); vicar of St. Agnes' Chapel, New York (1899-1902). In 1902 he was consecrated bishop coadjutor of Central New York, and on the death of Bishop F, D, Huntington in 1904, succeeded him as bishop of the diocese,

OLSHAUSEN, JUSTUS: Orientalist; b. at Ho- bentelde, Holstein, May 9, 1800; (i. at Berlin Dec, 28, 1882, He received an excellent education, first from his father and further In the schools of Gl Qck- stadt and Eutin, Olshausen was so thoroughly pre- pared that in the autumn of 1816 he was able to enter the University of Kiel. Here he zealously continued the study of Hebrew which he had begun in 1814 under his father's tutelage, and although primarily occupied «ith theology, he soon com- bined the study of other oriental languages with that of Hebrew. He passed the winter semester of 1819-20 at the University of Berlin, where, besides other work, he prosecuted bis Arabic studies with the equally ambitious August Tholuck. In Oct,, 1820, Olshausen, by the aid of a royal Danish sti- pend, was enabled to go to Paris where he remained until Apr,, 1823, and attended the lectures of Syl- veatre de Socy, the celebrated professor of Arabic and Persian, He enjoyed the society of an inspiring circle of friends and also made the acquaintance o( Alexander von Humboldt, On Nov. 4, 1823, soon after his return from Paris, Olahausen's well-founded reputation, both for unusual hnguiatic ability and for sterling character, procured him the position of extraordinary professor of oriental languages at the University of Kiel. In 1830, he became ordinary professor and continued in the university until 1848. Because of the confidence reposed in him by bis col- leagues, he was chosen four times as rector and dis- played great talents as an administrator. In the interest of his studies he went sometimes to Copen- hagen as well as to Paris, where he stayed from the autumn of 1826 until Jan,, 1S28, These were the only interruptions of his sojourn in Kiel until the restless year of 1848 brought politics disturbingly into bis tranquil scholarly life. The overthrow of the Danish rule made Olshausen, who was then curator of the university, vice-presi- dent of the convention of these provinces. When, however, in 1852, the Danish government reestab- lished its authority, Olshausen lost his offices and gained a settled position only by entering the ser\-- ice of the Prussian government, thanks to the influ- ence of Alexander von Humboldt. From Konigs- berg, where he had become ordinary professor of oriental languages and chief librarian, he accepted, in 1868, a call to Berlin as ministerial councilor, and until 1874 superintended the Prussian univer- sities. After celebrating the semi-centenary of his official life, Olshausen's continued devotion to bis oriental studies procured for him a happy retire- ment after an active career. Of his works which do not immediately concern theology, those regarding the study of the cunei- form inscriptions may be briefly mentioned: Die Pehleun^Legenden auf den MUruen drr Ictzten Sa- aaniden, aufden SlUilen MUmen arabUcher ChoUfen, a<if den M&men der Ispehbed's von Taberisia Tind auf indi>-pernacheTt Miinzcn dea Sstiichcn Iran (Copenhagen, 1843). Already in his first work, published in 1826, the Emendationen turn alien Testament, Olshausen, through Gen, x, and Isa. xxiii., had been led to conclusions concerning Baby- lon and the Chaldeans, which were later substan- tiated by Assyriology, and his sound judgment as expressed in hia treatise entitled; Prit/ung ilea Charaderg der in der astyrisehcn Knlinschriflen enthalUnen umitischen Sprache was fully confirmed by later researches. Not less important was the service rendered by Olshausen to this branch of study through his successful efforts for the transfer of Eberhard Schrader (q,v.) lo Berlin in 1875. Since 1826 Olshausen, by his many and continuous contributions to the textual criticism of the Old Testament, has, as Schrader rightly says, " opened a new path for exegetical and critical research." His theory that most of the mistakes in the text were to be sought in the consonants and not in the vowels still deserves serious consideration. His most widely known work in the direction of textual criticism, executed in a masterly style, is the sec- ond edition of the Commentary on Job by Hirzel, revised by Olshausen (Leipsic, 1852). Still more important, however, is his individual exegetical work on the Psalms (Leipsic, 1853). His greatest effort is without doubt his excellent Lehrbtich der hcbrdischen Sprache (Brunswick, 1861), which contains, in the first book, the phonetics, and from p£ige 170 the paradigms. Unfortunately the third book, to be devoted to the syntax, has not appeared. Sachau calls this grammar a book that marks an epoch in the history of oriental philology, and Nftldeke terms it a very commendable work, al- though Olshausen in this book has carried to an extreme his view that Arabic represented very closely the primitive Semitic language. A. KAMPHAUSENf. Bibliography: E. Schroder, OedHchtniarede auf Juatiu Ols- hausen, in the MiMeHungen of the Royal Pruasian Acad- emy, Berlin, 188;^; ADB, xxiv. 328-330; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fasc. xxix., col. 1795.

OLSSON, OLAF: Swedish Lutheran; b. at Karlskoga (130 m. w. of Stockholm), Vermland, Sweden, Mar. 31, 1841; d. at Rock Island, 111., May 12, 1900. He studied at the universities of Stockholm and Upsala; then at the Missionary Institute at Leipsic, 1851>-60; graduated from the University of Upsala, 1861; and from the theolog- ical department of the same university, 1863; was ordained for the Lutheran ministry, 1863; was pastor first at Persberg, Sweden, then at Sunnemo, till 1868, when he came to America; was pastor of Swedish Lutheran congregations in Lindsborg, Kan., 1869-76; professor of historical theology and catechetics in Augustana Theological Seminary, Rock Island, 111., 1877-88; pastor at Woodhull, 111., 1890; professor and president of Augustana College and Seminary from 1891. He was editor of various Swedish papers and periodicals, and author of many tracts in Swedish. He wrote in Swedish " At the Cross " (Rock Island, 1878?); " Reminis- cences of Travel" (1880?); and "The Christian Hope " (Chicago, 1887?).

OLTRAMARE, MARC JEAN HUGUES: Pastor and exegete; b. at Geneva Dec. 27, 1813; d. there Feb. 23, 1891. He was de- scended from an Italian family that had fled to Geneva in the sixteenth century for the sake of religious freedom. He studied at the college and the University of Geneva and later at Berlin, where he was a pupil of Neander. When he returned to Geneva, he became one of the most popular pastors of the city, a strong opponent of the errors of the Roman Catholic Church and of the disestablish- ment of the national church and against the adop- tion of the Confession of Faith as the doctrinal basis of the Church. In 1854, he was appointed professor of New-Testament exegesis in the Acad- emy (after 1876 the University) of Geneva. The translation of the New Testament (Geneva and Paris, 1872), edited by the Compagnie des pasteurs de Genève, is his most important work. His render- ing of John i.1,La Parole itait dieu, was very sharply criticized by the orthodox on account of the small d. In 1881-82, he issued a commentary on the epis- tle to the Romans (Paris, 1881^2), and in 1891- 1892 a commentary on the epistles to the Colos- sians, the Ephesians, and Philemon. A remarkable expounder of the Scriptures, he was a thorough scholar and introduced German methods of ex- position into French theological literature. As a critic he was rather conservative; he favored the authenticity of the Fourth Gospel, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Pastoral Epistles. He devoted his life to the study of the thoughts and work of St. Paul and was one of the most prominent represen- tatives of the Church of Geneva in the nineteenth century. Euo&nb Choibt. Bibliography: F. Chaponni^re, H. Oltr€unare, Qeneva, 1891; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, faac. xxix., cols. 1705- 1796. There ia a biographical notice by A. Bouvier in vol. ii. of his commentary to the Colossians, etc.. ut sup.

OMRI: Sixth king of Israel, successor of Elah (and Zimri), and founder of a new dynasty. His dates according to the old chronology were 926- 915, according to Schrader 900-875, according to Kamphausen 890-879. The sources of information concerning him are I Kings xvi., the Moabite Stone (q . V. ) , lines 4-8, and the Assyrian inscriptions. The data afforded by the first-named are meager, but from I Kings xvi. 15-22 it is clear that he owed his elevation to the throne to a military revolution. It is not impossible that he was of humble, and even Arab, origin. His possession of the throne was not undisputed, his rival being Tibni the son of Ginath (assisted, according to the Septuagint, by his brother Joram), doubtless of Israelitic descent. It would also seem that the faction of Tibni was at first vic- torious, and that he reigned four years. If, then, Omri reigned twelve years (I Kings xvi. 23), he held undisputed possession of the throne only eight years. After reigning at Tirzah for the six years following the revolution he transferred the capital of Israel to Samaria (I Kings xvi. 24), a site hardly less beautiful than Tirzah, and far superior strateg- ically. Though the author of I Kings refers for the complete history of Omri to " the book of the chron- icles of the kings of Israel ** (xvi. 27), it is dear from I Kings xx. 34, that he fought unsuccessfully against the Syrians, for whom he had been obliged to open bazaars in Samaria. Against Moab Omri was more successful, for il is clear from the Moab- ite Stone of Mesha (q.v.) that Omri occupied the land of Medeba " during his days and half the days of his son, forty years." In the Assyrian inscriptions Omri, though not directly mentioned, ia oflfn implied, since the king- dom of Israel is frequently termed " the house of Omri," to which even Jehu is made by Shatmane- ser to belong. This phmse clearly shows that Israel first came within the ken of Assyria during the reign of Omri. Although it is not known that Omri came into direct contact with the Assyrians, it seems probable that the marriage of his son Ahab (who came into hostiJe relations with Assyria) with the Tyrian princess Jezebel was due to political meas- ures of his father's connected with the growing Assyrian peril. The failure rightly to estimate the power of Assyria, and the attempt (o oppose it by a Phoenician alliance, were destined to cost Omri's dynasty dear, for ils overthrow by Jehu was double ]ess inspired by, and effected under the protection of, Assyria. [R. Kittel.) m aroHz; also the artidea in tbe Bible cikiiawnei. ta- peolallv DB. iii. 020-«21.

ONDERDONK, HENRY USTICK: Protestant Episcopal bishop; b. at New York Mar. 16, 1781); d. at Philadelphia Dec. 6, 185S. He graduated at Columbia College, 1805; studied medicine in Lou- don; with V. Mott, edited The New JVfc Medical Joumai; was ordained 1815; ministered at Caoan- daigua, N. Y., 1816-20; was rector of St. Ann's, Brooklyn, 1820-27; became assistant bishop of Pennsylvania, 1827, and bishop 1836; was sus- pended 1844 and restored 1856, He published Episcopacy Examined and Re-examined (1835). He was active in assiating the appointed compilers of the 212 hymns which, from 1827 to 1871, were usually bound with the Prayer Book and employed in the Protestant Episcopal Church, rewriting sev- eral hymns, and contributing ten entirely his own. Of these, " The Spirit in our hearts " is the beat known. Bibliography; W. R. Penv, Tit Bpitaipaic in A^ntrita. p. 40. New York. ISSS; S. W. DuffiFlil. Efmluh Himnt. pp. M1-M2, ib. 1880; Julian. Hv'n-al'Xiu- pp. 889-870.

OPHIR: A district described in the table of na- tions (Gen. X. 2*,)) as Joktanite, or South Arabian, although its precise location is unknown. It is of peculiar interest as the terminus of the trading voyages of Solomon, and is thus brought into con- tact with valuable articles of commerce of the an- cient East. According to I Kings ix. 25-28, Solo- mon built at Ezion-geber (on the Edomitic shore of the Red Sea) ships which brought 420 talents of gold from Ophir (cf. II Chron. viii. 17-18). Ac- cording to I Kings X. 11-12, the ships of Hiram brought Solomon not only gold, but also almug trees and precious stones. The Ophir of these 3 taken by Josephus (Ant. VIIL, vi. be India; while Eusebius {PrrrparfUia X., XXX, 4; Eng. tranal.. Preparation for 'the Gospel, i. 476, 2 vols., Oxford, 1903), quoting Eupoleraua ( 1 60-1 50 b.c, ) , states that David built ehipa in the Arabian city Aelan and sent miners to the island of IJrphe (Uphre) in the Red Sea, whence gold was brought to Judea. The frequent transcription of Ophir by the Septuagint Sophir, Soupkir, connoted, aa ia clear from Coptic vocabulary, a part of India; and it has been compared with the Supara of Ptolemy and the Uppara of Arrian, a place in the vicin- ity of the modem Goa. The Urphe (L'phre) of Eupolemua corresponds, in all probability, to the Ophir of the Old Testament, especially as it points to an Arabian locality. Those who have depended on the Old Testa- ment, especially on Gen. x. 2S, have sought Ophir in Southern Arabia. Sprenger located it in "Aair between Hajaz and Yemen (1H-I7°n. lat.), since Greek and Arab writers mention gold mines and river gold on the west coast of Arabia. Hersfcid sought Ophir on the southern coast in the Himyaritic territory, south of the Sabeans (cf. Gen. X. 28-29), who are said by Ptolemy to have been an inland people. .Although, according to Agftlharc hides, the Arabians considered gold worth only one-third oa much as copper and half as much as iron, the servants of Solomon can scarcely have gained their 420 talents by trade, but more probably mined in the highlands in the land of the Alihwins and Casandrians. Glaser regards Ophir as the western coast of the Persian Sea OS far south as the promontory Ras Musandum. The geographer al-Homdani (about 940 a.d.) lo- cated the most of the gold mines in the north- eastern part of inner Arabia around the Jabal Yamamah. Here he places the land of Havilah, " where there is gold " (Gen. ii. 11), taking Ophir as the corresponding coast land lo the Persian gulf. Between the peninsula of ^aXur and the Raa Musondum he locates the harbor of Ommana, which ia mentioned as a, place of export for gold. Glaser likewise compares the peculiar form-names Apira, Apir, which were applied to the west and northeast shores of the Persian Gulf. The evidence seems, on the whole, to be in favor of the localization of Ophir on the eastern coast of Arabia. Lassen and Ritter sought to locate Ophir in India near the delta of the Indus and the Gulf of Cambay, partly because of the Sanskrit name Abhira as applied to a pastoral people. This view, however, hoa little in its favor, especially as the inhabitants of Syria first became acquainted with India through the Persians and Greeks. The same criticism applies to Von Baer'a attempt to locat« Ophir in the peninsula of Malacca, whore the dis- tance forms a fatal objection to the theory. In recent years there has been a revival of the hypothesis that Ophir was situated on the east coast of South Africa. In 1871 Mauch discovered remarkable ruins on the Mountain of Pum or Afura which, according to Portuguese documents of the sixteenth century, were attributed by the nativea to the Queen of Sheba or to Solomon. These ruins are situated at Zimbabye, in a district formerly inhabited by the Molotae, west of the Portuguese station of Sofala or Sofara. The re- eeioblance of the name Fura or Afura to Ophir is too slight to be accepted without further evi- dence; and the name Sofala, though compared with the Sophir of the Soptuagint, ia really cognate with the Hebrew Shetelah, " lowland." The gold fields at the headwaters- of the Nile were known at a very early date, but the first uncertain records of gold fields in South .Africa do not antedate Ptolemy (2d cent. a.d.). Even bad knowledge of their exist- ence spread to Syria about 1000 b.c, it would atill bo incredible that the workmen of Hiram and Solo- mon would have mined at the distance of forty German miles from the coast. (H. Guthb.) .. K. KGime, TAr Gold o{ Ophir, London. 11, Inditchr AUrTtum<Avttdt. i. 5.18 iqq.. 'i Bqq., Bonn, 1844-01: A. Spnoccr, Dtt allt Oratrapkie Arabient, |i. 57. Bern. 1S75: idem, m ZDMG. xliv (1890). 515-51fl: L. Henfeld. Mnndtinte- KhiMe dsr Judtn, pp. llt-Se. Brunswick. IHTD; K, E. vnn Bbbt. Redtn, iii. 112-130, St. PetenbuiB. 1880; J. Licbl^in. I/anJel und ScAijToAri auf dem rathrn After, pp. 142 sqq.. Ldpsic, lS8fl: E. aiaKT. Stitu drr GrKhiMi und Gta- erapKie Arabina, ii. 345-354. 357-3S3. Bprtin, I890i idem. In ZDMG, Tliv (1890). 731; K. ret«ni. Dai aoUent Ophir. Jlunich, ISfiS; idem. Im GoUlavdt da Allerihuma. ib. 1902; idem, Ophir iwtA dun nne^lm Fartdiuneni. Bertiu. IMS; i.Yieoa<Ay. ia Joiimal ol thr Boyal AtuOk .SarielV.PP.34I-2KS, 1898; G.Ovpien.ThaTthithiind Opbit. Beriin. 1903; OS. iii. S25-62S; EB. iii. 3S13-1S: JE. ii. 408-407; Vigouroux, Dictionnairi. ixix. lS:»-33; tb> 1901: C. 1 243 Ophlr Ophites

OPTATUS: Bishop of Mileve in Numidia, author of a well-known work entitled De schiamale Dona- ti^anan ndtxmis Parmemanum. Augustine, in his work against Parmenionus, calls him " the Bishop of Mileve of venerable memory," and Fulgentiua places him by the side of Augustine and Ambrose as a defender of the Catholic faith. Apart from his book nothing is known of his life. According to Jerome the work was written in the reigns of Valen- tinian and Valens (3&1-375}; the fact that OptO' tus refers to the persecution of Maximian as hav- ing occurred sixty years before allows us to date it about 368. It is true that he speaks (U. 3) of Siri- cius Bs bishop of Rome, which he was not until 384; but these words were considered an interpolation even by earlier scholars. The fact appears to be that the worii was originally in six books, and was known by Jerome in this form; the seventh is on independent addition, which was possibly written by Optatus himself in 3S4y when he may have re- vised the entire work. It is an answer from the Catholic side to the lost Donatist treatise of Par- menianiis and is one of the most important sources for the history of the controversy. The work is written in a conciliatory tone, and even when the author has allowed himself to bring grave charges in detail against his opponents, he checks himself by the recoUection that they are his Christian brothers. He adheres throughout to the fundamental distinction between heretics and schis- matics; the former are " deserters or falsifiers of the creed/' and thus no Christians, while the Dona- tista are rebellious Christians. The heretics have no true baptism, no power of the keys, no proper worship; but the Donatists, although outside of the Catholic Church, " have derived true sacraments from the common source." Thus he goes much further than in the latter days of the Novatian con- troveray Cyprian had been willing to go, who had denied the legitimacy of both the faith and the sac- raments of the schismatics, placing them practically on a level with heretics. Yet Optatus goes on to say that the possession of these gifts by the schis- matics is a fruitless one; they are only a " quasi- church," The distinguishing marks of the true Church are, first, the possession of the sacraments — and here he is far from clear, if not self-contradic- toiy; and, secondly, catholicity in extension, while the Donatists exist only in Africa, outside of a small colony in Rome. In both these points he prepared the way for Augustine's doctrine of the Church, and it is this that constitutes his impor- tance in the histoiy of dogma. Again, he takes a distinct step in advance of Cyprian in his doctrine of the sanctity of the sacraments, summed up in the proposition that '' the sacraments are holy in themselves, not through the sanctity of men." This assertion of the objectivity of the sacraments was of fundamental importance for the development of western doctrine. Another part of the argument shows that the Cyprianic ideal view of the unity of the episcopate as summed up and represented in the Chair of Peter was still accepted and unsuspect- ingly fostered in Africa. Where Parmenianus enimierates six " gifts " of the Church (essential portions of its endowment), Optatus admits only five: cathedra, the ecumenical unity; angelua, the legitimate local bishop; apirUua; fonSf a true bap- tism; and sigillum, the orthodox creed of the Trin- ity. In opposition to the Donatists, who denied the authority of the State over their ecclesiastical actions, he put forth the proposition which was afterward taken so ill, "The State is not in the Church, but the Church in the State, that is in the Roman Empire." The seventh book shows an even more conciliatory attitude than the others; the conception of the unity of the Church is still more sharply emphasized in it. (A. Harnack.) Bibliography: The editio prtncept was by J. Cochlsus, Maini, 1549; a corrected ed. was by Baudouin, Paris, 1562, 1569; the edition upon which later editions were founded was by Dupin, Paris, 1562, or Antwerp, 1569, reproduced in MPL, xi.; the newest ed. is by C. Ziwsa, in CSEL, xxvi., Vienna, 1893. Consult C. Ziwsa. Bei- Mo€ eu Optaiua MiUvitanuat Eranot Vindobonentta, pp. 16&-176, Vienna, 1893; Ceillier. Auteura aacris, v. 107- 149; Harnack, DoQma, ii. 93, ili. 80, 223, v., passim; DCB, iv. 90-93; XL, ix. 932-934.

OPTIMISM: Philosophically the theory that the universe is the best possible and existence is essentially good. The term is modern; yet as a mood and a disposition optimism is as old as hu- man life. As a distinct theory it was proposed about the same time by Lord Shaftesbury, Archbishop King, and Leibnitz. Shaftesbury first expounded it in his Inquiry concerning Virtue, written in 1692 and surreptitiously published in 1699; King in his De origine mali (1702); and Leibnitz in his Theo- dicie (1710). It had occurred independently to Leibnitz; but before he published on the subject he had read what Shaftesbury and King had writ- ten. Pope's E88ay on Man (1732-34) advocated the doctrine in verse; Voltaire in Candide (1759) ridiculed it. According to Leibnitz " there was an infinity of possible ways of creating the world, ac- cording to the different designs which God might form, and each possible world depends upon con- ditions of certain principal designs or ends of God proper to itself." From this infinite number of pos- sible worlds God chose to bring into existence the present system of things. And since God is a being not only of infinite power but of infinite wisdom and goodness, under the law of sufficient reason the present world must be the best possible. The op- timism here presented rests upon an assumption concerning the nature of God and his purpose in the creation, and interprets particular experiences and events in the light of the world-view. The theory of optimism has also been presented induct- ively, with the aim of showing that good or haj>- piness preponderates over pain and evil in human life, and that the animal consciousness is far less susceptible to pain than has been commonly sup- posed. Moreover, experiences which, regarded separately, appear wholly evil, when brought into instrumental relations with ethical ends are seen to be indispensable to virtue or the good. Opti- mism has furnished a key to a difficult problem which haunted New England Theology (q.v.) from 1750 onwards, viz., the relation of sin to the divine good- ness and government, or the wisdom of God in the permission of sin. The general principle was that sin is a necessary means of the greatest good. Ac- cording to Joseph Bellamy (q.v.) sin was a means through which God's glory was manifested and the good of the universe promoted; a doctrine drawn from Leibnitz, grounded on the assumption of the divine nature alone {Works, vol. ii., Boston, 1850). Samuel Hopkins (q.v.), reasoning from the same premises, taught that sin, even the most odious and abominable, was necessary for the glory of God and the good of the creature; and God can so order things that any number of men shall become sin- ful when it is most for his glory and the general good {Works, i. 140, 220, Boston, 1852). Stephen West (q.v.) mainta.ined the desirability of sinners and moral evW existing, that God might exercise and manifest his mercy and also his hatred of sin {Moral Agency, p. 204, New Haven, 1772). Leon- ard Woods (ci-v.) declared that in every instance in which sin occurred God preferred it to holiness. N. W. Taylor {i\.v.) denied that sin was the necea- eary means to the greatest good, but held that this -world contained the greatest good possible to God iMoral Government, ii. 276, New York, 1859). L. F. Steams (q.v.) asserted that God intended to permit a certain amount of sin in his world for the sake of a. greater good (Present Day Theology, p. 244, New York, 1S03). The ultimate questions thus raised concerning sin and evil persist in other forms and associated with other interests, as in a general attitude toward life (Goethe, Emerson, and Steven- son), and in the implications of evolution {J, Le Conte, Et'olution and its Relation to Religious Thojighl. New York, 1888), of the idealistic philoso- phy (J. Rovce, The World and the IruliiHdual, New York, 1899-1901), and of the Fatherhood of God (G. A. Gordon, Immortality and the New Theodicy, Boston, 1897). C. A. Beckwith. Bibliography: J.H, Achterfoldt.Op(™imiii. und Ptuimii- Bcriiu, I87S: h. B. Hdieabocb. £tiic PAiJiuapAu da oaundm M cmrhrnvtrilanda. Vienna. 18701 F. Bowan. JUsdim PhiliuophB. New York. ISTT; J. Duboo, Der Oplimiamia ai> ICrlKinn-Anuimo. Bona. ISSl; L. SUpben, Hill, nf Enttiali Thnughl in llir ISUi CunluTV. 2 *•>>'■■ New Yorli. ISHI: G. Morundj. OUimumo e pnurimiima. Milui. 1301: H. Lonn. Dcr onndloae Op!imi»mut. Dreadfn. 1897; G. H. PiJmEr, TfieGioT/D/''^/'>>pn-/«*. NewYork. ISaS: H, BoIa. Im P/iUaaaphii di I'Aammi Aniriw, Fnrii. 1899: the liUtmtun under PsBsniinH and luch worka on tlie hiatory nf philoBophy bb Ihow of J. E. Erdmaan. London. 1KU4-Be, A. Weber, ib. I8WI, and F. Ueberwcg. Berlin, 1901-O:i.

OPTION: The obtaining through the choice of the acquirer himself of a church-living that has bo- become vacant. Besides, in the chapters (in which, at least in Germany, in consequence of the strictly regulated manner of the canonicale, this right is ob- solete to-day) there ia found an option in the college of cardinals. E. Sehling.

ORANGE, SYNODS OF: Two synods held at Orange in the south of France. The first took place on Nov. 8, 441, under the presidency of Hilary of Aries (q.v.), Eucherius of Lyons also being present. Seventeen bishops attended the meeting. Thirty canons were passed, dealing with unction, the per- mission of penance, the right of asylum; recom- mending caution to bishops in the ordination of foreign clergy, the consecration of churches out^ side of their own jurisdictions, and other matters; imposing limitations on the administration of ecele- siastieal rites to those who were in any way defect- ive, either in body or mind; and emphasizing the duty of celibacy tor those belonging to the clerical state, especially deacons and widows, with expresa reference Co canon viii. of the synod of Turin (401). The exact interpretation of some of them (ii., iii., xvii.) is doubtful. Canon iv. is in conflict with a. decretal of Pope Siriciiw; and ii. and xviii. betray an inclination to resist the introduction of Roman customs. These canons were confirmed at Aries about 443 (see Arles, Synods of). On July 3, 529, another synod took place at Orange, which in the mean time had passed under Burgundian and then Ostrogothic rule. This meeting, for which occasion was given by the consecration of a church built by the governor of Gallia Narbonensis, was attended by fourteen bishops under the presidency of Ceaa- rius of Aries, Its decrees, which have a certain importance in the history of Augustinianism, re- ceived the papal sanction. (E. Hbnnecke.) Bibliography: Cmwru of cAe Stcond Counctl of Otasot. A,0. 6te. London. 1882; Hefele. ConcilieitgctcAuMe, ii. 291-KIS. TM sqq.. Elng. Iranal.. iii. Isg-IM. iv, 152 aqq.: J. SinooDd. Concilia anJiqua Oatlia, i. 70 aqq„ 215 Kiq.. PariB. less.

ORATORY: Name of a place of prayer. When, in the early Church, parochial churches were estab- hshed, celebration of the sacraments and public worship, with certain exceptions, came to be con- fined to these; and sanctuaries in connection with private homes and corporate institutions, which were frequently memorials and martyries, were limited to private prayer and were called oratories, " People's oratory " was also a name applied to the nave of a church. Later the term chapel came into use and applies to adjunct sanctuaries of private houses, court-houses, colleges, monasteries, or churches. ORATORY OF THE DIVINE LOVE: (Oralo- ■rium divini amoris): The name of a circle of re- formers at Rome in the sixteenth century. Among analogies to Protestantism in Italy, Ranke (Popei, i. 101 sqq.) accords first place to this institution. It was an attempt (o effect a reform within the Ro- man Catholic Church, but without such a separa- tion as Luther brought on. Only so far does the analogy obtain as that pious men at Rome (about 1520), such as Giberti (fl,v,), Sadoleto, Giovanni Pietro Caratta (see Paih. IV., Pope), and others, availed themselves of such means as the Church afforded for the purification of church life; namely, sedulous participation in the divine office and the ^ pilgrimages, fasting, almsgiving, and the like. But they do not atrike to the heart of the Ref- ormation movement, and issue with little result of a permanent character. The participants remained loyal members of the Roman Catholic Church. They assembled, some fifty or sixty in number, at Trastevere, in the Church of St. Dorothea. A similar society existed at Verona, in the circle of Biahop Giberti. The Roman Oratory appears to have reached ita termination during the assault and plundering of the city, In 1527; but an Arcbicon- /raternilas Dirini AnutrU, transferred from St. Dorothea to St. Andrew, in 1750, is yet in e!ci8l«nce. The significance of the Oratory rests not upon ita direct results, which were slight, but rather on the tact that the experience of one of ita individual members, Gffitano of Thiene, fumiahed the vital impulse for the founding of a separate order (see Tseatineh). K. Bbnrath, BjEuaQnAi-ai: The i^biel aoui Pauli IV.. p. IM2. Cologne, |i Tucker, b the ffnfll«* HuHm M; K. BeniBlh, Bernard OrJii II furtl -: Miu SS. BnuL OSATORY, PRIESTS OF THE. S aiLiP, Saint, ano the Oratorianb.

ORDERICUS VITALIS: Monk and historian; b. at Atcham (4 m. s.e. of Shrewsbury), England, Feb. 16, 1075; d. probably on Feb. 3 of some year later than 1141. He was the son of a Norman- English priest named Odelerius; was sent when thirteen years of age to be trained for the monastic life at the monastery of St. Evroult in Normandy; he was ordained subdeacon 1091, deacon 1093, and priest 1107; attended possibly the Synod of Reims, 1119, and an assemblage of monks at Cluny, 1132. His significance depends upon his Historia ecdesi- atHca, in thirteen books, completed in 1141, and reaching from the first preaching of the Gospel to 1141. For the earlier parts the work has no inde- pendent value, the substance being derived from other authors. It is of value chiefly for the period following the Norman conquest. The style is some- what florid and pedantic; but for his own period has interest for its detail and its first-hand views of things. A manuscript which is very possibly the autograph is preserved in the Biblioth^ue Na- tionale, Paris. The original edition was in A. Duchesne's HistoricB Normannorum Scriptorea, pp. 319-925 (Paris, 1619), reproduced in MPL, clxzxviii.; other editions are: Bouquet, RecueU, vols, ix.-xi.; A. le Provost, 5 vols., Paris, 1838- 1855. A French transl. by L. Dubois (4 vols., Paris, 1825-27) and an Eng. transl. (in Bohn's AnHquarian Library, 4 vols., London, 1853-54) are accessible. Bibliography: The chief source is his own work« princi- pally (Pi^voet's ed.). U. 300-302. 416-422. v. 133-136. Consult the Notice prefixed to vol. v. of Provost's ed.; Biblio*Mque de Vicole dec chartes, zxxiv. 267-282, xxxvii. 491-494; T. Wright, Biographia Britannica lUeraria^ ii. 111-116, London, 1846; T. D. Hardy, Deacriptive Cata- logue, in RolU Series, No. 26. ii. 211-223, ib. 1862-71; R. W. Church, Life of St. Anaelm, chap, vi., ib. 1870; J. Teesier, De Orderico Vitali, Paris. 1872; F. A. Wichert, in Forachungen tu deutachen Oeachichte, xii (1872). 57- 112; Rioult de Neuville, in Revue dee queatione hietoriquea, xzi (1877). 173-184; E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, iv. 496-500, Oxford, 1879; Schaff, Christian Church, v. 1, pp. 94. 636 et passim; DNB, xlii. 241-242.

ORDERS, HOLY: The usual term for the dis- tinctions in rank and office among the clergy, also applied in the prelatical churches to the office and functions of the ministry. The term ordo was very early employed in the first sense; it occurs more than once in Tertullian, and was probably part of the recognized terminology before his time. For discussion of the separate orders see Acolyte; Bishop; Deacon; Organization of the Early Church; Ostiarius; Polity; and Presbyter; and for the " sacrament of orders " see Ordina- tion. This article deals with the history and origin of the classification in general. At first no special stress was laid on an exact number or on a division into major and minor orders. Tertullian certainly knew other offices besides those of bishop, priest, and deacon, but it is impossible to determine ex- actly which they were. In the letters of Cornelius of Rome to Fabius the functionaries of the Ro- man Chureh include presbyters, deacons, subdea- cons, acolytes, exorcists, readers, and doorkeepers; and there is evidence of the existence of all these but the last about the same time in Africa. The eighth book of the Apostolic Constitutions treats | of the setting apart of bishops, presbyters, deacons, and readers only, although another part shows that the compiler was familiar with exorcists and singers as distinct official classes. But for a long time there was no settled number of orders; the func- tions which developed out of the necessities of church life took different forms in different places. Scholasticism undertook to systematize the mat- ter. Peter Lombard regards the number seven and the division into two classes as settled, naming the presbyterate and diaconate as the only ones which existed in the primitive Church under ex- plicit apostolic authority; according to him the episcopate is not a distinct order but ** the name of a dignity and an office, '^ subdivided into patri- archs, archbishops, metropolitans, and bishops. Thomas Aquinas agrees with him in substance, except that he numbers the subdiaconate among holy orders. The Council of Trent made the scho- lastic systematization a matter of faith, although some of the orders were no longer more than nom- inal, and nothing more than mere steps to the priest- hood. In the Eastern Church (q.v.) the gradation of offices was not so systematically developed; the only ones to which significance is attached are the episcopate, priesthood, and diaconate. (A. Hauck.) In the Roman Catholic Church the orders are distinguished into major (priests, deacons, and sub- deacons) and minor (acolytes, exorcists, readers, and doorkeepers). Some difference of opinion seems to exist as to whether bishops constitute a separate order, in which case bishops, priests, deacons, and subdeacons are the major orders (see Deacon, II., $1). Admission to these orders is governed in each church by canonical regulations. Bibliography: BinKham. Origines, II., i. 1, III., i. 1-2; A. J. Binterim, DenktoUrdigkeiten, i. 1, pp. 281 sqq.. Mains, 1825; J. C. W. Augusti, DenkwHrdigkeiten, xi. 75 sqq., Leipsic, 1830; P. Hinachius. Kirchenrecht, i. 5 sqq., Berlin. 1869; G. PhUUpa, Kirchenrecht, i. 297-298. Re- gensburg. 1881; E. Friedberg. Kirchenrecht, pp. 25 sqq.. Leipsic. 1903.

ORDINAL: '' A form and manner of making, ordaining, and consecrating of Bishops, Priests, and Deacons " added to the Book of Common Prayer of the Anglican and Protestant Episcopal churches, not being, strictly speaking, a part thereof. It is translated and adapted from what among pre< Reformation books was called the Pontifical, a book containing services performed by a bishop. The first English ordinal was put forth in 1550, following the Prayer Book of 1549. It was some- what revised in 1552, and again in 1662. The American ordinal dates from 1792. The Preface to the ordinal of 1550 (somewhat enlarged and strengthened in 1662 in view of the Presbyterian domination during the Commonwealth) declares that it is the intention of the Church of England to continue the orders of bishops, priests, and dea- cons maintained in the Church from the apostles' time (see Succession, Apostolic). It was plainly the object of the compilers of the Anglican ordinal to retain all that was essential, according to Scriptural and primitive use, in the older offices, while aiming at greater simplicity (the Latin rites had become not only complicated but 256 Orderlotis Vitalis Ordination confused), and discarding several symbolical cere- monies which had gathered around and sometimes obscured the earlier and necessary forms. In all the early rites, according to L. Duchesne {Christian Worship, p. 377, London, 1904), " the ceremony of ordination consists especially of a prayer recited over the candidate in a public and solemn assembly. This prayer is accompanied by the imposition of hands." This solemn prayer is preceded in the English ordinal by an examination of the candi- date in the presence of the people, with a challenge to any to objcKit to the ordination of an unworthy man, by a bidding to prayer and the saying of the litany with special suffrages, by the invocation, in the case of the ordination of a priest or a bishop, of the Holy Spirit in the ancient hymn Veni Creator Spiritus. The imposition of hands by the bishop is accompanied by an imperative formula: (1) " Take thou Authority to execute the Office of a Deacon in the Church of God committed unto thee; in the Name," etc. (2) " Receive the Holy Ghost for the Office and Work of a Priest in the Church of God, now committed unto thee by the imposi- tion of our hands. Whose sins thou dost forgive, they are forgiven, and whose sins thou dost retain, they are retained. And be thou a faithful Dis- penser of the Word of God, and of his holy Sacra- ments; in the Name," etc. (The American Book has an alternative formula: " Take thou Author- ity to execute the Office of a Priest in the Church of God, now committed to thee by the imposition of our hands. And be thou a faithful Dispenser, etc."). (3) " Receive the Holy Ghost for the Office and Work of a Bishop in the Church of God, now committed unto thee," etc. In the ordination of a priest, the attending priests unite with the bishop in the laying on of hands; in the consecration of a bishop three bishops concur. This is followed by the delivery of the New Testa- ment to a deacon, of a Bible to a priest and to a bishop with an appropriate commission or charge. In the ordinal of 1550 the priest received with the Bible a chalice and bread, and the bishop with the Bible a pastonil staff. These relics of the parrectio instrumentorum (a comparatively late feature in the conferring of the holy — as distinct from the minor — orders) were dropped in 1552. The idea undoubtedly was to emphasize the supreme im- portance of the teaching office of the ministry, its prophetic and pastoral aspects having been over- shadowed by an exaggerated stress laid on the sacerdotal side. But authority to minister the sac- raments was explicitly conferred along with the preaching of the Word. For all these changes from the more elaborate rites ample sanction vni\ be found in the earlier forms of ordination, such as those given in the Canons of Hippolytus, the Apos- tolical Constitutions, and the Prayer Book of Sera- pion, Bishop of Thmuis in Egypt (q.v.). The whole rite of ordination is interwoven, as of old, with the service of the holy communion, dea- cons being ordained between the Epistle and the Gospel (that one of them may exercise his preroga- tive of reading the appointed Gospel in its proper place), priests after the Gospel and bishops after the Creed. A. C. A. Hall. Bibliography: L. Duchesne, Chriatian Worthip: its Origin and Evolution, chap, x., London, 1904; F. Proctor and W. H. Frere. A New Hist, a/ the Book of Common Prayer, pp. 648-673 et paasim, ib. 1906; J. H. Blunt, Annotated Book of Common Prayer, pp. 32, 460, 657 sqq.. New York, 190S.

ORDINARY: In canon law this expression de- notes the bishop of the diocese as the ordinary judge, that is, the regular and customary possessor of jurisdiction within his diocese. In contradis- tinction to the ordinary are all those churchmen who are regularly in possession of jurisdiction, but only through a delegation of the power from the ordinary, such as the vicars-general and officials, also those who for especial reasons have been ex- ceptionally summoned by the pope to the direction of the ecclesiastical affairs of a diocese, such as the coadjutors. All bishops are not ordinaries; for in- stance, the suffragan bishops, and especially all the so-called titular bishops. See Bishop; Bishop, Titular. E. Sehling.

ORDINATION: The solemn act by which men are set apart for the Christian ministry. The or- dinance is differently understood in different branches of the Church and the manner of its ad- ministration varies. The Greek and Roman Catho- lic Churches hold ordination one of the seven sacra- ments (see Sacrament). The Council of Trent declared that by it "a character is imprinted which can neither be effaced nor taken away "; the words of the bishop, " Receive ye the Holy Ghost," im- part this character; hence those who have once been duly ordained can never again become lay- men (session xxiii., Doctrina de sacra- The Greek mento ordinis). The '* character " is and Roman independent of the person or life of Catholic either ordinant or candidate, and, like Churches, baptism, ordination may not be re- peated. To ordain belongs to the bishop and eveiy bishop has the power; but in certain cases presbyters may ordain to the four minor orders (e.g., an abbot may ordain one al- ready subject to him in. his monastery). Every ordination by a properly ordained bishop is " valid " (valida)f but that it be also " lawful " (licita) certain provisions of canon law must be complied with, e.g., the bishop must not be a heretic, a schismatic, or suspended, and must act within his competency. Hence ordination by Swedish, Danish, and Anglican bishops is not recognized by Rome. As to com- petency, the principle is that the candidate must be under the jurisdiction of the ordinant according to canon law. The bishop is bound to exclude the in- competent and unfit (see Irregularity), and to observe the rules as to rite, place, and time. In the Church of England and the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States, ordination has not the significance of a sacrament; the view of the English Reformers was not that the laying on of hands conferred any grace. Bishops The alone have the right to ordain; and Anglican the generally accredited view is, that Churches, ordination not performed by episcopal hands is invalid. Presbyterial ordina- tion, however, was acknowledged by the Re- formers of the Elizabethan period. The custom now prevails universaUy, of reordaining clergymen from other Protestant denominations applying for orders, though it is dispensed with in the case of priests from the Roman Catholic and Greek Churcheii. The Ltilheran and Reformed Churches have al- ways acknowledged and practised ordination; hut their confessions and theologians have justly laid stress upon the necessity of the dinne Other Prol- call or vocation to the ministry. The estant Augsburg Confession says (art, xiv.), Churches. " No one may teach publicly in the Church, or administer the sacraments, «xcept he be rightly called " (rite jvxatus). Ordina- tion is regarded as the Church's solemn approval and public attestation of this inward call. Besides the laying on of hands it includes the Scripture lesson from I Tim. ii. and Acta xx., the pledge to evangelical ministration and conduct, and closes with the Eucharist. In the churches of the Re- formed communion (Presbyterian, etc.) the rile is administered by presbyters, who combine in laying their hands upon the head of the candidate while prayer is offered, and thus setting him apart for the ministry. The Moravians confine the right to or- dain to their bishops, but recogniie the ordination of other Protestant bodies aa valid. The Disciples of Christ, Quakers, and Plymouth Brethren do not Tecognixe any human rit« of ordination. They hold nil Christiana to be equal, and, while they fully accept the doctrine of a divine and inward call to preach, refuse to grant any efficacy to the human ordinance of setting apart for ministerial functions. Bee also Clergy; Laying On of Hands; Orders, Holy; also Bte hop; Deacon; Episcopacy; PreB' sttbr; Priest; ete. BiBUoOBAPHt: Tbv beet ungls article 'a in DCA, U. 1S01- 1520 (eihaiutEvc): L. Thomuain. Ancienne tt tuianUe rfMnplinc dt rtalit. 3 vols.. PnTia, 1726: E. MnK&ie. De aMiquh ffflma ritibtu, 3 voli., Aclwerp. 1730-37; Biii(- buD. Oriinnu, book iv.i T. Klufoth. LUurgiichr Abhand- liaigen, vol. 1.. Schwerio. 1S54; C. Hodije. DMcimioium CAunA Polily. New York, IS7S: G. RieUchel, Lulher und dit OTdinalion. Wilicnberc, 1SS9; KL. ix. I0ZS-Z7; T. KoldB, ia TSK. 1894,

ORDO ROMANUS: In the ecclesiastical lan- guage of the Middle Ages, a directory of church rites, giving the order and arrangement of the dif- ferent ceremonies, but not the liturgical text. By the twelfth or thirteenth century, the name Ordo began to be replaced in current usage by the term Ceremoniale, and is now applied only to a small book published each year for the clergy and others who recite the daily office, specifying the exact service for each day in the year. The ancient or- ordines extant are all of a more or less Roman charac- ter. The matter contained in them is now divided between the Ceremoniale Romanum and the Cere- moniale episcoporum. The former was drawn up in 14SS by Augustinus Patricius Piccolomini, but first printed at Venice in 1516; the latter was published in 1600 by Clement VIII., and enlarged later by Innocent X. and Benedict XIII. and XIV. The following is a list of the more important ordinea Romani. (I) The so-called Ordo Romarttis vulgarii, first published by G, Cassander (Cologne, IftSS and 16€1); it contains the entire liturgy, and can hardly be older than the tenth century. (2) The fifteen ordinal published by Mabillon in his Museum Itali- eurn (vol. ii., Paris, 16SD), and usually quoted by his numbers. The first six contain the pontifical mass, and are of different dates. Grisar and Probst ascribe no. 1 to the time of Gregory the Great, Duchesne to the ninth century; Amalariua of Meta comments on it about 830. The next live are de- cidedly later. No. 7 deals with baptism, nos. 8 and 9 with ordination; no. 10 combines a variety of different rites, such as the liturgy for the last three days of Holy Week, confession, visitation and com- munion of the sick, and extreme imction. No. II contains the papal litui;gy for the whole year; it was drawn up before 1 143 by Benedict, canon of St. Peter's, and adopted by Guido of Castelio, later Celestine II. No. 12 was compiled by Cardinal Cencio de' Sabelli, later Honorius III., and con- tains the papal rites from Advent to Holy Cross Day, besides various papal functions, and the rites for the election and consecration of a pope and the coronation of an emperor. No. 13 was compiled by order of Gregory X. (1272); it deals with the election and with the functions of the pope, as does no. 14 in more detail ; according to Mabillon this latter is to be ascribed to Cardinal James Cajetan (first half of the fourteenth century). No. 15, covering the cer»- monies of the entire ecclesiastical year, was compiled by Peter Araelius, bishop of Sinigaglia (d. 1.198), (3) Besides these. Duchesne has published a number of other important ordines, including nine out of ft Parisian manuscript of about 800 (Origineg du cuUe cAr«iCTt, 2d cd., Paris, 1898, pp. 439-471); andothern arefound'in M. Gerl>er(, Afonunxnta veterU lilurgitE AlemannicB (4 parts, St. Blaise, 1777-79), and E. Marti^ne, Deantiquia ecrlesiir ritibue (3 vols., Rouen, 1700-02) and Thceaums iwvus atieatotorum (5 vols., Paris, 1717). (P. Dhews.) BmuodHAPOv: V. Thalhoffr, HamBiurli irr kalluilitrJm Lilvrvik, i. 41-M, FreiburB, 18S3; F. Pmbat, Dit fiifxKm rOmtKAm Sakmrnffilarim und Orditiet, pp. 38&-422. MOn- ■ter. 1802; L, UucheBne, Origina du ndU dirttxr*. pp. 146-150. Paria. 1003; G. RieUchel. Lthrbtieh der LUuroHi. i. 346-317. Beriin, 1000: Mrckel. in robingir Ziiltchrill, 1862, pp. 60-83: Gri>Br, in ZKT. ii (1S86), 400-131 X (ISSSJ, 727 wiq.: KL, ix. 1037-13.

OREGLIA DI SANTO STEFANO, LUIGI: Cardinal; b. at Bene Vagienna (55 m. n.w. of Genoa), Piedmont, July 9, 1828. He was educated at the Jesuit college in Turin and at the Accademia dei nobili ecclesiastici, Rome, and, after being canon in the Lateran and domestic prelate, was appointed referendaiy of the Segnatura in 1858. Later sent to Holland as internuncio, he was con- secrated titular archbishop of Damiathia in 1866, and was papal nuncio at Brussels and Lisbon suc- cessively. In 1873 he was created cardinal priest of Santa Anastasia, and after being prefect of the Congregation of Indulgences for several years, be- came chamberlain of the Holy Roman Church in 1885. In 1884 he became cardinal bishop of the suburbicary see of Palestrina, and is also commend- atory abbot of Santi Vincenzo ed Anastasio, From 1889 to 1896 he was subdean of the College of Car- dinals and suburbicary bishop of Porto and Santa Rufina, which he exchanged in 1896 for Ostia and Velletri, when he was promoted to be dean of the College of Cardinals. As chamberlain of the Holy Roman Church, he is also archchancellor of the Roman University and presides over the Congrega- tion of Rites.

ORIENTIUS: The received name of the author of Commonitorium, a Christian didactic poem of the first part of the fifth century. He is probably identical with Bishop Orientius of Auch, envoy from the Gothic King Theodoric I. to the Roman gen- erals Aëtius and Litorius, in the year 439. His poem describes the way to blessedness, and urgently ad- monishes against various byways of sin, especially against carnal temptation. The poem has for its constructive background the devastation of Gaul by the Alans, Suevi, Burgundians, and Vandals, 406 A.D. Classic poets are consulted; in particidar, Catullus, Ovid, and Virgil. Whether there is also some reference to Christian poets (Prudentius?) is doubtful. In the extant manuscript, codex Ash- burnham, tenth chapter, the Commanitorium b followed by five lesser poems and several poetical prayers of uncertain origin. The best edition is that of R. Ellis in CSEL, xvi. 191-261 and in AfPL, bri. 977-1006. G. KrOoer. BIBLIOGRAPHY: An early Vita is in ASB, May, i. 61-64. Consult further: A. Ebert, AUgemeine Geechiehte der Lit- teratur dee Mittelaltere, i. 410-414, Leipsic, 1889; M. Manitius, Oeechichte der ehrietlich-lateiniechen Poeeie, pp. 192-201, Stuttgart, 1891; KL, ix. 1052-63; DCB, iv. 96.

ORLEANS, FIRST SYNOD OF: A synod called by Clovis, king of the Franks, after his conquest of the West Gothic kingdom in Gaul. It met July 10, 511, and consisted of thirty-two bishops, in- cluding five metropolitans, viz., those of Bordeaux, Bourges, Tours, Elusa, and Rouen, Its principal concern was with matters of Asylum (q.v.), rela- tions of the bishops to monks, the discipline of monks and the lower clergy, sexual relations and marriage, and matters of church property, and these are discussed in thirty-one canons. The in- violability of churches as places of asylum is reas- serted, though not against the ravisher of a woman or against a fugitive slave; provision is made for the application of income from church property to certain definite uses, and protection is afforded against episcopal aggression upon one who has claims on church property; the rights of ordination are carefully guarded — a slave should not be or- dabed without his master's consent, and care in other mattera was enjoined; abbots and monks are not to go over tlie heads of the bishop to the prince; the rights of bishops to certain parts of offerings and income, together with obligations to certam duties, are established; remarriage of widows of priests or deacons is forbidden; the discipline of the monasteries is regulated; a forty days' fast (not fifty days) before Easter ia prescribed, and the Rogation Days are to be observed; divination is forbidden. The evident purpose of the synod was to organize the work of the church of the region after the mode deemed more orthodox than under the Golhs. Other synods were held at Orleans in 533 (21 canons), 538 (:j3 canons), 541 (38 canons), 549 (24 canons), and 1022. Bibliography: Souron nre: Muui. Concaia. liii, 3S0 aqq,; Hnnluin. Cimeilia. ii, 1008 sqq,; J, Sirmoodi, Cinuritia anliqua Oallim, L 177 sqq.. Puia. 1029; Helele. Can- nlimvrxhieMt. a. efll mq.. Eng. truul.. iv. 87 iqq., ud npeclBlly Fr, Innal,. ii. 2. pp. lOOS-lS tvnlumblr for tlM Orme Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy 976 notes and literature which are given); MOH^ ConcQia, i (1803). 1-14. Consult: Bouquet, R^eueU, iv. 103-104; D. Lobineau, Lea SainU de Bretagru, i. 131-134, Paris. 1836; £. Bimbenet. Let Conetiet tTOriiant conndiria eomme m>urce$ de draii coutoumier, pp. 743-744. flb. 1804; Q. Kurth. Chvie, ii. 131-164. ib. 1901.

ORME, WILLIAM: Scotch Congregationalist; b. at Falkirk (25 m. n.w. by w. of Edinburgh) Feb. 3, 1787; d. at London (?) May 8, 1830. He entered upon the study of theology in 1805; became Con- gregational minister of Perth, 1807; and, removing to London, was appointed pastor at Camber^'ell Green, and foreign secretary to the London Mis- sionaiy Society. He wrote An Historical Sketch of the Translation and Circulation of the Scriptures from the Earliest Period to the Present Time (Perth, 1815); Memoirs of John Owen (London, 1820); Life of William Kiffin (1823); Memoirs, ... Let- ters, and . . . Remains of J. Urquhart (2 vols., 1827); Life of Richard Baxter, prefixed to his Works (1830); and especially, Bibliotheca Biblica: A Se- lect List of Books on Sacred Literature, with Notices, Biographical, Critical, and Bibliographical (Edin- burgh, 1824). Bibliography: Evanoelieal Magaxine^ 1830. pp. 253 sqq.. 289 sqq.; DNB, xlii. 257-258. ORMUZD AND AHRIMAN. See Zoboaotkr,

ORNAMENTS: An ecclesiastical term which comprehends the articles actually used in the church service, especially of the Anglican Church. The usual sense involving something decorative is here entirely absent, and the term is technical, covering vestments (see Vestments and Insignia, Eccle- siastical), books (as the Homilies, q.v.), cloths, chalices, patens, communion tables, and the like. The question of what are legal ornaments has led to much litigation in England, with the result that the demarcation between those permitted and those forbidden is practically settled (See Ritualism). Bibliography: J. H. Blunt, Annotated Book of Common Prayer, pp. 67-74. 86. New York. 1908; C. H. H. Wright and C. Nefl. Protestant Dictionary, pp. 482-491, London. 1904; F. Procter and W. H. Frere, A New Hist. of the Book of Common Prayer, pp. 360-367 et passim, London, 1905.

ORR, JAMES: United Free Church of Scotland; b. at Glasgow Apr. 11, 1844. He was graduated from the university of his native city (M.A., 1870) and the Theological Hall of the United Presby- terian Church (1872). He was minister of East Bank United Presbyterian Church, Hawick (1874- 1891); professor of church history in the Theo- logical College of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland (1874-1901). Since 1901 he has been professor of apologetics and theology in Glasgow College of the United Free Church. He has lectured repeatedly in the United States under the auspices of various theological seminaries, at Chicago in 1895, at Alleghany and Auburn in 1897, at Princeton in 1903, and in Toronto in 1909, and was also one of the chief promoters of the union between the Free and United Presbyterian Churches in Scotland. Among his numerous writings, special mention may be made of his preparation of homilies on Exodus, Deuteronomy, II Kings, and Hoeea for The Pulpit Commentary (London, 1881-80) ; The Christian View of God and the World (Kerr lectures for 1891; Edin- bmgh, 1893, 3d ed., 1807); The Ritschlian Theology and the Evangelical Faith (Ix)ndon, 1807); Neglected Factors in the Study of the Early Progress of Chris- tianity (1809); The Early Church: Its History and Literature (1901); The Progress of Dogma (Elliot lectures; 1901); David Hume and his Influence on Philosophy and Theology (Edinburgh, 1903); Ritseh- lianism; Expository and Critieal Essays (London, 1903); God's Image in Man and its Defacement in Light of Modem Denials (1905); Problem of the Old Testament Considered with Reference to Recent Criticism (Broes prize; 1906, 5th impression, 1908) ; The Bible under Trial, Apologetic Papers in View of Present Day Assaults on Holy Scripture (1907); The Virgin Birth of Christ (1907); and The Resur- rection of Jesus (1908).

ORTLIEB OF STRASBURG AND THE ORT- LIBIANS: A sect mentioned in the writings of the heresy hunters of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Concerning Ortlieb himself (who lived c. 1200) there is extant only one sentence (best given by Haupt in ZKO, vii. 1886, 503, 559, from a Mainz manuscript) : " To say that man must ab- stain from outward things and follow the answers of the spirit within himself is the herei^ of a certain Ortlieb of Strasburg, which Innocent III. con- demned." But notices of the sect are found in the so-called Passau Anonymus (BibUoiheca maxima LugdunennSy xxv., quoted below). They are said to assert the eternity of the world (267, C). To the church doctrine of the Trinity and Christology they give an entirely new interpretation, affirming (266, H) : whoever has joined the sect, is the Father; he who is converted by him, the Son; he who aids and confirms the convert, the Holy Ghost. Adam was the first man who was created anew by the word of God and fulfilled God's commandments (267, C). Adam and Christ, however, are to them not his- torical persons but symbols of the perfect man, hence they also affirmed '' that there was no Trin- ity before the birth of Christ " (267, A) . Jesus they assert to be the son of the carpenter Joseph and not free from sin (266, G). As they rejected the fun- damental doctrines of the Church, so also they rejected the sacraments; infant baptism is useless unless the baptized is afterward made perfect in the sect. What the Church calls the body of Christ, is only bread; the true body of Christ is the body of the believers. They reject the hierarchy and oppose to it the perfect ones of the sect; such a one binds and looses and can do everything. In the papacy they saw the root of all evil; the Church of the pope they consider the harlot of the Apoc- alypse. Only when all shall be converted to their sect, will it be possible to live quietly in eternity, but even then men will be born and die. They deny the resurrection, but believe that the spirit continues to live. Of their institutions it is known only that they generally prayed by threes. Their life is said to have been austere, and some fasted every other day (267, E). They also rejected sex- ual intercourse in marriage (267, F). The Ortlib- ians have been differently classified; some have connected them with the Amahicians (see Amal- Ric OF Ben a), others with the Cathari (see New Manicheans, II.). K. MoUer, finding that in the notices of the Waldensians by Stephen of Bourbon {De teptem donU apirUus sancti) many things coin- cide strikingly with what the Passau Anonymus says concerning the Ortlibians, has drawn the con- clusion that the latter were originally Waldensians, but adopted some things from the Amalricians and from the Brethren of the Free Spirit (see Free Spirit, Brethren of the). But all that is justi- fied by the fact is the inference that Stephen harl questioned Ortlibians. That he considered them Waldensians loses much of its importance because, according to his own statement, the declarations of the heretics whom he examined contained much that was contradictory. Besides, as Haupt has shown, he proves himself not well informed con- cerning the relations of the heretics to each other. Against M Oiler's view speaks the fact that nothing specifically Waldensian appears among the utter- ances of the Ortlibians, but only similarities, and such similarities they have in common with other heretics. On the other hand, the whole spirit of their teaching is bluntly opposed to the Walden- sians. Some of the opinions quoted above come nearer to the Cathari, though they contain very little specifically Catharistic. They show a certain rationalistic, as it were enlightening, trait, which seems to point to a relationship with the Brethren of the Free Spirit. From the records now extant, a positive decision is hardly to be reached. S. M. DEUTSCHf. Bibliography: Sources are: Stephan de Borbone, Trae- ttUue de diveraie materiie pradicalibua, ed. A. Lecoy de la Marche, in Aneaiotee, Ugendee et apoloouee, Paris, 1877; and " The Anonymus of Passau," partly given in Bib- liotheca patnan maxitna Luodtmeneia, xzv. 262-277, Leyden, 1677. Consult: C. Schmidt, DieSAten au Straa- burg im MittdaUer, in ZHT, x (1840), 46 sqq.; A. Jundt, Hxel. du panthSisme poptUaire au moyen Age, pp. 31 sqq., StrasbuTB, 1875; W. Vreft^r, GeachichU der deutachenMyatik im MiUdaJier, i. 191 sqq., Leipsic, 1877; H. F. Renter, Oeachiehte der rdigi^an AufklHrung im MittelaUer, ii. 237 sqq., 376 sqq., Berlin, 1877; M.K. M Oiler, Die Waldenaer, pp. 130 sqq., 169 sqq., Gotha, 1886; H. Haupt, Waldenaia, in ZKO, X (1889), 316 sqq.; Hauck, KD, iv. 872; Schaff. Chriatian Church, v. 1, p. 488. Allusions will be found in the literature on the Waldenses.

ORTON, JOB: Dissenting minister; b. at Shrews- bury (43 m. s.s.e. of Liverpool) Sept. 4, 1717; d. at Kidderminster (16 m. s.w. of Birming- ham) July 19, 1783. Being inclined toward the ministry, he prepared privately and at an academy at Northampton, of which he became assistant tutor in 1739, and in the same year was licensed. He assumed charge of the Presbyterian congrega- tion of High Street Chapel, Shrewsbury, in 1741, where he received ordination in 1745. Owing to impaired health, the work devolved mainly on his assistants after 1741, and in 1766 he resigned and retired to Kidderminster. His period of greatest influence (1766-83) was that of retirement when he corresponded with dissenting ministers of all sec- tions. A few of his numerous writings were: Re- liffioua Exercises Recommended (Shrewsbury, 1769); Discourses to the Aged (1771); and Letters to Dis- senting Ministers^ with Memoir by Palmer (Lon- don, 1806). His Practical Works with letters and memoir was published (2 vols., 1842). Biblioorapht: Besides the Memoira noted above, consult DNB, xlii. 271-272. where references to scattering litera- ture are given.

OSBORNE, EDWARD WILLIAM: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Springfield, Ill.; b. at Calcutta, India, Jan. 5, 1845. He was educated at Glouces- ter College, England, became curate of Highworth in 1869 and of Kenn, Devonshire, in 1872; member of the Society of St. John the Evangelist (the Cow- ley Fathers), 1875; member of the staff of St. John the Evangelist, Boston, 1877; curate of St. PhUip's, Capetown, 1890; was priest in charge of the same church, as well as chaplain of St. George's Home, Capetown (1891-96); superior of the mission church of St. John the EvangeUat, Boston (1898-1904); and in 1904 was consecrated bishop coadjutor of Springfield, becoming full diocesan on the death of Bishop Q. F. Seymour in 1900. He has written The Children's Saviour (New York, 187S); The Saviour King (1888); and The Children's Faith (1889).

OSGOOD, HOWARD: Baptist; b. on Magnolia Plantation, Plaquemine Parish, La., Jan. 4, 1831. He was educated at Harvard College (A.B., 1850). In 1856 he was ordained, and held pastorates at Flushing, L. I. (1866-58), and New York City (1858-60). From 1868 to 1874 he was professor of Hebrew at Crozer Theological Seminary, Chester, Pa., and held a similar position in Rochester Theo- logical Seminary (1874-1901). He was a member of the American Company of Old-Testament Re- visers from 1874 to 1901, and in theology is an ad- herent of the orthodox school. He translated J. P. Lange's general and special introductions to Ex- odus, Leviticus, and Numbers in the American Lange series (New York, 1876).

OSGOOD, SAMUEL: American clergyman and writer; b. at Charlestown, Mass., Aug. 30, 1^12; d. at New York City Apr. 14, 1880. Graduating at Harvard College in 1832, he studied theology at the Harvard Divinity School. Channing and Ware were then exercising their extensive influence, and Mr, Osgood entered the Unitarian ministry in 1835. After editing The Western Messenger at Louisville, Ky., for two years he assumed charge, in 1837, of the Unitarian Church. Nashua, N. H. In 1841 he became poster at Providence, R. I., and, in 1849, of the Church of the Messiah, New York. In 1869 he changed his theological views, and, after a year of travel in Europe, entered the ministry of the Protestant Episcopal Church. Not caring to reenter parochial work, he spent the remaining ten years of his lite in writing for periodicals and lecturing. He was regarded as a leading man of letters, and was especially noted for the deep interest he took in the New York Historical Society and other public liter- aiy institutions. Among his writings are: Studies o/Chriatian Biography (Now York, 1851); God with Men (1853); Mifestoncs in our Lt/e-Joumey (1855); Student Life (IS60); ^mmcan LrawK (1867).

OSTIARIUS: Primarily a porter and later one of the minor orders of the clergy. Originally the porter was a slave (cf. Mark xiii. .^4; John x. 3, xviii. 17; Acts xii. 13); but when the Christians came to possess their own churches, they were com- pelled to have porters, who, after the second half of the third century, were reckoned among the minor clergy. From Rome the employment of porters (Lat. oalianus, rarely adihius and man- Honariua; Greek, pyloros, Churoroa, or oaliarioa) spread, so that most Western and some Eastern communities possessed them in the fourth centuiy. Since the office was entrusted only to persons of settled age, and since frequent changes were unde- sirable, the oatiarius was debarred from ecclesias- tical advancement. An ordination rite, with the giving of the keys of the church as its central feature, is given in the Slolvia ecdrsitr antiqiia, ix., and, more fully, in the Sacramentary of Gregory (AfPJ:, IxKviii. 218). In the East tie order declined earlier than in the West, though ostiarii are men- tioned as late as the Trullan Council of 692. Also in the Roman Church sacristans are no longer clergy, though the ostiarius ordination is still con- ferred, as a matter of form, at the beginning of the clerical career. (H. Achbub.) Bibliography: BioghBin, Oriflinor. III., vi.: J. G. Ormt, De don-iWu << atlianis, Anibuch, 1747.

OSWALD, SAINT: King of Northumbria, 634- 642; b. about G05; slain in battle with Penda, the heathen king of Mercia, at Maserfield (probably Oswestry, 16 m. n.w. of Shrewsbury, Shropshire), Aug. 5, 642. His father, Etheifrid, fell in battle (617) with Edwin, the great king of Northumbria, who afterward became its first Christian ruler (see Edwin; Paulinus). Oswald and his brothers, being forced to flee, took refuge in lona, where he W.18 converted and baptized. He recovered bis kingdom in 6-^4, defeating the British King Cad- wallon at Heavcnfield (near Hexham), and at once introduced Christianity (see .Aidan). Although he was a great king and ruled over wider dominions than any of his ancestors, he was devout, humble, gracious, and charitable to the poor, " always wont, while ruling a temporal kingdom, to labor and pray for an eternal one " (Bede, Hist., iii. 12). A mass of legend gathered about his name and miracles were attributed to his relics, which were kept at Gloucester, Bamborough, Lindisfame, Durham, and Other places. (. aal.. iii. 1^, S-7, e-U. 33-34. iv. U, v. H, Vila, by Dngo. > monk, in .459. Aug., ii. 04-103; Vila, br tUciiuld of DurhuD. ed. J. K&ine (or Ibe fiurtsea Society. 183S, uid in SimeoD of Durhim'* bistoneil corka. ed. T. Aniolil. in RoUt Seriet. do. 7fi, i, 320-985. tondon. 1882. Coosult: T. Wriiht, Biogmiihia BrUanittta liUraiia. pp. 402-460, Loadan. 1842^0: J, R, Ormn. MaHtio of Eitvland, pp. 374-270. 390-204. ib. 1807; W. Brifbt. fiarfy fnffu* CAbttA HiUBm. pp. MB-15S. 175-178, Ojfont. 18U7: DA'S. xlii. 321-323; DCB. iv. 103-104.

OSWY: King of Northumbria. 643-671, im- portant in the history of the Christianization of the English; b. about 612; d. Feb. 15, 671. He was a younger son of the Northumbrian king Ethel- frid, and, by his mother, a nephew of Edwin. On the overthrow of hia father io 617 (eee Edwin), with hia brother Oswald (q.v.), he found refuge in lonu, and was baptized and educated there. He suc- ceeded Oswald as king in 643. For eeveral yeikre he ■W8B menaced by the alliance between the heathen Saxona and the Britiah, which had overthronii Edwin and Oswald, but in 655 he defeated and slew Penda of Mercia, the great heathen champion, and all except one oE the British leaders. A rival king, Oswin, also established himself in Deira; he was murdered in &51 at Oswy's instigation, and the intteT afterward gave hia queen, Eanfled (dsugbt«r of Edwin), land for the foundation of a monastery at the olace of the foul deed that prayers might be offered there for both the slayer and the eluio. The dispute between the adherents of Roman and Celtic usages in the Church came to a crisis under Oswy, being by him decided against the latter at the Synod of Whitby in 664 (see Whitby. Synod of). Hia conduct leaves little doubt that he was anxious both to consolidate hia kingdom and to bring his church and people into closer connection with Home and the continent. Another indication of Bound political judgment on Osivy's part, as well as of an intelligent desire to promote the best inter- ests of his church and realm was his consultation ■with Egbert of Kent iUwut 667 with regard to fill- ing the vacant sec of Canterbury (see Deitbdbdit). Finan, Colman, Ceadda, and Wilfrid of York (qq.v.) were all active during Oswy's reign. BtBLtDQiUFBT: Souim UB: BedcHiil. tcel..u. S.iii. 14-16, 31-35. 30. IT. 1, 3, 6: the VtU by R«sinkld of Duibua id SlmeoD at Dutham'* HiMDncai Work: ed. T. Amolil for RolUSina.no.76.2 vols.. ISSa-fiB: AKglo-Saxon Chnmi- de, cd. with Enc. tniul.. B. Tborpr, in BalU SrrUt. no. 23, 1801: HoiTy of HuntingUn, Hitliiria AHfflomm, ed. T. Aruoldfar/;oU(5(Tiu,aa.72,1870. OiDBult: J. R. Green, UtMim o/ JTmrfnnd. pp. 395-300. 319-325. LoDdon, 1897: J, H. OverUm. T\e CAurrA in Etuland. i. 46, 47, 53-50, 69-03, TO, London, 1897: W. Hunt. Tin Engluh Churrh. 6B7-I0e6. ib. 1809; DNB. ilii. 333-337: DCB. iv. 100-107.

OTFRID OF WEISSERBURG: German poet of the ninth century. There were two monks of this name in the monastery at Weissenburg in Speyergau during the abbotship of Grimald, but it is entirely doubtful which of thsm wrote the original of two documents preserved in the Weisaenburg copy- book, one undated and the other in S5t. Both OWride, however, must be distinguished from the Otfridue mentioned in a fragmentary Latin poem of WeissenbuTg dating from the beginning of the ^h century. Knowledge oonoeming the Bret fOUi poet Otfrid is restricted to the ocanty information afforded in the 7,416 lines of his hOter Evangdwnan and hie Lstia dedication to Arch- bishop Liutbert. The South Frankiah dialect in which the pqem ia written was doubtless Otfrid's mother tongue. He accordingly seems to have been bom near Weisaenburg, but apparently atudjed for a time at FtJda under Rabaoua Maurus and Solo- mon, This wa,s before S38, for in that year Solomon became bishop of Constance. Otfrid was probably ordained priest after returning to Weissenburg, where he conceived the plan of writing hia poem; partly to counteract the influence of secular and pagan hymns which were displeasing to certain ^i- proved men, obviously of spiritual rank, and partly because he was urge<l by hie brethren and an aged matron named Judith to make a partial tranalation of the Gospels. This was designed primarily for his fellow monks, being adapted for the laity only in so far as they could have it read to them. From the narrative portions of the Goapel Otfrid chose those passages appointed aa lessons by the Church, though in his arrangement he by no means fol- lowed the order of the church year. He likewise incorporated material from the Apocrypha, the Church Fathers, and the early medieval theologians, the latter especially in the " mystical," " spiritual," and " moral " interpretations of events recounted in the Bible. He was influenced chiefly by the hom- ihes of Gregory the Great, certain writings trf Au- gustine, the commentaries of Rabanus Maurua, and Paschasius Radbertus on Matthew, of Alcuin on John, and of Bede on Matthew, Luke, and John; drawing this material, in all probability, principally from some compendium of all these sources. The poem is divided into live books; professedly, for the purification of the five senses. The first book is devoted to the birth and baptism of Christ; the second to his life from the temptation to the healing of the leper after the sermon on the mount; the third to selected miracles until the decision of the high priest to put Christ to death; the fourth to the passion; and the fifth to the resuncction, ascension, and last judgment. All the books are divided into chapters which were not invariably written in their present order. While the worit is the earliest extant Old High-German composition in rime, this form of poetry was cleariy no innova- tion. Otfrid's earlier models had derived their riming verse from France; and not only did this sjrstem of rimes stand in sharp antithesis to the Germanic nJllteration, but the verses had four ac- cents instead of two. Nevertheless, in the older portions of the poem there are clear traces of the old Germanic poetry of two accente with allitera- tion. The syatem of four accents doubtless had arisen in Germany, as also Otfrid's strophe, w*hich consists of twolines; eachcomposed of two half-linn corresponding in rime, and with four acceota. This structure may be illustrated by the following ex- ample (i. 19) : I<S«pb to (hM ilntbM er hlkatU thM UodiH (uuu tbloautmBQ cdaMr), biadoriatk ouh thia mteur. After years of toil on the Liber vatngdiantm, Otfrid had a clean copy of the poem prepared by two scribes, which he then revised with his own hand and provided at the same time each half- RELIGIOUS ENCVCLOPEDU {yioola veree with its accents. ThiB autograph ia presen'ed in the Codex Viindobtmenxia), the parent of P{ala- tinui) acid of the fragmentary DiiacUaui). The maauscript FiHaingenaia) does not contribute to the textual determiaation, and this together with the few other codices still await investigatioD. Copies of the poem were sent by Otfrid to King l^uis the German, Archbishop Liutbert of Mainz, Bishop Solomon of CoDStance, and the monks Hart^ must and Werinbraht of St. Gall, as is clear from the prefatory epistles in V and P. These epistles, moreover, serve to date the Liiier evan^tiorum be- tween 86.1 and 871, for Liutbert became archbishop in 863, Solomon died in 871, and in the following year Hartmuat was made abbot of St. Gall, The text has been edited by J. Kelle (3 vols., Regens- burg, 1856-81). P. Piper (2 vols., Paderbom and Freiburg (1878-84), and O. Erdmano (Halle, 1882). There is no demonstrable trace of Otfrid's influ- ence upon later writera, and his work remained un- known until about 1495, when Trithemius repeatedly alluded to him. The manuscript F was discovered by Beatus Rfacnanus in 1531, and forty years later Flacius Illyricua and Pirminius Gossar edited P, which was then owned by Ulrich Fugger. Nor is it difficult to explain the small popularity of the Lt6er tvangelionim. Otfrid attached less interest to the acta of Christ than to their symbolic interpretation and the dc$;matic questions derived from them. Con- cerned about orthodoxy and heavily equipped with tbeolt^cal science, he writes on the whole for the learned. His national enthusiasm and his pure human interest which finds expression in occasional touching similes can not hide his melancholy, his barren prolixity, and his jejune allegoriiing. Es- Ihetically, the work is a hybrid theology in clumsy verae, neither an epic nor a series of pious hymns; but historically it is an index of the clerical train- ing of (he Carolingian period, and linguistically it is almost the only source for a certain knowledge of Old High-German metrics, syntaj!, and orthography. (E. Steinmever.) Bibliography: F. T. Hominc. CmitttvTa mur la vU rt rrduauim d-Otfrid. StTBibuix, IS33: F. RichaDberg, OtIriiU EmntacKaibuth. Ctagmoiti, 1862: K. Lschmwia, KlrinrTc ,^rAn'/(™, [. 358 jqq., Beriin, 1876; P. SohOtw, Britrigr rur Fotlik Otfridi. Kiel. 1887; W. Wilmanni. On- allilriJiche Rrimvrri, Bonn. 1887; F, Sgnm. Urbrr Vor- traaiicnm and ZwrrJc da Evamitiiaiiuchct O/fridi, Halle. 1886; A. L. PlumboR. Btitr/lffe tv drn Qtullrn Olfriiri. Kiel. 1898: A. SchtobMh, in ZritKJirilt lltr dnlKtin Al- Irrlum, vols, mviii.-il.: Houik, KD. ii. 768 Bqq,

OTHNIEL: A Kenizzite prominent in the Israel- itic conquest of Palestine. According to Judges i. 11-16 (cf. Josh. XV. 15-19), he took the city of Kirjath-sepher (the later Debir), and received from his elder brother Caleb the hand of his daughter Achsah, the reward promised by Caleb to him who should reduce the place. Achaah, moreover, when leaving her father, secured from him the gift of cer- tain wells. Since Caleb appears as the son of Je- phunneh the Kenizxite (Num. xxxii. 12; Josh. xiv. 6, 14), while Othniel is termed the son of Kenaz, he WBB probably merely a clan-brother of Caleb, both being sons of Kenaz in the sense that they were Kenizzltes, these being originally Edomitea (Gen. Mun-i, 9-11, 15, 42) who were later incoipo- r.ited n-ith Judah. The entire account of the taking of Kirjath-sepher is now frequently explained as a union of the Kenizzite clans Caleb, Othniel, and Achsah, made for the reduction of the city, or for its occupation by Caleb's daughter after being cap- Othniel is again mentioned in Judges iii. 7-11, which states that after Joshua's death the Israel- ites were punished for their idolatry by bondage to Chushan-riahathaim, king of Mesopotamia. There- upon God caused Othniel to compiler the oppressor, after which Israel had peace for forty years. That this Othniel is identical with the one mentioned above is evident. Soon after the conquest of the mountains of Judoh, he must have been involved in fresh and greater wars. Little can be said con- cerning the historical character of this passage; but most likely the connection here is with a generally accepted but entirely faded tradition of a partici- pation on his part in the wars between the Syrian dynasties and the Mesopotamian despots; and a liberation of Israel as a nation from a foreign 3'oke is out of the question. The hypothesis that the redactor makes Othniel a judge in his effort to assign a judge also to Judah (Wellhausen) can scarcely be entertained. Also, the Inference that at the time of the conquests of the tribe of Kenai or il« clan, Othniel did not yet belong to Israel (W. Nowack, Hand-Kormnenlar, Rkhltr-Rutk, p. 23, Gflttingen, 1900) can scarcely be received as a basis of the foregoing assumption. Nothing can be asserted of the time of the confederation of Kenaz; and if Othniel conquered Debir for Israel, he must at least have belonged to Israel from that time. Rather may it be assumed that a tradition was extant con- cerning further wars after the deliverance of Debir, of which the later redactor of Judges knew little more than the fact. The schematic reference in Judges iii. 7-11 thus explains itself. The name of his adversary Chushan-risbathaim (" twice malig- nant villain ") explains itself on the same grounds OS an artful construction; yet what name this con- struction, which need not be a pure invention, con- c-eals is not known; and there is also a possibility of wars with Edom (Schrader, KAT, p. 219). (R. KlTTEL.) BlsuooKiki-BT; CooBult the relsvont seetiona in the world DO the hiauiry of biael (uoder Ahab: Ibiuei, HinroaT or), especially R. Kittel. GttcMMi dra VMcm Imel. ii. 81-82, Ootba, IIKW: sad tho Kctiooi in the commoituiM on Joahua and Judgea deoliag with the paengeB rated. particularly the world of Mooro and Budde on Judges.

OTTE, CHRISTOPH HEINRICH: German arche- ologist; b. in Berlin Mar. 24, ISOS; d. at Merse- buiK (56 m. s.B.e. of Magdeburg) Aug. 12, 1890. He received his theological education at Berlin and Halle, and passed his second examination in 1S32; be was then pastor at Frflhden near JOterbog in Saxony, 1832-78, and retired for hia last years to Meraeburg. His great interest in archeology was not gained from his university course, but rather from observation of the monumenl« and from the cathedral at Mersebui^; be was stimulated also by usaociation with Puttricb and K. E. PdrBtemann, and in this way became the leading author- ity in German ecclemastical archeology of the Middle Ages. His first book, KuTzer Abrigt tiner kirchr lichen Kiintt-ArchSologie dei deulachen MilUliUltrs (Nordhauaen, 1842) grew from thirty-two pages in iU Grst to 1,462 in its fifth edition (1883-85), an illus- tration of the development iu the science under the man who was really the pioneer in this particular field. Indeed, all of his hooka passed through sev- eral editions, and remain useful in their depart- mentfi. Among these may be named ArclUtologi- aehes WdrterbiKh eur Erkt&Twig der in Schri/ien Hber miltelalterlicke Kunst vorkommender KunMaua- drOcke (Leipeic, 1857); ArdtOdogigcher KaUchii- mua: kuTzer Unlemchl in der kirchliehen Kunst- archOologie de» deuUrhen MiUelaUers (1859). He also edited the brief-lived but worthy Zeitgchrifl far chniaiche Arch&ologie und Kunet (1856-58). it is noteworthy that these works were accomplished by a man engaged in the absorbing cores of the pastorate, (Victor Schultsb.)

OTTER, JAKOB: Reformer; b. at Lauterburg (34 m. n.e. of Strasburg) c. 1485; d. at Esslingen (7 m. e.s.e. of Stuttgart) Mar., 1547. In 1507 he came as baccalaureus to Strasburg, and became a priest of the cloister of the Penitents, and secretary to Johaon Ociler of Kaisersberg (q.v.). He then edited some of his master's works, and Gerson's Sermo de paseione. Upon Geiler's death, 1510, Otter went to Freibiu^, obtaining the master's de- gree in 1515, and was qualified as licentiate in 1517. He continued issuing Geiler's works until 1513. In 1518 Otter became pastor at Wolfenweiler, near Freiburg, and labored there as an adherent of Luther even as early as 1520. In 1522 he removed to the Austrian village of Kentingen. There he pur- sued his calling as a Reformer with quiet moderation and much succe-ss. He defended himself from the reproach of heresy and insurrection by publishing his sermons on the epistle to Titus (Strasburg, 1524). The sovereign, Archduke Ferdinand, de- manded his removal, and the diet threatened him with forcible procedure. To spare his congrega- tion, Otter withdrew, on June 24, 1524, escorted by 150 citiiena; turning first into the district of Mar- grave Emat of Baden, then to Strasburg. From Strasburg Otto was recommended to the Knight Hans Landschod, a zealous adherent of Luther, who granted him the pastorate of NeckareUinach, nenr Heidelbei^. He won the whole congregation to the new faith, soon abolished the mass, procured by sale of chureh properties a regular administration of church charities, and maintained peace and quiet at Neckarsteinach during the excesses of the Peas- ants' War. Otter dedicated to his patron, 1528, the beautiful tract, ChriMlieh Leben und SUrben (Strasburg, 1528). King Ferdinand and his coim- selors viewed Ott«r solely as an ^tator and seducer of Kenzingen, and the king more than once de- manded his dismissal. Hans Landschad valiantly defended hie pastor, who, in turn, justified him- self against the calumniations of his adversaries, by means of his sermons on " The First Book of Moses " (Hogeniiu, 1528). Ferdinand persisted in urging Elector Ludwig of the Palatinate to proceed against Otter; and finally, in Feb., 1529, succeeded in having landschad summoned before the high court of justice at Heidelberg. Otter's dismissal was demanded under threat of the emperor's dis- favor, Landschad refused, and the dector now foreibly expelled Otter, who then went to Stras- burg. Capito commended him to Zwingli, through whose mediation he was called as pastor to Soleure by a minority of the council. Provoking only un- rest by his preaching, he relinquished the podtion, and went to Bern, whence, at the end of Aug., 1529, he went to Aarau. Here he married; wrote a cat«- ehism, Bin kurz Ynleilung (1530), which was but little adapted for children; and was recording chair- man of the conference with the Anabaptists at Bern in 1631. He was also an eager mediator in the ne- gotiations between Zurich and the original cantons, Sept., 1531. On Apr. 2, 1532, Blaurer (q.v.) called him to take charge of the church at Esslingen, where the former had labored as Reformer, and where Luther's cause had early found friends. At first Otter's efficiency was impeded by jealousy on the part of Chaplain Martin Fuchs, and Otter even thought of resgn- ing, but Fuchs was dismissed. Otter labored very faithfully in propagating the Reformation. He created an order of worship in 15H3; a form of order and discipline 1534, and lay ministration for the sick. He provided for the improvement of juvenile instruction, issuing his revised catechism in 1532 and a brief summary of the faith, 1534, with succinct directions concerning spiritual atten- tion to the sick and dying. He mitigated Blaurer'a form of expulsion with deference to those infirm. He antagonieed both Roman Catholics and Ana- baptists, and also Sehwenkfeld, who had made srane advances toward him. When Duke Ulrich of WQrt- temberg recovered his domains in May, 1534, Otter was prilled, in July, to preach at Stuttgart as col- league of Alber; but the Lutherans about the dnke received him distrustfully, because Otter held Zwingli's view and that of the South Germans re- garding the Eucharist. Strife ensued, until Otter, with Butzer and the South Germans, went to Wit- tenberg in May, 1536, and ratified the peace with Luther in terms of the Wittenbeig Concord; to which conclusion Otter in vain sought to win Blaurer. Otter rendered service to the entire Evangelical chureh by means of his excellent Srt- ftficWfin /ijr allerley gemein AnlUgen der RirrhtH (Strasburg, 1537-41). The " little man " greduaily gained a firm position at Esslingen, but coUapeed under the horrora of the Scbmalkald War and tie emperor's Spaaiards, in Mar., 1547. Nevertheless be was spared Crom the bitterest anguish for South German Protestantism during the Interim. Well did Butter describe his friend Otter as " a man distinguished not by sound tcaraing alone, but also by Christian virtues, and especially by mod- esty, forbearance, charity; a man of innocent life, pure doctrine, averae to all manner of pompous pride, one of consummate skill in dealing with all the various concerns of our Church." G. BOSSCRT. Bibliography: H. Sumao. Jaimli OOer. Curignibo, 189?; BncnetiluA dtr BrOdrr . . . Blauttr. ed. Bfhieas. 2 vola.. Fraburs. 190B-I0; and IhB literature under ButmEn.

OTTLEY, EDWARD BICKERSTETH : Church of England; b. at Richmond (40 m. n.w. of York), Yorkshire, Jan. 18, 1853. He received his educa- tion at Merchant Tailors' School, London, and Keble College, Oxford (B.A. 1876; M.A., 1879); was made deacon in 187G and priest in 1878; was curate at Hawarden, 1876-80, and at St. Saviour, Hoxton, 1880; principal of Sarum Theological College, 1880-83; vicar of the Church of the An- nunciation (formerly Quel>ec Chapel), St, Maryle- bone, I883-1908; prebendary of Caddington Major in St. Paul's Cathedral, 190&-07; residentiary canon of Rochester, since 1907. He has written Rational Aspects of Some Revealed Truths (London, 1887).

OTTLEY, HENRY BICKERSTETH: Church of England, brother of the preceding; b, at Rich- mond (40 m. n.w. of York), Yorkshire, Nov. 3, 1850. He received his education at St. John's College, Oxford (B.A., 1874; M.A., 1876); was made deacon in 1874 and priest in 1876; was cu- rate of All Souls, Langham Place, London, 1874- 1876; vicar of New-ton-on-Trent, 187B-79; of St. Margaret's, Ilkiey, 1870-83; and of Horsham, 18ft4-«7; rector of West Hackney, 1887-90; vicar of Eastbourne, 1890-98; and of South Norwood, 1898-1907; and honorary canon of Canterbury, 1907. He also served as commissary to the bishop of Jerusalem, 1887-96; special missioner for the Armenian relief fund, 1H96; and aa Golden lec- turer at St. Margaret's, Lothbury, 1898-99. Ha is the author of: The Great Dilemma: Christ his own B'iine«8 or hia own Acaaer (London, 1881); The ChaOenge to Uie Church of God: " Give im a Reason of your Hope " (1882); Modern Egypt; its Witness to Christ (1884); The Seven Voices of the Cross {ISm); Ckriat and Modem U/e (IS'34)] Map of the Armenian Massacres (1896); Christ in the City: some ElemenU of Religion in Common Life (1899); Great Solemnitg; Lessons from the Sacrir^ of the King (1902); Baptism and National Life (1904); The Christian Sunday: a Manual of Prayer and Injtiruclion (1907).

OTTLEY, ROBERT LAWRENCE: Church of England; b. at Richmond (22 m. n.w. of Rjpon), Yorkshire, Sept. 2, 1856. He was educated at Pem- broke College, Oxford (B.A., 1878), and Christ Church, Oxford (M.A,, 1881), where he was stu- dent in 1879-88 and tutor in 1883-86. He was ordered deacon in 1881 and ordained priest two years later. He waa vice-principal of Cuddesdon College (1886-90), after which he was dean of di- vinity in Magdalen College, Oxford (1890-93), fel- low and tutor of Magdalen, as well as principal of Pusey House, Oxford (1893-07), rector of Winter- bourne Baaselt (1897-1903), was appointed canon of Christ Church, Oxford, and regius professor of pastoral theology in the University of Oxford (1903), both which dignities he still retains. He was also examining chaplain to the bishops of Durham (1884-87) and Orford (1890-93), select preacher at the University of Oxford (1880-90), and Bampton lecturer in 1897. Since 1904 he baa been examin- ing chaplain in England to the bishop of St. John's, Kaffraria. Besides contributing the essay on Chris- tian Ethics to Lux Mundi (London, 1889), he has written Lancelot Andrewes (London, 1894); The Doctrine of the Incarnation (2 vols., 1896); Aspects of the Old Testament (1897); The Hebrew Prophets (1898); Short History of the Hebrews (Cambridge, 1902); The Religion of Israel (imB); md Christian Ideas and Ideals. An Outline of Christian Ethical Theory (1909).

OTTO OF BAMBERG: Apostle of Pomerania; b. in Swabia about 1060; d. at Bamberg (33 m. n. of Nuremberg) June 30, 1139. Destined for the Church in early life, he came while still a young man to the court of the Polish Duke Ladislaus, Ottoof BambOTg whose service he exchanged before 1090 for that of the Emperor Henry IV. He seems to have become chancellor in 1101, and in the following year bishop of Bamberg. Though receiving his investiture from Henry IV., it proved impossible for him to secure consecration until 1105, when he went over to Henry V., and was consecrated at Rome in the following year. Nevertheless, Otto was never a political partisan; and not only did he gratefully acknowledge his indebtedness to Henry IV., but he also remained faithful to Henry V. despite suspen- sion by the Synod of Fritzlar in 1118. Three years later, however, he was an earnest advocate of peace at the conference held at WQrzburg. During the period of religious struggle Otto was employed chiefly in administering his diocese and increasing its territories, churches, castles, and especially its monasteries, of which he built or restored more than twenty. In his old age, moreover, he was called to aid in the reestablishment of religious peace; for in 1120 the treaty with Poland opened Pomerania to Christianity. After his successive efforts to establish Polish and Italian clergy in Pomerania failed, Boleslaus III. of Poland invoked German aid, and in agreement with the pope, Henry v., and the German princes, the choice fell upon Otto. In May, 1124, the bishop left Bamberg for Pomerania, and after baptizing several thousand converts near Pyritz, he reached the Pomeranian capital, Cammin, where the duchess welcomed him as cordially as the duke had done. After days of peril in the rich conmiercial city of Julin, Christian- ity found entrance there, and Otto then pressed on to Kolbei^ and Belgajd. During his tour, he established eleven churches in nine cities, and bap- tised 22,165 persons, returning in Feb., 1125, from Pomerania to Bamberg. Nevertheless, paganism lingered on, and in Stettin the ancestral deities were still reverenced beside the German God. Three years later, therefore, Otto returned to Pomerania, ransoming a number of captives at Demmin on the Mecklenburg boundary, and converting all the nobles of the land by a powerful sermon at Usedom. Founding new churches at Wolgast and GOtzkow, and strengthening the faith at Stettin and Julin, he returned to Bambei^ about Christmas, where he discharged his duties as bishop and prince until his death. (A, Hauck.) Bibuoorapht: Sources are: Eooehard, CAronicon, in MOH, Script., vi (1884), 263; Rdatio de piU aperibua OttonU, in MOH, Script, xv (1888), 1161-66. VittB and other docu- ments are collected in MOH, Script., adi (1856). 721-^19 and in ASB, July, i. 349-466. Consult: J. Zimmerman, t)er heUiQe Otto, Biachof von Bamberg vend Apoatd der Pom- mem, Freiburg, 1876; J. Looshom, Der heUige Otto, Mu- nich, 1880; M. J. Hdfner, Otto I. Biachof von Bamberg in •einem VerhHUniaee tu Heinrich V. und Lothar III., Gies- sen, 1868; L. Hoffman, Otto I. epiecopua Bambergenaia, Halle, 1869; J. N. Seefried, Otio dea HeQigen, Biachofa von Bamberg und Apoatela der Pommem, Herkttnft und Heimat, Augsbuxg, 1886; G. F. Maclear, Apoatlea of Me- duBval Europe, London, 1888; G. Juritsoh, Oeachickte dea Biachofa Otto I. von Bamberg, dea Pommem Apoatela {llOf- 11S9), Gotha, 1889; A. Lahner, Die ehemaiige Benedictiner Abtei MicheUberg au Bamberg, pp, 38-122, Bamberg, 1889; W. WIesener, Oeackichte der ekriaUichen Kirdie in Pom- mem tur WendenMeil, Berlin, 1889.