샤프-헤르초크 종교백과

OTTO OF FREISING: Bishop of that city; b. between 1111 and 1115; d. at the monastery of Morimimd (at Morimont, diocese of Langres, Bur- gundy) Sept. 22, 1158. Of noble lineage on both sides, he was destined while still a child for the Church and was appointed abbot of Klostemeu- burg near Vienna. The income thus obtained enabled him to study for several years in Paris and to acquire all the knowledge of the time; though it is not known who his teachers were, despite the evident influence exercised on him by Gilbert de la Porr^, whom he must have visited at Chartres. He was also acquainted with the writings of Hugo of St. Victor, whom he may have heard at Paris. On his return from France, Otto with fifteen note- worthy clericals visited the Cistercian monastery of Morimund and there, early in 1134, all entered the order. Within a short time, though not before the latter half of 1136, Otto was chosen abbot; but on the death of Henry, bishop of Freising, Oct. 9, 1137, the canons of Freising elected Otto to be his successor. In the following year he went to Freising and was consecrated. In 1143-46, during the troubled reign of Conrad III., Otto wrote his eight books of chronicles, which he entitled De duabu8 civiUUibua (ed. R. Wilmans, MGH, Script., XX., 1868, pp. 83 sqq.), implying the conflict of the city of God against the city of the devil. Herein Otto followed Augustine, and his second model was Orosius. The chronicle runs from the creation to 1146 in seven books, the chief sources being Oro- sius, the church history of Eusebius (as translated by Rufinus), and the chronicle of Frutolf-Ekkehard to the year 1106. The unique feature of the work was the search for the cause and effect as contrasted with the mere series of events set forth by other chroniclers. An eighth book on antichrist and the last judgment is appended. In 1147-48, Otto took part in the disastrous cru- sade of Conrad III., coounanding a division which separated from the main army and marched through the coast countries of Asia Ifinor, where it was an- nihilated. Impoverished and imdeigoing the ex- tremest hardships, the bishop escaped to a mari- time town, whence he sailed to Palestine, visited Jerusalem and other sacred places, and apparently returned to France with Louis VII. It is certain, at all events, that he was with Bernard of Qair- vaux in 1150, from whom he carried a letter to Conrad. After Otto's return to Germany, war with the Guelphs broke out anew, but with the accession of Frederick I., in 1152, the long struggle was ended; an4 Otto, who had worked sealously for peace, was employed in the cares of state even more frequently thui in the preceding reign. From 1157 until his death Otto wrote the two lx>ok8 of the his- tory of his nephew, the Emperor Frederick I.; the first book narrating the events from the beginning of the struggle between emperor and pope under Henry IV. to the death of Conrad III., and the sec- ond extending from 1152 to the autunm of 1156; the whole forming a work of distinct value. When, in the summer of 1158, the emperor went with a great army through Italy, he detached Otto, who went to France to attend the general coim- cfl of the Cistercians. On the way he visited his old monastery of Morimund, where he fell sick and died. His Geato Friderici L (ed. G. WaiU m Scrtptor^ 289 Otto of Bamberr Otto rerum Germanicarum, Hanover, 1884) was given for continuation to his chaplain, the Freising Canon Rahewin; and the last two books of this history, therefore, received from Otto, at most, only pre- liminary collections of material. Otto was of an amiable character and his position on all questions was one of mediation. It was fortunate for him that he was never called upon to choose between Frederick I. and Alexander III., as would have been the case had he lived until the schism of 1159. Strict Cistercian though he was, he established in his diocese one Premonstratensian and two Bene- dictine monasteries; and to him is also due the honor of having introduced the study of philosophy into Freising. (O. Holder-Eoger.) Bibuographt: A rich list of MSS., editions, and literature is given in Pottbast, Wegweiaer, pp. 885-887. The best source for a life is MOH.ScHpt., ix (1851). 61(M)11. Con- sult: R. Wilman's introduction to the edition in MOH, ut sup.; idem, in Archiv fOr AUere deuUehe LUieratwr^ x. 131-173, zi. 18-76; B. Ruber, OUo von Freising; aein Charakter, mn VerhAUniu gu aeiner Zeit und aeinen Zeilgenotaen aU ihr OtKhichUchreSbtr^ Mimich, 1847; L. Lang, PxycholofiiaeKe CharakUriatik Ottoa von Freising, Augsburg, 1852; H. Grotefend, Der Werth der Qeeta Fridenci dee Biachofe Otto von Freieing fUr die OeachichU dee Reiche unter Friedrich /., Hanover, 1870; T. Soigen- f rey, Zur Charakterietik dee Otto von Freieing ale Oeechieht- echreiber, Greis, 1873; W. v. Giesebrecht, GeechichU der deutechen Kaiaerxeit, iv. 3M-390, Brunswick, 1877; W. Liidecke, Der hietorieche Wert dee ertten Buchee von Ottoe von Freieing Oeeta Fridenci, Halle, 1884; E. Vacandard, in Revue dee quoHone hietoriquee, xxxv (1884), 52-114; E. Bemheim, MittheUungen dee Inetitute fikr HaUrreick- ieche Geeehiehtefortchwng, vi (1885), 1-51; J. Schmidlin, Die geechichtephUoeophieche %tnd kirchenpolitieche Welt- aneehauung Ottoe von Freieing, Freiburg, 1006; Hauck, KD, iv. 476 sqq.

OTTO OF PASSAU: Franciscan; d. not before 1386. He is noteworthy for his book entitled Die vierundzwamig Ablasse, one of the popular devo- tional anthologies of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (cf. W. Wackemagel, Deutsche Literaturge- gchichie, pp. 334, 353, Basel, 1848). Of Otto himself is known only what he tells in his preface, where he styles himself a humble brother, Otto of Passau, of the order of St. Francis, sometime lector at Basel, who completed his book on the Purification of the Virgin M&ry, 1386. He was probably a teacher in the Franciscan school at Basel and wrote his work at Passau. He calls the readers for whom he wrote ** friends of God," and it may be remembered that Basel was then the headquarters of the pious who were wont so to name themselves. In the preface he takes credit for his diligence, not without reason, for, as concerns richness of contents, his book takes the first place among the anthologies of his time. He mentions 104 authors whom he had used, and hi.s list is not complete — including, of the Greeks, Origen, Eusebius, Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus, C'hr>'8ostom, Epiphanius, the P^udo-Dionysius, and others; the latest is John of Damascus. Much larger, of course, is the number of Western teachers from Cyprian to Nicholas of Lyra (1340). The wri- tings of the so-called German mystics, however, are not used, probably because they were not consid- ered as belonging to theology. To make the read- ing of the passages quoted pleasant, the author has used the device of putting them into the mouths of the twenty-four elders of the Apocalypse in such Vni.— 19 a way that they quote them with the name of the author. This was in accord with the prevailing taste of the time, and in the following century the Dominican Johann Nider, in his book on the twenty- four harps, imitated Otto. The different sections treat of God and how to find him, of repentance, confession and penitence, of the conscience, grace, faith, Holy Scripture, of the active and contempla^ tive life, of prayer, etc. Very full are the sections on the Virgin Mary and the sacrament of the altar, where transubstantiation is fully treated. Where the author speaks of the contemplative life, he touches upon mysticism, but the book belongs rather to devotional than to mystical literature. It met a general need, as may be seen from the many manuscripts (twenty-eight) still extant. It was often printed in the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- turies, and as late as 1836 Johann Manz published at Regensburg, imder the title Die Krone der Aeltes- ten, a new edition in High German with changes answering to the prevailing taste. The book has historical interest, as it shows how at that time the older literature was used and read for its devotional merit and how Christian life was presented and brought home to larger circles. Books of its class mediated between theology, whose learned works were unintelligible to the laity, and the Christian life of the people; for the knowledge of the religious life in the Middle Ages they are more important than all dogmatical works of the schoolmen. S. M. DEUTSCHf. Bibliography: W. Wackemagel, Kleinere Schriften, ii. 189 sqq., Leipsic, 1873; ADB, xxiv. 741 sqq.; KL, ix. 1185 sqq.

OTTO, JOHANN KARL THEODOR VON: Ger- man Protestant; b. at Jena Oct. 4, 1816; d. at Dresden Jan. 11, 1897. Educated at the univer- sity of his native city, his prize essay De Justini Martyrie scriptis et doctrina (Jena, 1841) prepared the way for his life-work, the Corpus apologetarum Christianarum sceculi secundi (9 vols., Jena, 1847- 1872), a critical and exegetical edition of Justin Martyr, Tatian, Athanagoras, Theophilus, Hermias, Quadratus, Aristides, Aristo, Miltiades, MeUto, and Apollinaris. From 1848 to 1851, Otto, as extraor- dinary professor, lectured at Jena on church his- tory and New-Testament exegesis; but in the lat- ter year he was called to the Protestant faculty of Vienna as professor of church history. There he re- mained until his retirement from active life in 1887, being a member of the educational council in 1863- 67 as well as royal councilor, and receiving knight- hood with the conferring of the order of the Iron Crown. Besides the publication of the Jahrhuch der Gesellschaft fur die Geschichie des Protestantismus in Oesterreich (Vienna and Leipsic, 1880 to 1893), to which he contributed Die An/dnge der Reformation im Erzherzogium Oesterreich (vol. i., 1522-64) and Geschichie der Reformation im Erzherzogium Oester- reich unter Maximilian II. (vol. x., 1564-76); he wrote De Victorino Strigelio, liberioris mentis in ecclesia Lutheria vindice (Jena, 1843), and Die Konfession des Patriarchtn Gennadios von Konstan- tinopel (Vienna, 1864); and edited Baumgarten- Criisius' commentaries on Matthew (Jena, 1844), and Mark and Luke (1845). (G. FfiANKf.)

OTTO, RUDOLF: German Protestant; b. at Peine (20 m. s.e. of Hanover) Sept. 25, 1869. He was educated at the universities of Erlangen and Gottingen (Th.Lic., 1898) ; became privat-docent for systematic theology at the latter institution, 1898, and extraordinary professor, 1906. In theology he belongs to the historical and critical school, and has written Die Anschauung vom heiligen Geiste bei LtUher (G6ttingen, 1898) ; Das Leben und Wirken Jesu nach historisch^krUiacher Auffaasung (1901, 2d ed., 1902) ; NaturalistUche und religidse Weltarmcht (Tabingen, 1904, 2d ed., 1909; Eng. transl.. Science of Rdigion, London, 1906); Kantiech^Friee'che Re- UgionsphHosaphie und ihre Anwendung auf die Theologie (1909); and Ooethe und Darvrin. Dar- winiemue und Rdigion (Gottingen, 1909); besides editing Schleiermacher's Ueber die Religion (Gottin- gen, 1899). OUDIN, Q''dan', REMI-CASIMIR: French Re- formed theologian; b. at M^zi^res (28 m. n.e. of Reims) in 1638; d. at Leyden in 1719. He en- tered the order of the Premonstrants in 1656, stud- ied theology and church history at Verdun and Bucilly. He attracted attention to himself by a graceful extemporaneous compliment to Louis XIV. The general of his order saw in him the qualities necessary to fit him for a commission to gather all important data pertaining to history which existed in their cloisters, which conunission he undertook in 1681, bringing him to the archives of eighty different monasteries in the Netherlands, Lorraine, Burgundy, and Alsace. In 1683 he came into touch ^ith the Reformed theologian Jurieu and others, with the result that he wavered in his Roman Catholic faith. Accused of heresy, he fled to Holland in 1692, where he became a Protestant. Two years later he was made assistant librarian at the library of Leyden. His principal work was Commentariua de ecripto- ri&tM ecdeaioe antiquiSf tUorumque ecriptis adhuc exstantibTie in ceUbrioribua Europa bibUothecis (pub- lished posthumously, Leipsic, 1722). Besides this he wrote Supplementum de acriptoribue vd scripiie ecdeeiaeticis a Bdlarmino omiseia (Paris, 1686); Le Pr^montr^ difroqtU (Leyden, 1692); GaUioB et BelgicB scriptorum opuacula (1692); and Triaa die- aertationum crUicarum (1717). (G. Bonet-Maury.) Bibuoorapht: Niceron, Mhnoirea^ vols. i. and x.; Lich- tenberger, ESR, x. 112-113. OUEN {A'udasnua)^ SAINT: Roman Catholic archbishop; b. at Sancy (near Soissons), in the de- partment of Alsne, in 609; d. Aug. 24, 689. He was chancellor of Dagobert I., and founded, in 634, the abbey of R^bais, but entered afterward the service of the Church, and was in 640 appointed archbishop of Rouen. He wrote a Vila Elegii, which is found in L. d 'Archery's Spicilegiumf new edition, ii. 76-122 (Paris, 1723), and in MPL, Ixxxvii. 479- 594. This work is of great interest for the history of the seventh century. BnuooHAPHT: Eariy Vita and legendary materialii are col- iMsted in ASB, Aug.. iv. 794-840. Consult: Petit, Hitt. dt 8. Own, Rouen, 1860; J. EngUng, Der heUioe Audoen, Lunmbuiv, 1867; E. Vaoandard. Vie de Saint Often, iattm de Bourn, Puto. 1002.

OVENDEN, CHARLES THOMAS: aiurch of England; b. at Enniskillen (72 m. s.w. of Belfast), Ireland, Sept. 11, 1846. He received his education at the Portora Royal School, Enniskillen, Mann- heim, Germany, and Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1869; M.A., 1874; B.D., 1882; D.D., 1891); was made deacon in 1870, and priest the same year; was curate of St. Anne's, Belfast, 1870-72; rector of Dunluce, CJounty Antrim, 1872-79; suocentor of St. Patrick's, Dublin, and warden of the gnunmar- school, 1879-84; rector of Ballywillan, Portnish, 1884-^; precentor of Qogher, 1886-1903; chap- lain to the lord lieutenant of Ireland, 188^1903; dean of Qogher since 1903; also rural dean of EnniskiUen since 1887. He has written: In the Day of Trouble (London, 1901); Enthusiasm of Christianity (1902); The Face of Nature; popular Readings in elementary Science (1902); " To Whom shall toe got *' an Examination of some Difficulties presented by Unbdief (1902); The Church Navvy; Thoughts on the pioneer Work of the Church (1903); Foundation of a Happy Life (1905); Deep Ques- tions (1907); and Popular Science for Parochial Evenings (1909). 0VERBER6, BERIIHARD HEIIIRICH: Tlie theological head of a group of devout Roman Catho- lics usually known as the Gallitsin circle from Amalie, Princess Gallitzin; b. at HOckel (near BersenbrQck, 80 m. w.n.w. of Hanover) May 1, 1754; d. at Mon- ster Nov. 9, 1826. Educated at the Early Franciscan gymnasium at Rheine-on- Careeras the-Ems (1770-74) and the theolog- Scholarand ical seminary at MOnster (1774-80), Teacher, and at the same time being a private tutor in MOnster and giving religious instruction at his home in the vacations, he was ordained priest in 1780. After three years as curate at Ewerswirkel, he was called to Monster as an instructor in the new normal school. Before entering upon his duties he made a tour of inspection of the schools of the diocese (1783-84), and then opened the normal school, which gave an autunm vacation course of two or three months, giving teachers the correct method of imparting instruction in religion and other subjects. Many teachers also took advantage of his lectiues during vacations. At the same time, he conducted free catechizing throughout the year in the French cloister, summarixing each Sunday in his sermons the lectures he had given during the week. In 1789 Overberg entered new surroundings which were to extend his influence not only through Ro- man Catholic circles in Germany, but also spread his fame among Protestants. His appointment as private chaplain to Princess Adelheid The Amalie Gallitzin brought about this Princess change. This lady (b. at Beiiin Aug. Gallitzin. 28, 1748; d. at Angeknodde, near Monster, Apr. 27, 1806), though edu- cated a Roman Catholic, had become, partly through her Berlin associations as maid of honor to the Princess Ferdinand, practically a rationalistic Prot- estant. At the age of twenty she had married the Russian Prince Dmitri Alezeyevich Gallitzin (b. 1735; d. 1803), a friend of Voltaive, HelveUus, and aoi REUQIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Otto Orerbavv Diderot. After reeidiiig at the courts ol Vienna, St. Petersbuiig, Paris, and The Hague, the Princess Amalie withdrew from society to devote herself en- tirely to the education of her two children, Dmi- tri (see GALLmiN, Dbmethius Augustine) and Marianne, at the same time studying mathematics, classics, and philosophy with the non-Christian Frans Hemsterhuis. Even after her return to the Roman Catholic Church, Amalie continued her litr eraiy and scientific correspondence with Hemster- huis, who, under the pseudonym of Diodes, ad- dressed to her, as Diotima, his celebrated Lettres 9wr VathHsme (1785) . In 1799 she removed to MOnster, where for four years she resisted all attempts of Von FOrstenbeig, whom she highly esteemed, to convert her. In 1784, however, she fell seriously ill, and though she declined the services of the confessor whom Von FOrstenberg sent her, she promised that, if she recovered, she would at least make a serious Uieoiettcai study of (Christianity. This was the more imperative since she had resolved to give her children a purely historical presentation of religion, that they might freely choose their faith; and to this end she devoted herself to the study of tlie Bible. She gradually became convinced of the power of Christianity, and on her thirty-ei^th birthday re- ceived the conmiunion. Her conversion was pro- moted also by reading the lectures of Hamann on Socratic memoirs and other subjects. After visiting Herder and Goethe she was easily overcome with the temptation to prefer esthetic philosophical at- tainments to the hiunble deeds of Christian service, but was again reclaimed by association with Hamann, whom, as also Hemsterhuis, she attended in his last illness (1788). After the death of these, the princess felt the need of some man to be her spiritual guide, and, having become acquainted with Overberg through Von FQrstenberg, she invited him (Jan. 10, 1789) to become her father confessor. (Werberg accepted the invitation and removed from the episcopal seminaiy to the home of the princess. Here he took a prominent part in Amalie's literaiy and personal association with such men as Jacobi, Lavater, and Croethe, and also exercised a weighty influence in the conversion to Roman CathoUcism of Count Friedrich Leopold von Stolbeig (q.v.), which was finally realized on July 1, 1800. The next three years after the death of the prin- cess Overberg remained in the house as confessor and guardian of her daughter. In 1809 Overberg he was appointed regent of the episco- afterfhe pal seminary, where he henceforth Death resided. He was at the same time of the ^3modical examiner, a member of the Princen. school commission, and director of the normal school in the autumn va- cation. In 1816 he was created consistorial coun- selor and member of the royal administration of ed- ucation, and shortly before his death wais made supreme consistorial counselor. He was likewise honorary canon of MQnster. Among his works special mention may be made of the Biblische Ge- gehichte des Alien und Neuen TesUments (1799); ChriMatholiaches Rdtgiofuhandbueh (1804); Kate- Mnmu der chritt-katholimJien Lehre (1804); Haua- 9egen, oder gemeinschiOftiiche Hauaandachl (1807); and the posthumous jSec^ BUcher vom PriutUr^ 8tande (Mttnster, 1858). Besides Overbeig, Von FOrstenbeig, and the Prin- cess Amalie, the Gallitzin circle was represented not only by Friedrich Leopold von Stolbeig and Johann Theodor Hermann Katerkamp (qq.v.), but also by the three brothers Von Droete-Vischering: namely, Caspar Maximilian, bishop of Mttnster Other (1825-46); Franz Otto, canon of Mttn- Members ster (d. 1826); and Clemens August of the (see Drostb-Vischering). Here, too, Gallitzin belongs Amalie's only son (see Gai/- Circle. lttzin, Demetrius Augustine). Next to Katerkamp the most learned and prolific theologian of the circle was Johannes Hya- cinth Kistemaker (b. 1754; d. 1884), professor at Mttnster, and the author, among other works, of the CammerUaiio de nova exegesi prcBcipue VeterU TestamerUi ex coUoHs acriptonbua Oracie et Romania (1806), the Caniicum canHcorum illuetratum ex hierographia orientalium (1818), and a translation of and commentary on the entire New Testament (7 vols., 1818-25). He likewise published an edition of the Vulgate in 1824 in an unsuccessful attempt to counteract the work of Leander van Ess (q.v.). Others of the Gallitzin coterie were Anton Maria Sprickmann, professor at Mttnster after 1780; Jo- hann Heinrich Brockmann (b. at Liesbom, near Beckmn, which is 23 m. s.e. of Mttnster, 1767; d. at Mttnster 1847), professor of moral and pastoral theology at Mttnster after 1800, and the author of a life of St. Aloysius (1820) and other works; and Geoig Kellermann (b. at Freckenhorst, near Mttn- ster, 1776; d. at Mttnster Mar. 29, 1847), chaplain and tutor to Count von Stolberg (1801-17), dean of St. Ludger's at Mttnster (1817-26), professor of New-Testament exegesis at Mttnster (1826-47), bishop-elect at his death (1847), and the author of pedagogical or edifying works, such as the prayer- book, GoU meine Zuversicht (1845). More transi- tory relations to the Gallitzin circle were sustained by Geoig Hermes (q.v.), Clemens von Brentano, Johannes Michael Sailer (q.v.); such Protestants as Thomas Wizenmann, Johann Friedrich Kleuker (q.v.) ; and the historian Franz Bemhard von Buc- holtz (b. 1790; d. at Vienna 1838), the author of a history of Ferdinand I. (9 vols., Vienna, 1831-38). (O. ZOcKLER to Bibuoorapht: On Oveifoeig eonmilt: C. F. Krabbe, Leben B. Overbervtf MOnater, 1831. Eng. traxuil., Derby, 1843; (J. Reinennann), B. Overberg in aeinem Ltben und Wirken, MOnater, 1829; H. Heroldt Froiu von FUrUenberg und Bemhard Overberg in ihrem gemeineamen Wirken fUr die ViMcMchule^ MOnater, 1893; A. Kndppel, Bemhard Over- berg, Mains, 1896; ADB, zxv. 14 aqq. On the circle consult: The oorreapondence and diary of the princess, published MOnster, 1874-76; J. T. H. Katex^ kamp, DerJcwiLrdigkeiten aus dem Leben der FUretin A. wm OaUitzin, MOnster. 1828; W. Esser, Frans von FUr- stenberg. Monster, 1842; C. F. Krabbe, OeeehiehUiche Nachriehten fiber die hdheren LehrariHaUen in Mitntler, Monster, 1852; J. Qalland, Die FUratin Amalie von Gal- litzin und ihre Freunde, Cologne, 1880; J. Janssen. Fried- rich Leopold Grafeu Stolberg, Freiburg. 1882; F. Nielsen. Aua dem inneren Ld>en der katholieehen Kirche im 19. JahrhundeH, i. 221-243. Carlsnihe. 1882; F. Nippold. Kleine Schriften, i. 209-268. Jena. 1899; ADB, viii. 282- 244; KL, iv. 2087-91. vu. 366-367, 736 SQQ.

OVERTON, JOHN HENRY: Church of England historian; b. at Louth (24 m. n.e. of Lincoln), England, Jan. 4, 1835; d. at Market Harborough (12 m. s.e. of Leicester), England, Sept. 15, 1903. He studied at Rugby, and at Lincoln College, Ox- ford (B.A., 1858; M.A., 1860); was ordained dea- con in 1858, and priest 1859; was curate of Quedge- ley, Gloucestershire, 1858-60; vicar of Legboume, Lincolnshire, 1860-83; became canon of Stow Longa in Lincoln Cathedral, 1879; was rector of Epworth, diocese of Lincoln, 1883-98; rural dean of Axholme, 1883-98; select preacher at Oxford University, 1901; and Birkbeck lecturer in ecclesiastical his- tory at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1902-03. He was the author of The English Church in the Eight- eenth Century (in collaboration with C. J. Abbey, 2 vols., London, 1878); William Law^ Nonjuror and Mystic: A Sketch of his Life, Character and Opinn ions (1881); Life in the English Church (1660-1714) (1885); Evangelical Revival in the Eighteenth Cen- tury (1886); Christopher Wordsworth^ Bishop of Lincoln (in collaboration with Miss E. Wordsworth, 1888); The English Church in the Nineteenth Cen- tury (1894); John Wesley (1895); The Church in England (2 vols., 1897); The Anglican Revival (1897); The Nonjurors^ their LiveSy Principles and Writings (1902); The English Church: From Acces- sion of George I. to End of Eighteenth Century (1714- 1800) (in collaboration with F. Relton, 1906).

OWEN, JOHN: The name of two prominent English theologians. 1. Independent scholar and Reformer; b. at Stadham or Stadhampton (5 m. s.s.e. of Oxford) in 1616; d. at Ealing (9 m. w. of St. Paul's Cathe- dral, London) Aug. 24, 1683. His father was a clergyman of Welsh extraction, tracing a descent from Gwegan ap Ithel, Prince of Glamorgan. The son was sent to Oxford when only twelve years of age, and studied classics, mathematics, philosophy, theology, Hebrew, and rabbinical lore (B.A., 1632; M.A., 1635); leaving Oxford in 1637. Laud was then powerful in the university, and endeavored to carry out his High-church (see Church op Eng- land, II., § 8) plans, and Owen refused to submit to the Laudian discipline; and being both in spir- itual and temporal difficulties, he sank into a state of deep melancholy. Before he left college he took orders, and became chaplain to Lord Lovelace, one of the Royalist party. From him Owen separated, on account of his own sympathy with the patriots, as the Parliamentarians were called. Retiring to London, a sermon on the words " Why are ye fear- ful, O ye of little faith? '' led to a spiritual decision. Soon after, Owen published a decidedly Calvinistic book, entitled Display of Arminianism (London, 1643), by which he identified himself with theAnti- High-church party, and was presented to the living of Fordham, Essex. There he preached with suc- cess, delivering a sermon before Parliament in 1646, and, rising in reputation, was promoted to the im- portant incumbency of Coggeshall, near Fordham. He then adopted the principles of Independency; and while parish pastor, and preaching from the pulpit, he gathered an Independent Church. ■Iw \m pubUahed an exposition of Congrega- tional church principles entitled, Eschoi; or Rules of Direction for the Walking of the Saints in Fellow- ship (1648). During his residence at Coggeshall he further engaged in the Calvinistic controversy, and wrote his Solus eUctorum, sanguis Jesu (1648), a polemic against Arminianism. The antinomian tendency of this work elicited protests from Richard Baxter and John Home. He also preached and published sermons to the Parliamentarians at Col- chester and Rumford, entitled, A Memorial of the Deliverance of Essex County and Committee (1648). Thoroughly identified with the Parliamentarians, he was invited to preach before parliament on the day after King Charles' execution, when he ac- quitted himself with great prudence. Soon after- ward he met with Cromwell, whom he attended in his expedition to Ireland. His sermons before parlia- ment previous to his embarkation, and again on his return, on the spiritual state of Ireland, resulted in the reendowment of Trinity College, Dublin. He accompanied Cromwell to Scotland, and occu- pied Presbyterian pulpits there while the conflict was going on between parliament and the Scotch Loyalists. Owen returned to Coggeshall in 1651, and the House of Conmions voted that he should be appointed dean of Christ Church, Oxford, in the place of Dr. Reynolds, the Presbyterian. His career at Oxfond was remarkable. The uni- versity had fallen into great disorder during the civil wars, and the new dean acted as a \ngorous and successful reformer. The heads of houses dur- ing Owen's administration were men of eminent learning: they promoted education, as well as re- ligion, and many distinguished persons in Church and State passed through a successful training. Owen was made vice-chancellor in 1652, and preached before parliament the next year, at the thanksgiving for a naval victory over the Dutch. After the dissolution of the Long Parliament, in 1653, the university chose Owen as its representa- tive in the House of Conmions; but he was imseated on account of his orders. In the same year, he was one of the conmiissioners for ejecting and settling ministers, and in 1654 one of the Tiyers, a body of Independents, Presbyterians, and Baptists, thirty- eight in number, auUiorized to inquire into the fit- ness of incumbents for the posts tiiey held. Owen behaved ^ith wisdom and moderation, and saved the celebrated Edward Pocock (q.v.), Arabic pro- fessor, from harsh and imrighteous treatment. When a conspiracy against CromweU's government broke out in the West, in 1655, the vice-chancellor exerted himself to preserve the public peace, and raised a troop of sixty horse; and the same year attended a conference at Whitehall touching the treatment of Jews. The next year he preached a well-known sermon at Westminster Abbey entitled, God's Work in founding Zion, and his People's Duty thereupon (Oxford, 1656). Owen was replaced as vice-chancellor, in 1658, by John Conant. During this period he produced several theological trea- tises. He opposed the Socinians by deducing the absolute necessity of satisfaction for sin from the constitution of divine nature, in Diairtba de Dirina Justitia seu Justitice Vindicatrids VindicuB (1658). The Anniniana were again attacked in Doctrine of 298 Orerton Owen the Saints* Perseveranct Explained and Confirmed (1654). Some of his best (Sorter treatises of this period were: 0/the MortifioaHon of Sin in Believers (1656); 0/ Communion with God the Father, Son, and Holy Ohost, each Person distincUy in Love, Qrace, €md Consolaiion (1657), a piece of wire-drawn m3rsticism; Of Schism (1657), an ingenious attempt to exonerate the non-conformists from schism; Temptation (1658); and 0/ the Divine Oriffinal AtUhority, Setf-evidencing Light and Power of the Scriptures (1659). Owen was unfriendly to Crom- well's assumption of the protectorship, and he took no part in his installation in that office. A meeting of the Independents, by Cromwell's per- mission, was held at the Savoy in 1658, when a declaration of faith was drawn up, for which Owen wrote the preface. While the Savoy meetings were going on, Cromwell died and his death made a great change in Owen's fortunes. The dean preached be- fore the first parliament of the new protector. Owen was mixed up with consultations at Walling- ford House, which ended in the fall of Richard, and the recalling of the Long Parliament. Owen preached before the members for the last time in May, 1659; and in Mar., 1660, the House of Com- mons dischaiged him from his deanery, and replaced Reynolds. He now retired to his estate at Stadham and de- voted himself to compiling Theologoumena panto- dapa (1661), an encyclopedic Latin treatise on the history of religion and theology, from the Creation to the Reformation. While the Bill of Uniformity (see Uniformitt, Act of) was pending, he tendered a temperate protest, A Discourse concerning Litur- gies and their Imposition (London, 1662); and on the Conventicle Bill (see Conventicle Act) he presented a minute to Parliament in 1671. By the former together with Animadversions (1662) and the Vindication of it (1664) he was thought to have rendered such a service to Protestant religion that Lord Clarendon offered him high preferment if he would conform to the Church of England. After being indicted for holding religious services in his house, and escaping imprisonment in 1664-65, he removed to London. He had powerful friends at court. The duke of York discussed the rights and wrongs of non-conformity with him, and Charles II. gave him private audience and a thousand guineas for the sufferers by the penal laws. Notwithstand- ing the Conventicle Act he was suffered to preach, and, after dall3dng with Baxter's project for a union of Presbyterians and Independents, he accepted, in 1673, a pastorate on Leadenhall Street. In his PneumcUologia; or Discourse on the Holy Spirit (1674); Doctrine of Justification by Faith through the Imputation of the Righteousness of Christ (1677) ; Christologia (1679) ; Church of Rome no Safe Guide (1679) and Union among Protestants (1680) he bent his whole strength to the task of arresting the move- ment toward Rome on the one hand and rationalism on the other. He replied to an attack by Stilling- fleet on dissenters by Brief Vindication of Non- conformists from the charge of Schism (1681) and an Inquiry into the Original NaturCf Institution^ Powers Order, and Communion of Evangelical Churches (1681), wherein he endeavored to prove that the ecclesiastical polity of the first two centuries was congregational. He published Phronema pneu- matos; or the Grace of Being Spiritually-Minded (1681), Of the Work of the Holy Spirit in Prayer (1682), and at his death. Meditations and Discourses on the Glory of Christ (1696), a refreshing devotional book. Owen remonstrated with the Congregationalists of New England for their intolerance and declined the presidency of Harvard College. In appearance he was tall and strong, and in disposition amiable. He was one of the most eminent of Protestant di- vines. He was a trenchant controversialist, and his learning was vast, varied, and profound; his mas- tery of Calvinism was complete. Other works should be noted: Exercitations on the Epistle to the Hebrews (1668-84); A Brief Instruction in the Wor- ship of God and Discipline of the Churches of the New Testament (1669); and also A Complete Col- lection of Sermons ( 1 721 ) . Works of John Owen have been ecUted by T. Russell, with best biography by W. Orme (28 vols., London, 1826); and by W. H. Goold, with Life by A. Thomson (24 vols., London, 1850-55; American edition by C. W. Quick, 17 vols., Philadelphia, 1865-69). 2. Church of England bishop of St. David's; b. at Llanegan (26 m. s.s.w. of Carnarvon), Carnarvon- shire, Wales, Aug. 24, 1854. He was educated at Jesus College, Oxford (B.A., 1876; M.A., 1879), and was ordered deacon in 1879 and advanced to the priesthood in 1880. He was tutor, Welsh pro- fessor, and classical lecturer in St. David's College, Lampeter, Wales (1879-85); warden and head master of Llandovery College (1885-89); principal of St. David's CoUege, sinecure rector of Llangeler, Carmarthenshire, and canon of Llanfair (first com- portation) in St. Alban's Cathedral (1889-97); and in 1897 was consecrated bishop of St. David's. He was also dean of St. Asaph in 1890-92 and preben- dary of Johannes Griffith in 1892-96. Bibliography: On 1 consult, besides the lives in the Work», ut sup.; A. k Wood, Athenm Oxonienaea, ed. P. Bliss, 4 vols., London, 1813-20; T. Wright. Biooraphia Britannica liter- aria, London, 1846; DNB, xlii. 424-428 (where scatter- ing notices are indicated).

OWEN, ROBERT: English socialist and philan- thropist; b. at Newtown (8 m. s.w. of Montgomery), Montgomeryshire, North Wales, May 14, 1771; d. there Nov. 19, 1858. The son of poor parents, he procured a situation in London at the age of four- teen, and subsequently had charge of the Chorlton Mills, near Manchester, and a cotton-spinning man- ufactory at New Lanark, Scotland. His benevo- lent schemes secured a radical change in the morals of the operatives of New Lanark, and accomplished the education of their children. The reputation of his success spread rapidly, and attracted the atten- tion of many philanthropists and distinguished men. Owen published New View of Society, or Essays on the Formation of Human Character (Lon- don, 1813), in which he developed a theory of modi- fied communism. In 1824 he visited the United States, where he purchased a tract of land on the Wabash in Indiana, and founded New Harmony (see Communism, II., 6). This communistic enter- prise was a complete failure. Returning to England OWM^ THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ in 1827, Owen founded societies at Orbiston, Lan' arlcBhire, and Tytlierley, Hampshire, ia which the principle af cooperation was put, in practise. The founder's ample means enabled him to make these experiments on a liberal scale, but all resulted in failure. In 182S he visited Mexico at the invitation of the government, with the vien of eatablishing a communistic society, but returned to Europe with- out accomplishing anything. He continued Ic ad- vocate his peculiar viewB to the day of hia death. In 1829 be held u famoue debate with Alexander Campbell at Cincinnati on the evidences of Chris- ti&tlity (he himself being an unbeliever). In the latter years of his life (and probably under the In- fluence of hia son, Robert Dale Owen) be was a be- liever in SpirituBlism, having become convinced of the immortality of the soul, Owen was a man of Kmarkable energy and derided ability, but vision- ary. He and hia followers, culled " Owenista," be- came, in 1827, active in the establishment of the labor leagues, in which the Chartist movement largely had its origin. Among Owen's writings &re : Diaamrtei on a New Syeltm of Society, vnth an Aecount of the Society at New Lanark (Louisville, 1826); The Debate on the EMeneet of Chriatianiiy . , . bettueen ft. Omen and A. Campbell (Bethany, Va., 1829); and The RevotuHon in the Mind and Practice of the Human Race (London, 1849). ^BUoaBAPHT; VJ. L. S&rKmit. Robert Owen and hia Hocial PhOoKipliU. LonJoD. I860: G. J. Holyimkc. Lift . . . aj RobiTl Owen. ib.lSM; F. A. Packard. U/e o/ RoAcrC Oimi. Philulelphta. ISeS; A, J . Bootb. Robm Oiem. lAe Foundir of Sacv^itm in Ent/land, London, ISeS: L. Joon, Li/t. Timet, and LabaaraaJRiAtrt Oicm,ib. tSSa; F. Fudmont, Rabrrt Oicen. 2 voLa.. London, IWM: R. E. Duvies. The Lift a/ Robert Ouoi, PhitanlhropiM and Sociai Riformtt, Loudon, 1907; W. A. Hindi. Amtriean Commvnilia, Chioaco. tens.

OXENDEN, ASHTON: Church of England bishop; b. at Broome Park, Canterbury, Sept. 20, 1808; d. at Biarritz (100 m. s.s.w. of Bordeaux), France, Feb. 22, 1892. He studied at University College, Oxford (B.A., 1831; M.A., 1SS9); was or- dained deacon 1833, and priest 1834; was curate of Barham, Kent, 1833-38; from 1838-45 he retired from active work on account of ill-health; was rec- tor of Pluckley. Kent, 1849-69; became honorary canon of Canterbury Cathedral, 1864; was bishop of Montreal and metropolitan of Canada, 1869-78; vicar of St. Stephen's, near Canterbury, 1879-84; and niral dean of Canterbury, 1879-84. He was the author of The Cottage Library: (1) Baptism, (2) The Lord'g Supper, (3) Hist. of the Christian Church, (4) Fen>ent Prayer, (6) God's Meesage to the Poor, (6) Story of Ruth (6 vols., I.ODdoo, 1847-62); Cot- It^ Semvtne: or, Plain Words to the Poor (2 series, 1863-54); The Pathioay of Safety; or, Counsel to Hie Awakened (1856); Cottage Reading*. The Bar- ham Trade Complete (1859); Sermone on the Chri»- lian Life (1862); Portraits from the Bible (2 vols., 1863); The ParabUt of our Lord Explained {\9M): Our Church and her Service* (1866); A Simple Ex- poiitioti of the Paalna (2 vols., 1872-73); The Bamest Churchman (1878); Short Commenie on the OoepeU (1885); The Hiatory of My Life: on Auto- hiography (1891); Plain Servtons, With a Memoir and Portrait of the Author (Loodon and New Yoilc, 1893). OXEHHAH, HENRT nUTCOMBE: Romaa Catholic; b. at Harrow (5 m. n.w. of London), England, Nov. 15, 1829; d. at Kensington, Lon- don, Mar. 23, 1888. He studied at BaUiol CoLege, Oxford {B.A., 1850; M.A., 1854); became curate at Worminghall, Buckinghamshire (1854), and later of St. Bartholomew's, Cripplegate, till 1857, when he joined the Boman Catbohc Church; he was in the London Oratory, 1859-60; became professor at St. Edmund's College, Ware, 1S60; and master at the Oratory School, Birmingham, 1861. Among bis works may be named: The SenUrice of Kairet and other Poems (Oxford, 1851); The Catholic Doe- trine of the Atonement: an historical Ijiquiry into ill Development in the Church (London, 1865); Catha- lie Eachalology and Univertaliem. An Euay on the Doctrine of Future RetrSndion. (1876); Short Studies in Eeeletiastical History and Biography and Short Studies Ethical and Religious (both reprinted from The Saturday Review, 1884-85). Ho was the ttanshitor of J. J. I. von DoUinger's The First Agt of Christianity and the Church (1836); The Pope arul the CouncU, by Janus (1869); and Lecture* on the Reunion of the Churches (1872). He was trans- lator and editor of vol. ii, of C, J. von Hefele'a A History of Christian Councils (E*linburgh, 1876). Among his important contributions to The Saturdttt/ Review was a series of papers that appeared in 1870 on the proceedings at tije Vatican counoiL Bibliography: UaeKhaleT Omrdian. Miir. 31, 13SS; DYB, idiu. 13-15; J. GlUow. Biblioofaphicat Dietianary af Sit^ lith Calhotia. v. 22B-231. London, n.d.

OXFORD: The county town of Oxfordshire, Eng., a cathedral city, the seat of a famous univer- sity and of a bishopric; situated at the junction of the Isis (Thames) and Cherwell (52 m. w.n.w of London); population 49,413 (1901). The uni- versity, though not founded by Alfred the Great, is a veiy old institution, and achieved very early a great fame. It probably originated from independ- ent colleges founded in the place. Mention is made of what became the nuclei of the later university aa early as the beginning of the twelfth century. The earliest charter recognizing It aa a single organiza- tion dales from Henry III. (thirteenth century): the statutes dale from 1629. At present the uni- versity comprises tweDty-one colleges, some of which are very richly endowed, and there ore also one college and three halls for women in the town, the students of which have the privileges of lec- tures, library, and examinations, though not of de- grees and honors. The university library is the Bodleian, founded by Sir Thomas Bodley in 1602. The University of Oxford has been closely identi- fied with the religious life of England. From the Restoration down to 1854, dissenters (see Non- Conimrmibtb) were debarred from the honors of the univeraty. Now, however, all persons can re- ceive its degrees, unce subscription to the Thirty- nine Articles (q.v.) is no longer required. John Wyclif was professor at Oxford, and in 1555 Lati- mer and Ridley, and in 1566 Cranmer, were burnt at Oxford. In 1606 James I. prohibited Roman C^Uholiofl from " nominating to any froe KhooL" dd6 Owen Iq the civil war the University of Oxford melted its plate to help the Stuarts. Laud was chancellor and Charles I. held co^irt at Oxford. Consequently the parliamentary party was indignant; and, when it took the city (1646), ejected all those who far vored the king. Chief among these was John Fell (q.v.), dean of Christ Church and vice-chan- cellor. To him succeeded Edward Reynolds the Presbyterian (q.v.), and then John Owen the Inde- pendent (q.v.) 1652, imtil 1660, when Reynolds was restored. In 1651 Cromwell was elected chancellor. During the Commonwealth, instruction was given as usual, although there was some confusion; and among the students were John Locke, Robert South, Philip Heniy, Daniel Whitby, and Matthew Poole (qq.v.). Walton's Polyglot (see Bibles, Polyglot, IV.) was carried through the press during this period (1654-58), and in it Oxford scholars took a principal part. With the Restoration (1660) the university became as pronouncedly loyal to the monarchy as it had been to the Conunonwealth and those who had been ejected were restored. It was insulted by James II. because it refused to countenance his Roman Catholic schemes; yet, under Queen Anne, strong Jacobite sentiment pre- vailed. In the eighteenth century, Oxford became the starting-point for the most reniarkable religious movement in the annals of England: namely, Methodism (see Methodists); for John Wesley (q.v.) was student and fellow there, and ** father " of the famous Holy Club, and there also George Whitefield (q.v.) studied. In the nineteenth cen- tury Oxford was also a religious center. It will be necessary to name only Edward Pusey, John Henry Newman, and John Keble (qq.v.) to call to mind the Tractarian movement (see Tractarianism) which stirred England so profoundly. A leader in quite a different school of religious thought was Benjamin Jowett (q.v.), master of Balliol, who headed, in a scholarly way, the Broad-church party (see England, Church of, II., § 8). Several councils or sjmods have been held at Oxford. Two are of especial interest; one on Nov. 18, 1382, before which Wyclif was summoned to answer for his attack on the doctrine of transub- stantiation. The council passed no condemnatory sentence, yet he was debarred from lecturing in the university. The second sjmod to be mentioned was presided over by Thomas Arundel (q.v.) and was held in 1408. It passed thirteen decrees against the Lollards (q.v.), the followers of Wyclif; of which the third, sixth, and seventh may thus be summar rized: Every preacher must adapt his discourse to the class immediately addressed, so that he may to the cleigy speak of the faults of the clergy, and to the laity of the faults of the laity, but not vice versa. No book of Wyclif 's may be read anywhere, unless it has been previously approved. The Bible must no longer appear in an English translation, and the Wyclifite translation must no longer be used. The see of Oxford (embracing the three counties, Berkshire, Buckingham, and Oxfordshire) was es- tablished by Henry VIII. in 1542; and the cathe- dral was first the church of St. Frideswide which became Christ Church, Oxford, in 1546. Among the eminent bishops of Oxford may be mentioned Henry Compton, John Fell, Thomas Seeker, and Samuel Wilberforce (qq.v.). Bzbuogbapht: lUuatrated HuHory of the UnivenUy of Ox- ford, iU Colleges, HaUe, and Public Buildinoe, 2 vote., London, 1814; V. A. Huber, Die etHfliachen UniverriUUen, vote, i.-ii., Canel, 1839-40, abridged Eng. tranal., 2 vote.. The Englieh UniveraiHee, London, 1843; G. Smith. A Plea for the Abolition of Testa in the University of Oxford, London, 1863; idem, The Re-organisation of the Vniver- sity of Oxford, ib. 1868; J. Parker, Early History of Ox- ford, 797-UOO, Oxford, 1885; Q. C. Broderick, History of {Oxford) University, London, 1886; A. Clarke, The Col- leges of Oxford; their Hist, and Traditions, London, 1891; P. DcuEinner, The Cathedral Church of Oxford, London, 1897; J. Welte, Oxford and its Colleges, London, 1904; G. F. Bridgee. The Oxford Reformers and English Church Principles. Their Rise, Trial and Triumph, London, 1908. OXFORD TRACTS. See Tractarianism.

OZANAM, ANTOINE FREDERIC: Roman Cath- olic scholar; b. at Milan Apr. 23, 1813; d. at Marseilles Sept. 8, 1853. He studied at Lyons and Paris, and was, in 1841, appointed professor of foreign literature at the Sorbonne. He was a man of piety, learning, and great literary powers. His great aim was to write a counterpart of Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, and to vin- dicate the Roman Catholic Church by means of a history of the Christian civilization; but he suc- ceeded in realizing it only in a fragmentary man- ner: Dante et la philosophie catholique au treizihne sikie (Paris, 1839); Hiatoiredela civilisation (1845; transl., Hist, of Civilization in the 6th Century , by A. C. Glyn, 2 vols., London, 1868); ttudes ger- maniquea (Paris, 1847-49); and Les Pontes franr- ciscains en Italie (1852). A collected edition of his works in 11 vols, appeared (Paris, 1855-65). Bibliography: Hte life was written by U. Legeay, Paris, 1854; J. B. H. D. de I^Aoordaire, ib. 1856; F. X. Karker, Paderbora, 1867; M. de Montrond, 1870; Kathleea O'Meara. Edinburgh, 1876; E. Hardy, Mains, 1878; A. Osanam, Paris. 1878; Mme. E. Humbert, ib. 1886; C. Huit, ib. 1888; and J. Laur, ib. 1896.

P: Tba symbol emi^Ted to designate the Priestly document which, according to the critical school, is one of the components of the Hexateuch (q.v.). 8«e Hesrew LANauAOE and Literature, II., i 4.

PACE, RICHARD: English ecclesiastic, diploma- tist, and man of letters; b. at or near Winchester, about 1482; d. at Stepney, in the east of London, 1536. His studies were principally conducted at Padua; and although, on his return, be entered Queen's College, Oxford, he very soon left it for the service of Cardinal Bainbridge, whom he ac- companied to Rome at the end of 1509. In May, 1510, be became prebendary of South Huskham, Southwell. In 1514 he became archdeacon of Dor- set, in 1510 dean of St. Paul's, and in 1522 dean of 897 Paooa Paohomius BhuMuius Exeter. Meanwhile he had attracted the notice of Henry VIII. and Wolsey. In 1521 he was sent to the strong republic of Venice and again in 1523 to promote Wolsey's election to the papacy. Wolsey was believed to be jealous of his iziJQuence; more probably his health, both physical and mental, was failing, and upon the doge's request, he was recalled in 1525. In 1527 he retired from St. Paul's to Sion near Twickenham. Pace was an amiable and ac- complished man, the friend of More, Erasmus, and Colet. He had the courage to publish a book against Henry VIII. 's marriage with Catharine of Aragon (1527); but his most important work is De fructu qui ex doctrina percipitur (Basel, 1517). Bibliography: H. H. Milman, Annala of St. Paul's, pp. 179 sqq., London, 1869; J. S. Brewer, Reign of Henry VIII., i. 112 aqq.. ib. 1884; DNB, xliii. 22-24.

PACIFICATION, EDICTS OF: The name gen- erally given to those edicts which from time to time the French kings issued in order to pacify the Huguenots. The first of the kind was that issued by Charles IX. in 1562, which guaranteed the Re- formed religion toleration within certain limits; the last waa the famous Edict of Nantes. (See Nantbs,

PACIFIC ISLANDS: See South Sea Islands.

PADDOCK, ROBERT LEWIS: Protestant Epis- copal missionary bishop of Eastern Oregon; b. in Brooklyn, N. Y., Dec. 24, 1869. He was educated at Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. (B.A,, 1894), and Berkeley Divinity School, Middletown, Conn. (from which lie was graduated in 1897), and was ordered deacon in 1897 and ordained priest in the following year. He was in charge of St. Paul's Mission, Southington, Conn. (1897), and secretary of the Church Students' Missionary Association and assistant minister of St. Paul's, Cleveland, O. (1897- 1898), As vicar of the pro-cathedral. New York City (1898-1901), and rector of Holy Apostles'. New York (1902-07), be distinguished himself by hia fight against the immorality flagrant in bis par- ish. In 1907 he was consecrated missionary bishop of the newly erected see of Eastern Oregon.

PAGE, HARLAN: American philanthropist; b. at Coventry, Conn., July 28, 1791 ; d. in New York Sept. 23, 1834. From 1825 to his death he was New York agent of the general depository of the American Tract Society. He was a most devoted ' Christian, and employed every agency to do good.

PAGET, FRANCIS: Church of England bishop of Oxford; b. at London, Mar. 20, 1851. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford (B.A., 1873), where he was senior student (1873-83) and tutor <I876-83). He was vicar of Bromsgrove(1883-85); regius professor of pastoral theology at Oxford and canon of Christ Church (1835-92); dean of Christ Church <1892-1Q01); and was consecrated bishop of Oxford (J901). He was also Oxford preacher at Whitehall in 1881-83, examining chap- lain to the bishop of Ely in 1878-91, and chaplain to the bishop of Oxford in 1899-1901, He has writ- ten Concerning Spiritual Gifts (London, ISSt); The Redemptiitn of Work (1882); FacuUiea and Digicul- titt for Belief and DitbtOef ( 1 887) ; The HoUomng of Work (1888); the eway on the aacramenta in l.<aMund\(\«69); The Spirit of DiicijAine {imi); Studies in Oie Chrittian Charaeter (1885); Introduc- tion to the Fifth Book of Hooker'a TreaHae of Laws of EccUriasliral Polity (1899); The Redemption of War (1900); Christ the Way (1902); and The Rec- tmimendations of the Royal Commission on Eeclen- ottiad Discipline (1906).

PAGI, ANTOINE: Roman Catholic Church his- torian : b. at Roques in Provence (southeastern France} in 1624; d. at Aix (17 m. n. of Marseilles) in 1699. He entered the order of the Cordeliers, l&ll ; was four times elected provincial; distin- guished himself aa a preacher; and published Crifica hislorico-chToruiogica in Annates Baronii (4 vols,, Paris, 1B89-1705). In the execution of that work he was helped by his nephew, Francois Pagi (1054- 1721), who was also a Cordelier, and who wrote Ptmiijtrum Romanonim geata (4 vols., Antwerp, 1717-53) in a strongly marked ultramontane spirit.

PAINE, TIMOTHY OTIS: Theologian; b. at Winslow, Me., Oct. 13, 1824; d. at Boston Dec. 6, 1895. He was graduated from Waterville College (now Colby University), in 1847. After 1856 he was pastor of the Swedenborgian Church at Elm- wood, Mass.; and in 1866 became teacher of He- brew in the theological school of the General Con- vention of the New Jerusalem Church in the United States, now located at Boston, Mass. He applied himself closely to the study of Scripture, in the at- tempt to reproduce the allegorical forms or types, lie is the author of Solomon's Temple or the Tobtr- node; The First Temple; House of the King^ or House of the Forest of Lebanon; Idolatrous High Places; The City on the Mountain (Rev. xxi,); The Oblation of the Holy Portion; and The Last Temple (Boston, 1861); and Solomon* s Temple and CapUclf Ark of the Flood and Tabemade, or The Holy Houses of the Hebrew, Chaldeef Syriac, Samaritan, Septua- ginty Coptic, and Itala Scriptures (Boston and New York, 1885). Selections from Poems was published posthumously (New York, 1897).

PALAMAS, GREGORIUS: Greek mystic; b. at Constantinople in 1296; d. at Thessalonica Nov. 15, 1359. Brought up in a fervent religious atmosphere and thoroughly educated, he retired to a monastic life at the age of twenty-one, deeply influenced by the Hagiorite monks, one of whom, Macarius Chry- socephalus (later bishop of Philadelphia), had intro- duced him to mysticism. In 1318 Palamas joined the monks of Athos, was a cenobite in the monastery of Laura from 1321 to 1324, and the community of Glossia from 1324 to 1326, when he entered the community near Beroea, where he remained, with ten companions, until 1331, in which year he returned to Athos. Here he began his literary career in 1333, commencing with a biography of the Hagiorite Peter. He was later chosen protos of Athos, but soon after resigned. His peace was early broken, however, by the controversies with Barlaam (see Hesychasts, § 1), against whom he was chosen by his fellow monks as protagonist. Palamas accordingly resided for three years in Thessalonica. Suspicions of partisanship with Cantacusenus against the Palaeologi (possibly complicated by the temporary suppression of the Hesychasts in 1345) caused Palamas to be imprisoned for either two or four years. Nevertheless, in 1347 he was appointed archbishop of Thessalonica, a dignity which he held until his death. Though at first driven from the city by the opponents of Cantacusenus and directed by the patriarch to discharge ecclesiastical functions in Lemnos, Palamas was soon enabled to enter upon his archiepiscopal duties at Thessalonica, where he was cordially welcomed. In 1351 he attended the last decisive synod at Constantinople. A year later he was seriously ill, and almost before he had recovered was called by the emperor to Constantinople on affairs of state, only to be captured by pirates on the coast of Asia Minor and held prisoner for a year (probably 1353-54). After his ransom he remained for a time in Constantinople, where he wrote against the Latins; and three years after his return home was again in controversy with Gregoras. Palamas, who incorporated quietistic mysticism in the Greek theological system and repulsed Latin scholasticism, is, next to Marcus Eugenicus, the most influential figure in the later history of the Greek chiuvh, though viewed with extreme disfavor by the Roman Catholic Church. He was led by visions throughout his life and is said to have wrought miracles both before and after his death. He was regarded as a saint (though his day, Nov. 14, was never received in the calendar) as early as the patri- archate of Philotheus. The majority of Palamas' very numerous writings are still unprinted, those which have appeared being collected most conveniently in MPG fC 1. 771 sqq., cli. 1 sqq., cbd. 244 sqq. Against the Western doctrine of the Holy Ghost are directed the two books of '' Demonstrations " and the Anl- epigraphai. More is known of his Hesychastic wri- tings, which include the dialogue of Theophanes and the treatises " On Sufferings and Virtues," '* On Those who Dwell in Saintly Solitude," "Three Chapters on Prayer and Purity of Heart," and " One Hundred and Fifty Physical, Theological, Ethical, and Practical Chapters." Special stress should also be laid on his practical writings, particu- larly his forty-three homilies, in which the author's simplicity and earnestness are clearly manifest. (Philipp Meter.) Bibliography: Krumbacher, Oeechichte, pp. 103-105, 485- 486 et passim; Fabricius-Haries, B^liotheca Or coca, zi. 494-^606, Hamburg, 1808; A. C. Demetraoopulus, OrcBcia ortkodoxa, Leipsic, 1872; F. J. Stein, in Oesterreichiache VierteLjahraaehnft fUr katholieche Theologie, 1873; and the literature imder Hkstchabts.

PALEARIO, AONIO: Italian humanist and mar- tyr; b. at Veroli (50 m. s.e. of Rome) c. 1500; burned at the stake at Rome July 3, 1570. He studied at Rome 1520 and after. At the storming of Rome in 1527 he forsook the city and the lasting associations which he had formed, particularly with Sadoleto (q.v.), Calcagnini, and Bernardo Maffei. His correspondence locates him at Siena after Oct., 1530, where for many years he displayed an eminent activity as teacher at the university. During that time he published a didactic poem, De immartalitate animarum (Lyons, 1536). About 1540 a reaction occurred in his religious views, and in 1542 a charge of heresy was lodged against him. Before the tribunal his enemies referred to his Libellus de morte Paleario Palestine 808 Christi, more exactly entitled: Delia pienezzaf suffi- cienza e satisfactione della passione di Christo. In a masterly oration Paleario refuted the accusations, but his enemies conspired to prevent his permanent appointment at Siena. In 1546 he obtained a pro- fessorship at Lucca. It may have been here that he completed a second tract against Rome: Actio in pontifices Romanos et eorum caedes* (Amsterdam, 1696; Jena, 1728) a caustic polemic on ecclesiasti- cism and dogmatics. Threatened at Lucca by the readiness of the Senate to gratify the demands of the Curia, he withdrew in 1555, finding a position at Milan. Although again accused by the inquisition (1559) he vindicated himself in a tract. Pro ae ipso, and was acquitted. For the third time (1567), how- ever, the Milanese inquisitor. Frit Angelo di Cremona, subjected him to prosecution; the points of accusa- tion being, that he had taught justification by faith, denied the doctrine of purgatory, disparaged monas- ticism, and censured the practice of burying the dead within the churches. In 1568, by imperial mandate in response to the requisition of Pope Pius V., he was conveyed to Rome for judgment. For three years Paleario languished in the prison of Tor di Nona. The extract from his Roman trial proceed- ings (published by Fontana, in Arch, storico deUa Societa Romana di Storia pcUria, Rome, 1896) gives detailed information concerning this period of tor- ture. In April, 1570, the man appears " mellowed," so that he professes to believe whatever the church believes. Then he was compelled to make a formal abjuration, the literal terms of which were first published by P .C. F. Daunou (Eaaai historique sur la puissance temporelle dea papes, ii. 278, Paris, 1810). He addressed some touching letters to his wife and child on the day of his execution, which are preserved in the library at Siena, and are the last authen- tic witnesses on the subject of his religious attitude. They contain not one word in warrant of the assump- tion that he denied his convictions in the presence of death. His constancy is also corroborated by the sentence of June 30, declaring him " impenitent.'' In the journal of the Roman Brotherhood of S. Giovanni Decollate, whose members attended those who were condenmed by the Holy Office, and were present dining the last hours of one delivered for execution, taking special pains to draw some last word of repentance from the unfortunate victim, it is recorded that this devout humanist said he wished to die as a good Christian, which is not to be construed to mean in the Roman faith. An alleged portrait of this martyr came to light about 1870, an oil painting, in the municipal librar>' at Veroli. Closer scrutiny revealed the fact that this portrait, even if genuine, had been so retouched that the original features are no longer recognizable. K. Benrath. Bxbuographt: Then are editions of his works at Lejrden. 1552; Bremen, 1619; Amsterdam, 1606, and Jena. 1728. For his life consult: The sketch by Hellbauer prefixed to the Jena edition of the works; Mrs. M. Young. Life and Timea of Aonio Paleario, 2 vob., London. 1860; T. Mc- Crie, Progreaa and Suppreanon of the Reformation in Italy, Philadelphia, 1856; J. Bonnet, Aonio Paleario, Paris. 1862, Eng. transl., London, 1864; W. M. Blackburn, Aonio Paleario and hie Friende, PhUadelphia, 1866; J. Stough- ton, Footprinte of the Italian Reformers, London, n. d.; Des Bfarais, Aonio Paleario, Rome, 1885. On the ques- tion of the authorship of the Beneflxio di Criato consult: C. Babington, The Benefit of Christ a Deaths probably vrit- ten by Aonio Paleario, London, 1855; K. Benrath. in ZKG. i (1876), 576-506; idem in Riviata criatiana, 1876, pp. 3-10; F. H. Reusch, Index der verbotenen BUeher, i. 383- 384, Bonn. 1883. There is a translation in Blackbura'f book mentioned above.

PALESTRINA, GIOVANNI PIERLUIGI DA: Founder of the modem style of church music; b. ai Palestrina (22 m. e.s.e. of Rome) in 1526; d. at Rome Feb. 2, 1594. He went to Rome at the age of foiuteen to sixteen and is supposed to have studied under Claude Goudimel. In 1544r-51 he was or- ganist of the principal church of his native city, and in the latter year became magister puerorum at St. Peter's, Rome. By his first compositions — three masses dedicated to Julius III. — ^he made so favorable an impression that he was appointed musical director of the Julian chapel. He held simi- lar positions at various chapels and churches in Rome until his death; and by his compositions, which are very numerous — masses, motets, hymns, and others, of which only one-half have been pub- lished— he produced a complete revolution in the history of church music. As his masterpiece is generally mentioned, Misaa Papa Marcelli, See Sacred Music. Bibuography: Selections from the WoHts of Palestrina, Transcribed by E. C. Gregory, were published, 4 partn. Oxford, 1903-05. His life was written by G. Baini, Rome. 1828; T. Nisard. Le Mans, 1866; and M. J. A. Lans. Ley den, 1882.

PALEY, WILLIAM: English theologian; b. at Peterborough (37 m. n.e. of Northampton) July. 1743; d. at Lincoln May 25, 1805. His mother was a keen, thrifty woman of much intelligence, and his father was a minor canon at Peterborough and a pedagogue. In 1758 Paley entered, as sizar, Christ Ck)llcge, Cambridge. He had been a fair scholar at his father's school, specially interested in mathe- matics. After taking his degree in 1763, he became usher at an academy in Greenwich and, in 1766. was elected fellow of Christ College, where he be- came an intimate friend of John Law and lectured 881 Palestine Exploration Vond Palimpseet Boooeaafally on metaphysicSy mondsy and the Greek Testament. He offered lectures on Locke, Clark's AUritmie9, and Butler's Analogy; and in his lec- tures on divinity took the ground maintained in his Moral PhUoiophy that the Thirty-nine Articles were merely articles of peace, inasmuch as they contained about 240 distinct propositions, many of them inconsistent with each other. He had been ordained a priest in 1767, and was appointed to the rectory of Musgrave in Cumberland, w^hich he re- signed in 1776, to take the vicarage of the two parishes, Appleby and Dalston. In 1780 he was installed prebendary at Carlisle, and resigned Appleby on becoming archdeacon in 1782. At the close of 1785, he became chancellor of the diocese and (1789-92) figured as an active opponent of the slave-trade. Presented to the vicarage of Alding- ham in 1792, he vacated Dalston for Stanwix in 1793. In recognition of his apologetic writings he was given the prebend of St. Pancras in St. Paul's Cathedral; the subdeanery of Lincoln, in 1795; and the rectory of Bishop Warmouth in 1795; and transferred his residence to Lincoln shortly before his death. Paley seems to have excelled as a writer of text- books. He is an unrivaled expositor of plain argu- ments but without much originality. His moral system, in which he is said to have anticipated Bentham, is the best statement of the utilita- rianism of the eighteenth century. In theology and philosophy his common-sense method, which showed his limitations of intellect, by ignoring com- monly perceived difficulties and by easily accept- ing conclusions, has been discarded. In the former he seems to have followed a liberal construction of orthodox views, sincerely convinced that his doc- trines could be logically proved by rationalistic argument. His alleged plagiarism, even as to the classical illustration of the universe by a watch, must be understood in the light of his purpose in compiling text-books. Upon being uiged by Law to expand his lectures he published The Moral and PolUical Philosophy (London, 1786). His most original woric was Hor<B Paulina; or the Truth of the Scripture History of St. Paul evinced^ by a Comparison of the Epistles which bear his Name with the Acts of the Apostles and with one another (London, 1790; subsequent editions are by J. Tate, 1840; T. R. Birks, 1850; J. S. Howson, 1877; Ger- man ed. with annotations, H. P. C. Henke, Helm- stadt, 1797). His prominent apologetic works are, A View of the Evidences of Christianity (London, 1794) and Natural History: or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity, Collected from the Appearances of Nature (1802) : the first a com- pendiimi of the aiguments against the eighteenth- century deists, and the second a clear account of the a posteriori aigument from the facts of early Christianity. The Natural Theology, used for many years as a foremost text-book claaaic, has been su- perseded on account of the shifting of ground from the mechanical objective to the immanent subjec- tive theory of the universe. Paley advances the teleological aigument from design foimded on the unity and adaptability of created things. This aigument was based on rationalistic groimds; yet Vm.— 21 did not ultimately prove conclusive to rationalists themselves, and has not been able to survive criti- cism. His analogical method has run its course; the idea of a complex, perfected organism dropping suddenly amidst foreign surroundings, as illus- trated by the finding of a watch, was the dogmatic extemalism the reboimd from which gave birth to the subsequent hypotheses of natural selection and adaptation to environment and the theory of evo- lution as a whole. In the Evidences, Paley pro- ceeds along historical lines to affirm the truth of Christianity by two propositions; namely, that " there is clear proof that the apostles and their successors underwent the greatest hardships rather than give up the Gospel and cease to obey its pre- cepts '' and that " other miracles than those of the Gospel are not satisfactorily attested." To these he appends ** auxiliary " aiguments drawn from the " morality of the Gospel," " originality of Christ's character," and others. The argmnent is one-sided on account of its disregard of the field of Christian consciousness. Paley published also Reasons for Contentment; addressed to the Laboring Part of the British Public (1793). Individual sermons which may be men- tioned are: Dangers Incidental to the Clerical Char- acter (1795); Assize Sermon at Durham (1795); as well as the compilations Sermons on Several Sub- jects and Sermons and Tracts (1808). The first col- lected edition of the works of William Paley ap- peared in 1805-08; one by A. Chalmers with biog- raphy (5 vols., London, 1819); one by E. L3mam (1825); and one by his son, E. Paley (1825). Biblioorapht: The two principal accounts of Paley's life are by hia son in his edition of his father's Works, and by G. W. Meadley, London, 1810; the latter is the usual source of the sketches presented in the various editions of Paley's books. Ck>nsult further: S. A. Allibone, Critical Dictionary of English LiUrattare, ii. 1486-90, Philadelphia. 1891; DNB, xliii. 101-107.

PALIMPSEST: A manuscript which has been written over (hence frequently called codex rescrip- tus), the original writing usually having been ex- pimged by rubbing, whence the name (Gk. palin, " again," and psaein, " to rub "). The rea?on for the existence of this class of manuscripts was the scarcity in the Middle Ages of writing-materials, and the consequent desire to make use of material al- ready at hand by obliterating existing writing and so making papyrus or parchment available for the then present need. But the porous nature of the parchment or papyrus made it impossible to eradi- cate completely the earlier writing. As a result, it is often feasible to recover the original writing by the use of chemical reagents, among the best of these being hydrosulfurcted ammonia. In some cases the agent used was corrosive, and the result was the destruction or further defacement of the manuscript. In some palimpsests the original wri- ting was not erased, but the newer writing was in- serted between the lines of the old or was written across. This work of effacing the older text and using the manuscript again was often done in the monas- teries, the purpose being to employ the material for some patristic work or some writing of more pres- ent interest than the original text. While palimp- Palimpsest PmllotU 822 Best manuscripts are not confined to Biblical texts, those of concern in this work are manuscripts which carry in the earlier writing some portion of the text of the Bible. Illustrations of manuscripts of this kind employed as noted above are Codex Ephraem (C), which contains as the earlier or lower writing parts of the Septuagint and also parts of the New Testament, and as the upper or later writing parts of the works of Ephraem Syrus; and Codex Nitrien- sis (R), in which the lower writing is a portion of Luke's Gospel, over which is written in Syriac a comparatively unimportant work by Severus of Antioch. The most important palimpsests are, for the Greek of the Old Testament: Codex Ephraem (C), at Paris; Petropolitanus (H), at St. Petersburg; a Leipsic set of fragments (K), in the university library of that place; the Dublin codex (O), fragments at Trinity College; some fragments found by Tischen- dorf, known as Z; Codex Cryptoferratensis (r). Besides these there are some fragments of the ver- sion of Aquila, part of these from the Cairo genizah. Of the Greek New Testament the more important palimpsests are: Codex Ephraem (C), ut sup.; Petropolitanus (I), at St. Petersburg; Guelferby- tanus, I. and II. (P„ Q,), at Wolfenbttttel; Nit- riensis (Ri), in the British Museum; Neapolitanus (Wb), at Naples; Dublinensis (Z), at Trinity Col- lege, Dublin; Porphjrrianus (Pa), at St. Petersburg; Codex Zacynthus (H), with the British and For- eign Bible Society, London; and Patiriensis (3,), in the Vatican Library at Rome. These New-Tes- tament manuscripts are more closely described imder Bible Text (vol. ii., pp. 103-106 of this work). Of the Syriac New Testament there are the important Sinaitic Syriac (described in Bible Ver- sions, A, III., 1, § 3); and some important frag- ments from the genizah at Cairo. Several palimp- sests contain fragments of the early Latin (Itala) version, including: Bemensia fragmenta (t), at Berne; Fleury Palimpsest (h) at Paris; Bobiensis (s) at Vienna; Guelferbytanus (gue), at Wolfen- btittel; and two other fragments, one at WOrzburg and the other at Munich. One palimpsest of the Vulgate in the Escurial in Spain contains part of Numbers and of Judges; and there is also a frag- ment containing a part of the Acts of the Apostles. Bibuographt: P. SchaflF, Companion to the Oreek Testa- ment, p. 100, New York, 1883; F. H. A. Scrivener, Plain Introduction to the Criticitm of the New Teetament, i. 25, 141, London, 1804; Vigouroux, Dicttonnaire, faac. xzx., cols. 2053-57.

PALLADIUS : Bishop of Helenopolis and Aspona, b. in Galatia about 368; d. at Aspona, GaJatia, about 430. About the age of twenty he went to Egypt because of his admiration of the ascetic life, and after sojourning with various monks in the vicinity of Alexandria, he resided about nine years in the Nitrian desert, forming a lasting friendship with Evagrius Ponticus (q.v.), who increased his attachment to the teachings of Origen. Palladius also seems to have visited the Scetic desert and the Thebaid, but ill-health compelled him, probably in 400, to return to Alexandria, and thence, by way of Palestine, to Asia Minor. Soon afterward he was consecrated bishop of Helenopolis in Bithynia by John Chrysostom, then patriarch of Constantinople, but was involved, after 403, in the anti-Origenistic attacks on his patron. He probably visited Rome about 405 to gain the support of the Emperor Ho- norius for Chrysostom and himself; but after his return to Asia Minor (about 408) he was exiled by Arcadius to Syene in Upper Egypt, where he was subjected to ill-treatment and deprivation. At last, however, he was released, and (date unknown) exchanged his see of Helenopolis for that of Aspona. To Palladius are ascribed two works: the His- toria Launaca (so called because dedicated to a certain Lausus), a collection of instructive his- tories of monks; and the Dialogus de vita Sancti Johannia Ckryaostomi. The Historia Lausiaca (ed. in Latin by G. Hervetus, Paris, 1555; and by H. Roc- weyde in his Viim Patrttm, Antwerp, 1628) exists in two Greek recensions; the shorter and more original called Palladii Helenopolilani Historia Lausiaca (ed. J. Meursius, Leyden, 1616; also sev- eral recensions of the same text, known elsewhere as the Paradi8U8 Heradides), and the more compre- hensive (ed. with omissions by F. Ducseus, in iiur- tarium bibliotheccB patrunif vol. iv., Paris, 1624; emended by J. Cotelerius, in Manumenia ecdence OrasccB, vol. iii., Paris, 1686; reprinted, MPG, xxxiv. 995-1260), interpolated with a Historia monacharum in ^gypto. The history is further in- terpolated in the Syriac recension (ed. P. Bedjan, in his Acta martyrum ei sanctorum, vol. vii., Paris, 1897), and the textual problems are still more com- plicated by fragments of Armenian and Coptic versions. Nevertheless, the Historia Lausiaca is of great value as history, for in spite of all its color- ing and its exaggerations for purposes of edifica- tion, and overwhelming admiration of the ascetic fathers, there is no evidence of wilful or legendary invention, especially in view of the accurate and concrete accounts of the lives, words, and deeds of the saints described. The " Apothegms of the Fathers," appended by Rosweyd to the Historia as an alphabetic monaj»- tic lexicon, are of later date and contain many apocryphal additions side by side with much gen- uine and ancient material. Whether the '^ Dia- logue " (ed. E. Bigot, Paris, 1680; conveniently reprinted in MPQ, xlvii. 5-82) was written by the Galatian Palladius who wrote the Lausiaca (who may not have been the same as the Helenopolitan Bishop Palladius) has been questioned. At the same time, the similarity of style and the warm admiration of the author of the Lausiaca for Chrys- ostom and Olympias are in favor of the identity of authorship, though no certain external evidence can be adduced to determine the problem. It is clear, however, that there is no basis for the hy- pothesis which identifies the author of the " Dia- logue " with the deacon Palladius sent by Celes- tine I. to Ireland about 430 (see Celtic Church, I., 2, § 3). A small treatise, De genHbus Indict et de Brack- mania (ed. Camerarius, in his Liber gnomologicua, Leipsic, n.d.; Bissseus, London, 1665), also ascribed to Palladius, was probably written by a later author, though the grounds for this assumption si€ not decisive. (O. ZOcKLERf.) Bibliography: A worthy addition to the literature of the Trw^iffiiw? Histozy is The Paradise or Garden of the Holy Fathere, Eng. tranal. from the Syriac with notes and In- tnxiuction by E. A. W. Budge, London, 1907. Consult: E. Preuschen, PaUadiue und Rufinue, Qiessen, 1807; F. Lucius, in ZKO, vii (1885), 163 sqq.; E. Am^Uneau, De hutoria Lauaiaca, Paris, 1887; O. ZOckler, Aakeee und Mimchtum, pp. 217-220. Frankfort, 1897; C. Butler. The Latuiae Hietory of PaUadiua, Cambridge, 1898; J. O. Hannay, The Spirit and Origin of ChrisHan MonaeHcitem, pp. 277 sqq., London, 1903; DCB, iv. 173-176.

PALLADIUS THE DEACON: Alleged first mis- sionary to Ireland. See Celtic Church in Britain AND Ireland, I. 2, § 3.

PALLAVICINO, SFORZA: Italian cardinal; b. at Rome Nov. 20, 1607; d. at the same place June 5, 1667. He was ordained priest in 1630, entered the Society of Jesus in 1637, and two years later was made professor of philosophy at the Jesuit College at Rome, and in 1643 became professor of theology. He took part in the congregation convened by Innocent X. to examine Jansenism, and in 1659 was created car- dinal by Alexander VII., whose life he wrote. The most important of his works was the Istoria del concilio di Trento (2 vols., Rome, 1656-57; best later edition by F. A. Zaccaria, 6 vols., Faenza, 1792-99; Lat. transl. by G. B. Giattini, 2 vols., Antwerp, 1670). This work was inspired by Car- dinal Bernardino Spada between 1651 and 1653, in part to refute the history of the same council by the Venetian Servite monk, Paolo Sarpi; and it is naturally strongly colored in the papal interest. (Paul Tschackert.) Bibliography: For his other writings, cf. KL, ix. 1310-12. Interesting details are given in Ranke, Popes, i. 88 et passim, ii. 331, 334, 374. iii. noe. 22, 130, 165. Consult further: The New Politick Lights of Modern Rome's Church- Government, or the New Gospel according to Cardinal Palavicini Revealed . . . in his Hist, of the Cotmcil of Trent, London, 1678, another version of which is The Policy of Rome; or, the true Sentiments of the Court and Cardinals there concerning Religion and the Gospel, ib. 1681.

PALLIUM: An ecclesiastical vestment, consist- ing of a white woolen scarf, a handbreadth wide, l)earing six black crosses, either embroidered or superposed in silk. It is draped over the breast and shoulders, and is worn when the possessor is offi- ciating pontifically. Both its origin and its signifi- cance are disputed. Some derive it from the high- priest's fronUet, or his mantle; others from the official scarf of secular dignitaries; others from the mantle of the Greeks. The mystical interpretation is most in favor, that the pallium denotes the suc- cessors of the Lord who seeks the lost sheep, and when he has found it, bears it on his shoulders. The pallium passed over from the East to the West, where the bishop of Rome bestows it on his associ- ated metropolitans. The independent exercise of pontifical acts in his archdiocese is not lawful for the metropolitan before obtaining the pallium; though none of his rights of jurisdiction arc thus forbidden, save the convening of a synod. When the pallium is conferred, the archbishop who re- ceives it must render the usual oath of obedience to the pope. The pallium designates the supremely personal relationship of the archbishop as head of a definite ecclesiastical province; hence when a new province is acquired, a new palliimi must be requested. It is not transferable and is buried with the possessor. In the papal documentary acts of bestowal, the days are indicated on which the pal- lium may be worn, though the pope himself wears it on all due occasions. The archbishop may wear the palliimi only within his ecclesiastical province, and even there only in the churches. See Aones, Saint; and Vestments and Insignia, Ecclesi- astical. E. Sehling. BiBuoaRAPHT: Mann, Popes, i. 413-419; I. Q. Pertsch, De origins, usu, et auctoritate paUii archiepiscopali, Leipsic, 1754; T. H. Passmore, Sacred Vestments, chap, xvii., London, 1899; L. Duchesne, Christian Worship, passim, London, 1904; and the literature under Vestbcsnts and Insignia, Ecclssiastical. PALLOXn, VmCENZO, PALLOTTINIANS: Ro- man Catholic priest and the order which he founded for the maintenance, extension, and pro- motion of Christian piety and Christian belief. Vincenzo Pallotti was bom at Rome Apr. 21, 1795; d. Jan. 22, 1850, buried at Onda (10 m. w.s.w. of Castell6n de la Plana), Spain. He distinguished himself early by his humility, self-abnegation, and exercise of charity, and was ordained priest in 1818. Though a secular priest, he followed the discipline and fasting of the Capuchins. After a vision in 1835, he determined, in view of the decline of the devotion to God among Christians and the enor- mous multitude of heathen, to found a communion which, under the guardianship of Mary, should pro- mote the salvation of mankind to the utmost. Gregory XVI. approved the society in 1835 and granted special privileges which Pius IX. in 1847 indorsed and extended. In 1904, Pius X. approved the statutes for a period of six years. The society comprises three classes. The first class includes common priests subject to the stat- utes of Pallotti, secular priests not imder a vow, and lay-brethren. The members retain their pri- vate property which is administered for sacred ob- jects. The novice pledges himself (each year temporarily until the third, and then permanently) to live in commimity; to poverty, celibacy, and obedience; and to remain in the communion. The object is, above all, self-sanctification, and then the dissemination of the sacraments, preaching, cate- chizing of boys, the conduct of public missions and exercises, the conduct of houses of discipline and retirement, and finally foreign missions. The habit b a black robe with attached mantle, to which is added, for outside use, a black outer garment and a Roman hat. The lay-brethren render a vow of celibacy to their confessor for a certain time, perform domestic tasks, attend to the instruction of boys, and render assistance in the foreign mission. At the head of the first class stands the rector-general elected for a term of three years, with reelection permissible. The second class consists of the sisters of the apostolate who live so far as possible according to the statutes of the Pallottinians, but particularly according to the third rule of St. Francis. Their duties are the instruction of youth in schools and assistance in the foreign mission. Their number is [ more than 200. The third class, the so-called " Ag- Palm SmidAy Palmar 8M gregated/' constitute a brotherhood which any one may join who will support the order by an annual gift, or, if too poor, by his prayer for the work. Particular obligations are the special observance of the feast and octave of Epiphany in Saint Andrea della Valle in Rome; the conduct of worship and preaching in different languages; the distribution of books; the establishment of asylums for the poor and sick and the support of dependents; the provision of mission stations with tracts, devotional books, and the like; the erection and maintenance of free schools; the care of the imprisoned; and the conduct of public missions and discipline, es- pecially for first conmiunicants. The Pallottinians first spread in Italy, eventually they extended to foreign fields. In 1904 there labored a total of 103 priests, 16 alumni, and 125 lay-brethren in Europe, South America, Africa, and Australia, to which 31 priests have since been added. In the German province alone there are 340 members. The first Pallottinian foreign mis- sionaries, five in number, went, in 1890, to Kameruu (west equatorial Africa), and now there are seven stations with 4,386 communicants, 1,500 catechu- mens, and 1,750 children in the schools. The full name of the congregation is Congregazione e pia societjk dell' Apostolato cattolico sotto la prote- zione della regina degli Apostoli. Its oigans are published at Limbuig, Germany, and at Rome. Bxbuographt: Heimbucher, Orden und KongreQcUionen, iii. 474, 484 sqq.; L. NideTbeiser, Ltben und Wirken . . . Vincera PaUotti, Limburg, 1000; KL, i. 1122. viii. 1600. PALM SUNDAY. See Holy Week, §§ 2-3. PALM-TREE. See FRurr-TREEs in the Old Testament, { 6.

PALM, JOHANNES HENRICUS VAN DER: Dutch Protestant; b. at Rotterdam July 17, 1763; d. at Leyden Sept. 8, 1840. He was educated at the Staten-College at Leyden (1778-84), and in 1785 was called as pastor to Maartensdijk in the province of Utrecht. On account of his participa- tion with the so-called " Patriots " in the drill of the home-guards in preparation against the Prince of Orange and his fright at the triumph of the lat- ter, he fled in 1787. All attempts to induce him to return failed, and in the following year, after being formally released, he was made librarian and chap- lain of Baron van de Perre at Middelburg. When this city was invested by the French, Van der Palm was one of the leaders of the revolutionary move- ment and was appointed a member of the new government. In 1796 he was made professor of oriental languages and sciences at Leyden, but three years later resigned when appointed minister of public instruction. In this capacity he distin- guished himself by energy and wisdom, and was the author of the school law of 1806. In the latter year he resumed his professorship at Leyden, where he was appointed university preacher in 1807, though not a member of the theological faculty. In 1833 he was made professor emeritus, but con- tinued to lecture until 1838. Van der Palm was primarily an exegete and pul- pit orator. In his exegetical work he wrote espe- daUy for the educated laity, as evinced in his Ecdesiaatea philologice et critice lUustratua (Leyden, 1784); Salomo (3d. ed., 9 parts, Leeuwarden, 1834- 1841); Jesttias vertaald en opgehderd (3 parts, Am- sterdam, 1805) ; Bijbel voor de jeugd (24 parts, Ley- den, 1811-34); and Liederen van David en Azof (1815). He likewise made a new annotated Dutch translation of the Bible (1818-30) which won much favor in Holland. As a preacher he was tasteful and sympathetic, and his style was simple though powerful, appealing both to the heart and the head. Many of his sermons, which were decidedly Evan- gelical, were published during his lifetime, and all were collected posthumously under the title Al de leerredenen van J. H. van der Palm (16 parts, Leeu- warden, 1841-45). He was a favorite orator on special occasions, his addresses being collected in Verhanddingen, redevaeringen en losse geschriften (5 parts, Amsterdam and Leeuwarden, 1810-46). His chief prose production was the Geschied- en redekunstig gedenkechrift van Nederlands hereUUing (Amsterdam, 1816). (S. D. van Veen.) Bibliography: H. F. T. Fockens, /. H. van der Palm al* BxjbeluiUeooert redenaar en achrijver, Leyden, 1841; N. Beets, Leven en karakter van J. H. van der Pabn, ib. 1842; C. J. van Aasen, Voorlenng over J. H. van der Palm, Dort, 1844; B. Glasius. Godgdeerd Nederiand, iii. 5S-70, *8 Hei^ togenbosch, 1856.

PALMER, BENJAMIN MORGAN: PreBbyterian clergyman; b. at Charleston, S. C, Jan. 25, 1818; d. at New Orleans May 25, 1902. He was gradu- ated at the University of (Georgia (1838) and at the theological seminary at Colimibia, S. C. (1841); became pastor at Savannah, Ga. (1841), Columbia, S. C. (1843), and New Orleans (1856). He was pro- fessor of church history and polity at Columbia, S. C, 1853-56; and one of the founders of Ths Southern Presbyterian Review, of which, after 1847, he was editor and contributor. He was the author of Ths Life and Letters of Rev. James Henley Thorn- well (Richmond, 1875); Sermons (2 vols.. New Orleans, 1875-76); and The Family; in its Ciril and ChurMy Aspects (New York, 1876). He was the glory of the Southern pulpit. BiBLiooRAPHY : T. C. Johnson, The Life and Letter* of Ben- jamin Morgan Palmer, Richmond, 1907.

PALMER, CHRISTIAN DAVID FRIEDRICH: German Lutheran divine; b. at Winnenden (17 m. n.e. of Stuttgart) Jan. 27, 1811; d. at Tubingen May 29, 1875. He was educated at Schdnthal and Tabingen; after three years of pastoral work as an assistant in the country, he came back to the uni- versity as a lecturer (1836). In Jan., 1838, he was named assistant of the Predigerinstitut, and in the following autumn appointed second deacon of Tu- bingen; he was deacon at Marbach (1839-43), then returned to his former position, to be promoted in 1848 to the office of first deacon, and in 1851 to that of pastor and dean. He began his literan' career soon after graduation by contributing to various periodicals. A pamphlet called forth by the Pietistic controversy. An Freunde and Feinde dea PietismtLS (1839), is deserving of mention; and he also took part vigorously in the discussions about a new lituigy and hymn-book for the church oi WOrttemberg. He was speciaUy interested in homiletics, in which field he issued a revised edi- tion of tbe EKangelixhe Homiletik (StuKgart, IS42), and a new and important Eoangeliacha Kaiechetik (1844). He was cbosen in 1S52 to fill the choir of ethics and practical theology at Halle, which he held for nearly twenty-livo years, tearhing in this period nearly every branch of praotjcal theology, UB well as ProtCHtant church law. His deep scien- tific interest in his subjects, his wide and varied reading, his combination of personal conviction with perfect fairness to opposing views made his lectures strikingly useful. He was rector of the university in 18J37 and 1S5S. In spite of all his varied activities, however, he found time for much important literary work. He added to his earlier publications Erangelische Pddagogik (lS.i3-54), taking a middle course between a gorllesa pseudo- bumanisto and an exaggerated pietism; Evangeli- ache PaOorallhailogie (1860); Die Moral den ChrU- lenlhums (1864), a work which offers the results of thoroughly scientific thought in language free from the narrowness of theological formulip; Emngeli- Khe Hymnologk (1865); two volumes of sermons, Ein Jahrgang evangdUcher Predigten (1857), and Prrdigten aus -neuerer Zdt (Tilbingeii, 1874); Geini- lichts und WeUiiches fur gebildtU ckrisUiche Leaer (1873). From 1856 he was one of the editors of the JahrbUcher fur deulache Theologie. His theological and ecelesiaatical standpoint was that of the mod- erate school which, under Nitzsch's leadership, had its bfst period in his days — a sound Bible faith and an Evangelical church doctrine without narrow limitations. He was opposed to rationalism and to ecclesiastical scholasticism, and is to be counted among those who, though following Schleiermachcr In the main, sought a deeper penetration into the inner meaning of Scripture and a fuller, more in- tense application of its teachings to human life. {J. KnapfI.) TabinccQ. 1875; K. WFJEsAckor. in Jahtiachrr Jfir druinchc TheotooU. ill (I87S). 3*1-370.

PALMER, EDWARD HENRY: English oriental- ist; b. at Cambridge Aug. 7, 1840; murdered by the Bedouins in the Wady Sudr, Desert of Al-Tih, Sinaitic peninsula, Aug. 11, 1882. He was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge, and graduated in 1867; went with the British Ordnance Sinai Sur- vey Expedition in 1868-69; and in 1870-70, in com- pany with C. F. Tyrwhitt Drake, explored the Des- ert of At-Tih and Moab, having acquired perfect familiarity with the language and manners of the Bedouins. On his return he was appointed Lord Almoner's professor of Arabic at Cambridge, in 1871. At the outbreak of the war between Egypt and England in 1882, he volunteered to dissuade the Bedouins of tjie peninsula from rising against England and to induce tbem to oppose the rebels; but he and his companions were taken and shot by a force acting under the Turkish governor at Nahl. Palmer was a remarkable linguist, and performed very valuable services to literature. His works, bearing directly upon Biblical and religious studies, were, The Negeb, or South Country of Scripturt and Pie DetenofElT!h(Umdan, 1871); The Desert of the Exodus; Journeys on Foot in the Wiidernest of the Forty Yeart' WandeHng (2 vols., Cambridge. 1871); History of the Jewiili Nation from the Earliest Times (London, 1874); Ouiline of Scripture Geography (1874); The Qur'dn (ISSa). Bibliography: W. Bsirit. Zi/a and AfMevimenU of Ed- •card Hmni PalmiT. London, 1883; O.Vfl, lUii. 123-126.

PALMER, EDWIN: Church of England; b. at Mixbury (18 m. n.n.e. of Oxford), England, July 18, 1824; d. at Oxford Oct. 17, 1895. He studied at Balliol College, Oxford (B.A., 1845; M.A., 1850; D.D., 1878); he was fellow in Balliol College, 1845- 1867; philological lecturer, 1858-66; tutor, 1866- 1870; became Corpus professor of the Latin lan- guage and literature in the University of Oxford, 1870-78; was ordained deacon, 1854; and priest 1868; was select preacher to the University of Ox- ford, 1865-66 and 1873-74; and became archdea- con of Oxford and canon of Christ Church, 1878. He wrote Bishop Patteson, Missionary Bishop and Martyr {London, 1872); and was a member of the New Testament Company of Revisers of the Au- thorized Version (1873-81; see Bible Versions, B, IV. § 7). He was the editor of J, Riddell's Apol- ogy of Plato, vrith English NoUs (1867); and of the Greek Testament, with the Readings Adopted by the Revisers nfthe AiUhoriied Version (Oxford, 1881).

PALMER, HERBERT: b. March 29, 1601, at Wingham, County Kent, Eng.; entered St. John's College, Cambridge, March 23, 1615 (16); he took the master's degree in 1622; became fellow of Queen's College, July 17, 1623; ordained to the ministry in 1624; was made lecturer at Alphage Church, Canterbury, in 1626; removed to the vicar- age of Ashwclt by Archbishop Laud in 1632; and in the same year was made university preacher at Cambridge. In 1643 he was appointed a member of the 'Westminster Assembly of Divines, and was chosen one of the assessors in 1646. Soon after, he became minister of Dukes-place Church, London, and was subsequently transferred to the lai^r field of the new church, Westminster. Apr. 11, 1644, he was made master of Queen's College. Cam- bridge. He died Aug. 13, 1647, in the prime of life. Palmer was a. devout man, scholarly, moderate, and a powerful preacher. He was especially de- voted to catechising. He prepared several forms, the most mature of which is his Endeavour <tf Ma- king the Principles of Christian Religion, namely, t/ie Creed, the Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer, aTvl the Sacramenla, Plaine OTtd Easie, 6th ed., 1645. The pecuharity of Ilia method is a double series of answers; first, either yes or no, then a definite propoaitioQ summing up replies to several ques- tions. This catechism became the basis of the Westminster Catechism, as the minutes of the West- minster Assembly clearly show. Palmer was chair- man of the committee on the directory of worship, and the subject of catechizing was especially com- mitted to him. He then became chairman of the committee on the catechism, and acted as such until his death, when Anthony Tuckney was ap- pointed in his place. Palmer was also earnest for sabbath observance. He united with Daniel Cawd- rey in composing one of the best works on the sab- bath in existence, Sabbatum redevivum, London, 1645-52, 2 vols., 4to. He was a moderate Presby- terian, and hesitated about the divine right of ru- ling elders, and favored a presiding bishop. He ■was appointeii by Parliameiit one of the Committee qF Accommodalion in IMS. His deep piely i.s mani- fest in his Mrmoriata of Goillineis and Chriatiantly, in three parts, 1644, 11th ed., 167:], nth, 1708, in- cluding the Christian Parailoxea, wrongly ascribed to Lord Bacon [reiaaued, with introduction, mem- Dir, and notes by A. B. Groaart, with title Lord Bacon not the AiUhar of " The CArMfian Paradoxes ": being a Reprint of " Memorialt of OoilHnfuii ami CArtstianify,-' Edinburgh, 1865]. This work in equal if not superior to Jeremy Taylor's UoXy Linng. He frequently preached before Parliament. His sermons exhibit elD(|Uence and piower. He was an eicellent linguist, especially in French and Latin, and was intrusted with drawing up the correspond- ence of the Weatminster Assembly with the various churches of the Continent. He was a mun of wealth, and use<i his meaus especially in the aid of candi' dales for the ministry. He was one of the noblest spirits among the Westminster divines. C. A. Briqos. ■ult^ 8iuiiuel Clarke. Livu of Thirly-lim Enifiiih Divina. pp. IKJ-IM, LoDdaa. 1077: D. Nenl, Uitt. of tSt Puri- Adu, ed. J. Taulmin. 6 vob.. Bath. 1TS3-07; B. Braoli?, Um ol Mi PurilaBi. ill. 7.S-76. LondoD, 1813: A. P. Mitohell, Wttlmvuler Anmbly, iii. I8B3.

PALMER, RAY: Congregationalist, hymnist; b. at Little Compton, R. I., Nov, 13, 1808; d. at Newark, N. J., Mar. 2!>, 1S87. He prepared for college ot Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass. ; graduated from Yale College 1S)0; taught the higher classes in a private seminary for young ladies in New York City, 1S30-3I; was associated ■with Prof. E. A. Andrews in the New Haven (Conn.) Voung Ladies' Institute, 1S3I; studied theology' 1830-33; was pastor of the Central Congregational Church, Bath, He., lSi5-,50; and of the First Con- gregational Church, Albany, N. Y., 1850-66; and secretary of the American Congregational Union at New York, 1800-78. He took an active interest in education and literature; and from 1S78 he lived in literary retirement at Newark, N. J. For the higher periodicals he wrote many critical, philo- sophical, and miscellaneous articles, and made rich contributions to the leading religious papers. While he obtained eminent success in the ministry and in the ^neml field of literature, he is beet known as a hymnist. His most famous hymn, " My faith looks up to Thee," was written in 18.30, and pub- lished, to the tune of " Olivet " by Lowell Mason, in I83."( in the Book of Syiriliud Ronga for Social Worakip; this hymn has been tranalxited into more than twenty languageB. Besides this his " Jesus these eyes have never seen " and " Lord, Thou on earth didst love Thine own " are noteworthy. His most important books are Spiritual Growth, or Aiil to Growtk in Grace (Albany, 1839), republished and entitled CloHt Hours (1851); RemenibfT Me, or The Hoty Communion (Boston, 1855); flints on the Formation of Rdigious Opinions (New York, I860); Hymns and Sacred Pieceg (1864); Hymns of my Holy Hovrt (1867); Home, or The Unlost Paradite (1868); Eameri Worda on True Sjuxeas in Life (1873); Compute Poetical Works {lS7e); Voices of Hope and Gladness (1881). BlBUooKii-Hr: S. W. Dul!i«kl. Engli^ Humni. pp. 381- r)6S et pMBim. New York. 18Kfl: Julian. Hi/mnalan. PI' Hrr-inn: N. SmiUi. i^imnt hulorimUii famatu. pp. IIU tiqq.. r]iica«t>. tUOI.

PANEGYRICON: The term applied in the Greek Church i« collections of panegyrics of the saints and ecclesiastical festivals. Collections derived from the ninth century were arranged according to the days and months of the year, or on some other principle. A collection of panegyrical discourses are reckoned by Allatius and Sutcerus as among the books of the Greek ritual, though it is doubt- ful whether this view can now be held. Collections of panegyrics have often been published; as, by M. Chrysocephalua (Vienna, n.ii.), C. Daponte (Venice, 1778), and J. Komelios (ib. 1788). These did not pass over into official usage; and lately the term Pnnegyricon has been applied by P. Kerameua ("Jerusalem Library." iv. 208-212, 1899) to col- lections of ancient spiritual addresses, some of which are not panegyric in character. Bibliography: Krumbaeher. Oeachicfite, pMki H.)

PANTAENUS: Presbyter and first teacher of the catechetical school of Alexandria; d. before 200. Eusebius (HUi. ecd., V., x.) speaks of him as a worthy man and zealous missionary, who extended his travels to '' India " (by which South Arabia is meant), where he found disciples of Bartholomew in possession of the Gospel of Matthew. He had been trained under the Stoics, and under Corn- modus, after 180, he was at the head of the Alex- andrian school. Eusebius (Hist, ecd., V., xi. 2, VI., xiii. 2) further says that Clement of Alexan- dria, in his HypotyposeSf claims Pantaenus for his teacher, and understands that Clement means Pan- tsenus when in his Stromata (I., i. 11) he calls one of his teachers " the Sicilian bee " (without giving his name) because he ''gathered the spoil of the flowers of the prophetic and apostolic meadow, and engendered in the souls of his hearers pure honey of knowledge." If Clement here refers to the birth- place of Pantsenus, the statement of Philip Sidetes that he was bom at Athens can hardly be credited. Since Clement still further speaks of Pantsenus as " that spirit full of grace " (Stromata^ I., i. 14) who seems to have passed away, the death of Pantsnus must have occurred before 200. Eusebius cites also a letter of Alexander of Jerusalem as referring to Pantsenus (Hist, ecd., VI., xiv. 8), and notes references to him by Origen and Pamphilus. The tradition that Pantaenus wrote many commentaries hardly represents the facts given by Eusebius. (G. KrOqer.) Bibliography: Fragments are collected in J. Routh, Re- liiluicB Sacra, i. 373-383, and MPO, v. 1327-32, and trans- lated in ANFt viii. 777. Consult: Jerome, De vir. tU., xxzvi.; T. Zahn, Forachungen, iii. 156-176, Erlangen, 1884; O. Bardenhewer, Oeachichie der alikirchlichen Lit- Uratur, ii. 13-15, Freiburg, 1903; Hamack, LiUeratur, i. 291-296, ii. 2, passim; Ceillier, Atdeurt aacria, i. 559- 660; KrOger. History, p. 162; DCS, iv. 181-184. Further literature is indicated in ANF, Bibliography, pp. 115-116.

PAPPUS, JOHANN: German Lutheran; b. at Lindau Jan. 16, 1549; d. at Strasburg July 18, 1610. He was a student at Strasburg (1563-64) and Tubingen (1564-66), and after being a private tutor for a year, resumed his studies at Strasburg. Ho was then vicar of Reichenweyer for a abort time, but ia 1570 was again in Strasburg, lecturing OD Hebrew and serving aa preacher. In 1573, bo resumed his lectures on exegesis and church history at Strasburg, where be was appointed minister, preacher, and professor of theology in 1578, having been made a canon in 1675. Tbe church in Stras- burg waa at that time <lominatcd by tbe rigid Lu- theran Johannes Marbach (q.v.), who had caused the departure of Peter Hartyr and Hieronymus Zanchi, and the dismissal of the paator of the French congregation. He was opposed, however, by most of the teachers at the high school, of which Pap- pus bad been schoiarch since 157-3; Marbach'a chief antagonist being Johannes Sturm, who was ear- nestly seeking a modua vireruli with the Reformed. The magistracy wavered between the two factions, and in Mar., 1578, Pappus proposed sixty-eight theses to show that it was not contrary to Chris- tian charity to condemn erroneous doctrines and to separate from heretics. On Apr. 5, 1578, after a passionate defense of Calvinism by a young Pole, J. MiHsch, Sturm laid his Antipappus primus be- fore the assembled scbolarchs, professors, and clergy, and was answered by Pappus. Henceforth the con- troversy was continued in writing, Sturm fulmina- ting bis second, third, and fourth Antipajipvi, and Pappus replying «ith an «iual number of de/m- aioneB, wliile Osiandcr and the young adherent of Sturm added to the dispute, and Sturra wrote hia EpixtaliB eiteharieHcir and an attack on Osiandcr, and directed an edition of the Tetrapolitan Confes- sion which tbe magistrates forbade to be sold in Strasburg. To sum up the controversy, Sturm claimed that not Pappus' contention that there was no viola- tion of love in condemning doctrines which sub- vert salvation but the Reformed doctrine of the Eucharist was the point at iasue, and that it tbe Augsburg Confession vtere properly understood, the Calvinists could adhere to the same. He, too, is in favor of the union of all Evangelical churches but not on the Formula of Concord, whose doc- trine of ubiquity was in contradiction with that of the ascension and was provocati^-e of schism. Pappus, on the other hand, declared that the doc- trine of ubiquity emphasized tbe divine omnipo- tence and the union of the human and divine in C hriat, and deplored the fact that the Formula was nut forthwith signed. While the struggle thus con- tinued, the magistrates remained Gnn in refusing the Formula of Concord, but tbe violencB and tur- moil increased so that, on Apr. 23. 1581, further con- troversy was forbidden. On account of an attack of bitter invective on Jacob Andrei (q.v.), Sturm was retired to private lite. Pappus had already succeeded Marbach as head of the Kirchenkonvertt early in 1581, and, though the Formula of Concord had not yet been fonnally adopted, rigorous aioaa- ures against the Reformed in socordano© with its ■pirit were now taken. AU efforts at appeal were m vain, and on Mar. 24, 1598, tbe aew ohureb con- stitution was adopted by the council which iii- cluded the acceptance of the Formula, thus mark- ing a triumph for Lutheranism. Never ceasing his efforts for the overthrow of CaJviaiam, Pappus still found time to attend the debate between Roman Catholics and Lutherans convened by Margrave Jacob of Baden at Emmendingen in June, 1590; where he assumed the onerous charge of proving that the Church Fathers had taught doctrines essentially Evangelical. The result of this debate was hia Con/easionit AugusUtna el AugitaliTtiance paralUla (Frankfort, 1591). Among his writings, besides many controver^al pamphlets and ser- mons, mention should be made of Epitome hiatoria KdeaiaBtica! (1584); Commentarius in Con/essionem XuffuskiTmm (1589); Ariicuft pracipui dodrina Chriatianft in thews digeali (1591); and Contradicr- lionea doctorum nunc Romana Ecxiegim (1597). (K, Hackevscbmidt.) Bibliography: W, Haming. JoAannei Pappia, Slrasburg. ]84h H. Bsppe, GaehicMe du dr^.lKhm i>ral«bj<uiimw. iii. 314 Kin., iv- 312 »qq„ 1 vol".. Martmn, ISS3-59; G. Frank, Gueliichlt dm praUtlantiaclim ThcaloBic, i. Zee ■q^., LeipUE, laaS: sod Ibe titeralun under BrcRM.

PARABOLANOI: A brotherhood at Alexandria in the fifth century devoted to the care of the sick. The (Greek) term means " those who expose their lives." The members of the fraternity possessed clerical privileges, and so many accordingly joined to escape public burdens that in 416 and 418 Theo- dosius II. forbade honorati or curialee to become parabolanoi, and limited their number to 500, later raising it, however, to 600 (Codex Theodosianus, xvi. 2, De epiecopie, 42-43). Their appointment was made by the bishop, and they practically formed an armed episcopal bodyguard. They gained an evil notoriety at the consecration of Cyril, the murder of Hypatia, and the ^ynod of Ephesus in 449; and must at times have terror- ised Alexandria. At Constantinople and elsewhere (a« ftt Bavenna; MPL, evL 688) the parabolanoi found their eounterpart in the college of deans. (H. AORBLU.) Bibliography: Bingham, Originee, m.. ix., ZXm., iiL 7; TiUsmont, Mhnciree, ziv. 376 sqq.

PARADISE: Name of a place or state. The Hebrew word pardea (Neh. ii. 8; Eccles. ii. 5; Cant, iv. 13; also the Targums and the Talmud) and the Greek word paradeisos (Septuagint), as well as the equivalent in Persian, whence the word has been adopted into all the other languages in which the Bible has appeared, means a wooded garden or park. But in the Bible it is used in a twofold sense : (1) for the garden of Eden; (2) for the abode of the blessed in heaven, of which Jesus spoke to the penitent robber (Luke xxiii. 43), to which Paul was caught up (II Cor. xii. 4), in which are those who have overcome (Rev. ii. 7). For the determination of the word in the geographical sense see Eden. Attention is limited in this article to its Jewish and patristic interpretation. First in consideration, it was taken allegorically. The chief representatives of this view are Philo (" Laws of Sacred Allegories ")» Origen (HomUicB ad Oeneaim; Contra Celaum, iv. 38-39, Eng. transl. in ANF, iv. 614-^15; De prin- cipiia, iv. 14, Eng. transl. in ANF, iv. 362-353), and Ambrose (De Paradiao ad Sabinum). To Philo, Paradise stood for virtue; its planting toward the east meant its direction toward the light; the divi- sion of the one river into four, the fourfold aspect of virtue as cleverness, thoughtfulness, courage, and righteousness. This method of allegorical interpre- tation came over into the Christian Church, and appears in Papias, Irenosus, Pantaenus, Clement of Alexandria, in the Antiochian School, Epiphanius, and Jerome, and the majority of Christian writers of the time of Ambrose. To Origen, who in the Old Testament, and particularly in the account of the creation and the Paradise, found much that was derogatoiy of God, Paradise was a picture of the human soul, in which flourish the seeds of Christian virtues; or a picture of heaven, wherein the " trees " represent the angels, and the ** rivers " the outgoings of wisdom and other virtues. He did not, however, deny a literal Paradise; he only sought in allegory the harmonization of the Mosaic and New-Testament conceptions. To Ambrose, the Pauline Paradise was the Christian soul. He also distinguished between the literal and the Pauline Paradise. In the second place. Paradise was interpreted mystically. The Mosaic and the New-Testament representations of Paradise were considered iden- tical, and place was found for it in a mysterious region belonging both to earth and heaven. The chief representatives of this interpretation were Theophilus of Antioch (" To Autolycus "), Tertul- lian (Apologeticua), Ephraem Syrus, Basil (Oratio de Paradiao), Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa, Cosmas Indicopleustes (** Christian Topog- raphy ")» and Moses Bar-Cepha (Tractatua de Para- diao), Those who doubted the identity of the two paradises were few, as Justin Martyr, the Gnostic Bardesanes, and Jerome. In the poems of Ephraem (fourth century), which embody the speculations of Theophilus, Tertullian, and BasU, Paradise was gen- erally conceived to have three divisions. The first begins at the edge of hell, around which flowed the ocean, and in a mountain which overtops all earthly mountains. The one river of Paradise flows from under the throne into the garden, divides itself into four streams, which, when Ibey have reached the border of hell upon the lowest division, eink under hetl, and, through undei^rotmd passEtges, flow to the ocean and a part of the earth, where they re- appear in three difienent iocalitiea, forming in Anncnia the Euphrates aud the Tigris, in Ethiopia the Nile (Gihon), and in the west of Europe the Danube (Pishon). Cosmas Indicopleualea {sixth century) represents the divisions aa rising in trape- zoid form, and understands by " Pishon " the Ganges. Moses Bar-Cepha (tenth century) puts Paradise this side of the ocean, but behind moun- tains which remain inaccessible to mortals; giving as his reason for this change of position, thai be could not conceive of another earth on the hither side of the ocean. The synagogue teachers, inSuenced 6tst by Jo- sephus, and later by the great medieval Jewish exe- geies, in their commentaries upon Genesis and in some dictionaries, put Paradise in the very center of the earth, somewhere in the shadowy East, far removed from the approach of mortals. The four streams were Euphrates, Tigris, Nile, and Danube. " Cuah " was Ethiopia, " Havilah " was India. Paradise was the intermediate home of the blessed. Islam gave the name Paradise to four regions of the known earth, tamed for their beauty: (I) On the eastern spurs of Hermon; (2) around fiavan in Persia; (3) Samarkand in the Bucharest; (4) Basra on the Shatt al Arab. The true Paradise was a future possession, on the other side of death. It is remarkable that the word " paradise " occura but once (Luke lodii. 43) in Christ's discourses. The explanation probably is, that it had become asso- ciated with sensuous ideas of mere material happi- ness. Paul uses tbe word only when speaking symbolically (II Cor. xii. 4); so also Revelation (ii. 7).

PARAGUAY: A republic south of the central part of South America, bounded on the north by Bolivia and Brazil, on the east by Brazil and Argen- tina, and on the south and west by .Argentina; area 98,000 square miles; population 631,347 (1905) of whom 50,000 are Indians. Nearly all the people are Roman Catholics, due to the fact of the early intermingling of the Spaniards with the Guarani Indians, so that nearly the entire population consti- tutes a mixed race, and the Guarani language is gen- erally the vernacular, though the official language is Spanish. It was conducive to the rapid Chria- tianising of the countiy, that increasing numbers ot Jesuits settled there in 1C09 and after. By the creation of a patriarchal and communistic state, which embraced a large part ot present Paraguay, together n~ith some neighboring districts, the Jesuits brought the Indians in general under religious and social control, as exercised through established cen- tra and eccleaisstical precincts that went by the name of reductions. When the society was ex- pelled in 1767, and Paraguay became subject to the viceroy of La Plata, the civilizing progress could not be maintained. The secession from Spain wa« •OOD followed by an attack upon the Church, under the Dictator Fraocia (after 1816), unprecedented in brutality. This policy was continued to some ex- tent by his second successor, Lopez, who proved far more detrimental to the country by the senielesa war vrith the three superior neighboring republics (1834 to 1870), during which the population de- clined two-thirds, amounting, in 1872, to about 231,000. In 1870 Paraguay obtained its constitu- tion, which stipulated in article 3; " The state re- ligion is the Catholic Apostolic Roman." The head of the Church must be a citizen of the state. No other religion is to be prohibited within his juris- diction. The bishopric of Paraguay was created in 1547. Since 1881 there has existed, subject to the bishop, a seminary tor education of priests and teachers, directed by Laiarists. The school sys- tem, generally, comprising also the University at Asuncion, is controlled by the State, which super- vises tbe intermediate schools, established in five cities, and the common schools. Instruction, since 1861, bus been both free and obligatory. In 1903 there were 365 state schools with 858 teachers, and only a few private schools. Of coiuve, there are not many Protestants. By continuous immigration, the Evangelical Christians of German nationality have reached the approximate sum of 1.150 souls, organi;ied into two congregations. These are di- rected by the Evangelical Church and school ad- ministration and belong to the La Plat.a Synod. There is al.w a Presbyterian congregation ot Asimcion. [Mission work among the Indians and others is eairied on by the Inland South America BliBsioniiry Union, founded in Edinburgh in 1902 by Mr. John liny, a layman. This mission is inter- denominational, and its ultimate aim ia to cover not only Paraguay, but all inland South America.] WiLHELM GAtz. Bibuoqupht: R. □. B. C. Oraham, A Vani,\id Arcadia. Somi Accotint oj thi J tniti in Paraonau. 1807-1787. Lon- don. 1901; A. do Alwdo, Diaianaria , . . de lot tiuliru octidtntKlit. iv, 73 aqq.. S vol*.. Madrid, I7Sa-89. Eog. IrsJlAl,. The Oeoffraphieal and Hittaricoi DieOonary of : El Dietador FToacia. Madrid. 1 D. Pfotfiulmuer, Dit Miaionen dir JtiuUen in Paraeuau. 2 pikna. GUtoTslota, ISBl; K<ine NachrirJU con der Ri- publifjue van drr OetelUchaft Jau der PoriMoitssi^fh- und SpaniMchtn-pTovimm, ed. H. BamoKorUn, WisDcr- Mcugtndt, 1892; C. A. Wubbum. HitUma drt Pamg^g, Buenoi Ayres. 1992; R. von FlMhar-TRumfDld. Para- amv in Wan und Bild. Berlin. 1903; W. Vallimtia, Para- Buau, diu Land der Owtranit. Berlin. 1907.

PARAN: The name of a desert, mountain, or mountain range (Deut. xxxiji. 2; Hab, iii. 3). and probably also of a, place (Deut. i, I; I Kings xi. 18) mentioned in the Old Testament. Since the mountain of Paran is mentioned together with Sinai, Seir, and Kadesh. it muat have been near the southern boundary of Canaan between Israel and Edom. The place of the same name would •eem, from the obscure Deut. i. lb and I Kings xi. IS, to have been situated between Midian (or Edom) and Egypt, possibly in the vicinity of the modern ^al'at al'Nakhl on the road from Sues to Ail ah, the Biblical Elath. The desert of Paran was the home of Ishmael (Gen. xxi. 21), and also the place from which Moses sent the spies to Canaan (Num. xiii. 3, 26), BO that it adjoined directly on the south. It is to be distinguiahed from the wilderness of Zin and from Kadeah (Num. xiii. 21, xx. la, 22). The nildemeaa of Paran must, therefore, be located »outh of Kadesh, Gcrar, aad the wilderness of Zin. It accordingly correapondB to the modern Badiyat sl-'nh (" desert of the wandering "), which is bounded by the Jabal al-Maljrah on the north, the ■ watershed toward the peninsula of Sinai on the south, and the ranges bordering the Wadi b1- 'Arabah on the east, and the middle Wadi al-'Arish on the west. The mountain Paran can not be so satisfactorily determined; whether a single moimtain ot a range is uncertain. In the former case it might be identi- fied with the Jabal 'Araif or with the Jobal Ikhrimm Id the wealera part of the wildetness of Paran; while in the latter case It might be Identified either with the heightB bordering the Wadi al-'Arabab to tbe Mat ot the wilderness or with the chain to the •outh which forma the watershed toward the pen- loBUla of Sinai, The latter is the more probable, especially as this southern range ia now called Jftbal ol-Tlh (" Uountein of the Waadering "). Weta- ateio, however, like Palmer and Cheyne, IdBBtifles Mount Paran with the Jabal Mafcrah, but the In- terior of the mountain district la yet too Uttle known to decide the problem. At the same time, it is possible that the southern part of Jabal Hak- rah, BO for as it lay outside the borders of Canaan (Num. xxxiv. 4; Josh. \v. 3), was called Mouut Paran. Finally, it should be not«d that tbe El- paran of Gen. 3dv. 6 if translated to mean grove ia very possibly another and fuller name for Elath (q.v.); and as Geneeia locates this place " by tbe wilderness " so ihe Arab geographera Ibn ^au^al and Ijtahri also sUte that at Allah (EUth) the desert begins in which the Israelites wandered.. Euting has found the name Paran in the Sinoitic inscriptions in the forma Farran and Faran, and tbe new Engli.th map of Africa shows Jabal Faram at the R.e. edge of Jabal Hakreh. The Paran of I Sain. XXV. 1 should be read, with the Septuagint, Maon (cf. I Sara, X3CV. 2; Josh. xv. 55); for it ia a city in the mountains of Judah, the home of tbe Calebit« Nobal, tbe present Khirbat Ha'in. Nor doea the valley of Pbaran of Josephus (H'or, IV.. Lx. 4) refer to the Biblical Parun, In like manner, the Pbaran of Pliny {Historia naturalu, v. 17) and the Phww of Uie Peutingerian Table (Leipsic, 1824) refer to the oaaia of tbe SinaiUc peninsula now called Foirui. <H. GtrraK.) BiauooBAPBI: Jl.F. Stanity. Sinai and PalaUnt in Cennac- lion wilA ihrir Hi^tora. New Vork. 1883: H. C. Trumbull. KaiUJ»Bamta. New Vork. 1334; DB, ill. 072-673: BB. ilL 3583-84: and the literature uader Niau.

PARET, WILLIAM : Protestant Episcopal bishop of Maryland; b. in New York City Sept. 23, 1826. He was educated at Hobart College, Geneva, N. Y. (A.B., 1849), and after studying theology privately, was ordered deacon in 1852 and advanced to tlM priesthood in the following year. He was curate and rector at St. John's, Clyde, N. Y. (1852-54), Zion, Piemepont Manor, N. Y. (1854-65), St. Paul's, East Saginaw, Mich. (1865-67), Trinity, Elmira, N. Y. (1867-69), Christ Church, Williamsport, Pa. (1869-76), and the Church of the Epiphany, Wash- ington, D. C. (1876-85). In 1885 he was conse- crated sixth bishop of Maryland. He has written Pastoral Use of the Prayer Book (Baltimore, 1904) and Place and Function of the Sunday School in the Church (New York, 1906).

PAREUS, DAVID: Reformed theologian; b. at Frankenstein (39 m. s. of Breslau) Dec. 30, 1548; d. at Heidelberg June 15, 1622. After attending the schools of his native town, he was apprenticed to an apothecary and again to a shoemaker. In 1564 he entered the school of the learned Christoph Schilling at Hirschbeig, whom he accompanied to Amberg, in 1566; but immediately entered the Col- legiiun Sapientiae, at Heidelberg. On May 13, 1571, he became pastor at Niederschlettenbach and six months later a teacher in the Paedagogium at Hei- delberg. On Aug. 24, 1573, he resumed the pas- torate in the previously Roman Catholic village of Hemsbach; where, with the consent of the congre- gation, he reconstructed the church status along Reformed lines. Dismissed from his office after the death of Frederick III., Pareus was appointed, in 1577, by Palsgrave Johann Casimir, pastor at Oggersheim. Transferred to Winzingen in 1580, he cultivated intimate acquaintance with the teachers at the Casimirianum, in the neighboring Neustadt. After the death of Ludwig VI., Palsgrave Casimir, in Sept., 1584, called Parous as teacher to the Col- legium Sapientiaj, Heidelberg, the director of which he became in 1591, and, in 1598, he entered the theological faculty as teacher of the Old Testament and from 1602 until his death he taught the New Testament. His reputation as teacher increased from year to year, and attracted students from far and wide. From 1592, he belonged to the Pala- tinate church council. In his last years. Pareus was much afflicted with sickness. In Sept., 1621, as the Spanish troops approached the Palatinate, Pareus fled to Annweiler, and later to Neustadt. Then, when Elector Frederick V. returned tem- porarily to the Palatinate, Pareus returned to Hei- delberg, May 17, 1622, where he passed away. He was survived only by his son Philipp (1576-1648), who issued his father's writings, to which he pre- fixed a life (Frankfort, 1647). Pareus began his literary activity in mature years, with the tract against the doctrine of ubiq- uity. Methodus ubiquitarice controversice (Neustadt, 1586). Some vexing polemical matter accom- panied his issue of the Neustadter Bibel, 1587: an edition of Luther's translation, with apf)ended table of contents and superscriptions. Jakob Andreft, in his Chrisiliche Erinnerung (Tubingen, 1589), styled this publication an " arrant piece of knavery "; while Pareus, in Rettung der Neustadter Bibd (Neu- stadt, 1589), answered in a more moderate tone. Pareus further contended against Siegwart in Sieg der Neustadtischen Bibd (Ne\istadt, 1591), and with iEgidius Hunnius, in 1593-99, who accused him of the judaizing error of the Reformed party, with VIII.— 23 Clypeus veritatis cathdiccB de aacrosanda trinitate and Orthodoxua Calvinus. He also issued various tracts against the papacy (1604-17). Despite these many literary battles, Parous was by naturo ironic, and much lamented the passionate wranglings of that age. His main task he assumed in positive, constructive activity; such as the many editions, after 1593, of his Summarische Erkldrung der Katho- lischen in der Churpfalz gevbten Lehre; and espe- cially his numerous commentaries on the Old and New Testament Scriptures (published 1605-18). Significant also was his pronounced wish, in 1603, though denied by the strict Calvinists, that, in con- nection with the doctrine of the Lord's Supper, the Reformed Churches might use the terms essentiali- ter et substantialiter, so as to approach the Lutheran teaching. His ironic spirit, however, appeared at its best in the famous Irenicum sive de unione et synodo evangdicorum liber votivus (Heidelberg, 1614- 1615). In this he proposes a general synod of all Evangelicals to imite the Lutherans and the Cal- vinists, who, he roprosents, wero surely at one in every essential. On only one point, however, not affecting the foundation of belief, was thero di- vei^ence. Why not forbear with erring brothron in love, and cease consuming one another in strife to the joy of the " papists " ? But this yearning ap- peal of Parous brought little response from his con- temporaries, and his overturo for peace was rudely rojected by the Lutheran theologians Hutter and Siegwart. In his biography, Philipp Parous lav- ished almost excessive praise upon his father; yet impartial posterity rogards him as a pwce character and a distinguished theologian, who, during an age of narrow-mindedness, proserved a broad outlook, and both courageously uttered and capably ropre- sented the recognized truth. Julius Ney. Bibuoorapht: The main source is the life by his son, pre- fixed to the collection of works, ut sup. Consult further, P. Bayle, Dictionary Historical and Critical^ iv. 471-475, London, 1737.

PARITY: In canon law, a status of civil equality for various ecclesiastical societies. So long as the pre-Reformation heresy law in Germany was in force, there was no such thing as parity; but in 1555, after the peace of Augsburg, the German em- pire declared the heresy law to be no longer appli- cable, A distinction remains, however, to be drawn between the parity guaranteed by the German em- pire and the measures adopted by its constituent stale governments: the empire never prescribed that the two confessional bodies should be placed on a footing of equality by the respective states. Parity signifies solely an equality ot treatment for Roman Catholic and Protestant estates of the realm in matters of the empire's jurisdiction. As to the stales of Germany, Brandenburg wiia the first to depart from the custom of recognizing the righte of only one Church; Elector Johann tiigis- mund in 1611 granted coequal standing with the Lutheran to the Roman Catholic Church in East Prussia, and in 1615 the same to the Reformed Church throughout his domain. For the reet of Germany, the act of the imperial deputies of Feb. 25, 1803, transferred nmiiy domains from Roman Catholic into Protestant hands, at the same time guaranteeing the e^tercise of the prevailing religion. Parity was next introduced by Bavaria (1803-18), Baden, and others, AU the sundry Protestant states of the Rhenish Confederation were led by Napoleoii to pledge 1o the Roman CathoUcs equal rights of worship with the Lutherans, and most of them ful- filled tie promise. The act of the Gcrmun Confed- emtion did not touch upon (he point, but confineil itself to stipulating e<[uality ot civil and political rights for ;idherentB of the various eonfeauiona as in- dividuals. The complete civil and national equality ot aD Germans, without regard to religion and creed, was afforded by the law of the Confederation (now imperial) ot 1869, The case is different with religious societies ae such. That the three great Christian Confessions (Roman Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed) everywhere enjoy a special of state privileges, is due to tbeir historic position and tbeir public importance. But in many of the German states, they alone possess the full measure [' of religious exercise. [For discussion of the subject in relation to other countries than Germany see Liberty, Religious. (E. Sehling.) Bibliography: See under Liberty, Religious.

PARK, EDWARDS AMASA: American Congro- gationiiliHl; h. at Providence, R. I., Dec. 29, 1808; d. al. Andover, Mass., June 4, 1900. His father, Calvin Park, was a professor in Brown University, Mirl the son graduated there in 1S26; and, after a period of teaching, entered Andover Seminary, graduating in 1831. He then became colleague pastor of Richard Salter Storrs (2d) at Braintree, Mass., and during the ne^t two years rose to the rank of one of the ablest preachers of the day; tranaferred, however, to Amherst College as pro- fessor of mental and moral philosophy, he became eminent a.-* a teacher (1S35-36). He was called to Andover in 1836 ae professor of sacred rhetoric, which position he filled with great success and per- BonnJ satisfaction till 1847, when, by a general de- mand of the students and friends of the seniinary nnd the nomination of his predecessor, he was trans- ferred to the chair of systematic tlieology, which he filled till 1881. Andover Seminaiy was in those days the chief seminaiy of the Cone;regational eburches, and Professor Park made the New Eng- land Theology (q.v.), of which he was a consum- mate master and the greatest representative, the dominant school of thought in the Congregational- ian) of his time. That theology is summarily set forth in the creed of Andover Seminary (cf. hia pamphlet. The AsKociatx Creed of Andover Thto- hgiait Semirmr)/, Boston, IS83), and also in his famous sermon upon The Theology of the Inlellect and that of the Feetiigs (reprinted in Uie BMiathrea Sacra). This sermon led to an epoch-making con- trover^ with Prof. Charles Ilodge of Princeton, which did much to bring the new school to a con- Kiousnesa of itself and establish it firmly in the con- victions and life of the churehes. The long and laborious Andover life was broken by three seasons of travel in Europe and the orient, during which he greatly enlarged his acquaintance with German theology and philosophy, of which he was a master, la 1844, with Prof. B. B. Edwards, he founded the Bihliolheca Sacra, of which he continued to be edi- tor forty years. It was from tJie beginning a " aa- Dred library " for the publication and preservation of valuable material not likely to be elsewhere at- tainable, a keen theological re^'iew, and an agency for the propagation of a sound theology. But his contributions to theological periodicals began much earlier and embraced a wide fSeld. He wrote also a large number of memoirs of friends and of tlieo- logical leaders, of which the moct important nro those of Samuel Hopkins {Boston, 1S52) and Na- thaniel Emmons (Boston, 1801). His other prin- cipal works were The Sabbath Hymn Book (in con- nection with Prof, Austin Phelps and Lowell Mason (New York, 1858), The Atonemeni, DiicouTses and TVeolUM, etc., with an Irttrodutiory Emay (Boston, 1880), and Ditamrtea on some Theological Doo- trinet at Related to the fleiijious Character (Andover, 18S5), From 18S1 to hia death, he lived in reUre- meat in Andover, daily engaged in literary work, and largely occupied in the preparation of hia the- ology for publication; but he seems to have des- troyed his manuacript, for after his death nothing was found in condition tor publication. The en- thusiasm which he excited as a t«acber was un- equalled, and whatever his other claims to the memory of posterity, evidenced by his almost un- exampled popularity in many different lines among his contemporaries, his greatest is the profound inSuence he exercised from the professor's chair. See New Enolano Tkbologt, V., | 3, Frank Hpoh Foster. BrBUoQiupaT; F, H. Fatter. Ortulk Hitt. o/ (A« Neie Ena- lartj Theolon: >>>u,P- ivii.. Chiiuga. 1907; idem, in Bib- liolhrca aacra, ix (1903). fl72 mtl-. la (1604), SI iqq., 372 ■qq., SIl aqq.: W, Wnlker, Crrtdi and Plallormt of Can. BT'Batvm'Uitm, Hew York. 1863; idem, in AmerKon Chta^h Hiatari; Sirua. vol. iii., ib, ISM; idem. Ttn Ntm Snclanii Leadat. puiiai. ib. 1001; Profator Park and hia Papilt. A bianTapMcal SktUh. iciOi Letttrt rtctiaed on hit niiw- titOi Birtiidaii. Bolton, ISBS; and BrticEu in the BOiiioOiKa Sacra u follows: !™i (1001), 187 >qq.. by G. F. Wri«ht: the »ioc, pp. 338 sqO., by K. Hovfy and J. Cook; uid the some. pp. 540 aqq.. by G. W. BoinlmBn; 1i (1903). 201 aqq.. by J. E. RuukiD.

PARKER, JOSEPH: English Congregationalist; b. in Hexham (20 m. e. of Newcastle), Northumber- hnd, England, Apr. 9, 1830; d. in London Nov. 2% 1902. His father was a stone-mason, and his mother was distinguished for her simple faith and life. Through his father, young Parker had a strong infusion of Irish blood which accounted for much in his mental powers, his oratory, and life. His early education, received at three different schools, was supplemented by private study in mathematics, Latin, and Greek. From his earliest years he was under religious influence, and when in his teens 868 commenced to preach in the village green. His powers as preacher and his genius soon became apparent and determined his future career. He attended no theological college, but read and thought by himself, seeking by every possible means to furnish his mind with all knowledge nec- essary to make him efficient as an expounder of the Bible. In 1852 he went to London and became assistant -to John Campbell of Whitefield Taber- nacle. His preaching power was soon acknowledged by persons of influence, who were charmed with his eloquence and suggestive utterances. He was much sought after, and in 1853 he received and accepted a call to a small congregation in Banbury, Oxford- shire. His success was marked. They had to en- large the chapel, and ultimately to build a larger one, which was soon crowded. He remained in Ban- bury five years, when he received and accepted a call to Cavendish Street Congregational Church, Manchester, and began his ministry July 25, 1858. The church became a center of influence and the pastor was the originator of most of its institutions and movements. He started a college for the train- ing of preachers, and did the most of the teaching himself. He edited religious periodicals, wrote some of his best books, took part in public move- ments, and attended to his pastoral duties pimctu- ally. His influence grew apace, and his power was felt far and wide in his denomination. In 1868 Parker received a pressing invitation to become the pastor of the Poultry Chapel, London, which was then in a moribund condition, but did not accept till the next year, beginning his pastorate Sept. 19, 1869. The old building soon became too smiall for the crowds which attended the services, and steps were taken to build a house of size and prominence, resulting in the erection of the City Temple, Hol- bum Viaduct, which holds upwards of 3,000 peo- ple. Dr. Parker commenced Thursday Noon Serv- ices in the Poultry Chapel and continued them in the City Temple till his death in 1902. These gath- erings were unique, and no other single person ever sustained such a series of meetings for thirty-three years. They were held for one hour, and at eveiy meeting ministers, students, professional and busi- ness men, workmen and women of all ages could be seen. Under his care the church grew as a power and his influence increased. He preached his last sermon Oct. 2, 1902. Dr. Parker was a voluminous writer, his pen was never idle. His principal works are Ecce Deu8 (Edinburgh, 1867); Springdale Abbey (Manchester, 1868); Hidden Springs (London, 1864); Ad larum (1868); Paraclete (1874); The PrUsthood of Christ (1876); Tyne Chylde (1880); The People's Bible (25 vols., 1884) ; Family Prayer Book (1889); Some One and None Like It (1894); Paterson's Parish (1898); Preacher's Life (1899; autobiographical); Studies in Texts (6 vols., 1901); PtdpU Bible (1901). Besides editing several period- icals he published in all over sixty volumes. William Aoamson. Bibliography: W. Adamson, Life of the Rev, JoMph Parker , London, 1002; A. Dawson, Joseph Parker , Hia Life and MifUatry, ib. 1001 ; G. H. Pike. Dr. Parker and hia Frienda, ib. 1004.

PARKER, MATTHEW: First Protestant arch- bishop of Canterbury; b. at Norwich, England, Aug. 6, 1504; d. in London May 17, 1575. He graduated from Corpus Christi College, Cambridge (B.A., 1525; M.A., 1528); and was ordained priest in 1527. Already strongly influenced by the teach- ings of the German Reformers, he devoted himself at Cambridge to the study of the writings of Lu- ther, qualifying them by a thorough knowledge of patristic literature, which was probably responsi- ble for the comparative moderation which he showed in later life. In 1535 he was named chaplain to the new queen, Anne Boleyn, and to the king two years later, receiving also several rich benefices; in 1544 he became head of his old college, which had be- come the home of the new doctrines. As vice- chancellor of the university, he defended its rev- enues manfully against the king, who was tempted to extend to it his pillage of the monasteries. This danger past, he devoted himself to the promotion of the internal welfare of the university, for which his retiring and contemplative nature eminently fitted him. Even under Edward VI., he still sought to remain in his studious calm, and exchanged his university position only for the quiet deanery of Lincoln in 1552. Under Mary, he fell into disfavor by his support of Lady Jane Grey and by his mar- riage in 1547. Deprived of his offices, he remained in concealment until the accession of Elizabeth; he was then summoned, much against his will, to take part in public life, and was consecrated arch- bishop of Canterbury in 1559. The validity of his consecration has been disputed, the Roman Catho- lics regarding it as defective in both form and mat- ter, Anglicans exerting themselves equally strenu- ously to demonstrate that every essential was scrupulously observed. The importance of the question lies in the fact that the new bishops chosen by Elizabeth, and thus the Anglican succession, derived their consecration from him. Parker, at once Evangelical and conservative, was a fitting instrument for the carrying out of the queen's plans of compromise between the extreme parties whose strife threatened the peace of her realm. The situation was a difficult one. Bishoprics and parochial cures were either vacant or unworth- ily filled; great diversity prevailed in the conduct of divine worship; and ecclesiastical property had been in many cases diverted from its proper use. The kingdom was divided into three hostile parties; the Roman Catholic, with strong support at Ox- ford, among the lawyers, and to some extent at court; the Puritans, with their mainstay in the citizens of London, supported by the Cambridge divines, striving to enforce the Calvinistic ideals; and, between the two, the new primate with a feeble moderate conservative minority. In this passion- ate struggle, rendered more difficult by the uncer- tain and capricious attitude of Elizabeth, Parker stood for conciliation, and for the striking out of a distinctly Anglican line, a via media between Rome and extreme Protestantism. His hands were full; he had to train the new bishops in the system, to keep a watchful eye on the courts of justice and the universities (the Cambridge statutes of 1570 be- token a complete reconstruction of the academic constitution in an Anglican sense), to regulate the restoration of its rights to convocation, to bring order into the financial affairs of the Church. anil to guard the bishoprics and other benefices against unworthy men. Together with convocation, in 1562 he recast the forty-two articles of religion into thirty-nine, and gave them their linal shape in 1571. He took great interest in, and wrote the prefaces fur, the Old and New Testament of the " Bishops' Bible," a version which was to supersede Tyndale'a and the Geneva versions. The " Advertisements " drawn up by him (see AnvEKTiaBUENTS of Euza- dbth) were not formally sanctioned by the queen, but lie enforced their provisions with strictness as an irreducible minimum of decent ceremony in public worship. His scholarly work brought him more happiness than bis administrative. He was a pioneer in the study of English antiquities, especially of the Anglo- Saxon period. He employed the large means which in his later years were at his disposal for the col- lection and preservation of valuable ancient manu- scripts in danger of destruction at (he dissolution of the monasteries. A single agent of his, Stephen Batman, asserts that in four years he collected on the archbishop's account no less than 0,700 manu- scripts in England and elsewhere. Th^ priceless collections he left to his old college, where they are now the chief treasure of the library. On them are based the first editions of Gildas, Asser, Aelfric, Matthew Paris, the Flores historiarum., and- other ancient chronicles; and Parker was the first to rec- ognize the value of the Anglo-Saxon works for the study of English history, law, spieech, and religious Among other works, he wrote, assisted by G. Ackworth and J, Josseline, De atUiquitaic BrUan- nictB tccltniB et privitegiU ecdesia Cantuariensia (London, 1572), a coUection of various treatises; and independently An Admonition to All Siu-h an Khali IrUmd hereafter to Enter the Slate of Malri- monie Oodly, and AgreeaUe to Laws (1605 [7]); and Arclibiahop Parker's Prophtcy . . . (1715). He wrote a preface for and made additions t^ T. Mar- tin's A Dffenee of PrieHee Mariages (London, 1562 T): and edited Aelfrica serraon A Tegtim/mie of Atii^uitie Shewing the AncierU Faylh in the Church of England Touchittg the Sacrament of the Body and Blonde of the Lord (1506); and Mathew of Paris' Hiatoria Maior (1571). BlBLIOaRA.l'nT: The chief wnrk ia J. Stiype, The Life and AeU a/lfaOJine Parkirr. London, 1711, 3 vol*., Ojcfonl. tS21. Coniull further: His Corrrtpoadencr, ed. J. Bmi^o and T. T. PeniwDe for Parlier Society, Cambridge, 1S53^ W. F. Hook, ArrUintopi af Ca^abvm. vol, Iv., 12 vol*., Londoo. lSflO-7S: J. Jcwelia. Hidonola callrnii CorporU Ckritti. ed. J. W. Clnrlc, Cambridge, I860; W. Bender. JWoT Parkrr rin ealtig tmiwiUw Binclioft Wanburg, 1ST7; O. W, Chad. Charth and Stala under tit Tudari. pp. IS« •qq., LondoD, 1890; F. G. Lee. ChunA under Queen £;ifd- hM, pp. 30 sqq., London. ISDS; J. H. Overton. T\e Churth in EnQland. i. 435-43B et passim. London, 1897; W. H. Frere. EtigliA Church USSS^IBgS), London. 190* (full and valuable): DfiB. lUii. 354-36.1: uid. In Ecnentl, the worka on the ecclaiABticihl tiiatory of the period. PARKER, THEODORE; American Unitarian; b. in Lexington, Mass., Aug. 24, 1810; d. in Flor- ence, Italy, May 10, 1S60. His father, on unpros- perous farmer of active mind, held rationalistic views, while his mother had ardent religious feeling without doctrinal interests. Instinctively and sen- sitively religious, the child of four years heard the voice of conscience speaking " clear and loud," and before the age of ten was terrified by the preaching of eternal damnation. His early education was limited to a district school, with one term at the Lexington Academy (1826), but by extraordinary aptitude and the district teacher's help, he was able to win admission to Harvard College (1830), and was exceptionally allowed to take the annual ex- aminations of the college class without residence and without a final degree. From 1827 he taught in district schools, working in the summers on the home form. In Mar., 1831, he bccaroe assistant in a private school in Boston and a year later openeil a private school in Watertown. Entering the Har- vard Divinity School in Apr., 1834, he graduated July, 1836, already amazingly erudite and command- ing twenty languages. After preaching in various parishes he married Lydia Cabot, Apr. 30, 1837, and was ordained June 21, as pastor of the First Parish (Unitarian) Church in West Roxbuiy, Mass. Though but little affected oa yet by German Bib- lical criticiEm he had begun (1836) to translate De Wetle's Einleitung in daa Alte Testament. His eariy intellectual friendships were with Convers Francis, George Ripley, William EUery Channing, and other members of the Transcendental Club, but he shrank from the pantheistic tendency of Eroerson and wrote unfavorably of Strauss' " Life of Jesus " (CArisfian Examiner, 1840). Entering the discus- sion of Emerson's Divinity School address with a pseudonymous " Levi filodgett " letter (1840), he professed belief in miracles but held them " not the sole or beat evidence." Believing, however, that conservative Unitarians in reaction against Emer- son were retreating to outwoni positions, he boldly discussed " The Transient and the Permanent in Christianity " at an ordination in South Boston, May IS, 1841. The permanent essence of Christian- ity is the influence of Jesus and his religion, which is identical with " absolute, pure religion." It is its own evidence and needs no support from mira- cles, the reality of which is not denied. As a young man of boldly radical tendency Parker was at once refused excluingea in the Unitarian pulpits of his neighborhood, though laymen induced him to pro- claim his views in lectures which were published in amplified form, A Dierourae on Matters Pertaining to Religion (Boston, 1842). Tlus was the theolog- ical crisis of his career. Refusing to withdraw voluntarily from the Boston Association of Minis- ters (Jan. 23, 1843), he was shunned by most of these associates and felt keen suffering in lus isola- tion. There was no formal breach in his ecclesias- tical standing. He remained permanently a mem- ber of the American Unitarian Association and of the Berry Street Conference of Ministers. After a year in Europe (Sept., 1843-Sept., 1844) he re- sumed his pastorate in West Roxbury with addi- tional preaching in Boston, beginning Feb., 184.'), in tlie Melodeon Hall. In Jan., 1846, he withdrew from Roxbury to be pastor of this Twenty-eighth Congregational Society of Boston which, after 1S52, *arker THE NEW SCHAIF-HERZOG 360 met in Music Hall and reached a membenhip of 7,000. In Boston he became a heroic leader of the antialavezy crusade and a fervent advocate of tem- perance fltfid prison reform and the education of women. Absorption in these social aims and pas- toral work together with frequent lecturing through- out New En^and overtaxed aii intellectual power which might have made an epoch in theological scholarship. His most exact work was an ampli- fied revision in English of De Wette's work named above (1843). His intellectual toil amid distracting conditions was unparalleled and he was a prolific author of pamphlets, books, and articles in period- icals. Hemorrhage of the lungs compelled him to end his labor at the age of forty-eight. In Feb., 1859, he went to Vera Cruz and thence to Switzer- land. After a winter in Rome he went to Florence, where he died and was buried in the Protestant cemetery. Though unable to appreciate the motives of his conser\'ative opponents, Parker thoroughly under- stood the genesis and bearings of his own views, as is shown by his lectures on '' Transcendentalism ** and the ''Theological and Philosophical Develop- ment of New England " (Matter and Spirit in Cen- tenary edition of his Works). New England thought had been controlled by sensational philosophy ("the original sin of the Anglo-Saxon people," Matter and Spiritf p. 353), and therefore rested re- ligion on supernatural miraculous revelation. Political emphasis upon the inherent rights and the trustworthiness of man, the dissolvent effect of rationalism on dogma, and the growth of democ- racy produced the Unitarian and Universalist movements without producing at first a new philo- sophic system. Later the works of Coleridge, Wordsworth, Cousin, and Cudworth generated in minds like Channing and Emerson the conviction that man has an inherent spiritual element, non- miraculous in its origin and operation. In opposi- tion to this fresh thought the common Unitarian- ism, which had been simply an Arminian Bibli- cism, began to emphasize the miraculous historical evidences. Parker championed the new idealism without assenting to all the extravagances of the transcendental movement. Rich in historical knowledge he analyzed the total accretions of Christianity to an interior essence. This is identical with the essential religion of Jesus, whom Parker exalted ^ith glowing eloquence (" the highest rep- resentative of God we know ") while he pointed out historic limitations in the ideas of Jesus and rejected all the traditional Christologies. Like the German mystics he saw in Jesus the supreme in- stance of man's experience of God, an experience not confined to Christianity though not elsewhere equalled in degree or in purity of expression. Hence Parker identified the essential Christianity seen in Jesus with " absolute religion." By this he did not mean a imiversal religion reached by generalizing elements common to all historic religions (though cf . Chadwick's Theodore Parker, p. 100) but the purest expression of the religious consciousness (Discourse, pp. 21 3, 214) as that is ascertained by abstract analy- sis (pp. 6-7) and self-inspection (ib. p. 5). Dormant or active in varying degrees, there belongs to every human being a specific religious consciousness irre- ducible and ultimate, acting spontaneously from diverse provocations, and in this religious conscious- ness the idea of Gkxi is immediately given to expe- rience. Following Schleiermacher, Parker described this consciousness as a " mysterious sentiment of something unbounded " and the idea of God as simply the power which is the correlate to a sense of dependence. But Parker did not adhere to this minimum re- lation of '* dependence " and " power," and, using the terms of his own developed faith, described the religious sense as a reverence which normally cul- minates in trust, hope, love (ib. p. 32), or a volun- taiy obedience to the will of God. Similarly the ** idea " of superhuman power given in the sense of dependence is soon transformed into the ** concep- tion " of God, " an infinite of power, wisdom, jus- tice, love, whereon we may repose, wherein we may confide " (ib. pp. 141-142). While the term personality is defective as applicable only to finite human beings, impersonaUty could be used only to express a transcendence of Umitations in the ground of all personal existence. ** Infinite knowing must be his " (ib. p. 148). A sermon on " Commimion with God " (Ten Sermons, 1853) describes a per- sonal communion rising to rapturous blessedness, though without the mystic's ecstasy or absorption into deity. Parker often used the symbol of mother- hood (Theodore Parker* s Prayers, 1862) to denote the tenderness and unselfishness of God's love to man, and he opposed to the popular preaching of Calvinism an eloquent insistence on the infinite beneficence of God's character and providence: "love becoming a imiverse of perfect welfare." This optimism did not check Parker's impetuoas and heroic conflict ^ith social evils. Developing this conception of a perfect self-expression of God in the world, he championed with ardor the view of divine inmianence in the world of matter and in the world of spirit, '* while God yet transcends both and is limited by neither " (Weiss, Life, vol. i.. Appendix, p. 470). Mere pantheism he regarded as " irreligious naturalism " (Discourse, p. 174, note). Reasoning from the theory of imnmnence and from the experiences of religious communion (204) he opposed to the traditional view of inspira- tion an affirmation of universal inspiration varying in degree with racial and individual capacity, but he did not clearly define the relation of such in- spiration to man's own activity. The coldness with which these wws were received in his own time and neighborhood has been succeeded by wide- spread sympathy in the churehes of his communion and many others. Francis A. Christie. Bibuooraphy: Parker's Works, ed. Frances Power Cobbe, appeared in 14 vols., London, 1863-70; the centenary edi- tion, Boston, 1907 sqq., contains hitherto unpublished material. An excellent selection from his writings is con- tained in Views of Religion, introduction by J. F. Clarke, ib. 1890. The best biography is J. W. Chadwick's Th«^ dors Parker, Boston. 1900 (contains good bibliography). Consult further: J. Weiss. Lifs and Correspondence oj Theodore Parker, 2 vols.. New York, 1864: A. R^ville. Theodore Parker, sa vie el ses atworea, Paris, 1865, Ens. transl.. Life and Writtngs of Thwdore Parker, London. 1877; O. B. Frothingham, Life of Theodore Parker, Bos- ton, 1874; S. Johnson, Theodore Parker, Chicago, 1890-

PARTRIDGE, SIDNEY CATLIN: Protestant Episcopal missionary bishop of Kyoto, Japan; b. in New York City Sept. 1, 1857. He was educated at Yale (B.A., 1880) and Berkeley Divinity School (graduated 1884), and was ordered deacon in 1884 and advanced to the priesthood in 1885. He was a teacher at St, John's College, Shanghai (1884- 1887), and at Boone School, Wuchang, China (1887- 1900), and in 1900 was consecrated missionary bishop of Kyoto.

PASCHAL: The 1 : of t popes and one 'US a Roman by Paschal I.: Pope 817-824. He birth, early entered the clerical state; and was at- tached to the Lateran basilica, where he became deacon and priest, and under Leo IIL was placed in charge of the monastery of St. Stephen Major and hospice for pilgrims near St. Peter's. On the death of Stephen IV., he was elected the same day and consecrated the next (Jan. 25, 26, 817), appar- ently to avoid the interference of the Frankish court. The Emperor Louis, however, made no objection, and renewed the agreement which had been in force under his predecessors. The docu- ment purporting to contain this agreement, the so- called Pactum Ludovicianum, for which (he oldest witnesses are Anselm of Lucca and Deusdedit (i|q.v.), has called forth much controversy. It is now usually considered to bo not forged but merely interpolated, although scholars disagree as to the extent of the interpolations. In any case the rela- tions between Paschal and .the emperor were at firnt friendly. In Ihe spring of 823 the young Lolhair went to Rome, where Paschal crowned him (Apr. 5). In missionary work pope and emperor nclcd in unison; the former named the latter's foster-brother Ebo of Reims his vicar tor the still hentlien lands of the north. The recrudescence of the iconoclastic controversy afi'orded Paschal an opportunity for freah intervention in eastern affairs as the upholder of orthodoxy. I*o the Armenian paid no heed to the representations of the Roman legates; but Paschal had the satisfaction of being rpcogniied by the defenders of images as the head of the Church. The Liber ponlificalia calls him a tiiilii ;ind benevolent ruler; the Frankish liistorians depict him rather as haughty and domineering. He was a devoted supporter of monasticism, and a Eealous promoter of the cultus of the saints and their relics (see Ceciua, Saint), to which qusl- ities be probably owes his own canonization. His festival is May 14. (H. BaauEn.) ~ uprt: The Epittela il Uplomata an la MPL. ; KDd the Pactum Ludovidanwn in T. Sickel. Dai PHnUeitun Ottot I., pp. 173 sqq., Innsbruck. 1B83. 3oun»> an: Liber pontV/IcoJu, ed. L, Duchesne, ii. M- S8. Paris, 1H92: Embard, Annata. in MGH. Seripl., i (18M). 130-218: Tbeaanus, ViW Hladowici, in I/OB. Script., ii (18Z9>, 804-W8: Jafle. ReoeHa. i. 3IS-330. Coneult: Uann, Pope,, ii. 122.156: B. Niehuee. Verhaitnit • m -a-nd PapiUum. u. 99 sqq.. Mdnster, 1853,- n, Dii Poiitik dtr Papule, i. 329 sqq., Elber- J. Langen, Oteciiichti der ronrutKen Kircht, Bonn. 1S&5: M. Helmbucher. Die PapetwaKlm orDlinjw™, pp. 116 sqq.. Augsburg, 1889; F. Gmgororius, Hiilory aj tiuCitg of Bomt, iii. 35-55, Loo- don, 1805: T. Lindner, Dm laoenaimltn Schmkungeti Pippins. . . . an dit romuehe Kirche. pp. 60 aqq., 8Cutt gart. 1806: Hauck. KD. ii. 481 sqq.; Milmao, iMin CAriatianila.il. 519-529; Bower, Popa. ii. 1B3-201; Pla- tian. PopM, i. 210-312. Paschal n. (Rainerius): Pope 1099^1118. He came from Galliuta, near Ravenna, and entered the cloister in his boyhood; when at the Opening age of twenty years he went to Rome Promise of on business for his clobter, he was de- Hi* tained there by Gregory VII., and sta- Pontificate. tioned as presbyter at St. Clement's. He was elected successor of Urban II. on Aug. 13, 1099, and the next day was consecrated. Many burdensome tasks awaited solution at the hand of the new pojie. Accordingly, it was fortu- nate that Guibert of Ravenna (q.v.), whom Heniy IV. bad put forward as antipope, was now expelled from Rome. [But Paachal's troubles were not ended with the e.xpidsion of Guibert, nor even with his death. On the latter event the friends of Gui- bert elected Albert piope, but he i>as taken prisoner the same day and confined in the monastery of St. Laurence. The opposing party was undeterred, however, and chose Theodoric, who was captured after lOJi days and shut up in the moiiaat«ry of Cava, near Pateatrinn. The final effort of the Gui- ijortians was the election of Magninulph, who took the title of Hilvesler IV., hut was forced to flee from Rome, and died soon after.] The German situa- tion at Paschal's pontifical accession stood favor- able in that a weariness of conflict had set in, affecting even Henry IV. Hardly hnd the emperor learned of the death of Clement III, before ho summoned the princes, at Christmas of 1 100, to a conference at Maim for the restoration of ec- clesiastical peace. They advised the despateh of envoys to Rome, and Henry was ready to attend a council to be convoked at Rome in Feb.. 1 102. Paschal, however, from the outset was determined to continue the contest. He ap- pealed to Count Robert of Flanders to engage in holy war against Henry, attempted to revive mar- tial ardor in Swabin and Bavaria, and at the synod of Mar., 1102, proclaimed the analhnrta perpetvum against Heniy. But the need of peace was univei^ sal, and the appeal to Robert of Flanders procured for the pope a sharp rebuff. At the outaet, the hearing of Henry V. satisfied all expectations and hopes on the pope's part: Henry win humble in bearing, and by removing the schismatic bishops, and thus restoring to Germany her long-crippled freedom, he appeared to furnish proof of his sin- cerity. The emperor, who had ceased to stem tha tumultuous vicissitudes of the last years of hb life, died on Aug. 7, 1106; and with him, as it seemed from the papal standpoint, the chief enemy to the ^Aflohal see peace of the Church disappeared, while the situation of the Church in relation to statecraft grew less complex. Pope Paschal concentrated his interests upon Investiture (q.v.); and almost the sole aim of his policy was to secure that prerogative Investiture against the influence of the State. He Strife. purposed to conduct the negotiations personally with Henry V. in Germany, but his joiuney stayed short of achievement, and the synod in contemplation was held not in Ger- many, but at Guastalla, between Parma and Man- tua, Oct. 27, 1106, when the pope renewed the in- terdiction on the subject of investiture. The fact that Henry then continued to exercise the right of investiture disconcerted the pope and aroused his mistrust. When the king's envoys paid their re- specta to him at ChAlons, in May, 1107, and Arch- bishop Bruno of Treves at the same place defended the king's right of investiture, the pope sharply re- jected the demand. Paschal nevertheless conceded, at the synod convening shortly afterward in Troyes, that thenceforth every incimibent who had been invested by a layman was to be duly deposed, to- gether with his ordinator. Henry was granted a year's grace to visit Rome and advocate his claims there before a general council; but the plan failed and the relations between pope and king grew more acute. Henry started on his journey in Aug., 1110, notifying the pope and the Romans from Arezzo of his approach, and sending envoys to the former. In negotiations held at Turri Feb. 4, 1111, between the pipaX envoys and Henry, the following agree- ment was made. Henry was to yield on the subject of investiture on his coronation day after the pope had redeemed his promise in the matter of the re- galia (see below), promising never again to inter- fere in the matter of investiture and to release his subjects from their oath to the bishops; he was also to establish the pope in possession of the patrimony of Peter (see Papal States) and to secure the pope's personal safety by a proper disposition of spiritual hostages. Peter Leonis, the leader of the papal envoys, promised for the pope that, when the king had performed his promises, the pope would direct the German bishops in attendance to restore to the king and the realm the regalia which had belonged to the empire in the time of Charlemagne and his successors; the pope was to forbid the bishops to put forth new claims to these regalia in future, or to exercise implied rights thereof, while his succes- sors were to recognize this agreement; finally, the pope was to crown the king as emperor and to sup- port him in the maintenance of his dominion; the pope was also to furnish hostages. This agreement was ratified by Henry V. at Sutri, Feb. 9, with a not unimportant reservation: the oath which he rendered covered merely the pope's personal safety, and conditioned even this upon Paschal's redeem- ing his pledges on the following Sunday. Accord- ing to Ekkehard, the king still hinged his consent on the further condition that both spiritual and temporal princes should assent to the surrender of the regalia. The execution of this treaty meant the solution of legal questions rooted in a past which compre- hended several centuries; it reduced the bishops from princes to beggars, threw the German Church out of its routine, and was a revolution from above downward such as would affect the The New entire life of the Church; while tiie Agreement persons inunediately concerned, the German bishops, had not the op- portunity of submitting their opinion thereon. At that time the project was impracticable, since Pas- chal commanded no other instrument of coercion against the inevitable opposition than the sentence of excommunication, a penalty the impressiveness of which had lost much in the preceding half -cen- tury. Henry V. made his entrance into Rome on Feb. 12, and was ceremoniously received by Paschal. But when the original terms of agreement were read aloud in St. Peter's Church, there arose, amidst the temporal and spiritual princes alike, such a storm of indignation that the fulfilment of the compact proved quite impossible. These fruitless proceedings culminated at evening in Henry's arrest of the pope and cardinals, and a confinement of two months broke the pope's opposition to the king's wishes. On Apr. 11, the following compact was concluded by the two contracting parties. Paschal conceded that when a bishop or abbot has been freely elected, without simony and subject to the king's assent, he shall be invested by the king with ring and staff, and thereafter consecrated by the competent authority after the formal investi- ture. The pope furthermore promised not to mo- lest the king and his realm, and never to visit the anathema upon Henry. He pledged himself to crown the king, and to support both realm and empire to the best of his power. Henry V. swore to liberate the pope, bishops, cardinals, and all other captives, on Apr. 12 or 13, and not to molest them again; to bestow peace on the Roman people; to acknowledge Paschal as pope; to maintain, or, if need be, reinstate, the Roman Church in its patri- mony and goods; and to render the obedience due Paschal as pope, the honor of kingdom and empire being safe. Henry's coronation took place on Apr. 13, the pope obtained his freedom, the emperor re- tained the privilege of mvestiture, while every eccle- siastic or lajrman who should assail it was subject to anathema and deposition. That Paschal under the stress of intense abase- ment had suffered himself to be constrained to these concessions subjected him to heavy penance. He lost the confidence of the Curia and embittered the remainder of his pontificate. This Disapproval compact of Paschal's meant the relin- and Annul- quishment of demands which had been ment of the upheld through many years and de- Agreement fended with no mean sacrifices on the side of the Church; it canceled all efforts aimed at a reaction of public opinion in re- lation to the investiture; and it blocked the way to a resumption of such efforts in the future. A tempest of indignation rose against Paschal. In Rome a group of ecclesiastics turned their backs on him; in the rest of Italy there occurred intense and earnest protests; among the French and Buigun- dian clergy there almost ensued a schism; whOe even Germany was not entirely free from this re- Iroclory temper. The opposition of Paachal'a fel- low churchmen robbed him of self-confidence. He grew confused aa to the lawfulness of his acts, and yet stood chained 1^ them by virtue of his oath. Hence the equlvoc^ turns of his procedure in the following years. This state of affairs became pat- ent to greater circles at the Lateran Synod of Mar. 1S~23, lll'2. Here, in order to diapel doubts on the score of his orthodoxy, Paschal not only aubmitted a confesMon of his faith, wherein he notably recog- nized the decrees of Gr^ory VII. and Urban II., but he also assented to the resolution that the privi- lege wrested from the pope by coercion was to be condemned by the verdict ot the Holy Ghost, de- clared invalid, and rendered null and void. After Paschal had thus broken the first part of the oath of Apr., ml, he was powerless to escape the Gre- gorian party's importunity with reference to a cen- sure ot Henry V. For when the Synod ot Vienne, Sept. 15, 1112, condemned lay investiture as her- esy, pronounced excununutiication against Henry v., and transmitted these resolves to the pope tor cotilirmation, subjoining a threat of defection in case of hia refusal, be did not hesitate to pass the sentence. When the ban against Henry had been reitcra1«d, in the succeeding years, by the legates Kuno and Dietrich (at Beuuvais, Reims, Cologne, Goslar), the matter underwent a searching discus- sion in the year 1116, at the Lateran eyuod conve- ning on Mar. 6. First of all, the privilege of investiture met its doom. Paschal was compelled to pronounce bis approval of the king's excommunica- tion, in open audience; and thus did be surrender the second portion of his oath. But in spile of these resolutiooa of the Lateran synod, there ensued no absolute rupture of relations between pope and em- peror. When Henry V. advanced upon Rome in the spring of 1117, the pope Qcti southward. [But the same year a synod was held at Bcnevento which fully Bupporteil the pope, and excommunicated Mauritius Burdinus, who liod token the part of Henry, and was the neitt year elected antipope with the title of Gregory VIII. (q.v.).] In relation to other states, the administration of Paschal II. proved tar leas momentous. While in England a vehement conflict came Affairs in about between the kingdom and the England, church. It found prompt solution France, and through the Concordat of 1107. This the East, was prior to the collision between the pope and the German king, and, owing to ila localization, it exerted no general effect comparable in importance with the Gemmn investi- ture strife. Yet Paschal did not entirely lose sight of England in the years that followed. He sought to enforce, in opposition to King Henry I,, the pseudo-Isidorian principles respecting appeals to the apostolic see (ace Pbeitdo-Isidorian Drche- TAW); demanded the lapse of tie royal Placet (q.v.) in connection with his legates and edicts; and uFRcd greater ^eal in the payment of Peter's pence. In France, the pope found occasion to in- terfere in (he marriage relations ot King Philip I., who bad separated from his consort and wedded Bertrade de Montfort, who had deeerted her hus- band, Count Foulques of Anjou. At the Synod of Poitiers, 1100, and in presence o( the papal dele- gates, the relapsing king was a^ain sentenced with the bun; and not until Dec. 2, 1101, at the Synod ot Paris, did he receive absolution upon promising to discontinue all commerce with Bertrade. The first great achievement of the crusade movement inaugurated by Urban II., the conquest of Jerusa' lem, did not come to the knowledge of that pope, since the news of it reached Rome not until the be- ginning of the pontificate of Paschal II. His al^ tention, accordingly, was much engaged by the growing church problems in connection with the founding of the kii^gdom of Jerusalem. This bur- den was especially pressing by reason of the dis- putes over the occupancy of the patriarehate of Jerusalem; and the rivalry between the patriarchal sees of Antioch and Jerusalem. Paachal II. died at Rome Jan. 21, 1118. CtRL MiRBT. Bibuooiupht: Sources: The Bpiatvla rl pninlqna are id UPL, dxiii. ;il-47e. Epitlola bid aliio fouad in Rreaeil dm hiHorintu da Oaula, »v. 17-63, Pnru. J808; MOH, Bpi^, Ui (laon, 106-107: Id NA. rola. 111., vi., vii., liii,, xvii.. m.-mdii.. xxv.-. and S. Liweufdd. Epitt. txniti/tcum Romanorun, pp. 67 sqq.. Lapaid. ISSS: Liber pimlifiaxlii, ed. L. Duchsine, ii. 2941-309, Paris. 1802; Jade. BHO. vol. V.I idem. Rteetia, i, 702-772; J, B. WHtterich, Pon- tificum Romanonm vUa. ii. 1-17. Leipsic, IMS; J. von Pflualt-Harltung, Hit Italieum, Stuttgart. 1833; idem, Aria pontifiairum Romanoruin iiudila. Tllblogea luid StutC- BHrt. ISS1-S8; M, Sdrslok, Wolfimliamtr FragmtnU. pp. 111-117, MOniter, ISOl; P. Kelir, in NarhrkhUn der kgl. Qeteil*chaft der Witteiuchaften n OfVUtfidm. phitatoff hubmtche KIoHT, ISSS-ISWI; H. nasttnmeyer. Epiilula d chaHa ad hutariam primi belli mcrt uprdanla, pp. 178 sqq.. Innsbnick.lWl; Muisi. Concilta. vols, nc.-ixi. Con- sult: J. Lungeu, Gachiehu lUr rnrnucAn KirrAt. iv. 214- Z70. Bonn. 1S8&; U. Chovklier, Rtpninirc dim »ii>m hit' Umqua du moiim ligf. pp. 1721, 27B1. Fsris. 1877 sqq,; W, Schum, Die PnliNk . . . PoMchali II., Erfurl, 1877; O. feiser, Der deiiixh, /nunlifurdrcil hM>t . . . Hein- ridi v.. Beriin. 1SU3; H. Maurer, Papit Calixl II.. vtAm. i.-ii.. Municb, 1880-89; G. Bucbluils, Kkkehard nm .4ur<i, vol. i„ Leipsio. ISSS: W. von GissebreohC. OeeckickU der deulKhen KaiterTeii, iii. 697 Eqq., Ldpsio, 1890; 0. Mirbt, Die i'lAIiiHltt tm Zeilaller Grroon VII., ib. lSB4i F. Gragomviiu, Hill, of the Citu o/ Rome, W. 317-377. Lon- doB, 1896: B. Oordea, GachidiUi der devUchen VdUi, ii. 319 sqq- Leipnc, 1398; G. Richter. Annalen der deuiechen GachiclUe in MilUMIer, III., ii.. Hulls, ISSS; T. F. Tout. Thi Enpire and Oe Papacy. »IS-lt73. London, IBOl; W. Bany, Papal Monarchu . . . SBO-ISOS, New York, 1902; W. Nofdon, Dm PapeUMm und Bynm. pp. 67 sqq., Bsrlio, 1903: B. Monod. Etiai tur Ice rapporte de Paecat II. asec Philippe!. (IOB»-(I(W), Paris. 1907; Hefele. Con- eilieneachiehte, vol. v.; Haiiak. KD, iii. 874 aqq.: Milmui, Latin Chrialianiln, iv. 7S Bqq.: Boiror. Popee. ii. «27-iS2: Platina. Popei. ii. 18-29; SohalT. Chrielian ChurtA, v. 1, pp. 44, 73, 76, 78. 01; Neandor, Chrielian Church, iv. undor Cai ■a II.. ] Paschal UL (Guido of Crema): Antipope 1164-68. Guido of Crema was the most influential among the four or five cardinals who in 1159 elected Octavian (Victor IV,, q.v.) as claimant of the papal see in opposition to Alexander III. He was ot noble birth, in close relations with both the French and the Eng- lish courts, and ot long experience in the Curia. He was thus a natural candidate to succeed Victor IV., two days after whose death he was elected at Lucca by the recalcitrant party (Apr. 22, 1164). He was consecrated on Apr. 26 by Bishop Henry of Li^, and at once recognized by Barbarosun. Hia lack of support in Italy, Burgundy, and parte of loan Germany secure. On JUky 22, 1165, he remiired of afl the priaces pmem at a diet in W&iibmg an OBlli that ibey vodd never acknovfeds? Aksan- der m.; and he pwbed the caxae of Pkacfaal ae- tmly in Italj and Bargimd]r. In J11I7, 1167, the Tielofy of ToBcahim aDoved Frederick and his pope to enter Rome, wheie the bitter was enthnned in Sc Fetcr'i on J11I7 22. The catastrophe which afaoost annihilated the imperial armj in Augrsst loned hzm to quit Rome. In the follovizig Janixanr Arefabisfaop Christian of 3faiu restored him, si- tfaoQsh to jorisdictioo oidy over the ri^t bank of the Tiber, and even thb bj an uncertain tenure. Before his povrer eouU be further confirmed, he ^ed (Sept. 20, 1168). (H. BOhiceb.) t: LAm 1S02: Jaffe. of tke Cit9 •/ Hnck, KD, ir, 256 It. 296: Bovcr. Popo. u. 511-514: titcntare the wotk of Renter. IL cd. L. DoefaeBe. JL 410- '± 426'-«29: F. Gicvofo-

PASSAU, BISHOPRIC OF: An ancient hi Bavaria, organised bj Boniface in 739 together with the other Bavarian dioceaea, Its jurisdiction embraced both banks of the Danube from the confluence of the Isar, as far east as the Enns, north to the Böhmerwald, and south to near the present boundary between Upper Austria and Salz- burg and Styria. Christianity had spread there in the Roman period. Lauriacum, the principal Ro- man fortress on the line of the Danube, was the seat of a bishop, and there were churches at Batava (Passau). Boiodurum, Quintana, and other places. But this Roman Christianity was destroyed by the Teutonic migrations, and its place had to be supplied in the Bavarian epoch by the work of itinerant bishops. One of these, Vrvilo, consecrated by Gregory III,, was placed in charge of the see of Passau at its foundation. After the downfall of the Avari in 796, the lands between the Enns and the Raab were added to its jurisdiction. In the beginning of the tenth century the East Mark was lost to Germany, but when it began to be reoccu- pied in the middle of the same century, the see of Passau took up its work again which was extended even to the east, into Hungary. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: The Ikt of babops is m MGH, Script., zm (IfiSli, 341-364. xr (1888), 1310-11. SoareeB are m Monumenia Boica, vol. zxriiL, part 2, xzix.. part 2. Xvmeh. 1S64 »iq, CVusult furthn-: Rettbers. KD, i. 226 aqq,. n. 245 sqq,; Fnedricli. KD, i. 199 aqq.. 343 sqq.; Haack, KD, L 379. 505. n. 440 aqq^ iii. 150 aqq.; K. Sehrddl. Pasmvia aaera, Paanu. 1879; R. Reicbenbeiser. Wolfgang ten Salm, BvKhof wm Paamu, I640-66, Frei- bais. 1902; U. .Sehmid. Otto nm Lonodorf, Buekof tu Pmmam, ItS^SS, WOnbois, 1903.

PASSAVANT, WILLIAM ALFRED: American Lutheran; b. at Zelienople, Pa.. Oct. 9, 1821; d. at Pittsburg June 3, 1894. Ordained in 1842^ the year of liii graduation cram the I Kminary at Gettysburg he he&d I tiiDGre ^Ia42-I4 aad Phcabczg :i»Mr-oo), founded Tke MiMawmary 1S48-6I;, asid tin it was luetged in The L^dkerm I PMadptphia, rrmainrTg as ooe of the nev periodieaL (n ISSO he focmded Tkt m Pictsbcrg;. vfaieh he edhed tiD dnced the Kazsersverth <v3t<xn of editors of the • . Dcjkcoxras, UI^ 2. d, | 1 . I efforts were due the establishment of i Phtsboig, Milwaukee, Chicago. and ■ HL: orphanages at Rochester. Zeiienople. \ Mt. Vernon, X. Y.; and Thid College, m To his at Pa., and Bibliography :

PASSIONISTS: The eonunon name of the eoogie- gatioo of Barefoot Clericals of the Holy Cross and Passion of Christ. famous for their devotions and mis- sionary seal, and rising during the period of resist- ance to the Enlightenment -q.v.': of the eighteenth century. It was founded by Francesco Danei, known as Paul of the Cross vb. at Ovada [30 m. n.w. of Genoa] Jan. 3, 1694: d. at Rome Oct. 18, 1775 >. Although brought up to practises of piety, he was for a time inclined to miHtary life: but in 1720 planned the foundation of an order and as- sumed the name with the approval of the bishop of Alessandria. He then came forth as an itinerant preacher of penance, obtained papal sanction for his order and received novices in 1730, and was or- dained priest in 1727. The first house of the order was established on the promontory of Argentaro in 1737. The order was confirmed by Benedict Xr\'. in 1741, and again by Clement XIV. in 1769, and the latter assigned him the monastery of St. John and St. Paul at Monte Celio as the seat of his order. Paul was canonized in 1S67 by Pius IX. The members of the order take a fourth vow to promote a faithful observance of the salutary pas- sion and death of Christ. Their emblem is the cross and a crown of thorns, and on the breast they wear the name of Christ. Pius VI.. who in 17S5 once more confirmed the rule with some mitigations, conferred upon them the mission of propagating Roman Catholicism, sending them first (1782) to Bulgaria and Wallachia. They are now scattered over eleven provinces in North and South America, Great Britain and Ireland, France and Belgium. Spain, and .\ustralia: and number 100 houses and 2,000 members. Paul established the congregation of the female Passionists, which was reorganized by Magdalena Caponi in 1S19. There are three houses and seventy members* (O. ZOcKLKKf.) Bibliography: Hciinbocber, Ordm rmd Komor^aiionak, in. 309-313: (Oischincer). £«b«n do . . . PaW nm Krttae, Rcceoabuzs. 1S46: J. C. Mitten uuner. D^ htiliyo Paul torn JTnvr. InzMbmck, 1860; Lijk of SL Paul of tht Cross. Dublin, 1888; Lqca di San Ginaeppcw Vita deUrn amwa di Dio M. Maria cndfUm di Gom, CiTfta-Vcehm. 1878: KL, iz. 171»-a0; tht Ktoton 369 Paschal Oontroveraies

PASSOVER: One of the three principal festivals of ancient Israel. The name (Hebr. pesah; Aram. pisha*; Gk. pascha) is given to the lamb which was offered as an immunity-sacrifice at In the the opening of the feast; for the Hexateuch. verb pasah signifies a passing over (as in Isa. xxxi. 5). Everywhere in the Bible this festival is referred to the Exodus. At that time, by divine command, the lamb was slaughtered in a certain manner and then eaten; and by this means the people were spared from the destroying angel who slew the first-born of the Egyptians (Ex. xii. ). The annual repetition of the festival was enjoined. The eating of unleavened bread (mazzoth) for seven days was an integral part of this memorial feast, which was therefore fre- quently called the feast of unleavened bread. Def- inite rules for the festival appear in all the collec- tions of laws in the Pentateuch. In the ancient C'ovenant Code it appears as one of the three great festivals of the pilgrimage (Ex. xxiii. 15), and like- wise in Ex. xxxiv. 18, 25. The form and signifi- cance of the celebration appear more clearly in the narrative of JE (Ex. xii. 21-27, xiii. 3-16) and the necessary rules for the Passover and Ma^^oth fes- tivals are given in Deuteronomy also (xvi. 1-8, 16, 17); to the Holiness Code belong brief prescriptions (Lev. xxiii. 5-8 and probably 9-14), but the most explicit regulations are those of the Priest Code in Ex. xii. 1-20, 43-50. To these may be added the later rules in Num. ix. 10-14, xxviii. 16-25). In P it is stated that in the month of the Exodus which, because of this event, shall be counted the first month of the year (Ex. xii. 2), every father of a family must, on the tenth day, choose from among his sheep or goats, a male lamb one year old and without blemish. This he shall kill on the fourteenth day, " between two evenings," an ancient and ob- scure term. Samaritans and Keraites understood the twilight; the Pharisees, however, according to later usage, the time between three in the after- noon and sunset. In Egypt, the blood of the lamb was smeared on the posts and lintel of the door of the house as a sign for the destroying angel to pass by. The lamb itself was roasted, not boiled; and eaten with unleavened bread and bitter herbs. No bone was to be broken and no part could be carried from the house or kept for the next day, wherefore several small families united for the repast. This was required to be eaten quickly, with girded loins, staff in hand, and shoes on the feet (xii. 11). Later, this regulation was considered to refer only to the first Passover; but the Samaritans observe the usage at the present day. Only those who were circumcised could partake of the repast (xii. 43 sqq.) . Whoever was prevented from so doing, either by a journey or by^cleanness (cf. Num. ix. 9-11), must observe the sacrifice on the fourteenth day of the second month. This sacrificial meal was the beginning of the seven-day festival of unleavened bread. From the fifteenth to the twenty-first day, to eat an3rthing leavened was forbidden under pen- alty of being cut off from the conmiimity. The first and seventh days were special holidays on which a solemn assembly took place and no work was done (Ex. xii. 14 sqq.; Lev. xxiii. 1 sqq.). It VIII.— 24 is doubtful whether the offering of the first sheaves of the harvest formed part of the paschal rite. A comparison of the references in the various legal and historical sources shows their agreement with the fact that the Passover and Ma^oth fes- tivals were of Mosaic origin and were intended to remind the people of the Exodus. The significance of the unleavened bread is shown more The Legal clearly in JE than in P, since in the and the former the lack of leaven is attributed Historical to the hasty departure from Egypt Sources. (Ex. xii. 34, 39), while in P it seems to be a ritual requirement (Ex. xii. 8, 15-20). There is also general agreement that the celebration was to be held in the central sanctuary of Yahweh. Ex. xviii. 15 and xxxiv. 20 name this festival as one of the three pilgrimage festivals, whereat all the male members of the family were to appear, but not with empty hands. This refers to voluntary private offerings (Deut. xvi. 17; cf. 10). On the other hand. Lev. xxiii. 8 (H) and Niun. xxviii. 19 sqq. (P) speak of sacrifices of the com- munity offered by the priests; and, according to R. Schaefer (Das PassahrMazzoth-Fest, p. 267, DOsseldorf, 1900), the oldest literary prophets tes- tify to the existence of an elaborate sacrificial serv- ice. Only P calls the month of the Passover the first of the year, which, however, does not warrant the conclusion that the Hebrews first began their year in the spring at the time of exile (Wellhausen). In the historical books, only a few Passovers are expressly mentioned. The first important celebra- tion took place in Canaan, according to Josh. v. 10, inunediately after the entry into the land and after everyone had been circiuncised in the fields of the Jordan, near Jericho. Two other Passovers are es- peciaUy mentioned. Of one dming the reign of Hezekiah (II Chron. xxx. 26), it is narrated that since the days of Solomon no such festival had been celebrated in Jerusalem. II Chron. xxx. 5 asserts that the requirements of the law were not strictly observed, even on this occasion, as the second month was chosen instead of the first, because of delay in the preparations. The supplementary fes- tival of seven days was another irr^ularity. This accounts for the statement of the Chronicler, touching the Passover of the eighteenth year of Josiah, that such a festival had not been held since - the time of Samuel. According to the parallel passage in II Kings xxiii. 21 sqq., it should be un- derstood that no one had conformed so perfectly to the law. In the Passover of Hezekiah, the Le- vites did the slaying, and at the first Passover after the exile they sacrificed for the whole community (Ezra vi. 19 sqq.). As to the origin of the Passover, Wellhausen sees in it nothing more than a thanksgiving festival of the shepherds, whereat they sacrificed first-born lambs. He believes that the tradition Origin and of the killing of the first-born of the Significance. Egyptians grew out of this usage, also that the feast of unleavened bread is independent of the Passover, and was adopted in Canaan as a harvest festival only because, during the harvest, the people were too busy to leaven their bread. The historical relation to the events of the Passover Pastoral Lite THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZ03 870 Exodus, he coDsiders, was a later assumption. This explanation has found many adherents; but it ignores the real standpoint of the sources. Nowhere is the Passover mentioned as a festival whereat the first-born were sacrificed; moreover, the historical explanation is strongly supported by JE, and this testimony can not be rejected on the plea of re- editing (cf. Kittel, GcHchichle der HdrrdeTf i. 104- 105, Gotha, 1888-92; Schafer, ut sup., pp. i:J6 sqq.). This does not, indeed, exclude the possibil- ity that the Mosaic Passover festival may have absorbed a thanksgiving spring festival, when firsts bom of the flocks and first-fruits of the fields were offered. Although the older Protestants opposed the idea that the Passover was a sacrificial festival, the expression *' the sacrifice of the Jjonl's pass- over " (Ex. xii. 27), as well as many other pas- sages, place it in the category of sacrificial repasts. Indeed, in Num. ix. 7, it is expressly termed an offering to God. The sacrificial element is negligi- ble in Egypt, probably because of the absence of priests and altars. Later the blood was poured upon the altar and the fat was burned (Ex. xxiii. 18, xxxiv. 25). E^ssentially the Passover does not belong to the expiatory sacrifices but rather to that unique kind centering in the meal-time and repre- senting communion of God and man. In form it is a household and family offering. In the New Testament, the paschal lamb has be- come the prefiguration of Jesus Christ (I Cor. v. 7), whose death is the sacrifice which averts the wrath of God from his community. By partaking of the flesh and blood of Christ (cf. John vi.) the conmiunity is united with God. This inner rela- tionship was outwardly brought into proximity with the date of Christ's death and of his last sup- per, which took place at the Passover festival. This supper with his disciples on the eve of the passion of Christ was an anticipated Passover repast, as the fourteenth of Nisan fell only on Friday (John xix. 14) and intentionally represents Jesus as the true paschal lamb. According to the Talmudic and Rabbinical sources of the New-Testament period, the paschal sacri- fice could be offered only in the court of the Tem- ple, like aU other sacrifices. A great Method in multitude of people was always at- ■ New-Testa- tracted by this festival, and the Ro- ment Times, mans were frequently apprehensive of a revolt on these occasions (Josephus, Am., XVII., ix. 3, XX., V. 3; cf. War., I., iv. 3). On such days many executions took place to ter- rorize the people; on the other hand, a prisoner was sometimes liberated to gain their good graces. The arrival of great crowds of f>eople before the siege of Jerusalem by Titus proved very disastrous, since they were shut up in the city and perished i^-ith its destruction. Josephus relates (H'or, VI., ix. 3) that at the rccjuest of Cestius, who wished to give Nero some idea of the size of the Jewish popu- lation, the high-priosts counted the paschal lambr which numbered 256,500. Since at least ten were reckonetl to each Iamb, the result 2,700,000 men, excluding those who The date of the celebration vest. If in the middle of thf" was not far enough advanced to hold the festival four weeks later, that month was treated as an intercalaiy one and a thirteenth month was added. Whoever ate leavened bread during the festival was punished by scouiging. The lambs were slaughtered in the outer court of the Temple at half past eight (2.30 p.m. of our reckoning). If the day was the preparation for the Sabbath, this occurred two hours earlier. The priests stood in rows, hold- ing golden or silver vessels, in which they received the blood, passing the full vessels from hand to hand, until they reached the priest nearest the altar, who poured the blood over it. The parts of the lamb dedicated to the sacrifice w*ere also brought to the altar by a priest. Meanwhile, the Levites chanted the Hallel. The priests determined how many should partake of the lamb: not less than ten and seldom more than twenty. Joeephus and the Mishna assume that women participated in the repast; but according to the Gemara they were not bound to do so (cf. Deut. xvi. 16). After the first cup, the firstr-bom son asked his father the mean- ing of the feast, whereupon the latter (later, a reader) related the story of the Exodus. Then the com- pany chanted the first part of the Hallel (particu- larly Ps. cxiii., cxiv.) upon which followed the sec- ond cup and finally the repast proper. Then a third cup was drunk, which is that mentioned in Luke xxii. 20 as the one used by our Lord for the insti- tution of the Eucharist. Still a fourth cup was taken and, after it was filled, the second part of the Hallel was stmg (Ps. cxv.-cx\'iii.). The pas- sages, Matt. XX vi. 30 and Mark xiv. 26, " when they had stmg a h3rmn," seem to refer to this. See also Feasts axd Festivals, I., §§ 1-^. (C. VON Orelu.) Bibuooraput: Much of the literature is given under FsAirrs AND Festivals, and under Hexatbuch (qq.v.). Coo- suit further: F. Dclitssch, in Zeitsehri/t far IvthmKhe Theologie und Kirche, 1H55, pp. 257 sqq.; G. M. Redilob, Die bibliachcn Anoaben iiber die Stiftung^ Hamburg. 1856; J. H. Hurts, Der aitteMamentliche OpfrrctUtutt, pp. 307 <!qq.. Berlin, 1862. Eng. transl., Sacrificial Worehip of the O. T.. Edinburgh, 1863; J. M Oiler. Kritiacher Ver»%»ch fther die EnUUhung des Pegach-MazzothfesUa, Boon. 1883; D. Mac- kensie. Exposition of the O. T. Sacrifice*, Toronto. llXK): W, Riedel. in ZATW, xx (1900), 319 sqq.; idem. .KU- tcAtamenUiche Unterauchungen, i. 52 sqq.. Leipsic. 10(12; R. Sch&fer. Dae Paseah-Mazzoth-Fest, Gilteraloh, 1900; E. M. Synge, The Five Great Off cringe and their Lavp, London, 1901; R. B. Girdlestone. The Paaeaifer, the Communion, and the Maee, ib. 1902; 8. I. Curtiss. Primitive Semitic Religion Today, New York. 190:j; S. A. Fries, Die GetHze- achrift dee Kimiga Joeia, Leipsic, 1903; W. Rosenau. Jev- ieh Ceremonial Inetitutionet Baltimore, 1903; C. F. Kent. Student's Old Testament, iv. 265-26S, New York. 1907: a considerable literature in journals is indicated in Richard- son, Encyclopaedia, p. 827. Consult also the works oo O. T. theology, especially that of H. Schultz. London, 1892.

PASTOR AETERNUS: The title of the papal bull issued July 18, 1870, promulgating the doctrine of papal infallibility. See Infallibility of the Pope. The text may be found in Reich, DocumenU; and Sammlung der AkterutUcke mm KangU (TObingen, 1872). M.t the fitentare under ItirALumjrr I VancAN Oodirsl; mf^i^ ^ Jl 4|ortf ff/ift« Fs PMtomlL

PASTOR, LUDWIG: Austrian Roman Catholic; b. at Aachen. Prussia, Jan. 31, 1854. He was ed- ucated ut the universities of Louvain, Bonn, Ber- lin, Vienna, and Prague, and in 1880 became privat- (locent at the University of Innsbruck, associate professor of history in 1886, and full professor of the same subject in the following year. Since 1901 he has also been director of the Institute Austriaco di Studi Storici at Rome. He has written Die kirchlichen Reunionsbestrebungen während der Re- gierung CarU V. (Freiburg, 187)1); Die Corretpon- dem rlr* Cardinalt Conlarini wOhrend der dnUgehen Legation 1541 (Mdnster. 1880); GeerkUhie der Pdpele neil dem Ausgarig dee MittelaUsra (4 vols., Freiburg, 1880-1905; Eng. tranal. by F. I. Antro- bus. History of the Popes from the Close of the MvldU Ages, 8 vols., London, 1891-1908); J. Jans- Ben (lSfi3); Zur Beurteilung Savonarola's (1898); AuTud HeicheTuperger (2 vols., 1899); Acta Pon- tifieum Romanorum inediia (1904); and Die Reise des Cardinals Luigi d'Aragona duTch Deutschland , die NiedrrlAnde, Frankrrich und Oberitalien 1517- ISIS (1905), besides editing the seventh and eighth volumes of J. Janesen's GeschiehU drs deulsclint Votkes (Freiburg, 1003) and Erlavterungtn und KrgdTUungen ru Janssens Geschichte des deidschen IWjU« since 1698.

PASTORAL LETTERS: Letters intended for public circulation, addressed by a bishop to either the clergy or the laity of his diocese or to both. Some of these are sent out regularly on specified occasions. as at the beginning of Lent each year to give the current rules for fasting. Others are issued at the discretion of the bishop, in order to warn the laity against particular dangers or to instruct them in particular truths, or to admonish the clergy as to some point or points of their priestly duty or the conduct of divine worship. The term also applies to letters issued by ecclesiastical bodies to the pas- tors under their jurisdiction, e.g.. by a Presbyterian synod, and even to letters by the pastor of a church to the members. PASTORAL LIFE, HEBREW. T. General Description. L General Description: In Syria and the region eastward of that country it is chiefly the nomadic Bedouins whose calling is that of cattle- raising. In the desert, where the areas of pasturage and the watering-places vary with the time of year, stock- farming can be carried on only in a notnadic way. But in (he permanently populated districts cattle have always been raised extensively. Many parts of Palestine are better adapted to cattle-raising than to agriculture; for instance, the arid steppes of South Judca, the region idjout the Dead Sea, and many hillsides which can not be terraced, where the sparse growth of grass in the spring will maintain at least sheep and goats. The plains of Sharon and Jeireel, which are in part tiw raurshy for cultiva- tion, also afford rich pasturage. The country east of the Jordan, in particular, has always been a land for grazing; to the south Mcaba raised his enormous herds of sheep (II Kings iil. 4), and in the north were Baslian's famous kine (Amos iv. !). The people who followed this puiwiit (cf. the Tell Ajnnma Letters for the prc-Iaraelite period; see Amarna Tablets) when the country waa in a high state of civilization were not nomadic Bedouins, but lar^ owners both of herds and lands. They were kings and princes and the great in the land : David (1 Chron. xxvii. 20-30), Absalom (II Sam. xiii. 23), tlBEinh (II Chron. xxvi. 10); or they were rich citieens and farmers like Nabal (I Sam. xxv. 2 sqq.). The small farmers also had cuttle, but the relation of cattle-raising to agriculture was not bo intimate as it is, for instance, in Europe lonjay. Besides, asses and cameb were available for agri' cultural purposes. Still, the industry was of the highest significance to the people as a whole, and in the promises to the people prosperity in this di- rection was pledged (Deut. viii. 13, jocviii. 4; Jer. Kxxi. 27, etc.). Legislation took particular account of cattle-raising; and the poetic language of the Bible is full of ligures taken from the hfe of the shepherd. The princes were the shepherds of tiie people (II Sam. v. 2; Jer. xiiii, 2 sqq.); Israel waa the flock of the Lord of hosts (Zech. x, 3), and Yahweh was the good shepherd (Ps. xxiii.). In the regions where herding was followed in place of agri- cultiue, nomadic life and customs continued longer than elsewhere. The Calebite branch of the Recha- bites particularly {I Chron. ii. 55) adhered to a nomadic life till the time of Jehu; and Jonadab, the founder of the Rechabites springing from Caleb, connmanded his followers never to build houses but to dwell in tents, and never to adopt the agricul- tural life, but to live a pastoral life (Jer. xxjtv.), thereby making a sharp protest against all civilisa- tion (see REcaABiTBs). Pastoral Life Pastoral Thaoloffy 379 n. The Products: In Palestine, both anciently and in modern times, ** live stock/' or pastonJ property (mikneh, " possession ") was composed principally of small cattle (ton). How important an item this is, even at present, may be perceived from statistics for the administrative district about Jerusalem, where, even following some years of murrain, the report for 1905 shows 90,000 head, or forty-five to the square kilometer. These figures are bclow^ the actual count, since the local husband- men manage to prevent exact returns in order to lessen their taxes. Moreover, the district in ques- tion is perhaps the poorest in cattle, the country east of the Jordan being much richer in this re- spect. Anciently the tale of flocks and herds was considerably more appreciable. The data that Job possessed 7,000 sheep and 1,000 oxen (Job i. 3), Nabal, 3,000 sheep and 1,000 goats (I Sam. xxv. 2), and that King Mesha paid an annual tribute of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 sheep (II Kings iii. 4) are quite within the bounds of probability. The Palestinian sheep («cA=" sheep "; 'ayii=- " ram "; rahd, " ewe "; kar, " fat lamb "; faleh, " un weaned lamb "; kebhes or kesebh, " yearling lamb '*) belongs mainly to the fat^tailed, broad- rumped species known as ovis IcUicaudcUaf or platy- ura (cf. H. B. Tristram, Natural Hist, of the Bible, p. 143, London, 1867). It is of medium size, with stout body, thin l^s, fine crisp fleece, and a high- set nose. The color is usually white (Isa. i. 18; Dan. vii. 9; Ps. cxlvii. 16). The characteristic broad-tail weighs from eleven to thirty pounds. Another variety, similar to the Merino sheep, is found in North Palestine. Only the broad-tailed sheep is expressly mentioned in early times, since in every account of sacrifice of a sheep that variety HayU) is designated for the purpose as being espe- cially valuable and belonging to God (Ex. xxix. 32; Lev. iii. 9, vii. 3, etc.). At all periods, sheep were the most usual animals for slaughter (I Sam. xxv. 18; II Sam. xii. 4, etc.), although flesh food was not a frequent article of diet in ancient times. Sheep were also the most usual animals for sacri- fice (I Sam. vii. 9; Isa. i. 11; etc.). The ewes are especially prescribed for sin-offering and guilt- offering (Lev. iv. 32 sqq., v. 6), and in connection with the purification of lepers (Lev. xiv. 10). The ram was accounted a peculiarly worthy victim (Ex. xxix. 18), and is prescribed notably on occasion of great festival offerings, also as a guilt-offering (Lev. V. 15), and as the Nazirite's purifying oblation (Num. vi. 14). Together with the flesh, the fat milk is prized as food. Sheep-skins, slightly tanned, were used as mantles and wraps (see Dress, AND Ornament, Hebrew). The most valuable product was the wool, from which the commonest and the most important articles of dress were made (Lev. xiii. 47 sqq.; Ezek. xxxiv. 3, etc.). For this reason sheep-shearing was conspicuously a time of rejoicing (I Sam. xxv. 4 sqq.; II Sam. xiii. 23 sqq.). This took place toward the end of April or the first of May. In the Bible this animal is mentioned in numerous figures of speech; and its patience (Jer. xi. 19; Isa. liii. 7) and stupidity were proverbial (Num. xxvii. 17; I Kings xxH. 17; Isa. liii. 6). Along with sheep, the goat is also raised in many districts, being more numerous than sheep, espe- cially in mountainous and arid regions, since it thrives where sheep can hardly be sustained, climb- ing along the steepest precipices where no sheep can range. In the Old Testament, the goat is frequently embraced along with the sheep imder the common designation zon (ut sup.); on the other hand, the goat's distinct importance is attested by a number of terms applying only to itself (*c«, " goat "; ^iitud* 9a*ir, etc., " he-goat "; gedhi, " kid ")• In Pales- tine, two species are bred; the prevailing kind be- ing the capra mambrica, with loosely drooping ears about eight inches long, smooth, sickle-shaped, re- cessive horns, and glossy black hair, both long and thick. In the north, on Mount Lebanon, two other varieties are found. Spotted goats are exceptional (Gen. XXX. 32 sqq.). More than half drop their young in December and January, which is the most favorable season for the kids, because, after suck- ing for two months, they still have abundant spring pasture. About one-fifth bring forth in the spring (March to middle of April) ; the kids of this season stiU have plenty of inilk from the dam, but no longer the subsequent abundance of grass. One- tenth bear in Jime and July, and the kids remain weak and small, having but little mUk from the dam, and finding too little grass. The young brought forth in autunm either die as soon as bom, or perish in miscarriage. Goats and sheep graze together, but the two flocks will then keep somewhat apart (cf. Matt. XXV. 32), as they do also at night. The goats are fond of climbing along the steeps and browsing the brushwood. Goat's flesh was more es- teemed in olden times than it is at present. In par- ticular the kid was relished (Gen. xxvii. 9; Judges vi. 19, xiii. 15, XV. 1). The Israelites were forbidden to boil it in its mother's milk, the favorite way of pre- paring it in modem times (Ex. xxiii. 19). Goat milk was in general use (Prov. xxvii. 27), the skins were used for making vessels for water, wine, etc., while the hair was woven into a coarse cloth suitable par- ticularly for tents (Ex. xxxvi.; Num. xxxi. 20; see Tent). The goat had value also for sacrifice. A he-goat might be used for either the burnt or the peace offering (Lev. i. 10, iii. 12, etc.), and was the animal usually required for the sin offering (Lev. iv. 23 sqq., v. 6, xvi. 5; Num. xv. 24, etc.). As a sacrificial offering the he-goat was always called aa^ir, ** the hairy one," o\ving to the mythological belief that the hairy creature belonged to the dei- ties of the under world (see Demon, Demoxism, § 3). For this reason, it was a goat that was sent into the wilderness to Azazel on the Day of Atone- ment; and the wicked who are condemned to ever- lasting fire are the goats (Matt. xxv. 32 sqq.). The goat suggested to the poets many of their figures. The princes, as leaders of the people, are likened to the he-goats that go before the flock (Isa. xiv. 9, margin; Zech. x. 3, cf. Prov. xxx. 31; Jer. 1. 8), and unscrupulous rulers among the people are com- pared to \'iolcnt he-goats that impose on the rest of the herd (Ezek. xxxiv. 19). Neat-cattle were collectively called bakar {shor is a single animal, *deph is '* one broken to the I yoke "; par is a yoimg but well-grown bullock 878 Pastoral Life PMtmml Thaoloffj suitable for sacrifice; parah "cow," ^egd " heifer/' and *eglah ** calf," are other terms used). They re- quire good pastura^ with abundant water, such as is afforded by the plains. As work-animals they were universaJly used by farmers. The breed found in the south to-day is rough and imattractive, and usually black or brown. In Galilee neat-cattle are light in color and of better stock. The first-men- tioned breed is the most ancient in Palestine. The Kust Indian cattle {hos bubalis) were not introduced till post-Biblical times. For the farmer neat-cattle were indispensable for plowing, harrowing, and tlm^ing; were used also as beasts of burden; and were valued for purposes of slaughter. In early times beef was a more common element of diet than to-day, not for the small farmers, indeed, but for the rich in the cities (Gen. xviii. 7; I Sam. xxviii. 24; Amos vi. 4; Luke xv. 30). Among i^TiitnAla used for sacrifice (q.v.) the ox or bullock was con- sidered the choicest, especially for festal occasions (Nimi. xxiii. 1 sqq.) and sin offerings (Ex. xxix. 1; Lev. iv. 3, 14; xvi. 3, 6, II). in. Shepherds: The people whom the Old Testa- ment describes as shepherds are not those husband- men who keep a few head of large and small cattle for themselves; but rather such persons as follow herding for their principal vocation, i.e., the great proprietors such as Nabal, on the one hand, and on the other hand, the keepers of the flocks. The great owners did not personally attend to the care of the herd but employed their appointed keepers, or shepherds, who were usually free hired servants — less frequently, slaves. Their status in relation to the proprietor is minutely regulated in the law (cf . Ex. xxii. 4, 9-12; cf. Amos iii. 12; Gen. xxxi. 38; etc.); and in a manner substantially accordant with the primitive legal customs embodied in the code of Hammurabi (q.v.). The shepherd's calling was decidedly fatiguing (cf. Gen. xxxi. 40). He had to keep his charges together, to find the lost and strayed ones, to nurse the sick, bind up the wounded, cany the wearied lamb, draw water for his flock, protect them against wild beasts, etc. (Gen. xxxi. 38 sqq.; I Sam. xvii. 34 sqq.; Isa. xl. II; Ezek. xxxiv. 3-16). At evening the flocks were driven into folds and pens, constructed along rough stone walls, and affording protection against wild beasts (Gen. xlix. 14; Num. xxxii. 16, 24, 36; Judges V. 16; Ps. 1. 9; Mic. ii. 12; Hab. iii. 17). Wealthier proprietors erected watch-towers in the sheepfold (Gen. xxxv. 21; etc.). The shepherd's outfit was simple; a common shepherd's pouch for his victuals (I Sam. xvii. 40), a shepherd's rod (Mic. vii. 14), which was also his chief weapon, a sling (I Sam. xvii. 40), and the indispensable shepherd's pipe or flute (Judges v. 16). He was aided in his watch by sheep dogs (Job xxx. I). I. Benzinger. Bibuooraprt: H. B. Tristram, Fauna and Flora of PaUa- tine, Londo^, 1884; idem. Natural Hutory of the Bible, ut mip.; R. F. Burton and C. F. T. Drake, Unexplored Syria, i. 341-342. London, 1872; J. O. Wood, Bible AnimaU, ib. 1883; X. Anderlind, in ZDPV, ix (1886), i. 73; E. Day, Social Life of the Hibrewa, New York. 1901; V. Hehn, KuUurpflamen und Hauathiere, Berlin, 1902; C. Hart, Fauna and Flora of Sinai, London, PEF; Bensinger, Archdolooie, pp. 138-139; DB, i. 362, ii. 195-196, iv. 486^87; BB, i. 710-716, ii. 1742-45, iv. 4440-42; JB, iii. 62(y-627, v. 686. xi. 250-251, 284. I. The Cure of Soub. Roman Catholic Interpretation (ft 1). Principle and Practise of the Re- formers (S 2). Influence of Pietism and Modem Thought and Events (ft 3). Cure of Souls the Duty of All Christians () 4). Cooperation of Pastor and Con- gregation ((5). PASTORAL THEOLOOT. Cure of Souls Analogous, not to Pedagogy, but to Medicine (ft 6). Means to be Adapted to Individual Needs (| 7). Panwaletic or Consolatory Cure of Souls (ft 8). Paadeutic or Corrective Cure of Souls (I 9). Didactic or Instructive Cure oi Souls (110). II. The Puish and Minister. The Candidate (| 1). Relations of Pastoral Work to Preaching (ft 2). Pastoial Visits (ft 3). Relations to Church Officers and Organisations (ft 4). The Pastor's Study (| 5). The Sacraments and DevoUonal Meetings (I 6). Practical theology (q.v.), itself one of four divi- sions of the science of the<dogy (ex^getical, histor- ical, doctrinal or systematic, and practical), is di- vided into four parts, Homiletics (q.v.) cat^shetics (see Catechesis, Catechetics), Liturgies (q.v,), and poimenics or pastoral theology, with which last this article is concerned. L The Cure of Souls: [The expression "cure (i.e., care) of souls " (Lat. cura animarum), orig- inally a technical term of canon law, is defined as *' the activity for the salvation of immortal souls in a definite, prescribed locality, exercised in conform- ity with the laws given by God and the Church and resting on legitimate commission " (XL, xi. 62). The phrase is now used in English chiefly by the Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches, connoting the charge on a priest or clerg3rman to supply the spiritual needs of his parishioners, and implying especially the right of administering the sacraments. On this ground benefices are distinguished a« those with and those without the cure of souls (curata and non curata; see Benefice.)] The cure of souls in the wider sense is the foun- dation and aim of all vital activities of the Church both toward those within and those without the fold. A distinction is made between the cure of souls in a comprehensive and a narrower sense, the former exerted over the congregation or church as a whole, the latter having as its object the individual mem- bers of the congregation. Of the several terms which have been used to designate the special cure of souls as a distinct theological discipline, poimenics (from the Gk. poimin, " a shepherd, pastor ") seems espe- cially commendable. The discharge of the pastoral cure is interpreted according to the conception of the spiritual office and its relation to the congregation; herein con- sists the fundamental difference as to the cure of souls in the Roman Catholic and in the Evangelical Churches. The Roman priest is the organ of tho Fastoral Thaolocr 874 ft hierarchy which is over the pe<^^, Le., the " Church in the narrow sense of the word. He is vicar of his bishc^, as the bishop is vicar of the I. Roman pope, and the pope is \'icar of Christ. Catholic In- He has to exercise the functions of tarpretatiDn. God, of the pope, of the bishop, with reference to the aggregate of the Ro- man Catholics who constitute his parish. The parish, however, is an accidental and contingent fraction of the Church as a whole; the con- ception of the oiganixed and independent single congregation is foreign to the Roman canon law. The priest is sharply distinguished from his parish and stands high above aU the laity, being conse- crated beyond repeal, and empowered with the keys of heaven and hell. The discharge of his spiritual cure is not dependent on his personality or on his religious and moral characteristics, but on the canonical execution of the law and institutions of the constituted Church. He rules the souls, is lord over consciences, is judge of the soul; and the cure of souls and church discipline become one and the same thing because each is exercised through the confessional. The eternal blessedness of the Roman Ca,tho]MB dependent upon the voluntary confession of known open or secret mortal sins, together ^ith the confession of all other sins, if asked by the priest. After confession the priest absolves from ail-manner of guilt; herein he has imlimited control over souls. See Parish and Pastor. Through the Reformation, new principles, in accordance with the Gospel, were revealed for the cure of souls. The Church is recognised as the "congregation of saints," the clerical priesthood and with it all hierarchy disappears, a twofold morality is no longer offered. The 2. Principle condition of salvation for ail alike is and Practise faith alone, which is aroused and of the Re- nourished by the preaching of the formers, word; the sacraments are effective not ez apere operaio, but ethically in union with the word; Holy Scripture is accessible to all; and the moral forces of the home, of marriage, of the State, science and art, and the like, are freed from the rule of the Church and recognized as allies of the Church. But the new principle was not car- ried through. It is true that the Reformers indi- vidually, in their correspondence and expressed (pinions, manifested a conception of the ciu« of soub which was exceedingly fruitful and evangel- ically free and profoimd ; but in the Lutheran Church ofl^ially the field of the cure of souls remained pri- vate confession, transferred from Rome, in closer connection with the Lord's Supper. Luther him- self sets forth the principle that private confession is volimtary and free; but it was introduced in 1528, and was then made a part of church discipline, and was even enforced by the secular authorities. Again, in the Reformed Church of Calvin and Johannes a Lasco, after Butzer's tract Van der waren SeeUorge UTuidemrechlenHirtendierul (1538), the cure of souls and ecclesiastical discipline were one. Only they were not, as in the Lutheran Church, accepted re- luctantly, as evidence of the rule of the cleigy over the congregation, but rather they were desired by the congregation as an indispensable and salutary matter, and were exercised by aU members of the congregation reciprocally. At Geneva in 1550, Cal- vin introduced the *' regular and stated visitation at the home," and it is still retained in strict Re- formed congregations, where the official " visita- tion " by the pastor and an elder is distinguished from the pastor's friendly social calls. Private con- fession, however, in the Reformed Church was left free to the indi>'idual, and so continues to-day. In the Lutheran Church, it was only under the influence of pietism that the cure of souls and church discipline became separated. Spener called for an increase in the number of pastors, the institution of districts for the pastoral charge, and 3- Influence the assignment of elders to assist in the of Pietism pastoral cure (Theologische Bedenken, and Modem i. 2, 3, 10; Pia deMeria, chap. iL; Thought ConsUia et judicia theologiea, i. 3, 4). and Events. His worthy opponent Valentin Ltecher, in Dresden, agreed with him in de- manding a pastor for every thousand church mem- bers, in requesting the keeping of an exact register of all parishioners, the appointment of deacons for the care of the poor, and the institution of regular household pastoral visits (Uruehuldige Nachriehien, 1703). These were reconunended also by A. H. Francke (CoOegium pastoraU, 1713, 1714, 1743). Unfortunately pietism (even Valentin Grossgebauer, so eariy as 1661) associated the necessity for the special cure of souls with the deplorable condition of Christianity, and thereby aroused new distrust in the congregations; from which not even a Schleiermacher could free himself in his day. The conception of the special cure of souls in the Church was first clarified, and its exercise filled with Evan- gelical spirit, through the efforts of the Innere Mis- sion (q.v.), through the religious and moral evils that were revealed during the revolutionary years of the middle of the nineteenth century, and through the industrial development, which has brought such grave social embarrassments in its train. The reconstructive thoughts in respect to the origin of the spiritual office and its relation to the congregation which Luther expressed in 1520 in lus tract An den chrMichen Add have become in some degree the common property of Evan- 4. Cure of gelical theology. The spiritual office Souls the is a logically and morally necessary Duty of All product of the universal priesthood Christians. i;vithin the religious community, where- in the salutary fellowship of the " Church " manifests itself. The proclaiming of the divine word and administration of the sacra- ments necessary to the attainment, preservation, and consummation of the possession of salvation, which the spiritual office has to execute publicly in the Church and in the name of the Church by di- vine right, is likewise by divine right the duty and privilege of every Evangelical Christian within his proper sphere and the limits to be observed for the sake of ecclesiastical order. It is also the duty and right of all Christians, according to their station* to exercise a special cure of souls among one another. This is grounded upon the naturally necessary in- fluence which in every community one member exerts upon the other, the individual upon the com- 875 Pastoral Theolonr munity, and the oommunity upon the individual; whence arises the Christian's duty to exert his in- fluence in keeping with the Gospel, and to discover corruptive influences, from the two motives of as- serting his ethical personality and that of brotherly love. Both these motives are the more imperative as the needs of others are greater or our position or calling is the more responsible (cf. Haideland, in bibliography, chap, x., pp. 208 sqq., also pp. 299 sqq., 326 sqq.). The pastor, in performing his duty in the special cure of souls, must use all cooperative agencies and make them work harmonioiisly. Since there is no legal obligation on the layman to seek and accept the cure of souls, the pastor can accomplish his purpose only as he holds the confidence of the members of the congregation; in pro- 5. Coop- portion as they willingly recognize the eration of exemplary quality of his religious and Pastor and moral character, and have no doubt of Congrega- his wisdom in the cure of souls. This tion. means that the pastor must be an example for the congregation (I Pet. v. 3), and must obtain the requisite wisdom by an exact acquaintance with the congregation and a psychological understanding of individualities. He must regard as under the '' seal of the confessional " communications imparted to him in order to pro- cure his counsel, comfort, or instruction, his duty in this respect being qualified only by the fact that he recognizes the culpability of silence in case of high treason; in case of contemplated crime; and in case of averting the consequences of perpetrated crime. The personal responsibility and self-train- ing of every Christian are taken for granted; hence if some laymen feel that their participation in the special cure of souls might be an infringement of liberty and attempt at guardianship, it does not necessarily signify disparagement of the Christian life or a defective conception of the Church. The question whether action should wait for request or proceed spontaneously (at the pastor's initia- tive) is a practical one; it is the duty of him who would care for souls to know all members of the congregation, and many spiritual conditions arise which exclude the possibility of a request for help. The special cure of souls in the Church does not stand on an analogous footing with pedagogy; for the latter is grounded upon the difference between the mature and knowing and the immature and unknowing, and becomes redundant in proportion as the self-training of the pupil grows effective. Although in every congregation there will be a larger or smaller number of members whose relation to the pastor is really that of pupils to teacher, the pastor is not the authoritative master, since the entire spiritual charge rests upon con- 6. Cure of fidence in the pastor, and self-training Souls Analo- no less than personal responsibility gous not to remains the postulated basis of the Pedagogy, cure of souls eveiywhere. Indeed the but to aim of the spiritual charge is not eccle- Medicine. siastical punctilio or moral independ- ence, but the ideal elevation of the re- ligious and moral life according to Matt. v. 48; Phil. ii. 5; Col. i. 28; Eph. iv. 13; Rom. viii. 29. The proper analogy for the cure of souls is the practise of medicine. However, the attitude of the spiritual adviser toward the members of the congregation is not that of the whole to the sick, but of the one who knows the means of salvation to the one in need of them, and the pastor himself is one of the needy. The charismal ^ts of the spiritual adviser, like the f imctions of the physician, are diagnostic and thera- peutic. In diagnosis, the three fundamental psy- chological faculties come into play; the knowing property of the intellect in its teachableness; the esthetic or perceptive property of feeling in the ac- tive religious life on its emotional side; the moral force of the will, in its imalterable state of readi- ness to render every possible service in the spiritual cure. The question as to the categories of treat- ment (therapeutics) in the spiritual cure, is also to be answered by going back to the three f imdamental psychological faculties. The emotional life needs the spiritual cure in suffering; the will, on occasion of sinning; the intellect, in the erring man; and accordingly the categories of the spiritual cure be- come the paracletic or consolatory, the paideutic or corrective, and the didactic or instructive. But since there is no isolated fundamental faculty, but all three fundamental faculties always interact, so likewise the suffering of men is always more or less complicated with sin and error; the sin of man, with suffering and error; the error of man, with suffering and sin. From the complication of suffering with sin arises the inclination toward languishing in resignation or carelessness, and toward extravagant complaint and accusation: through complication with error, the inclination to nurse delusions. From the complication of sin with suffering arises the re- demptive need; with error, the redemptive capacity (Luke xxiii. 34; Acts iii. 17; I Cor. ii. 8). The com- plication of error with suffering begets willingness to receive instruction; with sin, the guilt of error (Luke xii. 47, 48) by enhancing the fault of intel- lect into error of conscience, or a morally wrong atti- tude in respect to recognition of the truth. Suffering, sinning, erring men are not to be re- garded as exceptional in the congregation. There is no human being who does not suffer; the spiritual adviser can take to himself II Cor. i. 7. Means to 3-4 (see Suffering). There is no be Adapted human being who does not sin (I John to Individ- i. 6-10) ; the spiritual adviser is at best ual Needs, a pardoned sinner. There is no human being who does not err so long as he strives; the spiritual adviser is not infallible, and must wait for perfected knowledge (I Cor. xiii. 8- 12). However, the universality of suffering, sin- ning, erring, does not abrogate the individuality of every particular instance of suffering, sinning, er- ring. Hence all mechanical procedure on the spir- itual adviser's part is of evil counsel; only specific procedure is admissible. For this proper applica- tion of the means of the spiritual cure to the indi- vidual contingency, Nicholas Hemming, in 1566, in his work Pastor nve pastoria opHmua vivendi agendique modus, coined the masterly expression OrUwiomia, The expression connects itself with II Tim. ii. 15: " rightly dividing (R. V. handling aright or [maig.] holding a straight course in) the word of truth*'* PMitcnml Th^oUvT 876 The branch of the cure of souls dealing with the suffering man is the paradetic or consolatory. Real comfort or joyful confidence is procured by the con- >iction that suffering experienced in 8L Paradetic the way of restrictions of life, pain, loss, or Consola- is intended, by the will of God, to be- tnry Cure of come gain, joy, advancement. This it Souls. becomes thrmigh faith, in the Gospel sense of the term, which is proved in patience, confirmed in prayer (Rom. viii. 28; II Cor. iv. 16-18; Heb. xii.). In each instance, according to the sufferer's individuality and history, the suf- fering leads to sobering reflection or to defiance and despair, to friendly mildness or to stubborn egoism. Accordingly the applied consolation must mani- fest itself either as an alleviating and assuaging force, or as an admonitory and corrective power. Tlie question as to the pastor's duty in preparing the sick for death is to be answered on like princi- ples. The medieval visitation of the sick went to extremes in this matter; the elaborate confession and the terrors of death and judgment were made its chief feature. According to the Evangelical con- ception, preparation for death consists in aiding the rick, to a state of composure, because death means no loss, but gain for the Christian ; and the like spirit should pervade the entire sphere of the visitation of the sick, whether there be express reference to approaching death or not. Special mention is necessary of the means of treatment of the spiritually sick (cf. KOstlin, pp. 314-315 and the bibliography dted p. 334; H. ROmer, Psyckiatrie und Sedwrge, Berlin, 1899). Tlie number of these patients increases in serious proportions, and certain milder forms, which when unassisted are somewhat portentous, confront the pastor frequently. Not in every instance, indeed, has he to deal with spiritual diseases, but rather with nervous impairment. The spiritual adviser must confine himself to his proper province, and banish the thought of competing with the physician. In conversation with the spiritually sick he should direct the patient's interest toward new topics, and seek to occupy his thoughts with friendly contem- plations. The pastor's religious task recedes while the malady increases and stays at its height, but comes to the front so soon as convalescence has be- gun. More difficult is the pastor's task during in- cipient illness, in that the afflicted are wont to oppose every phase of pathological treatment. Moral laxity, that can be corrected only by ethical treatment, sometimes— espedally during the period of development — makes itself known by physical disorders, which seem to be the physician's concern; but many nervous conditions are to be repressed by earnest will-power or moral decision. The paideutic, or corrective cure of souls has to do with sinning man, and is to be classified as prophy- lactic, or preventive, and epistreptic, or converting. (1) Since neariy all transgressions and crimes go back to defective home training, and since 1^ most effectual forces of integrity are the imponder- able impressions wrought by the mental, religious, and mOTal atmosphere of the parents' house, the prophylactic cure of souls will direct itself in first instance to the parental home^ partly through the channd of public warship, partly by houflehdd visits, partly in connection with the echoed, by dis- semination of wholesome educational prindples among the parents. Direct prophy- 9. Paideutic lactic cure of souls begins in the relig- or Correct- ious or, in this connection, ecclesiastical ive Cure of instruction of youth. Here, too, con- Souls, fidence is the condition of fruitful activ- ity,— confidence of the young in their pastor, which is procured by the pastor's confidence in them, manifesting itself in fatherly thoughtful- ness, in comprehension of youth, in earnestness and firmness combined with fort)earance and patience, as well as in his guidance to religious and moral in- dependence of decision. The prophylactic spiritual charge has its most difficult task in the guidance, safeguarding, and strengthening of youth from the age of fifteen to twenty-five. Young people should be gathered informally and freely; entertainment and instruction are to be offered in the best forms at conunand; and the aid of the experienced and proficient is to be invited with grateful pleasure. (2) The epistreptic or converting cure of souls has to do with acute cases of sin and with chronic states of sin, whether these have become openly offensi^'e or not. It is the specific field of the Roman saora- ment of penance, and of the judicial office of the priest. The Evangelical spiritual adviser must re^ nounce all judgment in respect to moral worthiness or unworthiness in estimating the personal guilt and character of the sinner, because he is no fathomer of the heart. It is not the pastor's office to judge the sinner, but to assist him toward conversion and newness of life; and he will the better succeed, the more he realises that only God's merciful guidance has pre- served him from similar falling. According to the Augsburg Confession (Art. xii.) the pastor's aim in correction may be reached in three ways: (1) By securing acknowledgment of the sin. Various means are necessary to lead the sinner to this condition; in every instance the dominating religious and moral susceptibilities already latent in him must be ap- pealed to. (2) By inducing repentance in the form of contrition, and *' saving faith." False contrition broods over the external consequence of sin; true contrition, over the guilt and misery of sin itself. Contrition alone begets despair and desperation, and not until combined with the '' saving faith " does it lead to " godly sorrow " (II Cor. \'ii. 10), when it thereby honors God by accoimting his grace to have been shown in the forgiveness of sin, as it also accoimts all the guilt and misery the sinner's own. (3) '* Then should follow good works which are fruits of repentance." " Good wor^ " are the new life of the one converted. The pastor has to offer protection and encouragement; protection against temptation from former companions in sin, against seductive false religion; encoiuragement to sturdy decision, to bear the consequences of faults; he should also hdp to make these consequences endurable, warn against imdue security, aid the convert to stand firmly against relapses, and, it may be, remove him to a good environment. The didactic cure of souls endeavors, by means of instruction, to correct ignoranoei half-knowledge 877 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU Pftstorml Theology and conceit, intellectual error and error of con- science, superstition and unbelief; it ministers to the need of a deeper grasp of Evangelical truth, and tries to counteract doubt in its xo. Didactic multiplied forms. Here transition is or Instruct- made from the special cure of souls to ive Cure of the general (preaching), and the latter Souls. is concerned mainly with opposing im- belief and doubt (see Homiletics). For the difficulties which disturb the one who does not yet believe and the one who no longer believes, as likewise the refractory believer, the wrestling one, the one doubting because of his very need of faith, as well as the irreligious one coquetting with his doubts, will only seldom confront the special spir- itual adviser, deriving, as they do, from spiritual perturbations universal in their nature and rooted in very ancient problems, though modem in form. As they actually arise, however, they are for the most part so distinctive and have originated so largely out of the most minutely specialised sciences or the great aggregate of polite literature, that the didactic spiritual adviser can operate on solid groimd only within very restricted limits. But that man- ner of preaching the Gospel which takes into ac- count the grade of culture and the known needs of the congregation; the upbuilding of Christian per- sonalities in the congregation who shall reveal the power of the Gospel in speech and conduct, in char- acter and action; these are forces which have waxed wholesome for all unbelief and doubt. £. C. ACHBLIB. n. The Parish and the Minister: For the history of the parish see Parish and Pastor. An ecclesi- astical body or authority, in permitting a candidate for the ministry to pass as approved by it, gives its verdict upon hLs fitness for the serv- I. The ice. That verdict is endorsed by the Candidate, call of a church and congregation to the candidate to become their pastor, or, in case of the episcopal churches, by appoint- ment to a charge. The call of a church and congre- gation, when accepted, involves reciprocal obligsr tions. These obligations are represented, but can not be fully expressed, much less can they be lim- ited by the terms of the call; for the church and congregation owe the pastor, and the pastor owes them, more than can be put into any writing. The call made and accepted is a contract, but it is more than that. Not only must it be fulfilled on both sides with businesslike fidelity, but it must be ful- filled in the largeness of the spirit of mutual Christian love. The true minister will never be a place-seeker. Absolute personal consecration to Christ and to his kingdom is fundamental to the true idea of an Evan- gelical ministry. Considerations of adaptation and of family ties must have weight; but always should predominate the question, ^* Lord, what will thou have me to do ? " Once settled in a parish, the pastor needs, not only power in the pulpit, but also power to reach and sway men by personal contact and influence. Preachmg prepan^ the way for pastoral work; and pastoral work inspires and guides and warms the preaching, and gives it practical adaptation and power. The true pastor finds the themes of his sermons among his people, rather than in his own tastes and tendencies; and so he preaches, not for himself, but for his hearers. If 2. Relations for preaching, talent is first, and tact of Pastoral is second, for pastoral work, tact is Work to first, and talent is second; piety being Preaching, equally necessary in both relations. Tact is defined as " a finer love ": it is of the heart; and, other things being equal, the heart that is the warmest will have the most of that address, facility, and skill which we call tact. The large and general relation of the preacher to his congregation as a whole becomes in the pastor a personal and an individual relation to each mem- ber of the flock, without regard to condition or character. This involves the dealing with a great variety of natures, each one of whom is a separate and a sacred responsibility to the pastor. The work is endless. There are always some souls in need of personal ministrations. Men are reached and saved one by one, and not in mass. The preacher must be a pastor to gather in one by one the souls to whom he has spoken from the pulpit the words of truth. As the pastor goes among the people, what he is will condition what he says: his charac- ter and life will help or hinder his work. ** The visible rhetoric " of the minister's daily conduct is more decisive in influence than the audible rhetoric of his sermons. Clerical affectations and assump- tions can no longer deceive or awe the people: there must be in the pastor a simple, transparent manliness sanctified by the love of Christ, and yet only the more intensely human because Christly. Scholarly tastes and habits must be watched, lest they disqualify for genial and effective converse with the conmion people. The scholarly must be qualified by the Christly, then the small courtesies, which are of such value in the commerce of society, will not be neglected, and love will make the pas- tor a gentleman, welcome to every household and heart. Meanwhile the course of preaching should correspond with the course of pastoral labor, begin- ning at the center of the church, and working out- ward toward those who are farthest from the truth. There will be morbid Christians, given to too much introspection, who make the radical mistake which Hamman has characterized as " the attempt to feel thought, and to comprehend feeling." Such spir- itual egoism can be cured only by Christian work. The morbid Christian must stop feeling his own pulse, and go out into the vineyard, and try to win souls for Christ: there can be little spiritual health and vigor without such work. Hence that pastor will be the most successful, who, instead of trying to do all the work of the parish himself, strives to enlist and stimulate the members of the church to work with him as their appointed leader. There is an old saying, as trite as true, " A house- going minister makes a chiux$h-going people." The work of pastoral visitation should 3. Pastoral be gystematixed A *^ oalling-book *' Visits. should be kept, in which, with the name of each family, the names of the children should be recorded. The date of each call ahould be entered, so that the pastor can learn at Pastoral Theolonr 878 any time where his next calls should be made. Only in this way can thoroughness, regularity, and im- partiality be secured in the visitation of the peo- ple. The pastor in these calls should aim to enter into the sympathies of the people, to know their home life, and to win their confidence and affection. Besides this general visitation there should be special calls made upon the sick and the afflicted. The tenderness and the sympathy of Christ as toward the suffering, and the words of promise, of counsel, and of comfort with which the Bible abounds, will suggest to the true pastor how he should minister among the sick and the sorrowing. Such calls should be short and frequent, and the words spoken should be few and careful. Other special calls must be made to reach particular cases of spiritual need. As soon as may be, the pastor should inform himself concerning the spiritual con- dition of every member of his congregation. His work should begin with the officers of the church, to enlist them in active cooperation; then the mem- bership of the church should be roused to prayer and labor; then Christians outside of the church should be urged no longer to delay confessing Christ. By this method of working from the center out- ward, by the time he comes to seek those who are without Christ (beginning with the thoughtful, then approaching the careless, and then the skeptical), the pastor will find that the way has been prepared for him. There are such varieties of temperament, disposition, character, and condition, that the pas- tor must break from bondage to himself and to his experience, and learn to judge men in themselves, making large and generous allowances for differ- ences that come of nature or of education, of ante- cedents or of present circumstances. In order to do this, he must be a many-sided man, always study- ing in a docile way the endlessly varied manifesta- tations of human nature. He must be stimulated and sustained in his systematic pastoral work, not by natural personal attractions, but by divine mo- tives. He should school himself to see in each soul a special responsibility, for which he must accoimt to Christ. He should see men, not in the conunon human way, but as made in the image of God, and as redeemed by the blood of the Son of God. This will make the pastor impartial, and faithful to all; and so his parochial work will not depend upon fitful impulses, but will be sustained by the deep- est and divinest principles. There are special relations which the pastor sus- tains to the officers of the church and congregation and to the heads or leaders in the or- 4« Relations ganized work of the parish. The trus- to Church tees, or those in cluuge of the secular Officers and interests of the congregation, may ask Organiza- counsel of him, and then he should give tions. it; but he should not interfere with them, always recognizing the principle that business men should manage the business in- terests of the parish. The pastor's relations to the spiritual officers of the church should be cordial and confidential. He should not dictate to them, but rather counsel with them, treating them with stud- ied respect and consideration, while maintaining his personal independence. As to the heads or lead- ers in the organized work of the chureh, the general rule is, that the pastor should be loyal to their lead- ership, and should show respect for the positions they have been appointed to occupy. The Sunday- school should be imder the care of the spiritual ofii- cers of the church, and the same may be said of the choir, or the conductors of the music. But it would be inexcusable egoism in the pastor to demand that the devotional music in the Sunday worship should be adapted only to his individual taste and culture, and not rather to the average taste and culture of the whole congregation. The pastor should visit both the choir and the Sunday-school in the spirit of courteous Christian sympathy with the depart- ments of church life there represented. There may be within the church oiganizations for varied Chris- tian work; such as young people's associations, young men's Christian associations, Dorcas or sew- ing societies, missionary societies, foreign and home; and to the leaders in these oiganizations the rela- tions of the pastor are always delicate, and some- times difficult. It is a question how far it is wise to multiply oiganizations within the church; since the church is itself the divinely appointed organiza- tion as against all evil, and for all gdod. The be- nevolences of the chiuxsh constitute an important part of public worship. The pastor should keep himself informed concerning all the aggressive work of the chiuxsh, so that he can inform his people, and should study methods of reaching their hearts, so as to make them feel the claims of Christ in ail de- partments of his work. They should be taught, not only that giving is worship, but that, under exist- ing conditions, it is doubtful whether there can be true and acceptable worship unless the offerings of the heart and the lips are accompanied, some- times at least, if not always, by the generous offer- ings of the hand. There is a danger in almost every parish, that the people will demand more frequent calls or visits than the pastor can make consistently 5. The with what he owes to his study and Pastor's pulpit. There should be a careful di- Study. vision of time between the claims of the study and the demands for house- hold visitation. Five hours a day at least should be kept sacred for reading, study, and writing. Dur- ing these hours, besides what is required for the preparations for Sunday, some portion of time should be given to systematic courses of study. The time thus devoted should be protected in all possi- ble ways from unnecessary interruptions. To be a good pastor, a minister must be a good preacher; and the converse is equally true, — to be a good preacher, a minister must be a good pastor. Noth- ing in the w^ay of activity and zeal can take the place of systematic, close, sustained study; and no amount of study can take the place of systema- tic house-to-house visitation. The two depart- ments of work, pulpit and parochial, must not con- ffict, but be proportionate, harmonious, and mutu- ally subsidiary. There ^ould be preparation in the study, not only for preaching, but also for the other parts of public worship. The Scripture read- ing should be, in spirit and manner, instructive and interesting. The hynms should be selected with 379 Paatorml Theoloty care, not merely to enforce the lesson of the ser- mon, but mainly to kindle and express the devo- tions of the people. There should be thoughtful preparation for leading the people in prayer, so that the actual condition of the congregation and of the country may be represented in the thanks- givings and supplications of the sanctuary. * The sacraments of the church involve some spe- cial pastoral obligations. As to baptism, the pastor should know the condition and habits of his people. He should know what parents have 6. The Sac- had their children baptized, and he raments and should kindly and faithfully instruct Devotional such parents as to their covenant privi- Meetings. leges and obligations; and, with those parents who are neglecting this ordi- nance for themselves and for their children, he should remonstrate, urging them to the performance of their duty. As to the Lord's Supper, the pastor should exercise the greatest care, lest, on the one hand, he may be the means of admitting to the ordinance those who are not truly regenerated; or, on the other hand, he may repel or restrain those timid and doubting Christians who need that spir- itual refreshment which Christ gives only at his table. The celebration of the sacramental feast should be made bright and hopeful, self and sin disappearing, for the time, in the ascendency of the exalted Christ. The prayer-meeting, or, as it is sometimes called, the conference-meeting, under the sole conduct of the pastor, it is to be feared, is fast changing into a mere lecture, and so is losing its social character. It is a question whether it is better that the prayer-meeting should be conducted by the pastor, or by such of the officers and mem- bers of the church as have the spirituality, the tact and skill, to make this social service both interest- ing and profitable. No one method should con- strain the liberty of the pastor in this relation: a variety of methods is more conducive to the fresh- ness and effectiveness of this important service. A schedule of topics may be prepared, printed, and distributed, so that the people will know from week to week the theme that will be considered. Ques- tions may be sent in to the pastor to be answered in the prayer-meeting. A course of familiar ex- position, if not too long or labored, may be tried with profit. The pastor should be bound by no method, but should impress his people with the deep significance, sacredness, and power of united prayer. Unselfish consecration, the love of men for Christ's sake, power in the pulpit, tact, tenderness, a pro- found knowledge of human nature, and a Christlike manliness, are the fundamental necessities to suc- cess in pastoral work. Thomas S. Hashnqs. Bibuoqraphy: On the cure of souls consult: H. A. KOstlin, Die Lehre von der SeeUorge, Berlin, 1906; R. Hooker, EceUti- astical Polity, V., Ixxx. 2, in Works, ed. Keble. London, 1845; R. Field, Of the Church, book v., chap. 28, Cambridge, 1852; C. Wyae, Etuxu vom Kern und Stem der Seelsorge, Basel, 1858; J. H. Blunt. Dictionary of Doctrinal and Hia- torical Theology, pp. 179-180, London, 1870; A. Schweiier, Die Lehre von der SeeUorge, Leipeic, 1875; F. L. Stein- meyer. Die epetitUe Se^aorge in ihrem VerhAUniae tvar generaUen, Berlin, 1878; F. Probst, Theorie der SeeUorge, Breslau, 1883; W. Cramer, Die apoetoliaehe SeeUorge, Dalmen^ 1889; J. U. Watson. Cure of Soule, New York, 1896; A. Hardeland, OeachichU der apecidUn SeeUorge, Berlin. 1897-98; H. Bechtolsbeimer, Die Sedaorge in der Induatriegemeinde, Gdttincen, 1907; W. Cunningham, The Cure of SouU, New York. 1908; K. Hesselbacher. Dm SeeUorge auf dem Dorfe, Gdttingen. 1908; P. Du Bois. Paychie Treatment of Nerooua Diaordera, 6th ed.. New York. 1909; H. Bechtolsheimer, Dm Sedaorge in der In- duatriegemeinde, Gdttingen, 1909; W. W. Webb, The Cure ofSotUa; a Manual for the Clergy, 2d ed., Milwaukee, 1910. Consult also the monthly. Die Sedaorge in Theorie und Praxia, Leipsic, 1896 sqq. On the general subject of pastoral theology the litera- ture is immense, much being indicated under Practical Thbgloot (q.v.). The following list is but a selection: A classic is G. Herbert's A Priest to the Temple, new ed., by H. C. Beeching, Oxford, 1898; A. Vinet, Theologie paatoraU, Paris, 1889. Eng. transl.. of earlier ed., Edin- burgh, 1855. new issue, Nashville, 1875; J. H. Blunt, Directorium Paatorale; Principlea and Practice of PaalorcU Work in the Church of England, London, 1864; J. W. Burgon, A Treatiae on the Paatoral Office, London, 1864; A. Oxenden, The Paatoral Office; iU DuHea, DifficuUiea, and ProapecU, London, 1864; A. F. Douglass, The Paator and hia People; Diacttaaiona on Miniaterial Life and Char- acter, London, 1868; D. P. Kidder, The ChriaHan Paa- torate; iU Character, ReaponaibUitiea, and DvJtiea, New York, 1871; A. F. C. Viknar, Lehibuch der Paatoraltheolo- gie, Qatersloh. 1872; P. Fairbaim, Paatoral Theology, Edinburgh. 1875; W. Ldhe. Der evangdiache Oeiatliche, 2 vols., Qatersloh, 1876; W. G. T. Shedd, HomiUtica and Paatoral Theology, New York, 1876; T. Murphy, Paatoral Theology: the Paator in the varioua DuHea of hia Office, Philadelphia. 1877; G. T. BedeU, The Paator, Philadelphia. 1880; J. Amberger. Peutoraltheologie, 3 vols.. Regens- burg. 1883-86; J. M. Hoppin, Paatoral Theology, New York, 1884 (excellent); W. W. How, Lecturea on Paatoral Work, New York, 1884; J. T. Beck, Paatoral Theology of the New Teatament, Edinburgh, 1885; W. G. Blaikie, For the Work of the Minidry, London, 1885; C. Harms, Paa- toraltheologie, 2 vols., Gotha, 1888 (of high value); C. Qore, The Miniatry of the Chriatian Church, London, 1889; H. James, The Country Clergyman and hia Work, New York, 1890; E. Bleoh, Pfarramtaideal, Leipsic, 1891; W. Lefroy, The Chriatian Miniatry, New York, 1891; J. P. Lilley, The Lord a Day and the Lord^e ServarUa: a Contribution to Paa- toral Theology, Edinburgh, 1891; F. R. Wynne, Our Sa- cred Commiaaion, New York, 1891; J. D. Wells, The Paa- tor in the Sick Room, Philadelphia, 1892; W. Stang. Paa- toral Theology, New York. 1897 (Roman Catholic); W. Gladden, Chriatian Paator and the Working Church, New York, 1898; B. Riggenbach, Die Chriatliehe Oemeinde- paatoration nach Schrift und Erfahrung, Basel, 1898; J. St. Wilson, Miniaterial Life and Work, 2 vols., London, 1900-01; A. W. WUliamson, IdeaU of Miniatry, Edin- burgh, 1901 ; E. A. Knox. Paatora and Teachera, London, 1902; G. H. Gtorberding. The Lutheran Paator, Chicago, 1903; J. F. Lepine, The Miniatere of Jeaua Chrid, 2 vols., London, 1903; H. E. Savage, Paatoral Viaitation, Lon- don, 1903; H. Cremer, Paatoraltheologie, ed. E. Cremer, Stuttgart, 1904; A. Krauss, Paatoraltheologie, ed. F. Nie- bergall, TObingen, 1904; C. F. Rogers, Principlea of Par- iah Work, Eaaaya in Paatoral Theology, London, 1905; E. C. Achelis, Eine PaatortUtheologie in Veraen. Johann Valentin Andrea {1686-1664): Dae gute Leben einea recht- aehaffenen Dienera Gottea, aufa neue dargtboten, Marburg, 1906; V. S. S. Coles, Paatoral Work in Country DiatricU, New York, 1906; F. Schulae, Manual of Paatoral Theology, Milwaukee, 1906; C. L. Goodell, Paatoral and Peraonal Evangdiam, New York, 1907; A. Hardeland, P€utoral- theologie, Leipsic, 1907; S. Home, The Miniatry of the Modem Church, London, 1907; W. H. Crawford, The Church and the Slum: a Study of Engliah Wedeyan Mia- aion HaUa, New York, 1908; J. O. Eb^kes, The Chriatian Miniater and hia Dutiea, London, 1908; H. Johnson, The Ideal Minidry, London, 1908; A. S. Hoyt. The Preacher. HU Peraon, Meaaage, and Method, London, 1909; R. C. Jo3mt, Paatoral Work, New York. 1909; W. Moore Ede. TU Clergy and Social Service, New York, 1909; H. H. Henson, The Liberty of Propheaying; with iU jud Limiia and Temper conaidered with Reference to the Cireumatancea of the modem Church, New Haven, 1910; J. S. LidgeU, Apoatolie Miniatry, London, 1910; A. J. Lyman, The Chriatian Paator in the New Age; Comrade, Sponaor, aodal Mediator, New York, 1910; W. A. Quayle. The Paator- Pastoral Thaolo^y Patienoe THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZCX3 S80 Preacher, Cincinnati, 1910; F. Dorfmann. Auaoestaltung der PaatoreUtheoloffie zur Univer$iUitadi9Miplin und ihre Weiterbiiduno. Vienna, 1910. PASTORELS (PASTOUREAUX, PASTORELLS): The name given to two singular movements in France in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Into northern France in the year 1251 came a man called Master Jacob of Hungary, who was skilled in Latin, German, and French, with the gifts of a demagogue but without the talent of a real leader. He affirmed that he was sent of God to lead a new crusade to the Holy Land, the forces to be com- posed not of knights but of the more lowly. To him the people flocked, especially shepherds (whence the name of the movement; Lat. pastor), to the number of 100,000, divided into fifty companies. He professed to receive visions and visits from angels. At first coimtenance was given by the noble of the land; even the queen mother, then regent, hoped that Louis IX., who was in captivity in the East, would be released by these people. But the movement soon assumed a revolutionary or riotous character, attacked Jews, and at length the clergy, by whom the ban was pronounced, and at last came to open blows, and in one of these assaults Jacob lost his life. At first the inten- tion was doubtless genuine to make a crusade; but as the attached masses grew, the social ferment led to the anticlerical issue. A similar and like-named movement took place two generations later, also connected with the thought of the crusades. In 1319 Philip V. pro- posed to the pope a crusade, which the pope re- jected as inopportune. But the people took up the idea, and women and children participated in the gatherings. Some of the participants were im- prisoned but forcibly released. Revolutionary movements followed, Jews and even Christians and churches were attacked. From Paris to Toulouse and Carcassonne the country was affected, and in 1320 Avignon was threatened. Then the seneschal of Carcassonne assembled troops, and the move- ment ended with a considerable number of execu- tions. (S. M. DEUTSCHf.) Bibuoorapht: Sources are the writin0i of Matthew of Paris and the CorUinuator Nanffti of William of Nangis. Consult: Bouquet, Recueil, vols, xx.-xxiii.; Milman, Latin ChruAianity, vi. 57-68, vii. 64-65; J. C. L. Sismondi, Hist, dea Franpaia, vols, vii., ix., 31 vols., Paris, 1821-44; and Rdrioht, in ZKG, vi. 290-296. PAT ARENES (P ATARIIf I, PATERINI) : A reform party at Milan in the eleventh century. Stormy times prevailed at Milan imder Archbishop Aribert (101&-45), resulting in a limitation of the arch- bishop's power. Upon the death of Henry III. in 1056, disturbances broke out afresh, and at times centered upon ecclesiEistical and religious affairs. Arialdo, a Milanese deacon of the Valvassors, took notice of the contradiction between the divine law and the contemporary worldly behavior of the clergy. He was seconded by Landolfo, of the cap- tains' gild, a man of eminent oratorical powers; by the presbyter Anselm, who ascended the episco- pal throne of Lucca in 1057; and by the wealthy mintmaster Nazarius. That the clergy of Milan, in the matters of unchattity and simony, were worse than those of other Italian cities can not be charged; but the degree of exasperation here was unpandlsled in bitterness, and led to an open advocacy of revo- lution. The property of the refractory clerg>' was abandoned to the plimder of the mob; and pres»- ently the combined populace, composed mostly of the lowest orders, of paupers, debtors, and artisans, but including some of the middle class as well, rose against the clergy. Landolfo hazarded a riotous disturbance of a divine service conducted by the archbishop himself; the clergy were compelled to bind themselves in writing to live a chaste life; those married were withdrawn from the altars, and their dwellings were stormed. By order of Victor II. a synod was convened at Footanetum near Novara; but Arialdo and Landolfo were not to be intimidated by the ban imposed upon thenL On the contrary, they proceeded to organize their fol- lowers. From their opponents they received the designation Pataria: a term probably derived from a quarter in the heart of Milan, where yet in the eighteenth century there was a street occupied by handlers of old clothes (called patariA). Under Stephen IX. this Patarenian movement received a renewed impetus; the decree of Fontanetum was ig- nored, and by sending HUdebrand (see Gregort VII.), the apostolic see openly made known its sym- pathies. Nicholas II. (q.v.) entrusted a deputation to Milan, in 1059, to Peter Damian and Anselm of Lucca (qq.v.), who humiliated the Milanese church by an unreserved partizanship with the Patarenes. "On the death of Landolfo Erlembaldo took his place. Under his leadership the Patarenian forces obtained accessions from the upper classes; and they re- newed their attack upon the married and simoniacal clergy and their worship. They were supported by the authority of Rome, and wdl might Eriembaldo regard himself as the agent of Rome, since Alexan- der II. had commissioned him with the power of excommunication as the champion of the Church. The open conflict between the Patarenes and their opponents broke out in 1066. The Patarenian rab- ble ill-treated Archbishop Guido in the cathedral, and then stormed the archiepiscopal palace. These violent excesses led to a powerful reaction on the part of the other citizens. Archbishop Guido was enabled to proclaim an interdict upon the city and forced Arialdo to retreat. Soon afterward, the latter was assassinated, but in the following year (1067) Erlembaldo had rallied his faction by means of new sworn pledges, so that he could resume the riotous activities. When Archbishop Guido abdicated, the Patarenes, pursuant to Hildebrand's counsel, ex- tended their reform to abolishing the royal investi- ture. When Godfrey, the successor of Guido, had returned from Germany with an investiture from Henry IV., he found it impossible to enter upon his office. Erlembaldo was emboldened, in the presence of a Roman legate, to direct the election, in 1072, of a young cleric of Milan, Atto by name, as arch- bishop. But Henry FV., refusing assent, procured the consecration of Godfrey at Novara. Gregory VII., friend and adviser of the Patarenes^ at the be- ginning of his pontificate gave promise of a pacific understanding with the king with reference to th« diocesan strife at Milan; this did not, however, jeopardize Gregory's relatioDS with Erlembaldo. 381 Pastoral Theology Patience The latter's despotism eventually became insuffer- able; insomuch that an opposition league was formed, whose members pledged themselves to recog- nize as archbishop the king's nominee. Erlembaldo lost his life in the first clash with these Anti-Patan renes, shortly after Easter, 1075. This was the end of the Patarenes as a party, though Gregory, in 1076, made some attempts to revive it. The history of the Patarenes, covering a period of only twenty years, had a significance which was political as well as ecclesiastical. On the whole, it represented the great reform movement in the Church which arose about the middle of the eleventh century, the triimiph of which in Italy became its reward. It furthermore subjected the archbishopric of St. Ambrose to the authority of the pope and thereby gained Lombardy for his jurisdiction. Finally, it played an important preparatory part in the mighty conflict between the papacy and the German empire, by terminating the archiepiscopal rdgime in Milan; and by bringing about the mutual recognition of the antagonistic classes engaged in the church struggles at Milan, it promoted the imity and autonomy of the Church democratic. At a later time the term Patarenes occurred among the many designations for the Catharist heretics (see New MaxichjSans, II.); but this does not estab- lish an inherent affinity with the old Patarenes, as the original name had rapidly faded into a conmion sneering epithet. Carl Mirbt. Bibuoorapht: Sources are: AmulTs Oeata archiepiacO' porum Atediolanensiumt in MOH, Script., viii (1848), 1 sqq.; Landulfa Hist. MediolaTtensig, in the same, pp. 32 sqq.; Andreas, Vita Arialdi, in MPL, oxliii. 1437 sqq.; Bonixo, Liber ad amicum, in MOH, Lib. de lite^ i (1891), 568 sqq. Consult: C. Hegel. Geachiehte der StOdtverfas- auno von Italien, ii. 140 sqq., Leipsic, 1847; Paech, Dia Pataria in Afailand, 1066-77, Sondenhauaen, 1872; A. KrQger, Die Pataria in Mailand, Breslau. 1873-74; W. Wicherkiewics, Die kirehliehe Stdlung der Enibiachdfe von Mailand zur Zeit der Pataria, Breslau, 1875; G. Meyer von Knonau, JahrhUeher dea deutaehen Reicha tantar Hein- rich IV., i. 669 sqq., Leipsic, 1890; C. Mirbt, Die Pub- liziatik im Zeitalttr Gregora VII., pp. 244 sqq., 264-265, 447 sqq.. ib. 1894; W. Martens, Greoor VII., ib. 1894; F. Gregorovius, Hiat. of tKa City of Rome, iv. 128, London, 1896; Hefele, ConcUiengeachichte, vols., iv.-v.; Schaff, Christian Church, v. 1, pp. 20-21; Neander. Christian Church, iii. 393, iv. 99. 225. 226, 565, 592; and the litera- ture on the popes oontemporary with the movement.

PATERSON, JAMES ALEXANDER: United Free Church of Scotland; b. at Dalry (22 m. w. of Dum- fries), Kirkcudbrightshire, June 20, 1851. He was educated at the University of Aberdeen and Pem- broke College, Oxford (B.A., 1876; M.A., 1879); was professor of Hebrew and Old-Testament litera- ture in the United Presbyterian College, Edinburgh (1876-1900); and since 1900 has been professor of the same subject in the United Free Church College, Edinburgh. In theology he is an Evangelical Presbyterian. He has written Period of the Judges (Edinburgh, 1887); edited Leviticus for The Temple Bible and Numbers for The Polychrome Bible; A. B. Davidson's Biblical and Literary Essays (Lon- don, 1902); The Called of God (Edinbuigl^ 1902); and Waiting upon Ood (1903); and Old Testament Prophecy (1903), and translated H. Schultz's Alt- testamentliche Theologie (2 vols., Frankfort, 1869) under the title of Old Testament Theology (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1892).

PATERSON, WILLIAM PATERSON: Church of Scotland; b. at Skirling (11^ m. w. of Peebles), Peeblesshire, Oct. 25, 1860. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh (B.D., 1883) and the universities of Leipsic, Erlangen, and Berlin (1883- 1885); was minister at Crieff, Perthshire (1887-94), and was appointed professor of systematic theology in the University of Aberdeen (1894). Since 1903 he has been professor of divinity in the University of Edinburgh, and was Baird lecturer in 1904-05. He has written The Position and Prospects of Theol- ogy (Edinburgh, 1903) and The Pauline Theology (1903).

PATIENCE: Firm and conscientious resistance to forces which operate in opposition to personal conviction. It must be an act, not merely a state, and it must also be conscious of actual endurance, not merely self-assertion. To the Christian, par tience is the nadir of his spiritual life, in which he indeed clings to God, yet does not feel the assurance that God is near him. When Paul declares (Rom. V. 4) that hope first springs from tested patience, he means that the solace of hope fails the Christian in the moment of patience, and experiences can come to the Christian in which his only feeling is pain. Yet even though no such vicissitudes ever befell him, nevertheless his spiritual development would often bring him into circumstances in which he would feel that he was the conquered instead of the conqueror, for in all cases duty transcends hiunan power. Here no vague abstract concept of the good can be his guide, nor can mere duty be other than external and foreign to his life. Nothing but a personal authority can save him in his moments of disavowal of self and he is able to comprehend this authority and accept the aid and encouragement which it brings only when he himself recognizes what is good. Voluntary endurance imder such circumstances is patience. It is easy to fail to recognize, however, that this patience of self-denial consists solely in the will to follow another, or in obedience; for good deeds are performed only as a result of personal conviction. Moral acts are, therefore, frequently explained as proceeding from individual thought, thus leading to the abandonment of the concept of self-denial. The truths involved in this view may indeed be retained in Christian ethics, yet they must be com- bined with recognition of the fact that the moral relation is a spiritual growth, and therefore implies self-denial and patience. This implies also obedi- ence, which does not exclude freedom if the example followed be worthy of being obeyed, since the obedi- ence involves the conviction that the Christian life is rendered stronger and richer by experience of pain. The basal principle that moral good implies independence can not exclude recognition of the fact that moral growth is possible only when the indi^'idual is made patient through obedience, and that what he could not and would not take upon himself is endured in patience. THE NEW SCHAFP-HERZOG So long OB the ChriBtion in hie faitb id God is able to look througb hia sufTetings U) the love of God, he baa no room for patience. One is patient when in the darker events of life he does not lose self-mastery but remains firm and ready in the purpose that be must obey God. Such obedience is the last remnant o( trust in God. While this patience is not the joy which puts an end to suffering, it is the path which leads to it, and the future offers a hope which finds ite justification in the fact that Christ in his death is e^'ident to the Christian as a visible manifestation of the love of God (cf. Rom. v. &-S). Christian patience thus becomes the strength of faith, al- though the Chrifrtian bimselF feels it to be the weak- ness of faith. Christian patience is, however, not B mere test of faith, but is the inner process whereby personality is developed beyond what it was, and the believer experiences its full meaning only when he subjects himself in silent patient obedience to a higher power, which must be peraonal, and not an institution of any kind. (W. Herrmann.) PATOn, JOm* BROWH: English Congregation- aiist; b. at Loudon, Ayrshire, Scotland, Dec. 17, 1S30. Ho was educated at Spring Hill College, Birmingham (B.A., London University, 1840; M.A., 1854); was minister of Wicker Church, Sheffield (1854-6a), and from 1863 until his retirement in 1807 as principal emeritus was principal of the Congregational Institute for Theological and Mis- sionary Studies, Nottingham. He was one of the founders of the University Extension system, and established the Bible Reading and Prayer Union in 1892, the Boys' and Girls' Life Brigades in 190O, and tlie Young Men's and Young Women's Brigade of Service in 1904. He has been vice-president of the British Institute of Social Service since 1904, and has taken a prominent part in educational, charitable, and non-conformist religious work. Besides his work OS joint editor of The Edeelic Rtview (1858-61) and associate editor of Thr Cmttemporary Reiicin (1832-88), his n-ritings include Evangelizatum of Town oTuI Country (Jjondon, 1861); The Origin of (A« PnesUiood in the Church (1876); Supernatural Rdigion.- .4 Criiictmn (1878); The inner Mission of German!/, oTid Ha LeaaonsloUn {1885); The Twofold Alleniative — MaUrialitm or Religion: the Church, a PriestfuMit or a Brotherhood (1S85); Contemporary Controversies on the Doctrine of the Church and the Adoftoru of Church and SUUe (1886); The Inner Miamon (four addresaes; 1888); The Inner ifiasion of Great Britain (1896); and Collected Essays (2 vols., 1907.) BiHUimnAPRr^ J. Mnrchnnt. J. B. PaUm. Educaliomil and Social Puiurr, Londoa, 1W». PATOn, JOHRGmSOn: Presbyterian missionary; b. at Kirkmahoe (9 m. n. of Dumfries), Scotland, May 24 1824; d. at Canterbury, Victoria, Australia, Jan. 28, 1907. He was educated at the Univprsity of Glasgow, the divinity hall of the Reformed Presby- terian Church, and the Andersonian medical uni- versity, all in Glasgow, where he was a citv mission- ary from 1847 till 1857. He was licensed Dec. 1, 1857, and ordained a missionary to the New Heb- rides Har. 23, 1858, and left Glasgow with his wife Hary Ann Robsoa on April 16, At Melbourne they transhipped to Aneityum where they landed Aug. 30. He began bis labors on the island of Tanna Kov. 5, 1858, There, on Feb. 12, 1859, bis wife died in child-bed, and her infant son, Hareh 20. Thenativei proved to be intractable and he was finally driven away by their savage attacks on Feb. 4, 1862. He then began those tours in behalf of New Hebrides mission work which were ultimately to make bim known throughout all the English-speaking worid. He went first to the Presbyterian churciiea of Aus- tralia and New Zealand. In 1864 ho viaitod Scot- land, was elected moderator of the General Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church, secured Bcven missionaries for the New Hebrides, and returned with hia second wife, Margaret Whitecrosa. He landed in Sydney Jan. 17, 1865, made another tour of the churehes, and visited the New Hebrides, lo Nov., 1886, he became a missionary on one of the islands, Aniwa. He held his first communion there Oct. 24, 1869, and ultimately saw all the uativoi nominal Christians. In March, 1873, be visited the Australasian colonies %o raise money; relumed to Aniwa the next year, but in 1883 laid before the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Cbureh of Victoria the noccasities of the New Hebrides mission and was sent by it in 1884 to Great Britain to raise the money. He returned with the funds desire! early the next year, visited Aniwa, but then took up his missionary tours again through Auslrolaeia between 1886 (when he was elected moderator a( the Presbyterian Church of Victoria) and 1892, then through the United Statesand Canada, and so around the world, returning to Victoria in 1894. In 189T he was in Melbourne carrying through the press the New Testament in the Aniwan language. In 1899 he was in Aniwa. In 1900 he attended the Ek;umeniral Missionary Conference in New York City, and wiu hailed as a great missionary hero. In 1901 he vai back in Australia- His health had begun to fail, hia wife was also ailing, and on May 16. 1905, .she died. In 1904 he issued his translation into Aniwan of the Acts of the Apostles, and began proof-reading on that of Gene«a. He was a. man of picturesque appearance and bore his testimony with great He described himself as theologically "a Ptm- byterian Evangelical Calvinist of the old Covenanter Reformed Chureh of Scotland." He wrote many pamphlets on missionary topics, and also to expose the evils of the Kanaka labor traffic, as well as opposing the French annexation of the New Hebri- des in favor of British occupation. But the book which made him famous was his autobiography. whose sale was enormous on the strength of hi* perils on Tanna and Aniwa. The book ownj much to the literarv skill of his brother. Rev. Jameti Paton. D.D. (who d'ied in Glasgow Dee. 21. 1906), and ap- peared in three parts. John G. Paton, misBionary to the New Hebrides. An AulMngmpky. Edited fcy his Brother (New York, 1st part, 1889, second part 1890; parts three and four, carrying the story from 1S85 till his death, appeared bound up with the other parts, 1907). 383 Paton Patrlaroh

PATON, LEWIS BAYLES: Congregationalist Biblical scholar; b. at New York City June 27, 1864. He was educated at Parsons College, Fairfield, la., New York iTniversity (A.B., 1884), Princeton Theo- logical Seminary (1890), and the universities of Berlin (1890-92) and Marburg (Ph.D., 1897). Smce 1892 he has been connected with Hartford Theologi- cal Seminary, where he has been instructor in Old- Testament exegesis (1892-93), associate professor (1893-97), and Nettleton professor of Old-Testament exegesis and criticism (since 1897). He was also director of the American School of Archeology at Jerusalem in 1902-04. In theology he belongs to the critical evangelical school. He has written The Early History of Syria and Palestine (New York, 1902); Jerusalem in Bible Times (Chicago, 1908); and Esther, the latter for the International Critical Commentary (New York, 1908); and has edited Recent Christian Progress; Studies in Christian Thought and Work during the last Seventy-five Years (1909).

PATRIARCH : A title applied in the early Church to the chief bishops, having jurisdiction over met- ropolitans. The name occurs in the foiuth century as applied to ordinary bishops; but by degrees, as the bishops of Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople, and Jerusalem gained more importance and stood at the head of large ecclesiastical provinces, it was used specifically of them. The development of the constitution of the Church involved in the creation of the patriarchates followed the analogy of the political subdivisions of the Empire. From the time of Diocletian (284-305) and Constantine (306- 337) this was divided into four prefectures, and these again into a number of dioceses, which in their turn were composed of provinces or eparchies. Thus the prefecture of the East comprised the dioceses of *' the East " (Oriens), Asia, Pontus, and Thrace, whose capitals were Antioch, Ephesus, Csesarea, Cappadocia, and Heraclea. The districts of the metropolitans corresponded to the provinces, as those of bishops to the less important city districts; but ecclesiastical divisions corresponding to civil dio- ceses did not then exist. Early in the process of development there is evidence of efforts on the part of the metropolitans of prominent cities to extend their jurisdiction more widely and to obtain an in- fluence over several metropolitan districts. This goal was attained by Alexandria at the beginning of the fourth century, as is recognized by the famous sixth canon of the Council of Nic»a. The wording of the canon is not altogether clear; but it is evident from the history of the Meletian Schism (see Mele- TIU8 OF Antioch and the Meletian Schism) that the following rights were claimed by the bishop of Alexandria: to issue binding regulations in ques- tions of discipline; to hold synods representing the metropolitan districts united with him; in conjunc- tion with such synods, to judge the bishops of the district; and in the case of a vacancy to administer the vacant diocese. Similar conditions arose by degrees at Rome and probably at Antioch. To argue back from the later system, it would seem probable that the power of the patriarch of Antioch was less than that of the patriarch of Alexandria to the extent that he ordained the metropolitans only, and not also the bishops. The extension of the influence of the metropolitans of great cities over neighboring met- ropolitans, corresponding to the civil diocesan divi- sion, is the beginning of the patriarchal oi^ganization, the impetus to which may have been the example of the secular government, but doubtless the ambition of the bishops of the metropolises had its effects. The West was not affected by the process, owing to the predominant position of Rome and its claims to the primacy; but in the East the process was com- pleted by the time of the Council of Constantinople in 381. Its second canon contemplates the recog- nition of five great divisions in the East: Egypt, " the East " (Oriens), Asia, Pontus, and Thrace. The provision against the overstepping of these boundaries can have been directed only against en- croachments on the part of Alexandria and Antioch, which were thus strictly limited to Eg3rpt and to ** the East." That this took place in the interest of Constantinople is shown by the third canon. Con- stantinople had supplanted Heraclea as the head of the Thracian dioceses, nor was it long in absorbing the powers of Ephesus and CsBsarea in Cappadocia, which were unable to maintain themselves on an equal footing with the others. The result of this process received canonical sanction at the Council of Chalcedon (451). This reduced the five eastern patriarchates to three; but another was added in Jerusalem, which had a certain honorary precedence as early as the Council of Nicsea (325), though with express reservation of the rights of the metropoli- tans of Csesarea in Palestine. At the Council of Ephesus (431) an attempt was made to render Jerusalem independent of the diocese of " the E^ast " ; this was unsuccessful, imtil, with the aid of the Em- peror Theodosius II., Palestine, Phenicia, and Arabia were severed from the rest of this division and made subject to the see of Jerusalem. Antioch protest- ing, Phenicia and Arabia were to remain with An- tioch and the three eparchies of Palestine fell to Jerusalem; and this was confirmed at Chalcedon. The same council also gave Constantinople a con- current jurisdiction on appeal, at the choice of the appellant, with the patriarchal see to which he might be immediately subject, thus rendering it virtually an archpatriarchate. In the time of the Coimcil of Chalcedon, patriarchs were known yet as eparchs, which term was also used as yet by the metropolitan of Sardica. When afterward the term patriarch became affixed to the titles of the bishops of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, eparch remained for the bishops of Ephesus and Ceesarea; but their power was not essentially different from that of metro- politans. In the West the title patriarch was borne by the bishops of Aquileia and Grado imtil 1451, when the patriarchate of Grado was transferred to Venice, and that of Aquileia was abolished. Later the title was given to the bishops of Lisbon and Goa, but was merely honorary. (A. Hauck.) Bibuoorapbt: Bingham, Onoinet, II., ii. { 9, xvii (prac- tically complete); J. C. W. Augusti.. DtnkwHrdiokeiten, xi. 148 sqq., Leiptio, 1830; K. Labeck. Reichseinteiluno und kirchliche Hierarchic de$ Orients, Monster, 1901; and the works on eooleaiafltical law iKirchenrecht) by P. Hin- schius, i. 538 aqq., Berlin, 1869; E. Ldning, i. 424 sqq., Patriarchs Patristlos 884 Stnuiburg. 1878; R. Sohm, i. 400 aqq.. Leipsio. 1892; and E. Friedberg, p. 30, ib. 1903; and the literature under Eabtbbn Church. PATRIARCHS, TESTAMENT OF THE TWELVE. See Pbeudspiqrafha. PATRICIANL See Stmmachians.

PATRICK, SAINT: The traditional apostle of Ireland. So great is the mass of legend connected with his name that some have been led to question his existence. In earlier times two Patricks were assumed, " the older " (Sen Patrick) and " the apostle." Most investigators now try to distinguish between a historical and a legendary Patrick. For such an attempt by Heinrich Zimmer see CEunc Church, I., 2. What is attempted here is merely to supplement what is there said by indicating the difficulty of the problem, and noting some views which are at variance with those of Professor Zimmer. The contemporary sources for Patrick are: (1) his own writings, of which the Confessio and the Epistola ad Coroticum (more properly "Letter con- cerning Ck)roticus or to his Christian subject") are conceded to be genuine; unfortunately existing copies of both are not free from suspicion of having been tampered with. The hymn (in Irish), called the Faed Fiada (" Deer's Cry ") and the Lorica (" Breast- plate "), is more doubtful; it gives no facts, but has value for its indications of doctrine. (2) The Hymn ofSecundinus (Sechnall) is valuable only for its description of Patrick as a religious teacher by one who had personal knowledge. The later sources in- clude (1) the so-called Lives, all containing more or loss of the legendary, marvelous, and fictitious. They begin with the memoir by Muirchu Maccu-Machtheni and the collections of Tirechan in the seventh cen- tury and culminate in the life by Jocelin in the twelfth. The so-called Tripartite Life (eleventh century) is the most complete and perhaps the most trustworthy. (2) Chronicles, hjrmns, scholia, pref- aces, and the like, all late and untrustworthy. It is impossible to fix dates for Patrick. Most wri- ters, accepting Prosper's statement about Palladius {ChronicoTif an. 4,'il) and assuming that Patrick fol- lowed Palladius and was ordained by Pope Celestine I. (d. 432), put his mission in 432. Whitley Stokes advocates c. 397; Olden thinks that Patrick pre- ceded Palladius and is inclined, with Killen, to accept 405, the date given by Nennius. Todd gives 440. Nicholson tried to show that Patrick belonged to the third century. His birth is variously placed in 372 (Ussher, Tillemont, Petrie); c. 373 (Stokes, Olden); 378 (the BoUandists) ; 387 (Lanigan). The year of his death is given as 455 (Tillemont); 460 (the BoUandists); c. 463 (Stokes, Olden); 464 (Nennius); 465 (Lanigan, Killen); 492 or 493 (IJsshcr, Petrie, Todd, following the most common tradition). The opening sentence of the Confeasio uppears to state that when he was sixteen his father owned an estate at ** Bannavem Tabemiae." But the passage is not clear, may be corrupt, and does not in any case give the birthplace. " Ban- navem Tabemiae " should probably be emended to read Bannaventa BrUannia (cf. The Academyj May II, 1896, pp. 402-403). Bannaventa was in North- amptonsWre near Daventry. Attempts to locate " Bannavem Tabemiie " placed it in Gaul (Bou- logne?) and at Ailclyde (Dumbarton), Sootland. Patrick's own writings are silent concerning the period in his life between his escape from captivity in Ireland and his reappearance there as misBon- ary. Olden thinks that the pirates who hdped him to escape took him to Gaul and that his wanderings or residence in that country begin at this time. He is said to have studied with Germanus at Auxerre and with Martin at Tours. But he can not have studied with both, and his bad L<atin, his ignorance of the doctrine and practise of the Roman Church, and his lack of knowledge of the Vulgate make it hard to believe that he studied with either. Some deny that he went to Rome. His own writings do not intimate that he was ever there, it is thought improbable that a Briton of his time would be drawn thither, while a visit and ordination at Rome, if lacking, would be an inevitable invention of later times. Perhaps he was ordained in Gaul (by Ama- tor of Auxerre? d. 418) and assumed the title P^tri- cius then. Canon Bright conjectures that he was consecrated in his native country. Whitley Stokes thinks that he began his work in Ireland, labored for thirty years with but little success, and then, attributing his failure to the lack of Roman author- ity, started for the capital; on the way he BpaA some time at Auxerre and was there when the death of Palladius became known; whereupon CSermaniis at once sent him back to Ireland well provided with assistants and funds. Concerning his work in Ireland there are only late accounts, exaggerated and full of the marvel- ous. He is said to have settled first in the present County Down, to have converted all Ulster, and then to have proceeded westward to Mayo. Daire, » local chieftain, allowed him to build a church on the hill of Macha (Ardmacha, Armagh) and there the seat of the primacy was established. It seems quite certain that he did not visit a laige part of the south. A visit to Tara at the Easter following his arrival is recorded and the conversion of the king, Laegfaaire, is described with embellishments. His burial place is given as Saul, Armagh, Downpatrick, and Glas- tonbury. It was probably Armagh, where his bell his crosier, and his New Testament were long pre- served. The crosier was burnt at the time of the Reformation. The bell and the New Testament (or a copy of it) are now in Dublin. He was nev» canonized at Rome and passes as a saint merely by popular usage. Bibuoorapht: Patrick's writinci, fenuine and spuriooi. with the hymn of Secundinus, are in MPL, liiL 7S9-<840; the genuine works, with the more iniportant souroes and a valuable introduction and notes, may be foond in The Tripartite Life of Patrick, urith Other Doeumenia Rdatim to that Saint, ed. with translations of the Irish, by Whitley Stokes, in RolU Series, no. S9, 2 vols., London, 1887 (rf. pp. cxxix.-cxliii. for Stokes' attempt to oonstruct the " Personal History of Patrick"); the genuine writings, the hymn of Secundinus, and canons attributed to Patrirk are also in Haddan and Stubbe, CoimciZs, iL 2, pp. 296- 338; Eng. transls. are by C. H. H. Wright in Chri$tia» Classics Scries, vol. vi., Ix>ndon, 1895, new ed., 1900. sod T. Olden. Dublin, 1895; seven of the Livm were collected by J. Colgan in his Triaa thaumatmrgtL, Loavain, 1547; the Confestio, the Epiatola, and the life by Joeelin, with a commentary and appendix, are in ASB, Mar^ IL 517- - 592; Jooelin's life was translated by E. I«. Swtft, Dub- lin. 1809; reprinted with tnuialationB of the fWfoBwi

J.. ID 1885: □( n lem live Dubli B by I. Todd, Dublin. ISM; otheni an by R. H. ib. isas; Mi« M. P. CiuuKk, London, 1S71: R. OnuiweU. Lift and Timet. Presbio, IHSB; idem. Succuf, LondOD. 1S91; W. B. Morria, Loodoo. 1S90: R J. NsweU, ib. 1S90; J. B. Biuy, Dublin, ISOS; J. Healy. Dublin. I9U5^ utid alietchcH in W. Wsllcor, Cr<«l«l Mm of the Chtitint Chvrth. Chicago. 1908; and by G, F. Mallear, to ApoiUUi afMidiavai Europt, pp. 29-40, Loodon. 1SS8. (i!U9). i a the Trat the HiMory and ArUiqiiiiia of ' liaru of Uic Roiial Iriih Acadtmi pp. 25-232; Sir S. PercuHiD. On Hit fatneian DocumrMa. ib.. uiii {Deo.. ISSfi). Aatiquitiu, pp. 87-134; LanigaD, EceL Hilt,, ohapg. ii.-vii.^ C. J. GnMi, GachicUc drr all- irinchm, Kirche. pp. 95 aq^,, Freiburg, 13fl7; A. P. Forbm, Kalndan of BaMiA Sainlt. pp. 431-434, Edinburgh, 1S72; W. D. Killen, Tht EalttiaiHcal HitloTv of Inlmd, vol. i., shap. i.. LondoD. 187£; W. F. UIceDH, Ctitic ."irnl- land, vol. ii., dup. i.. Edtnbur«h. 1877; J. F. ijbaunniui. Looa Patneiana. an Identifivition of LocalitwB fhitfiu in Lritutrr Finlaj ba St. Patrick, Dublin. 1SS2; B. Robert, &/ude critique tur ta vir d TmiiTf dt fiaint Palrite. Paris.

PATRICK, JOHN; Church of Scotland; b. at Lochniiuiorh (15 m. a.w. of Glasgow), Renfrewshire, Bept. 15, 1850. Ho was educated at the universities of Glasgow (M.A., 1875), Edinburgh (B.D., 1677), and Heidelberg, nfter which he was minister of High Church, Kilmarnock (1877-80), Monkton and Prestwick Parish (1880-87), and Greenside Parish, Edinburgh (1887-08). Since 1898 he hus been regius professor of Biblical criticism and Bib- lical antiquities in the University of Edinburgh, dean of the faculty of divinity since 18!I9, and Croall lecturer in 1800-1900. He served also as examiner for the degree of B.D. in Edinburgh University (1880-83); convener of the Education Committee of the Church of Scotland (181M-190S); and convener of the education committee of the Heriot trust (I80S-1006). In theology he is a liberal conserv- ative. He has translated Origin's apology in reply to Celsus (Edinbm^h, 1892) and part of the Hame writer's commentary on Matthew (1897), and has ■written The Conservative Reaction in New Testa- ment Criticism (1898).

PATRICK, SIMON: English bishop and com- mentator, usually classed among the Cambridge Platonists (q-v.); b. at Gainsborough (16 m. n.w. of Lincoln) Sept. 8, 1626; d. at Ely May 31, 1707. He was educated at Queen's College, Cambridge, where he came under the influence of John Smith, the Platonist leader. Though not closely connected ■with the work of this school, he was much interested in their views, and defended them in his Brie/ Ao- atunl of the New Sect of Latitudinarians (London, 1662). He was for a time a Presbyterian minister, but took orders in the Church of England in 1654. !Be was made prebendary of Westminster in 1672, (dean of Peterborough in 1679, Bishop of Chichester Vm.— 25 in 1689. He was & voluminous author, producing fifty-one works, and is best known as a commen- tator. His commentary on the Old Testament down to the Song of Solomon (10 vols., Loudon, 1695-1710) was veiy popular for a hundred and fifty years, and was combined with this contempo- raiy work of William Lowth on the Prophets, Richard Arnold on the Apocrypha, Daniel Whitby on all the New Testament except the Apocalypse, and Hoaes Lawman on that book to make a com- plet« commentary (London, 1809; many aubae- quent editions) . He was one of the five original founders of iho Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. His Autobiography was published at Oxford in 1339, and complete works were edited by Alexander Taylor (9 vols.. Oxford, 1858). BiBLioanAPHT: Beiidee the AutobiograiAti, ut nip., aod the literature under CAUBBinoa Piatohists, ounnilt: The MemaiT of Biihop Patrick by T. Chamberiayne, in the latter'i ed. ol Patrick's noteworthy PanAU o/tht PHorin. Loodon. 1S3S: J. Hunt, Ifitt. of Seligiotu Tkmghl in £ii||- land, 3 vob.. ib. 1871-73; J, H, Overtou, Tht Church in Bnoland. vol. ii., paanm, ib. 1867; W. H. Hutton, Tht Sneliih Chunh ietS-17U, ib. 1B03; DlfB, xliy. 45-47.

PATTON, CORNELIUS HOWARD: Congrega- tionaiiat; b. at Chicago Dec. 25, 1860. He received his education at Howard University, Emerson In- etitute, Washington, D. C„ Amherst College (B.A., 1883). and Yale Divinity School (B.D., 1887); was ordained in 1887, and served the churches at West- field, N. J., 1887-95, Duluth. Minn., 1895-98. and the First Congregational Church at St. Louis, 1898- 1904; since 1904 he has been corresponding secre- taiy of the American Board of Commissioners for

PATTON, FRANCIS LANDEY: Presbyterian; b. at Warwick, Bermuda, Jan. 22, 1843. He was educated at Knox College, Toronto, the University of Toronto, and Princeton Theological Seminary (graduated, 1865). He was ordained in 1865 and held pastorates at the Eighty-fourth Street Pres- byterian Church, New York City (1865-67), Nyack, N. Y, (1867-70), and South Presbyterian Church, Brooklyn. N. Y. (1871); he was Cyrus H. McCor- ■nick professor of theology in the Theological Seminary of the North-West (now McCormick The- ological Seminary), Chicago (1871-72); pastor of the Jefferson Park Presbyterian Church in the same city (1874-81); Robert L. Stewart professor of the relations of philosophy and science to the Christian religion in Princeton Theological Seminary (1881- 1888); also professor of ethics in Princeton College (1886-88). In 1888 he was elected president of Princeton College, and held this position until 1902, when he resigned and was elected to his present position of president of Princeton Theological Semi- nary. He still retains, however, the professorship of ethics In Princeton University, as well as a lec- tureship on theism in Princeton Theological Semi- nary. In theology he is extremely conservative. Besides editing The Interior{, 1873-76) and being for several years a member of the editorial board of The Presbyterian Review, he has written Inspiration of the. Scriptures (Philadelphia. 1869); and Sum- mary of Christian Doctrine (1874).

PAUL: The name of five popes. Paul I.: Pope 757-767. He first appears as a Roman deacon and was frequently employed by his brother, Pope Stephen II., in negotiations with the Lombard kings. After Stephen's death (April 26, 757) Paul was chosen his successor by those who wished a continuation of the late pope's policy. The new pope's reign was dominated by his relations to the Frankish and Lombard kings and to the Eastern emperor. He adopted an Independent tone in informing the exarch in Ravenna of his elec- tion, but wrote to Pepin that the Frankish alliance should be maintained unimpaired, being forced to this course by the attitude of the Lombard king, Desiderius, The latter held the cities of Imola, Osimo, Bologna, and Ancona, which were claimed by Rome, and in 758 seized upon the duchies of Spoleto and Benevento. The same year he visited Rome and compelled Paul to write to Pepin asking him to concede all the Lombard claims except that to Imola; another letter of exactly opposite tenor was sent by the same messenger. Pepin found it advisable to maintain good relations with Desiderius, and Paul accomplished nothing by his double-dealing. Later, however. Pepin gave the pope some support and acted as arbiter between the Roman and Lombard claims. In 765 the papal privileges were restored In Beneventine and Tuscan territory and partially in Spoleto. Meanwhile, the alienation from Byzantium grew greater. Sev- eral times, especially in 759, Paul feared that the Greek emperor would send an armament against Rome; and he lived in continual dread lest Byzan- tine machinations turn the Frankish influence in favor of the Lombards. This was actually at^ tempted, but Pepin held to his original Italian policy. Paid died June 28, 767. See Pafai, States. (A. Hauck.) 331-360; F. Pspan- PodeH i. 2fil » Bibliography^ .ttann, Papa. i. conlt. OrxhidiU dm- Sladt Ri

PAUL THE APOSTLE. Probable Conjectures (f 2). n. Epistles. 1. Preliminary Questions. External Testimony (f 1). Internal Evidence (f 2). Character of Epistles as a Collection (5 3). Not an Argument in a Circle (5 4). Paul's Personality (f 5). 2. First Group. I Thessalonians (f 1). II Thessalonians (5 2). 8. Second Group; the " Quadrilateral" General Characteristics; Repulse of Judaistic Attack (f 1). I Corinthians (f 2). II Corinthians (f 3). Galatians (f 4). Romans (f 5). Unity of Romans (| 6). Criticism by Dutch School (| 7). 4. Third Group; Prison Epistlss. Philippians (f 1). The Pauline Styla (I 2). Colossians (f 3). Ephesians (5 4). 5. Pastoral Epjstles. The Release from Frisco (| 1). I Timothy (5 2). n Timothy, Titus (| 3). L Life. — 1. Ohronoloffy: The general course of events in Paul's life may be gathered from the Acts and from information which he himself gives in the epistles (Gal. i. l&-ii. 1; II Cot. xii. 2; Rom. xv. 23; Philemon 9) . Actual dates depend upon data which do not afford a single indisputable conclusion, yet, taken together, set definite limits to the field of choice. The data and the events which they thus ' approximately determine are as follows: On Paul's own testimony he escaped from Damascus in the time of a certain '' Aretas the king " (II Cot. xi. 32), who must be the Nabatsean Aretas IV. (see Aretas). From inscriptions and coins it is gath- ^' ™*^* ered that the forty-eighth year of the DamMous. ^^^ ^^ *^ Aretas IV. was 39 or 40 A.D. (cf. Gutschmid in J. Euting, Nabaldische Inschriften, pp. 84-85, 87-88, Berlin, 1885). Manifestly no terminus a quo is furnished herein, and a terminus ad quern only in the doubtful case that the forty-eighth year of Aretas' reign was the last. Nevertheless it is a common assumption on this basis that the flight from Damascus took place before 40 and the conversion (which occurred three years before the flight; Gal. i. 17-18; Acts ix. 23-28) before 37 a.d. (see § 6, below). The facts known which bear on the end of Aretas* reign are (1) that his successor. Abias, ruled under Claudius (41- 54 A.D.); and (2) that Abias' successor, Malchus II. (called III. by Qutsohmid) reigned c. 49-71 a.d. The " governor [Qk. ethnarcMa\ under Aretas the king *' of II Cor. xi. 32, is generally supposed to have been an official appointed by Aietas over Damascus and contiguous territory, and hence it is inferred that Damascus at the time of the flight belonged to t^ realm of Aretas. Both suppositions are conjectural. It is more probable that the ethnaroh of Aretas was a Bed- ouin chieftain subject to the Nabatauui king, who with his tribe invaded Damascene territory and lay in wait for Paul before the city gate (of. T. Zahn, in NKZ, 1904, pp. 34 sqq.). The expression " ^e city of the Damasoenes *' (II Cot. xi 32) seems to show that Damascus at this time did not be- long to Aretas. The theory that Damascus was given to the NabatflBans by Caligula (consequently after the death of Tiberius, Mar., 37 a.d.) and was taken away iTova them by Nero (consequently after Oct., 54 a.d.) has no other suppcHi than the inconclusive fact that no inscriptions or coins are known which show that Damascus belonged to the Roman empire in the yeara 35-62 a.d. That it did not belong to Aretas c. 35-37 a.d. seems a sound conclusion from the si- l^ice of Josephus concerning such a relation inAnL Xviii., vi 3, and v. 3. [But see Nabatjbans IL, | 2.] In Acts xi. 30, there is mentioQ of a joum^ of Paul and Barnabas from Antioch to Jerusalem, carrying contributions for the relief of the brethren in Judea. The narrative is then interrupted by an account of events in Jerusalem and of a!^^ Palestine, including the death of Herod zi 80. Agrippa I., and is resumed in Acts xii. 25, with the return of Paul and Barna- bas to Antioch. From Joeephus it is gathered that Agrippa died in 44 a.d. It was Passover time (Acts xii. 3) ; hence the journey occurred about the Pass- over of 44 A.D. It was probably after the Passover, but not very long. From this datum the begin- ning of the association of Paul and Barnabas may be determined. They labored together in Antioch ''a whole year" (Acts xi. 26); if at the end of this year ^e journey took {daoe which interrupted their work in Antioob, it was after the Passover of 43 a.d. that Barnabas broii^t Paul from Tarsus (Acta xi. 26-26); at any rate before the end of 43 a.d. 899 Paul the Apostle Joaephua iftys that Agjippt^ died thrae 3r«an after he b^ came long of aU Judea {War, U„ zL 6; ArU., XIX.. viii. 2); ooDsequenUy at the earliest in Feb., 44 a.d., since he re- ceived " his whole paternal kingdom ** from Claudius im* mediately after the latter's accession (Jan. 24, 41 a.d.; War, XL, xi. 5; AfU., XIX.* v. 1). Furthermore, he died at a time of special festivitiee because of the emperor's " safety " (Ant., XIX., viii. 2), which must refer to Claudius' safe re- turn from Britain at the beginning of 44 a.d. Two or three months were required for the news of the emperor's return to reach Palestine and for the preparations for the festivi- ties. Hence the year 44 a.d. is well attested as that of the death of Agrippa, and the time of year indicated by Acts is quite consistent with Josephus. The events recorded in Acts zii. 1-19, can hardly have occurred while Paul and Barnabas were in Jerusalem, since the two apostles do not seem to have been involved in them; and if these events and the death of Agrippa (Acts zii. 20-24) occurred i^ter the journey, the natured place to relate them would be after Acts xii. 25 (or before xv. 1). The date of the famine in Palestine was probably 46-^48 a.d. But the determination of the Antiochians to send relief to Judea was formed be- cause of a prophecy foretelling " great dearUi throughout all the world " before the event (Acts zi. 27-20). In 41- 43 A.D. there were harvest failures in different parts of the empire, which may well have been regarded as the begin- ning of the fulfilment of the prophecy (cf. T. Zahn, Einr leUung, ii. 417, 633 sqq., Leipsic, 1900). Seiigius Paulus, proconsul of Cyprus when Paul and Barnabas visited the island as recorded in Acts xiii. 4-13, is undoubtedly the proconsul Paulus of a Greek inscription of Soloi (D. G. Hogarth, Devia Cypria, p. 114, Oxford, 1889; cf. NKZ, 1904, pp. 192 sqq.) and the Lucius Sei^gius Paulus 3. First of CILf vi. 31, 545. He governed Uiaaioziary CJyprus before 53 a.d., the date of the Journey, inscription of Soloi, but was not the proconsul of 52 or 51. If he was the proconsul of 50, he would have been in office in the spring of 51 a.d., and this date is the terminus ad quern of the beginning of Paul's first missionary journey. The inscription CIL, vi. 31, 545, is prob- ably earlier than the proconsulship of Sergius Paulus, since his name appears there in a subordinate posi- tion which would not be likely if he had filled so important an office before the inscription was writ- ten; but since the date of this second inscription is uncertain, no satisfactory ierminua a quo is furnished herein. In 52 A.D. Lucius Annius Bassus was proconsul of Cyprus (C/G, 2632). His predecessor was Quhitus Julius (>ordus (CIO, 2631). Gatti. the fint editor of CIL, vi. 31, 545, with impropriety assumed that it was later than the censorship of CHaudius (Apr., 47-Oct., 48 a.d.; cf. Pro^opographia, iii. 221, Berlin, 1898; Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyklopddie, iv. 1793). Paul's first visit to Corinth was made at a time when Aquila had lately come thither in consequence of an edict of Claudius expelling all Jews from Rome (Acts xviii. 1-2). The time of this edict can not be 4 First ^^^^y determined, but it was not Visit issued during the first years of Claudius. to Oorinth. ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^•^* Claudius granted to the Jews in Alexandria, in Rome, and in the empire the free exercise of their religion, with admonitions not to abuse the privilege (Josephus, Ant., XIX., V. 2-3; Dio Casdus, LX., vi. 6). Fail- ure to heed this advice and tumultuous disturbances of the peace ultimately brought about their expul- lion from Rome (Suetonius, Claudius, xxv.). Dio Casfldus doubtless had this later edict in mind when he adds to the year 41 " he did not drive them out,'' and had he known that it was issued immediately he would have mentioned it. The conclusion is that Paul first went to Corinth between 45 and 54 A.D. He stayed there eighteen months, during which time (or part of it) Gallio was proconsul ci Achaia (Acts xviii. 11-12). Attempts to determine the date of Gallio's proconsulship have failed (cf. Ramsay in the Expositor, Mar., 1897, pp. 201 sqq.; Sch(irerinZTFr,1898,p.41; H6nnicke,pp268qq.). When Paul was arrested in Jerusalem (Acts xxi. 7 sqq.) Felix was procurator of Judea (Acts xxiii, 24); after two years he was succeeded by Porcius Festus (Acts xxiv. 27). Holtzmaim, Blass, Har- nack, and others have argued lately in favor of 54, 55, or 56 a.d. as the date of this change 5. Arrest in of officials. But so early a date is Jemsalem. inconsistent with clear and unques- tioned statements of the historians, especially Josephus, who is the classic authority for the history of Palestine from 50 to 70 a.d., and the older opinion is to be preferred, placing the recaU of Felix and the assumption of office by Festus probably in 60, possibly in 59 or 61 a.d. Tlie arrest occurred in 57, 58, or 59, probably in 58 a.d. The earlier date rests upon the chronicle of Eusebius — a secondary authority. Eusebius, however, appears to have thought that Felix held office from 51 or 52 to 56, Festus from 56 to 61, and Albinus (the successor of Festus) from 61 to 64 A.D. Josephus (War, II., xii. 8; Ant., XX., vii. 1) makes it plain that Felix was sent to Palestine toward the end of the reign of Claudius — in his twelfth or thirteenth year (53 a.d.), if an inference may be made from the con- nection of the latter passage. The inference is supported by the fact that Josephus places his account of Felix's pro- curatorship (War, II., xiii. 2-7; Ant., XX., viii. &-«) after the accession of Nero (War, II., xii. 8; Ant., XX., viii. 2). Furthermore, Josephus says the emperor sent Felix after Quadratus had removed Oimanus just before a Passover (War, II.. xii. 6, 8). From Tacitus (Annalea, xii. 52-54) the year when Cumanus was removed app^trs to have been 52 A.D. (see Feux akd Fbstds). The interval from the . Passover of 52 a.d. to the close of navigation in the autumn of the same year seems very short for all that is related by Josephus (War, II., xii. 6-8; Ant., XX., vi. 2-vii. 1. ix. 5) between the removal of Cumanus and the arrival of Felix in Palestine; for this reason also the spring of 53 a.d. is the more probable date for the latter event. When Paul first appeared before Felix the latter had been in office " many years " and he continued two years longer (Acts xxiv. 10, 27; cf . " already for a long time [jam pridem] governor of Judea," Tacitus, Annalea, xii. 54). It is hard to reconcile this with the term of only four or five years assigned by the chronicle. The statement of Josephus (Ant., XX., viii. 9) that Felix, after he had been replaced by Festus, escaped punishment through the influence of his powerful brother, Pallas, can be made to support the new chronology only by assimiing that Josephus believed the recall of Felix, the despatch of Festus. and the accusation of the Jews in Rome all to have occurred before the downfall of Pallas (Feb., 56 A.D.). But this means that Josephus believed that FeUx ruled only about three and one-half months under Nero (from Oct. 13. 54, to Feb.. 55 a.d.), and yet he places the greater part of Felix's procuratorahip under Nero. It means also that the voyages of Felix, Festus, and the Jewish em- bassy were all made in the winter months. It is inconsistent with the account in Acts, which shows clearly that FeUx was replaced by Festus, not in the winter, but in the sum- mer (between Pentecost and September; Acts xx. 6, 16, xxiv. 11. 27. xxv. 1. 6, 13, 14, 23, xxvii. 1, 9). And, lastly, it makes Felix's term of office too short. The statement about Pallas in Ant., XX., viii. 9, may be an error (so Bacon in the Expontor, Feb.. 1898, p. 135; Zahn. Einleitung, IL 640); or, possibly, Pallas regained influence after Feb., 55 a.d. (cf. Schdrer, i. 578). There is independent evidence that Felix ruled during the first years of Nero. (1) The " Egyptian " of Acts xxi. 38 belongs to the reign of Nero and the proouxatorahip of Felix (Josephus, War, U., ziiL Paul the Apostle 400 5; Ant., XX.. viii. 0); he was anterior to Paurs arrait (Aeti XXL. 38), after which Felix remained in office two full years (Acta zziv. 27). (2) In his twenty-eixth year, that is, in the spring or summer of 64 a.d., Joeephus went to Rome to attempt the release of certain priests who had been sent thither by Fdix for trial before the emperor (Lt/e, iii.; for the date. lAfe, i.; Ant. xii., 1. xi. 3); it is incredible that men were kept waiting for trial eight or even ten years, as they must have been if Felix was recalled before the down- faU of Pallas. Festus died in office, probably in the first half of 62 A.D.. since Albinus appears to have reached Pales- tine in September or October of that year (Joeephus. AtU., XX.. ix. 1-3; War, VI.. v. 3; the date is fixed, if. as is probable, the feast of tabernacles mentioned in the latter passage is the same as " the festival *' of AnL, XX., ix. 3). His term of office was short (Joeephus, War, II.. xiv. 1; AnL, XX.. viii. 9-11)— an additional reason for placing the re- call of Felix later than 54 or 66 a.d. With due considera- taoo of all the data, this event must be dated either in 69, 60. or 61 A.D. The year named last is least probable, be- cause it makes Festus rule less than one year (summer of 61-firBt half of 62 a.d.) — an event which Joeephus would hardly have suffered to pass unnoticed. Furthermore, the clause with tdi atratoptdarchei in undoubtedly to be retained in Acts xxviii. 16 (cf. Zahn, EinUUung, pp. 390-391), and implies that when Paul arrived in Rome there was but one pnetorian prefect, which was not the case after the death of Bumis near the beginning of 62 a.d. If Festus assumed office in the summer of 61. Paul must have reached Rome after the middle of Mar., 6i2; and at this time both sucoes- son of Bumis were in office. The year 60 is preferable to 59 since it makes the ** many years of Acts xxiv. 10. five and one-half instead of four and one-half, and only on the aasumpticm that the arrest took place in 68 a.d. can II Cor. xii. 2 be made to fit in with the certain date of Acts xi. 25 (see S 2, above). Assuming that the arrest took place at Pentecost of 58 A.D., reckoning can be carried back to the Apostolic Council at Jerusalem (q.v.) with consid- erable certainty, partly by the help of statements like Acts xviii. 11, xix. 8-10, xx. 3, 6, 31, and hints in the epistles (I Cor. xvi. 8; II Cor. ^^n. ^- 1^' «• 2; etc.), partiy by esti- mating the length of time required for the events recorded and the time of year in which they occurred. Thus it appears that the Apostolic Council was held in the winter of 51-52, probably at the beginning of 52 a.d. Reckoning backward from this point and assuming that Gal. ii. 1-10, corresponds to the events of Acts xv. 1-33, and that the three years of Gal. i. 18 are not included in the fourteen years of Gal. ii. 1. it appears that Paul was converted seventeen years before the Apostolic Council — that is, in the winter of 34-35, probably near the beginning of 35 a.d. The " new chro- nology," which puts the conversion in the year of Jesus' death, fails to allow sufficient time for the important events of Acts i.-viii. and is inconsistent with the uniform representation of the conversion as relatively late. 2. Period before Oonverslon: According to his own statement, recorded in the Acts (xxii. 3; cf. ix. 1 1, xxi. 39), Paul was bom in Tarsus. His Juda- izing opponents, perhaps as early as the second century. Inferred from this that his parents were heathen (Epiphanius, Hcer., XXX., xvL 25). Mod- em historians surmise that he was a Hellenist. When he declares himself a " Hebrew of the He- brews" (Phfl. iii. 5; cf. II Cor. xi. 22), he does not contradict this, since what he has in mind is his ability to speak the language of the Palestinian and Syrian Jews (i.e., the current Aramaic). He was a Pharisee, descended from a line of Pharisaic ances- tors (Acts xxiii. 6, where the reading is the " son of Pharisees," not " of a Pharisee "; cf. Phil. iii. 6; GaL i. 13-14). Since the distinction of Pharisee and Sadducee is not heard of in the diaspora, this fact indicates that Paul's family maintained con- nections with the mother-land, and he appears to have had a married sister living in Jerusalem (Acts xxiii. 17). He was educated in Jerusalem in the school of Gamaliel the Elder, the grandson of Hillel (Acts xxii. 3). He inherited Roman citizenship from his father (Acts xxii. 28) and had also the rights of a citizen of Tarsus (Acts xxL 39). Following Jewish custom, his father doubtless gave him the name of Saul when he was cireumciaed (PhiL iiL 5), perhaps after the first king of Israel, as tiie family belonged to the tribe of Benjamin (Rom. xL 1; Phil. iii. 5). As son of a Roman citizen he necessi- rOy had also a Roman name — doubtless prsnomen, nomen, and cognomen. As the cognomen was the usual designation (cf. Caesar, Cicero, etc.), it is not strange that it alone (Paulus) has been preserved. He was doubtless called Saul by Jews after as well as before conversion, while as a Roman and mission- aiy to the Gentiles he was always PauL The change from Saul to Paul in Acts xiii. 9, is perhaps due to a change in soiutses. Paul's personal i^pearanoe seems to have been unimposing (Acts xiv. 12; IT Cor. X. 10), perhaps a consequence of the bodily affliction to which he refers in II Cor. xiL 7-10; Gal. iv. 13-14 (cf. U Cor. iv. 7-18). Whatever this affliction was — severe neurasthenia, malaria, eye- trouble, or even epilep^ (cf. Zahn, EvnUitwng, L 122) — ^he seemed sometimes one smitten by God and beset by an evU spirit He appears to have aged early. He never married (I Cor. viL 7-8, ix. 5). In his student days, doubtless, according to rab- binic custom, he learned the trade by which he supported himself later (I Thess. ii. 9; II Thees. iii. 8; I Cor. iv. 12, ix. &-8; II Cor. xL 7-12, xii. 14-18; Acts xviii. 3, xx. 34). The Greek skenopoiM (Acts xviii. 3) means a " maker of tent-material "; and Paul was a tanner rather than a weaver. The older translators and oonmientatore knew well that the tents of Corinth and Ephesus were made of leather and uniformly classed Paul among the woricers in leather. That the weaver's trade was of ill repute in Jerusalem is decisive on this point Paul won distinction in Gamaliel's school (Gal. i. 14); and this, no doubt, led to his prominence in the exe- cution of Stephen and brou^t him later the com- mission to persecute the Nazarenes (Acts vii. 58, viii. 1, 3, ix. 1-2, 14, xxii. 4-^, xxvi. 9-11). As Christian, Paul looked back upon this time with sorrow and regret (I Cor. xv. 8-9; Gal. L 13-14; Phil. iii. fr-9; Eph. iii. 8; I Tim. i. 12-16) and ap- preciated the contrast between his pharisaic and his Christian piety and mode of thought; but he always recognized a connection between the two. Like the best of his people who rejected the Grospel, he was actuated by an honest striving after ri^teousness, a zeal for God, and an impulse to spread his own conviction and knowledge. As a Christian he was still a Pharisee (cf . Acts xxiii. 6) and a disciple of the rabbis in life, in handling of Scripture, in seal for proselytizing (cf. Matt, xxiii. 15), and also in faith and hope. Passages like Phil. iiL 3-14; Gal. L 401 Paul the Apoflito 13-15, show that Paul was not ashamed of his earlier pharisaic life. 8. OpnTeraion and Preparation for Miaeionary Servloe: Paul's conversion was no gradual devel- opment, but a sudden and violent rupture with all his past thinking and activity; the light broke upon him, not like the dawn of day, but as a lightning flash, which revealed the glory of God shining in the face of Christ (II Cor. iv. 6) and at the same time illumined all other things and displayed his previous striving in its true character (II Cor. v. 16 sqq.; Phil. ii. 7-10). He cites his pharisaic training and bias as proof that his faith and understanding of the Gospel were not due to human agency, but were a direct revelation of Christ (Gal. i. 11-16). He gives no information in his writings concerning the out- ward media and circumstances except that inunedi- ately after the event he went to Arabia and Damascus (Gal. i. 17). He saw a vision {optasia, Acts xxvi. 19), which resembled other visions in that the super- sensuous was perceived by the senses; but both Paul and the Acts (ix. 3-18, xxii. fr-16, xxvi. 9-20) dis- tinguish it sharply from all later ^' revelations," " visions," and " trances " (Gal. ii. 2; I Cor. xii. 1-4; Acts xvi. 9, xviii. 9, xxii. 17-21, xxiii. 11, xxvii. 23) as something unique. Paul believed that he actually saw Jesus as the older disciples had seen him after his resurrection (I Cor. xv. 8) and that for this reason his apostolate, like theirs, rested on personal intercourse with the Lord (I Cor. ix. 1). He received the call to preach at this time (Acts ix. 15, xxii. 15, xxvi. 16-18); but nothing is said about a command to begin at once or a mission exclusively to the Gentiles (cf. the present, euangelizOmaif in- stead of the future, etuingdialhnai, in Gal. L 16). The latter was first committed to him three years later (Acts xxii. 21), and he preached first to the Jews in Damascus, Jerusalem, and Judea (Acta ix. 20, 27, 29, xxvi. 20). After three years in Damascus, during which Paul doubtless received from the Christians in the city such in- struction as he needed in the Gospel tradition, he returned to Jerusalem (Acts ix. 23-28; Gal. i. 18). Conditions there were more favorable than they would have been earlier. Caiaphas, who had given Paul his conmiission as persecutor (Acts ix. 1-2), had been removed from office, and ViteUius had suc- ceeded Pilate and established better government (36 A.D.). Nevertheless, the renegade naturally encountered hatred, and the coimsel of the Jerusa- lem Christians and a divine command determined him to leave Palestine and go to the home of his boyhood (Acta ix. 29-30, xxii. 17-21; Gal. i. 21). If Paul was converted in the beginning of 35 and went to Antioch in the summer of 43 a.d. (see 1, §§2, 6, above), he must have remained in Tarsus more than five years. There is no reason to believe that he traveled in Cilicia and Syria or that he preached to the Gentiles in Tarsus. It was a time of waiting and preparation for the future. He now understood his mission to the Gentiles (Acts xxii. 21); and it was natural that he should devote him- self to study preparatory to that woric. He was oaUed from his retirement by Barnabas and resumed active work in Antioch (Acts xi. 25-26). Accord- ing to the chronology here followed, the experiences Vm.— 26 described in II Cor. xii. 1-5 occurred in or before the autumn of 43 a.d., and doubtless they contributed to his decision to go to Antioch with Barnabas. 4. Paul the MleaJonary; It is impossible here to follow Paul's far-reaching missionary journeys or to depict his work, surpassing all previously accomplished for the spread of Christianity, in detail; no more will be attempted than a characterization of the work. Paul's teaching in Antioch (Acts xi. 26, xiii. 3) from the summer of 43 to about the spring of 50 A.D. was essentially missionary work. It resulted even in the first year in so notable acces- sions to the already flourishing congregation, espe- cially of Greeks, that the Antiochians coined the name '' Christians " in distinction from the synar gogue (Acts xi. 19-26). If the visit of Peter to Antioch, mentioned in Gal. ii. 11-14, is rightly placed in this time (cf. NKZ, 1894, 435-448), it shows that Paul already had the conception of the Gospel and of the principles to be followed in a Gen- tile congregation which he developed later in the epistles. When he was sent out to preach by the Antioch congregation (Acts xiii. 2-4) he felt himself an apostle according to the original meaning and current application of the word — one commissioned by Christ to preach the Gospel to non-believers. Barnabas accompanied him and worked with him at this time, and he had other associates in this journey and later ones. The methods and princi- ples which Paul followed are seen in this first missionary journey (Acts xiii. 4, xiv. 26). The evangelists went rapidly from town to town and district to district, avoiding the smaller places and preaching only in the laige cities. In the larger cities there were generally Jewish congregations and synagogues, and many Gentiles who " feared God " (Acts xiu. 16, 26, 42, 43) were in the habit of attending the Sabbath services. Thus there was opportunity to preach to both Jews and Gentiles; it is a mistake to think that Paul from the very first interpreted his mission to the Gentiles as exclusive of the Jews. Another principle was the consistent refusal of all material support. It was customary for traveling preachers to accept the freely offered gifts of those among whom they tarried, and Paul recognized their right to receive (I Cor. ix. 4-18) and emphasized the duty of the congregations to support their permanent teachers (Gal. vi. 6; I Tim. V. 17-18). But for himself he wished to avoid all appearance that his preaching was a profit-bringing business (I Cor. ix. 18; I Thess. ii. 3-12). Yet he did not refuse contributions offered in a spirit like his own to meet the expenses of journeys to spread the Gospel, or to solicit for his personal needs when, as in imprisonment, he could not work at his trade (II Cor. xi. 8; Phil. i. 3-7, ii. 25-30, iv. 10-19). In nothing is Paul's good sense more ap*^ arent than in his readiness to invoke the aid of the jivil authori- ties and to claim his legal rights as a Roman citizen when attacked by the Jews or the heathen popu- lace; and in noteworthy instances he found efficient protection (Acts xvi. 36-39, xxii. 25-29, xxiii. 27, XXV. 9-12, xxvi. 32). While petty officials some- times showed a disposition to cuny popular favor, it was Paul's good fortime that most of the higher representatives of the Roman government with Paul the Apostle 402 whom he had to deal were intelligent and well-mean- ing men. His favorable judgment of the Roman order (Rom. xiii. 1-7; I Tim. ii. 2) was fomided on personal experience. Lastly, Paul's office as mis- sionary and true apostle imposed the duty of organ- izing ^e new congregations which he founded, and of watching and guiding their development. The duty carried with it the right to command (I Cor. vii. 10-13, 17, xi. 17, 34, xiv. 37, xvi. 1; I Thess. iv. 2, 11; II Thess. iii. 4-12) and demanded an obedience which was not always accorded (II Cor. ii. 9, X. 5-6; II Thess. iii. 14). But the relation of the congregations to their founder was that be- tween paternal authority and child-like reverence (I Cor. iv. 14 sqq.), and Paul, in accordance with his conviction that freedom is an inalienable character- istic of (Christian morality, left no means imtried to convince of the necessity and wisdom of his opinions, recommendations^ and ordinances. His command and skilful use of alignment, pathos, and irony are evident in his epistles; the correspondence with the unruly Church of Corinth, which is not wholly preserved, gives the best picture of this side of Paul's burdensome work, and shows also how, thou^ absent, he cooperated in local church discipline without imposing his opinion as the only one valid (I Cor. v. 1^; II Cor. ii. 1-11, vii. 2-12). 6. Oonteatwlth Judaism: When the Gospel was first offered to the Gentiles there were some in the mother congregation at Jerusalem who found it hard to accept such as fellow believers (Acts xi. 2-3). Men of this type came to Antioch while Paul and Barnabas were absent on the first mission- ary journey and endangered the growth, if not the very existence, of the Gentile congregation there by teaching that circumcision and full observance of the Mosaic law were essential to salvation (Acts XV. 1). The Apostolic Council at Jerusalem (q.v.) followed and repudiated the teaching of these Judaizers (Acts xv. 2-29; Gal. ii. 1-10), but they continued active. They visited the South Galatian churches while Paul was on his way to Europe on the second missionary journey and produced an effect there which threw Paul, when he heard of it, into the state of agitation and indignation in which the epistle to the Galatians was written. It must not be assumed that the Judaizers were insincere. They were Pharisees (Acts xv. 5) ; and they doubted as little as any Pharisee (Matt, xxiii. 16; Rom. ii. 17-20) that it was the duty of the Jews to open to all men the way of salvation revealed to them. They preached Jesus in their way (II Cor. xi. 4) and zealously. But they asserted that Gentiles, in order to be Christians, must first become Jews. Herein lay the ground of controversy between them and Paul; and Paul entered the contest with a strenuousness and carried it through with a fer- tility of resource which won him the victory. Appealing to his own experience and that of all upright Christians of Je^^^sh origin (Gal. ii. 15-21; Rom. vii. 1-6; cf. Acts xv. 7-11) and to the results of his labors as divine commendation, he character- ized the contention of the Judaizers as a misunder- standing of the law and all pre-Christian history, as a perversion of the Gospel, and as a mischievous attack not merely on the Gentile Christians but even on the true freedom of all Christians (GaL ii. 4). None the lees he refrained from criticizing Jewish Christians for observing the law and con- formed to it himself. The first period of the con- test was closed by the decision of the Apostolic Council (in the winter of 51-52 a.d.) that, instead of the uniformity demanded by the Judaizers, there should be a Gentile Church and a Jewish Church. Thenceforth Paul did not lack the ^proval and support of the Jerusalem Church, or at least of its leaders. But attempts, always emanating from Palestine, continued to be made to undermine his work and disparage him personally. Judaizers ap- peared in Galatia, in Corinth, in Rome, and no doubt elsewhere. Distorted reports about Paul (cf. Acts xxi. 21) inflamed feeling against him, and his adversaries were able to cite in their favor with some apparent reason the example and teaching of Jesus (cf. Matt. v. 17-19) and the practise of the Jerusalem Church. He felt it of the highest impor- tance to right himself in Palestine, so far as he could, by visiting Jerusalem before he transferred his activity to the West, and he went thither with a large sum of money for the poor, cc^lected in the congregations which he had foimded, and attended by an imposing array of deputies from the Macedo- nian, Asian, and Galatian churches (Acts xx. 4, xxL 29; II Cor. viii. 16-24). He evidently wished to show that the Gentiles whom he had converted regarded the original congregation with grateful love and hoped to convince the non-believing Jews that he was not devoid of empathy with his suffer- ing people (cf. Acts xxiv. 17; Rom. xv. 31). 6. Paul's Gospel and Theology: Paul deemed but one Gospel worthy of the name and called it indifferently the Gospel (or testimony or word) of God (Rom. i. 1; I Cor. ii. 1; I Thess. ii. 13; etc.), and of Jesus or Christ or the Lord (Gal. i. 7; I Cor. i. 6; Col. iii. 16; etc.). The genitive in each case is subjective, indicating the originator. Paul's Gospel was the " Gospel of God " because it was a message sent by God into the worid and because God spoke to men throu^ human preachers and called them to salvation (Rom. viii. 30; II Cor. v. 19-20; Gal. i. 6; I Thess. iu 12-13); andit was also the " Gospel of Christ " because Christ was the first preacher of this Gospel (£!ph. ii. 17) and con- tinues to offer salvation to men through his ambas- sadors (II Cor. V. 20; Gal. iv. 14). AD apostles truly ctdled preach this Gospel (Rom. i. 1-5; I Cor. XV. 11), and wherever conversions result it is the true Gospel which is preached (RcHn. vi. 17; Eph. i. 13-16; Col. i. 7). When he speaks of a " go^ of the circumcision " and *^ of the uncircumcision " (Gal. ii. 7-8), Paul means different forms of one and the same Gospel — not different Gospels fw Jews and Gentiles, but different methods of preaching. The Gospel of the uncircimicision was specially committeid to Paul, and because of this unique com- mission and the far-reaching extent of his missionary labors, he .is preeminently the apostle to the Gen- tiles and the Gospel which he preaches is his Gospel (Rom. ii. 16, xvi. 25; II Tim. ii. 8); though he does not deny that others recognized the need of preaching to the Gentiles and fulfilled the duty before him (Eph. iii. 5-6). Paul had a theology distinctly BEUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Paul the Apostle his own, not indeed elaborated into complete and final systematic form, but nevertbeleaa a general conceptjoa of the revelation of God In Christ, the prepamtion for it, and its consequences resting on coDsistent |.h inking and well grounded in lU main principles. He was by training and knowledge Ilie only theologian in the modern sense of the word among the apoatles. But he waa not led to the Cbristmu failij and life by study, but tore versa. His theology was experiential knowledge inter- preted by the light of the geneml evolution an he saw it in the Old-Tcatament bistciry, in the appearance of the historical Christ, in the religious antitheses of bis time, and in the world of culture and civiliza- tion. This is seen moat clearly in his doctrine of the law, of sin, and of justification. It lias not always been sufficiently recognized that Paul's teaching has much in common with that of Jeaua and the Apos- tolic Church. For example, his conception of tlie righteousness (rf Gmi (Rom. i. 17, iii. 21-22, x. 3; 11 Cor, V. 21; Phil. iii. 9) is fully imderetood only when the fact is properly appreciated that Jesus (Matt. vi. 33) and James (i. 20) spoke of a divine righteousness contrasted with one merely apparent attainefl by human woriis. As the great preacher to the Gen- tiles, Paul remained in high honor and his epistles were added to the Gospels as the foundation of the New-Testament ooaon. His teaching was dominant in the sub-apostolic Church and the entire pre- reformatioQ Church. Marcion was the only one who felt that Paul's doctrine was peculiar and tried to distinguish it sharply from other Christian thinking; and Marcion misunderstood Paul fun- damentally. 7. FbqI the Martyr: Paul's epistles throw no light on the events beginning with his arrest in Jerusalem at Pentecost, 58 a.d., and ending with his arrival in Rome nearly three years later (see 1, i 5, above), and what is known of this period is 1 stKtad '^^"^*** solely from the last eight Faota chapters of the Acta. Mommsen (pp. 87 sqq.) has found the narrative trust- worthy when tested by knowledge of Roimiii crimi- nal law and procedure and has even pronounced it a unique and valuable commentary on other sources. Paul was attacked in the temple by a turbulent crowd (iiwligal«d by the Jews "of Asia," Acts xxi. 27) and was saved from summaiy mob ven- geance by the intervention of the Roman chiliarch, Lysias. To escape examination by scourging Paul declared himself a Roman citizen, and Lysias then accorded him speedy trial in presence of his accusers and found no offense which called for death or im- prisonment. The highest Jewish authority, how- ever, preferred a capital charge against a Roman citiaen, and in such a case the chiliarch had no jurisdiction; so he sent Paul to the procurator, Felix, at Cieaarea. Again the accused had prompt trial (" after five days," Acta xxiv. 1) and no crime was proved. Further investigation (Acts xxiv. 22-26) must have removed any doubts that Feli-t may have had of Paul's innocence. But he delayed to pronounce final judgment, which must have set the prisoner at liberty, and Paul was still confined when Felix was succeeded by Festue two years later. The Jews made baste to press their charge before Festus, whereupon Paul availed himself uf tbe right to have bis cause beard in Rome by an appeal to Ca?aar. Accordingly be was sent to Rome, being well treated on the way (cf. tbe entire narrative. Acta xvii. 1 sqq.), was put in chaige of the praetorian prefect (at the time tbe excellent Afranius Burrus; see 1, S 5, above), and was permitted to live for the next two years in his own hired house, to receive freely all who came to see him, and to preach with- out hindrance. Here the narrative of the Acts abruptly breaks off. The epistles to tbe Ephesians, Colosaians, and Philemon, which were written from confinement in Rome, confirm the account of the Acts without adding anything of importance. They name some of the devoted fellow workers who gathered about Paul (Col. i. 1, 7, iv. 7, 10-12, 14; Philemon 23-24; cf. Acta xxvii. 2) and show that his desire to preach tbe Gospel in Rome, expressed many years earlier (Rom, i. 9-16, xv. 22-29), was being abundantly fulfilled (Eph. vi. 19-20; Col. iv. 3; Philemon 10). Only in Philemon 22 ia there a bint that a trial is approaching. When the epistle to the Philippians was written Paul was also im- prisoned in Rome, but conditions were different. His case hod been taken up by the authorities but was not yet decided. The impression had gone forth that he was imprisoned solely be- cause of bis Cliristion faith and missionary preach- ing; others, both Paul's friends and some (Judaizers] who were actuated by " envy and strife," were preaching more zealously than ever (Phil. i. 12-18). This seems to imply that Paul was not allowed to preach himself, and also that the authori- ties were not disposed to adjudge Christian preaching criminal. Paul hopes to be acquitted (Phil. i. 10, 25, ii. 24). What the outcome was is nowhere told. If, however, the pastoral epistles are genuine, Paul was set free. For these lett«ia imply many facta which can not be fitted into PaiJ's earlier life and were, for the most part, contemporary with the let- 2 Frotetile **" "'^ happened shortly before they Oonjeoturea. "^ "^'''*°- They mention a visit to Crete(Tituei.^ 12), to Miletus. Tioas. and probably to Corinth (If Tim. iv. 13. 20). to Macedonia; and an intended visit to Epheaus ( I Tim. i.-l, iii. 14); the intention tospend the winter at Nicopolis in Epirus (Titus iii. 12). Furthermore, when II Timothy was written Paul bad been for some time in prison in Rome, but the conditions are not those of Acts xxviii. 30-31 , or of the epistle to the Philippians. A friend from Asio Minor bad foimd him only after diligent seeking and others had forsaken him (II Tim. i". 8-12, 15-18. ii. 9, iv. 10). There is no more mention of preaching, and Paul is convinced that his end is near (II Tiro. iv. 6-8, 18; iniv. 16-17 he says that at his " first answer," cf. Phil. i. 7. 16, the Lord delivered him to the end that he and no other should preach the Gospel to all the Gentiles). If it was Paul who wrote all this, bis first trial ended in acquittal, and then be not ordy revisited the eastern congregations but preached Christ, as he hod long desired to do (cf. Rom. xv, 24), in the West. The facts mentioned in II Timothy can hardly have been later inventions. Hence, even if the epiAtle be not genuine, it testifies to an acquittal and activity in the West. And this activity has Paul the Apostle 404 independent support in Roman tradition of about 90 or 100 A.D. The First Epistle of Gement (v.) says that Paul preached ** both in the East and West) . . . taught righteousness to the whole world, and came to the extreme limit of the West " before he suffered martyrdom in Rome. According to current usage " the extreme limit of the West " means Spain or the Atlantic Ocean (cf . Zahn, Ein- Miifi^, i. 441, 446-49). The same tradition appears in the Gnostic Acts of Peter about 160 or 170 (ed. R. A. Lipsius, Acta apostolanim apocrypha, i. 45-48, 51, 26, Leipsic, 1891), in the Muratorian Canon (q.v.; line 38), and in many later writings. It can not be based upon the pastoral epistles, since these speak only of renewed activity in the East or in general terms without specific designation of place, and say nothing of the West. And so early as 95 a.d. and in Rome, where the older members of the congre- gation must have had personal knowledge of the facts, it can hardly have been an inference from the desire to visit Spain expressed in Rom. xv. 22 sqq. The tradition of two imprisonments in Rome with an interval of missionary work between them is first connected with II Tim. iv. 16-17, by Eusebius (Hist, ecd. ii. 22), and the Spanish journey with Rom. XV. 24, 28, by Jerome, though not very defi- nitely (on Isa. xi. ed. Vallarsius, iv. 164; Ps. Ixxxiii., Anecdota Maredsolana, iii., 1895, pp. 2, 80). Against the historicity of the tradition there are neither positive statements of great antiquity nor hypotheses of convincing force. The abrupt ter- mination of the Acts does not necessarily indicate that Paul died at the end of the two years (Acts xxviii. 30-31); on the contrary, if the imprisonment terminated in a glorious martyrdom, the author would hardly have omitted so fitting a conclusion of his narrative. The sad words of Acts xx. 25 are not conclusive (cf. the confident tone of Phil. i. 19, 25, ii. 24). The assumption that Paul suffered in the persecution instituted by Nero after the burn- ing of Rome is improbable (1) on chronological grounds, because this persecution did not begin before the autumn of 64 a.d., and from the end of the two years (spring, 63 a.d.) to this time is too long an interval; (2) according to tradition never contradicted Paul was beheaded (Tertullian, Prce- scriptio, XXX vi.; Acts of Paul, ed. Lipsius, ut sup., pp. 112 sqq.) ; taking into account Tacitus, Annales, XV. 44, the hints in I Clement v., and Paul's Roman citizenship, it is almost incredible that he (like Peter, according to tradition equally old) can have been crucified. The Roman tradition which makes Peter and Paul both suffer on June 29 of the same year can prove at the most only that Paul (like Peter in all probability) suffered under Nero. But this tradition first appears in the fourth century and is a misunderstanding of a common festival of Peter and Paul which originally commemorated a translation of their relics on June 29, 258 (cf. Zahn, Einleitung, i. 454 sqq.). Even Augustine doubted this tradition because of another which made both apostles die on the same day of the year, but Paul in a later year than Peter. The old Acts of Peter (ed. Lipsius, ut sup., pp. 46, 3, 8) place his work and martyrdom in Rome in the same year which took Paul to Spain, therefore, earlier than Paul's death; and iTenseus, fdlowing a later tradition, set the death of Paul a full year after that of Peter (ASB, June, v. 423). The older witnesses — Clement, Dionjrsius of Gorinth, Irenseus, Tertullian — and Eusebius in the chronicle (Arme- nian text) display no exact chronological knowledge and are at one only in that both apostles died about the same time, and, so far as any indication is given of the emperor, under Nero. (T. Zabn.) XL Epistles. — 1. Preliminary C^uestioxLe: The canon of the New Testament ascribes fourteen let- ters to St. Paul. Of this number the epistle to the Hebrews (see Hebrews, Epistle to the) may be put aside. It can not possibly have been written by the apostle. By eveiy test of style and thought it belongs to some other writer. It can not be called Pauline even in a secondary sense, as if it had issued from a Pauline school deeply stamped by the mas- ter's mind. The reference to Timothy in xiiL 23 indicates that it was written by a man who belonged to the Pauline group. But in every way he was his own master. After a long and thorough debate it may be fairly said that the case against the Pauline authorship is closed. There remain thirteen letters passing under the apostle's name. As regards all of them, the exter- nal testimony is unanimous and continuous. Its 1 External ^^^® ^ heightened by the fact that Testimony ^® testimony of the Church in the ' second and following centuries, when it came to the epistle to the Hebrews, divided, East and West being at odds. But upon the other thirteen there was never a doubt. The second- century fragment called the Muratorian Canon (q.v.) ascribes them to Paul; and in all probability' it publishes the mind of the leaders of the Church of Rome. Marcion accepted all but the Pastorals. It seems probable that he foimd the thirteen letters at Rome assembled into a Pauline corpus. His treatment of them is not historical but dogmatic. Distinction must be made carefully between what the external evidence can and can not do. It makes no discriminations. The statistics of quotation vaiy. Certain epistles are more widely used than others. But this does not affect the testimony as a whole, which speaks about eveiy member of the group in the same tone and with the same emphasb, and is conclusive regarding the Pauline literature as a whole. It attests the existence of a man of vast religious genius and executive efficiency. But the external testimony has no value when it faces the new issues in the field of Biblical introduction. One of the assured re- sults of recent Old-Testament and New-Tes- tament work is a profound difference between S Internal °^^®"^ methods of authorship and Evidence. ^*®rary workmanship and the metiiods that underlie the main body of Holy Scripture. With us the author is a self-conscious individual. His book is his own, no one else's. He has property rights in it which the laws of copy- right insure and safeguard. But antiquity as a whole lacked this conception of authorship. The literary man was very apt to be a member of a school or gild. His writings or outgivings were not in any sense his own property, but the prc^ierty of the RELIGIOtra ENCYCLOPEDIA Paul tha AvoBtla commuoity to which he belonged. Their text waa preserved by the comro unity, in the hands of which it was in some degree piastic. PentateuchaJ criti- cism, Isainnic criticism, Homeric criticism, the study of Jewish aod Christiati apocalypses, the synoptic problem, the Jobannine problem, contribute an irreaiBtible volume of testimony to the fundamental difference between ancient authorship and modem authotdiip. When the external testimony to the PaiUine epistles, dating from the second half of the second eentuiy and the period following, is con- fronted by the results of this discovery, it becomes silent. When someLhing has been learned about the literary methods of the apostolic age, surprise does not follow when a New-Te«tament scholar affirms or suggests that one or another Pauline epistle has been worked over or, to use the modem term, edited by a member of the Pauline gild or school, a. group of men deeply infused with the apostle's spirit, who had caught, consciously or unconsciously, the secret of his style. Nor is one surprised when scholars assert that this or that epis- tle was written outright by one of Paul's disciples. When such questions arise, resort is not had to the external evidence to settle them. Internal evidence alone con help. Students are in the some case as tlie student of Plato or Aristotle when the genuineness of a given dialogue or treatise is ques- tioned, and have to meet the question as students of Philo meet the long-vexed question regarding the genuineness of the essay on the Therapeutic. Or, once more, investigators are on the same ground as the art-critjc who has to deal nith questions touch- ing the genuitieness of certain paintings issuing from the artistic school or family of Rubens. The internal testimony alone can help. They must study the letters as a whole, hnd out the deeper, the incommunicable quahlies of mind and spirit, and by them test the matter in hand. The first impression made on the reader by this body of letters is that their presence within the Holy Scriptures is an extraordinary tact without close parallel. The Catholic Epistles re not in the strictest sense tetters, they are more like homilies; they lack ^^^^ the twofold personal element, (he personal outgivings of an individual writer, an'l the personal presence before llie writer's mental vision of definite individuals and specilic localities. But tlie Pauline epistles for the most part are real letters, rich in personal feeling and color, and ^med at concrete and specific human groups. A recent group of scholars, the so-cidled Dutch school, has assailed the opinion common to both tradition and criticism regarding the Pauline authorship of the Corinthian and GiJatian and Roman letters. Even though the matter in question were for the moment conceded, wonder at the part played by the Pauline letters in the canon of Holy Scriptures would not be lessened. They would still remain, both in form and in spirit, true letters. The only possible parallel in the contents and structure of sacred books is the pronouncements of Mohammed in the Koran, and even this is remote. Mohammed's outgivings are consciously delivered as divine oracles ; they are oracular both in form 3. Character of EpliUea &■ B. Oolleo- and conlant. The Pauline letters, on the contrary, are true letters, drawn out by special occesiona, colored by definite situations. They are a unique element in the Christian Bible. The evidential value of this impression is heightened by the way in which the letters were preserved and after«-ard passed into a systematic collection. No matter who wrote them, the reason why the people to whom they were addressed kept them with such care was the belief that they bad been written by the Apostle Paul. His name gave them their standing. They came into the collection from widely separated congregations. In one case (Phil- emon) a family treasured a private letter and after- ward contributed it to the Church. As the Pauhne congregations were drawn into close relations «ith each other, the letters were copied and exchanged. Finally they were assembled, possibly in the first instance at Rome. Whoever wrote them, Paul's name preserved them. Therefore the very exist- ence of such ft body of letters, no matter how judg- ments regarding individual letters may fall out, is irresistible testimony to an immense and construct- ive personality, whose work and word were insep- arable from the existence and well-being of the Catholic Church, The questions of introduction pertaining to the Pauline letters can not be separated from the apos- tle's Ufe, He did not write easily. Possibly his habit of using a scribe or secretniy (Oal. vi. II; Rom, xvi, 22) was due to the fact that, shrinldng from writing, he sought to ease the burden. While it would be an over-statement to say tliat his letters were wnmg from him, there is a truth in il. He had not the writer's initiative, but was driven into literary expression by imperious need. His letters were instruments of government whereby he kept in his hand the reins of control and direction over the churches he had founded. The way in which they dovetail into his work is an essential part of the evidence in their favor. It may appear that this is argument in a circle, making use of the letters to know the man, and then using the man, his work, and his mind, to autben* ticale one or another letter. The Book of Acta can not give material help. Even 4. Not an though it be assumed that the Paul Argument of Acts and the Paul of the epistles are In a CUfole. not two Pauls, but one and the self- same Paul, with such difTerencee aa the time and place of writing and the mood of the writer rendered necessary, yet Acts, it is certain, knew nothing or little of the apostle's inner life, and its author seems to have made small use of the apostle's letters. Indeed, there are points where he writes as if he had not known or, knowing, had forgotten the letters. His story is intensely dru- matic. and has both the virtue and the limitation of that kind of history. The Book of Acts gives the framework of Paul's life, but it does not help when one is confronted by the introductions! prob- lems of our time, which can be solved only by the letters themselves. Consequently we seem to be moving in a circle. But the case is not so bad as it seems. In the first place, the problem here is not that of the genuineness of all the letters; the Fanl the Apoatle THE NEW SCHAFF.HERZCX5 406 letters are used as a whole to determine the Pau- line cast of thought and turns of style, in order to test certain letters which have been brought into serious question whether Paul can have written them or no. In the second place, the procedure is identical with the method used to determine the genuineness of certain dialogues of Plato or treatises of Aristotle. The Platonic corpus or the Aristotelian corpus gives the standard or canon by which the student judges the dialogues or treatises in question. The present situation is similar, since the process is that of testing one or another alleged part in the iight of the whole. The facts in the apostle's life that deeply concern the student of the Pauline epistles are these: (1) He was bom in Tarsus, of a distinguished and wealthy family. His father had possessed himself of Roman citizenship. (2) He went up to Jeru- TrMaf^SiL^ ^®™ ^ complete his education. He studied under Gamaliel (Acts xxii. 3). This would indicate that through his teacher he was open to liberal Judaism and so to Hellenism. But Acts ix. 1-2 and Gal i. 14 also indicate that he was a sealous Jew of the Pharisaic type. Probably, like some other men of genius, he did not clearly know himself, and so was drawn both ways. (3) He was an ardent persecutor of Christianity (Acts viii. 1, ix. 1-^; I CJor. xv. 9). (4) He was converted in an altogether extraordinary way. No great man ever underwent so violent and sudden a change. It is a striking testimony to his strength of will that his religious experience did not drive him into the ranks of the religiously insane. (5) The mental consequences of his conversion were twofold. The death of Jesus had struck at the heart of Jewish Messianism. Paul had shared the violent antipathy to it. His conversion, by the law of recoil, carried the death of the Messiah down to the roots of his being (I Ck>r. ii. 2). The popular Messianism, so far as he was concerned, went into bankruptcy (II Cor. v. 16). The other result was that the institutes of Judaism and Rabbinism became either adiaphora or worse (Gal. iv. 9). The practical motives, though unacknowledged, may have been as strong as the religious and nationalistic motive. Saul was a brilliant candidate for the honors of the rabbinate. But the new prophetism, which was the soul of the society of Jesus (cf. Peter's sermon in Acts ii.) threatened the entire rabbinical establishment with ruin. The magnificent corporation of scholars and lawyers and exegetes, with all the vested inter- ests both religious and social which they represented, was brought in peril. Saul the persecutor belonged to the school of Ezra, and Ezra's program was separatism. The prohibition of mixed marriages, the prohibition of table fellowship, these are the significant milestones in the advance of Ezra's policy. In Paul's time the program of Ezra had practically triumphed. Pharisaism was substan- tially synonjrmous with vital Judaism. The Macca- bean war had brought the Pharisaic party and plat- form into the clear light of day. Another great war, the war with Rome, would soon demonstrate that the heirs of Ezra held the power of the keys in Israel. This, then, was the total result of Paul's conversion. The program of Ejzra became un- timely, the institutes of Pharisaic Judaism were thrown on the scrap-heap. The other prime factor in Paul's mental development was his experience as a missionary. As a missionaiy to his own people, he was for the most part a failure. He was too radical in his views. His failure here may have been a part of the reason for his assent to the decision (Gal. ii. 9) dividing the missionary field. Shut up to the Gentile world, by a splendid stretch of the imagination he took the whde empire for his province (Rom. xv. 19, 24). He discovered the meaning and value of his Roman citisenship. The empire as a divinely ordained institution dawned upon him (Rom. xiii 1-6). Thus the two parts of the world he was to deal with in his thought were shaped and placed beside each other. His mind played between and over two historical mag- nitudes, the Empire and Israel. Finally, he was of an acutely sensitive temperament, ^s nervous system was finely organized; and possibly his " thorn " or " stake " in the flesh (II Cor. xiL 7; see I., 2, sup.) was some nervous disease. He re- ceived quick and deep impressions, which he or- ganized, not after the method of tlie phOoeopher or the S3rstematic theologian, but under the spur of necessity and the pressure of occasions. 2. First Ghronp: 'Die eaiiiest Pauline letters we possess were to the church at Thessalonica. Whether the apostle wrote earlier letters which have been lost is, possibly, an unanswerable question, though the fact that in I Thess. there is an order of thought, 1 I Th ^^ arrangement of material that per- ■alonians. ®^ through all the Pauline letters save Galatians, I Timothy, and Titus may seem to suggest an experienced hand. But so far as data go, I Theesalonians is the earliest Pauline letter. It was written from Corinth or its neighbor- hood (I Thess. iii. 1-6), in the course of the second missionary journey and not very long after the apos- tle had left Athens. Critical opinion regarding the letter has on the whole been very favorable. The fundamental characteristics of I ThessaJoniana are (1) A lively and insistent monotheism. Paul was the first great Jew since the exile to visit the poly- theist in his own home. Jewish orthodoxy became in him a prophetic passion for the divine unity. (2) An intense and lively belief in the parousia. Altogether, I Theesalonians gives an insight into the apostle's mind which seems to bring him fairiy close to the primitive Christian type of belief and emo- tion. This is interestingly illustrated by two spe- cific positions. First, the belief in the resurrection of Christ is here inseparable from the belief in the second coming: the masterhood of Christ is ex- pressed in terms of the divine control over history. But later on, as in Rom. i. 4, the resurrection is taken as the installation of Christ in his divine sonship. Secondly, the trilogy of I Corinthians xiii. 13 (faith, hope, love) here appears in its first edition, fsith, love, hope (I Thess. i. 3). The absence of the char- acteristic Pauline doctrines from the letter has been made much of by those who deny its genuineness. But this is due to an alliance between subjective Protestantism and critical methods. Protestant- ism, taking justification by faith to be an article on which the CSiuroh standa or falbi has frequeotljr Paul tba ApoRla csiried it out of its historical and constructive cod- tMrt. For Paul the supreme end whs the religious equality of Jew and Geutile (I Thess. ii. 15). This is his great and controlling theme. Everything else IB meajis to this end. And, conudcring the nature of his thought and realizing that he was not a 17a- tematic thinker but ralJier one who found himself only under serious preBBure, the contrast between I Thessalonians and the letters to the Golatians and Romans argues for I Thessalonians, not againat it. Paul's relation to Judaism is the controlling element in his life. But his mind was not academic; he did not seek to anticipate the issuea of history, hut he met them us they advanced against him. The Jews of Thesftalonica who subjected the Christians to humiliating social persecution were classed in Paul's mind with the Jews of the Holy Land who treated Palestinian Christians in the same way (I Thess. ii. 14-16). He did not dream that he would have to fight for his life as a Christian and an apostle, and that, too, on his own missionary field, and that his assailants would be fellow Christiana who found their backing in Palestine. II Thessalonians makes a different ahowing. Ever since critical atudy of this epistle began there has been a growing body of opinion which either denies the Pauline author^ip altogether or concludes that the text of a genuine Pauline letter has Buffered change. A comparison of It Thessalonians with I Thessalonians quickly reveals the reasona for the a □ Th ■ '''^^'*'"^s '° t''® standing of the two ■•Ionian^." '^"*"- ''^ II Theasaloni ana lacks the lii-ely monotheism which ia so charac- teristic ot I Thessalonians. Yet the former, if genuine, must have been written shortly after I Thessalonians, and the same characteriatics would be expected. In defense it ia alleged that II Thes- salonians was called out by the demoralizing and disintegniting effects of a one-sided belief in the porousia. Naturally the letter devotca itself wholly to that one point. (3) The letter is notably lacking in the personal element, by which is meant Paul's in- tense self-consciousnesa constantly breaking out into lively expression, and hia vivid impressions of con- crete situations and definite individuals. He was a bom pa£tor, and saw men not as treea walking. His idealism was not abstract but deeply concrete. The letter cont^ns just one personal touch (iii. 6-12), and affords no impression of the congr^ation at Tbeesalonica; it is practically in the class of He- brews and I John — a homily rather than a letter. (3) The warning against forged letters (ii. 2, Lii. 17) is a difficulty. The congregation at Thessa- lonicu was scarcely a year old, and it is difficult to see the possibility, much more the necessity, of such a warning, at so early a date, though it might have been in place later. (4) The climax of difficulty is reached in the little apocalypse, as it is often called (ii. 3-12). There are two elements here. One ia the conception of the Roman empire as a divine power holding down the Satanic forces and tend- encies of history, and preventing their breaking out into God-defying anarchism. It is an audacious departure from the beaten track of Jewish and Jew- ish-Christian apocalyptic, which in every known case takes the raw material for the problem of evil from the heathen world-powers. It needed the bold- ness of genius and a unique experience to break away from the fixed tradition. All this bespeaks Paul aa author (compare hia view of the Roman state in Rom. xiii. 1-7). But the second element in the passage in question raises a serious difficulty. Or- thodox Judaism, persecuting Christianity (ef. I Thesa. ii. 14-16), is depicted aa giving birUi to a monstrous power, the personification of lawlessness, that sets itself up in the Temple of Jerusalem as a deity, to be adored in the place of the true God. Could Paul, even in the white heat of argument and debate, have made such a diagnosis ? And ia there A wide gulf between this view and Romans ix.-jd., where Paul hopes that all Israel may be saved 7 The conservative defenders of IT Thessalonians take things easily here: they say that tile apostle out- grew this emotion. But the little apocalypse, taken in its context, clearly implies explicit thinking and more or leas systematic l«aclung (verse 5), some- thing more deeply rooted than a passing impression, a conviction as clearly thought through aa Paul'a view of the Roman state. Making all allowances for modem aveislon to New-Testament eschatology, the question arises, could Paul have shaped this con- ception of Judaism ? The style of the letter is thor- oughly Pauline. The passage in iii. 6-10 is charao- teristically Pauline in feeling. The view of the Ro- man state aa a divine power hohling evil in cheek suggests a date either before the Neronian persecu- tion or long after it. May it not be that this is a genuine Pauline letter worked over by a gentile Paulinlst, who incorporated In his picture the image set up by Daniel and the project ot Caligula to set up a gigantic statue of himself In the temple at Jerusalem ? a. 8«coad Groap; the " anadrilateral " : TIm second group of letters, I and II Corinthians, Gala- tians, Romans, is commonly called the " quadri- lateral." The name was given by Christian apri- ogetea to those letters after Ferdinand Christian Baur, sweeping the other Pauline letters off the board, took these four as the only indubitably Pau- line documents. They are widely separated from I Thessalonians both in thought and in feeling. In I Thessalonians the apostle's mind was in dose con- tact with the heathen world. Thia is the controlling mental relationship, by which the letter is shaped and colored. But in the ao-called quadrilateral the apostle is engaged in a hand-to-hand fight with the Judaizing tendency in Christianity. The shape and color of thought differ correspondingly. Jewish Christianity, during the first period of its existence, and under St. Peter's leadership, had been Jewish tsithout thinking about it. But in its second period, under the leadership of James, 1, Oeneral [^ ^g^ Jewish conacioualy and by in- Ud™^^" tention. IW program was the convex Praise of' ^''"' "^ Israel. Its method involved JuiUiatlo conformity to Judaism in everything AUaok. that did not undo the diatinctive tenet ofChristlanity, thecon vie tion that Jesus was the Messiah, At the Apostolic council aooncor- dat had been reached, which could not, however, in the nature of things, long endure, since it involved the existence of two distinct churches, each retaining its Paul the Apostle 408 separate character until the parousia should solve all problems. But history had something to say on this subject. At Antioch table fellowship between Jewish and Gentile Christians became the order of the day. But James of Jerusalem was right in feel- ing that this was a breach of the concordat. It in- volved the existence of a single church to which the distinctive tenets of Judaism were adiaphora. It completely imdid the program of Ezra. Hence the men who came from James opposed the idea of table fellowship (Gal. ii. 12). Here began the first precipitation of the great issue. Jewish Christianity, honestly believing that the Pauline policy involved the ruin of its plan for the conversion of Israel, set istelf to undo Paul's work. It threw the concordat (Gal. ii. 7-9) to the winds. Invading Paul's own field, it assailed his standing as an apostle and sought to undermine the edifice of Catholic Christianity which he was building. This attack identified Paul's person with the Crospel he was preaching, and con- sequently joined forces with his temperamental tendency to self-consciousness. He could not sepa- rate his defense of his apostohc dignity from the defense of Catholic Christianity. Ranke has finely said of Alexander the Great that his life was one of the rare cases in which universal history became identical with a biography. Paul's life is a similar case. Paul's person and the supreme issue in the field of religion were identified and could not be separated. Hence to an extraordinary degree he was driven to clear self-knowledge and to a deep study of the necessary foimdations for his great theme and work, the religious equality of Jew and Gentile. The theme of I Thessalonians still remains the supreme thought. But its implications now for the first time come into the light of broad day. The letters to the Corinthian, Galatian, and Ro- man churches, then, constitute a group by them- selves. As regards their sequence, they are so closely related that no arrangement can be conclusive. But the logical internal arrangement seems to be (1) The Corinthian letters, (2) Galatians, (3) Romans. And so long as no solid external argument can be brought against it, this may be accepted as a good working hypothesis. The group differs widely from I Thes- salonians. Paul, as a prince of missionaries, gave his whole attention to the work in hand. In the Thessalonian letters he was in quickening contact with heathenism. In the quadrilateral he is at close quarters with Judaizing Christianity, fighting for his life and honor. So the mental situation is fun- damentally different; and the apostle's thought changes accordingly. I Corinthians was written near the end of Paul's stay in Ephesus, and was occasioned by party di- visions in the Corinthian church. The congregation had grown rapidly. At the same time it was close to a large colony of Jews (Acts xviii.) who were in constant connection with Jerusalem. 'thl&ne " ^^^ were all the elements of trouble. As to the number of parties that ajv peared in the congregation, whether three or four, the discussion still continues. The writer of this article believes that there were four, and that the '* Christian party " was made up of those who banked upon the connection with the mother-church 8. H Oorin- thians. of Christendom, the congregation of Jerusalem. They appealed to that visible and tactual genealogy of religious ideas which is so potent with the aver- age man, and also seem to have made much of eschatologic visions and of the glossolalia (see Speaking with Tongues), two related phenomena that were characteristic of Jerusalemitic Quistian- ity. I Corinthians is not so much a letter as epis- tolary jottings. Various questions of morals and discipline are taken up, without regard to their con- nection with each other. None the less, the letter has a real imity of its own, a deep emotional unity underlying its fragmentary details. The theme oi chaps, i.-iv. is the imity of the local congregation. That theme returns in chaps, viii.-z., connecting itself with the discussion of the Lord's Supper in xi. 17-34; and in chaps, xii.-xv., the discussion of the charismata, it gets complete control of the writer's mind. It is to be noted that in xiii. 13 the trilogy assumes its second and final shape — ^faith, hope, love. The reason is that the supreme task of the new religion is now clearly in view. It developed the average man to the limit of his spiritual and moral powers but kept him within the congregation, made him an individual free from individualism. II Corinthians was written from Macedonia. Paul had planned to go direct from Ephesus to Cor- inth. He had changed his mind, and his detractors at Corinth took this, as they took all his actions, in the most ungenerous way. Paul, they said, was a variable person (i. 15-18), not a man of his word. The way in which Paul works out his defense (i. 1^23) rep- resents the rich body of Christology in the episUe. It is a pastor's theology, intimate with specific needs and concrete situations. Perhaps more clearly than any other letter, this illustrates the apostle's habit of mind. It has been strongly urged that it is really two distinct letters stitched together by the Pauline editor, chaps, x.-xiii. constituting a letter by them- selves (" four-chapter letter "). A good deal can be said for this thesis. It is difficult to keep from feeling the abrupt change from the self-possession and the joy of chape, i.-ix. to the intense personal passion and mental strain of the chapters in ques- tion. But it is, perhaps, an excessive capitalization of this certainty to cut the four chapters out, for Paul did not cast his letters at one pouring (cf. the two letters constituting Philippians). Yet these four chapters are a distinct literary unit, so close to Galatians in emotional color that the student of in- troduction may well study them together. In the body of II Corinthians the divexgence of Christian- ity from Mosaism is the main question. In these chapters that issue becomes identified with Paul's person. Opening with the characteristic " I my- self " (cf. Rom. vii, 25) and possibly with the " C])hrist party " in plain view, the apostle, with noble shame, brags his opponents down, seeking to silence these ^' make-believe apostles ** (xi. 13), the arro- gant Judaizing Christians from Jerusalem. The Galatian letter may have been written either from Macedonia or Achaia. In any case, it is dose to II Ck)rinthians x.-xiii. in thought and emotion. Paul received from members of his spiritual household news of a serious crisis among the RELIGIOXIS ENCYCLOPEDIA Paol tha ApoltU 4. Otla.. churches of South Galatin; they were backaliding into Jewiah Christianity (i. G). The native relig- 1 of that region delighted in sen' sational rituaJ (Cyhele, the Great Mother, etc.)- Paul had won hia con- rertd by the contagion of an irreaistible personality (iv. 15) rather than through the formation of soUd conviction in their mindx. Hin splendid idcnlism wan beyond them. Now came Judaizing Chris- tianity, with ita rigid ritualism and iia doctrine o( tactual apostolic auceeasion. It was near enough to thai land to find them at home, yet sufEciently above their level to impress them. Hence the crias. The Judaisera declared that Paul waa a. second-hand authority, deriving all that waa good in hia views from the originul apostles (i. I, ii. ft-7). They seem to have gone further than the Judaiiere at Corinth (v, 2-12) and to have insisted on the neccsaity of circumcision. Paul's defense included three elements: (1) By care- ful biographical chronology (i. 15-ii. 1) he proves his independence of the original apoatles; (2) bis carriage in the apostolic council and in the contro- versy at Antioch manifested tuH ability t« withstand the " original apostles " to their face; (3) the con- version of his followers lo Judaiting Christianity is in truth a perversion. Judaism with its law ia not the final reUgion. Its leviljcal institutes are out- grown rudiments of religion (iv. 0), The true func- tion of the law is not to rival Christianity, but like a loyal household servant (iii. 24-25} to guide men to Christ, who has established a splendid religious and social unity {ill. 28) that recognizes no differ- ence between Jew and Hellene, between free man and slave, between male and female. The Roman letter is the logical climax of the quadrilateral, the most niaasive and coherent of the epistles. This fact is explained by the apoatle'a mood at the time of writing. He wrote from Achaia at the end of the second tour. He had carrieci through the first part of his magnificent missionary 5 BAm&n pl'U' (Kof- 3tv. 19). Ix>oking through ■ and beyond Rome his imagination takes fire at the thought of attacking the western part ot the empire (Sptun, etc.). He is going up to Jerusalem, knowing that the possibility of serious peril awaits him there. But he carries in his hand the great offertory collected by hie churches in Gala- tia, Macedonia, and Achaia (I Cor. xvi. 1 8[[i|.; n Cor. ix.; Rom. xv. 28-27). The letter expresses his sympathy for the Christians at Jerusalem. He also had great hope that it might prove a peace- offering. The opposition in his own field has been for the time being put down. Writing to Rome, the imperial city, the supreme missionaiy opportunity (i. 13), and standing on the ground mode good in the Corinthian and Oalatian letters, he clears his mind. Down to a, recent date the genuineness of Romans passed as certain and final in all schools of criticism, Baur and the Tilbingen school valued it as a stronghold of apostolic feeling and verity. But the group of scholars constituting the so-called " Dutch school " have boldly assailed this appar- ently impregnable position. A conaderable part of the w^hl of their attack is drawn from the alleged lack of unity in the letter (cf. Van Manen on Ro- mans, EB, iv. 4127^6). But their treatment of the epistle suggests that Uterary analysis and literary combination, modelled after the established stand- ards of Old-Testament criticism, have outgrown pa^ tient and deep exegesis. The letter has a truly massive unity. In the salutation (i. 1-7) the apos- tle asserts lus right to the fiJI apostolate- It is grounded in the creative call of God. In i. 14 he claims the entire Gentile world as hia province. The Gospel has power to bestow divine righteous- ness, final religious staniUng, and perfect charac- ter on Jew and Gentile alike (I. 10-17). Both Jew and Gentile, apart from the Gospel, are totally mi- able to attain the divine ideal of personal and social righteousness. As for the Jew. the glory of his life under the law is that it brings him to deeper self- knowledge, to clearer consciousness of sin than the Gentile has been capable of (i. 18-iii. 20). God has set up in history the person and death of Christ as the atoning-place where man enters into the real and full presence of the divine. Through sheer mercy and grace, independent of inherited or ac- quired merit, God gives final staiiding to conscious- ness. So is human pride barred out and human unity made possible (iii. 21','3fl). Abraham's life is the classic life of the spirit. As a spiritual adven- turer he made no fortune. He made his fortune aa God's friend, building a perfect trust on that crea- tive word and power of God which, even while Paul writes, is taking social and religious nothings (iv. 17), and building them into divine society (iv.). The ground of religious certitude can be found no- where save in God's mercy and Christ's work (v.). The Antinomian is put to flight. The Pauline Gos- pel does not give rein to desire and lust, but reveals the power of the creative divine spirit to break the power of lust and desire (vi.-vii.). The confidence of the redeemed comes next. Fear is overcome. The holy and creative spirit lifts the human spirit to God. The divine choice takes the soul out of the world into the fellowship of the Savior (viii,). From the peon of redemption the apostle passes to the puin of contemplating his nation's unbelief. But in the end Israel shall be converted. The supreme mystery, the unity of Jew and Gentile, the imity of humanity, will express and realise the unity of God (ix.-xi.). The ethics of Paulinism then emerges. The imity of the local congregation is the supreme aim. Moral maxims, in oppearance loosely stnmg together, find here a deep emotional connection. The mystery ot human uiuty must be embodied in the local congregation (xii.-xv.). But while the genuineness of Romans is very strongly attested, there are weighty reasons for thinidng that the letter in ita present form is not a self-consistent unity. The letter ends with a doxology, in itself a fact that excites suspicion. The suspicion is strength- 6. TTnlty of ened when it appears that the KomanB. doxology is placed by some manu- scripts at the end of chap. xiv. Beng- el's explanation, that the makers of the Greek lectionary put the doxology here because xv.-xvi. was not good toaterial for public reading, does not satisfy. The suspicion arises that some accident befell the latter part of the epistle, analogous to the Paul the Apostle 410 misfortune that befell the ending of the second Gos- pel. The doxology has the internal marks of a genuine Pauline fragment, possibly used by Paul in preaching, kept in the memory of some hearer, and incorporated by the editor into a disordered text. The Phoebe letter in chap. xvi. also presents grave difficulties. It is filled with intimate greetings. Priscilla and Aquila have been appealed to, their knowledge of the Roman congregation being put in evidence. But friendships as intimate as these can not be borrowed nor imported. How then came so many of Paul's intimate friends to be in Rome? Renan's hypothesis that there is here a fragment of a letter to Ephesus makes too laige a forced loan. The likeliest supposition is that the Phoebe letter is a separate literary imit. It was probably written by Paul after his release from the first imprison- ment (see 4, S 1, below). The Pauline editor, as- sembling his materials, incorporated this along with the doxology. There is no solid reason for doubting the Roman address of the letter. The documentary evidence for the omission of " in Rome " in i. 7 is not considerable. That fact in itself may not be completely decisive. The history of the New Tes- tament text is inseparable from the history of the Church. When once the great congregation of Rome had appropriated the letter, any other ad- dress would have slight chance to survive. But the variant is not hard to explain. Other churches soon appropriated the letter, and some copies of it, with the Roman address omitted, might easily have got into circulation; xv. 28 can not be applied to any church but Rome: nor can i. 8-14, without strain, be applied to any other situation. The most significant turn in the study of the Pau- line epistles since Baur's day is indicated by the group of scholars somewhat loosely called the Dutch school. Baur and the Tubingen school left the quadrilateral standing, apparently im- 7. Orltiolsm pregnable and unassailable. But these by Dutch scholars make the assault with vigor Sohool. and conviction (cf. especially Van Manen, in EBj s.v. Paul and Romans). These scholars do not snatch their conclusions out of the air. They seem to build on good foimda- tions. From the Old Testament they borrow the fixed conclusions that the Moses of history and the Moses of Mosaism are far apart; and that the Isaiah of the canon is a mind widely removed from Isaiah of Jerusalem. Coming nearer home, they use the fact that the '' John " of the Johannine writings may be a mind widely removed from the " John " of Ephesus — whoever he was. They come still nearer with the conclusion, accepted as a critical certainty by a large body of scholars, that the Colossian and Ephesian letters are Paulinist, but not Pauline. They capitalize the rising value of Acts, enhancing the value of the Paul of Acts and depreciating the Paul of the epistles. A letter accepted by all schools as Pauline now goes the way of Colossians and Ephe- sians. But the Old-Testsiment standards of analy- sis must be cautiously used. In the quadrilateral we are not dealing with a code of law and a body of sacred history and legend, shaped by the spiritual and social pressure of centiuies. Between the " Moses " of the Pentateuch and the " Paul " of these letters there is an fmmflnsB difference. " Isaiah " is a body of oracles, diverse in historical setting and in Uterary style. These four letters are real letters. They fit closely into that supreme re- ligious crisis called the founding of the Catholic Church. Moreover, the Apostolic Fathers ocmdu- sively narrow the field of time within which that crisis was passed through. Even the *' John " of the Johannine writings is not a close parallel. These four letters are intensely, almost extravagantly, per- sonal. The style abounds in egoisms (" my Gos- pel " — Rom. ii. 16, xvi. 25; habit of taking the oath, Rom. i. 9; I Cor. i. 23; " I myself "—II Cor. X. 1, xii. 13; Rom. vii. 25, ix. 3, xv. 14). The writer has passed through imique personal experiences (I Cor. ix. 15, XV. 8 sqq.; II Cor. xi.-xii.; GJal. vi. 17; Rom. ix. 1 sqq., etc.). Making full allowance for the Paulinism of the editors, no coiu^e of edi- ting can account for such intensely hiunan docu- ments. 4. Third Ghronp ; Prison Bpistlea: If Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians belong to Paul, they con- stitute another distinct group, and record the final period in a mental development of remarkable sym- metry. I Thessalonians records the apostle's state of mind when he was in quickening contact with the Gentiles and before the Judaizing movement drove him to deeper thinking. The quadrilateral records his thinking in defense of the proposition that Jew and Gentile are equal before God. And the letters written during his imprisonment carry his mind forward into conflict with Gnosticism, a view of €rod and man that dissipated the divine unity and emptied history of its meaning. If Paul wrote the three letters, it seems probable that all of them were written from Rome. As in the quadrilateral, a decisive argument concerning 1 Phili ^^ sequence of the letters is impossi- piana. ^^®* Scholars of note (e.g., Weiss) place Colossians and Ephesians at Cae^irea, Philippians at Rome. But, on the whole, the in- ternal argument carries all three to Rome. Philip- pians almost beyond question belongs there. If it was written after Colossians and Ephesians, it is difficult to understand why it fails to show any trace of the terminology peculiar to them. It is better to suppose that Philippians is midway be- tween the quadrilateral and Colossian^-Ephesians. In Lightfoot's happy phrase, it is the spent wave of the debate wiUi Judaizing Christianity. The Philippian letter, cashiered by Baur, has fought its way back to wide-spread critical recognition. It is the most intimate of all the Pauline letters. Pos- sibly the reason is f oimd in the fact that the church at Philippi never gave the apostle a moment's anx- iety. There were no Jews tiiere worth mentioning (Acts xvi. 13, no synagogue). The Judaizing move- ment never gained a foothold. The relation of the congregation to Paul was so deeply affectionate that he broke his rule of self-support (iv. 15-16) and permitted them to minister to his needs. This in- timate relationship with his readers may explain the free air of the letter. The apostle seems to have nothing on his mind. At Rome Jewish Christians (i. 15-16) are making trouble. In the second part of the letter (iii. 2-9) he takes the reasons for pride Paul tb« ApoatU in bis own Jewiah inheritance and caats them away. But be has no doctrinal burden on his mind. So the letter is self- revealing to a high degree. The foundation of thought is laid bare. The supreme concern (aa in I and II Cor. and Rom. xii.-xv.) is the unity of the local congregation. Paul 6nds the root of this unity In the incarnation. Developing a thought struck out in II Corinthians viii. 9, he cleora the ground for Cliriatian polity (i, 27-ii. 1 1). The capacity for service wliich is the distinguishing mark of Christian fellowship bos its base in the self- emptying devotion of the Son of Goif. The Colossian and Ephesian epistles are so closely related in thought and language that they pmc- ticaily constitute a single letter in two editions. If Paul wrote them, it must be supposed S. The Paul- that, having written Colossians, some Ine Style, time later be cleared his mind by wri- ting Ephesiaos. If Paul did not writo tbem, then a distinguished though unknown Paulin- ist wrote them both. The history of critical opin- ion forcibly suggests that Colossiiuis stands on a dif- ferent footing from Epheslans. Rejected by Baur and his school, it has so far recovered its standing that its poBsesaion of a genuine Pauline nucleus is widely recognized. In that case it must be sup- poeed that Paul's unknown disciple, having incor- porated the Pftuhne nucleus into the Colossian let- ter, proceeded to clarify bis mind and systematize his thinking in Epheaians. The student, before be seeks a stable opinion on this difficult question, must discuss the values to be assigned to various kinds of evidence. Beyond doubt, the large num- ber of hapax Ugomena (i.e., expressions not found elsewhere) in these letters is a real difficulty. The conservative appeal to Paul's versatility has been overworked. But it is equally certain that the nega- tive argument from the hapax Ugomena has been emphasized (e.g., Holiroonn) to the neglect of a weighty argument from the structure of the sen- tence. Of the two constituent elements of language, the lexical and the structural, the latter is the more enduring and the more significant. This holds true at large; in less degree, it holds true of individuals. When once a mind of any magnitude has shaped its unit of thinking — the sentence — that sentence in its structure and internal relationships is a far more characteristic thing than single words. Now, while Paul's sensiUveness to new themes and the resulting openness to new terms has been overstreased, there is some truth in it. And it has real evidential value when it is joined to a more solid consideration, the fundamental quality of Paul's style. Characteristic sentences differ according to the degree and the manner in which they utilise and display the power of mental suspense. Paul bad the power of mental suspense in large measure. This is proved by his development of the epistolary salutation into a doc- trinal summary (Gal. i. 1-5; Rom. i. 1-7). But he bad not been deeply schooled in Greek, and did not know enough literary Greek to become self-con- BoiouB or afraid. At times, he used Greek most nobly (e.g., I Cor. xiii.). But his characteristic sen- tence is not literary Greek. He piles perception on perception and clause on clause until not infre- quently the sentence almost breaks down under its own weight. When this test is applied to the Coloe- aian-Epheeian letters, they show up strongly. ColoB- sians abounds Id Pauline sentences (i. 3-7, 9-21, 24-29, elf.). Ephesiana, under this aspect, is, if anything, even more Pauline (i. 3-14, 15-21, 11. 14- 17, iii. 1-7, etc.). In fact, the style of this letter in some places appears to be almost beyond question the style of a Paul who is beginning to be victimized by his own habits of expression. It is hardly likely that there were two men in the first century who could write the sentence contained in Eph. i. 3-14. To this must be added the evidential value of un- conscious feeling. The apostle had a deep sense of the richness and frealmeaa and nmny-sidedness of divine grace. It reveals itself in single terms like " riches " and ita cognates (Rom. ii, 4, ix. 2.3, xi. 33; I Cor. i. 6, viii. 2, 9. etc.); in an iilmost riotous use of compound words; in statements eicpressing the newness of the redeemed man's experience (II Cor. V, 17; Gal. vi. 15, et«.). Seen from this angle, Ephe- sians Is peculiarly Pauline (i. 7, 18, ii. 7, iii. 8, 16). The consciousness of revelation is deep and fervent, running clear through the letter. Of course, the supposed Pauliniat would have caught something of Paul's feeling as well as hia style. But the counter- weight is found in two facta: (1) The pseudepigra- phist was BureUi have something heavy on his mind; he would be doctrinaire. (2) His standard of imi- tation was low. The Christian public was largely un- educated. II Peter is a convincing example of the easy way in which the pseudepigraphisl carried him- self. The writer lakes no pains to imitate the feel- ing of I Peter. He argues, in a doctrinaire way, for the parousia (see &bUiBNNnru, Millenari&nism), though the rich feeling for it is lacking; moreover, at a critical point, the catalogue of virtue (i. 5-7), bo betrays himself,— the master-word " hope'' does not appear. ColoBsians, if ita entangling alliance with Ephe- eians did not handicap it, could defend Itself fairly well, were it not for one thing. The writer evidently form of Gnosticism before hia ___^__ mind's eye, and it is widely supposed that this fact by Itself takes the letter, in its present text, out of Paul's hand. This ia the objection urged against the Paulinity of Colos- siana. Indeed, the difficulty due to the hapax UgoTTiena and that due to the mental presence of Gnosticism are not two difficulties but one. Grant the possibility of Gnosticism, then tlie terms to de- scribe it enter as a matter of course. There are strong reasons for the conservative position. (I) The empire was in the throes of a wide-spread re- ligious movement, and during the last half of the first century Asia Minor was its moat important strategic point. (2) Gnosticism was in full bloom in the reign of Hadrian. Basibdea shaped a specu- lative system of great power and appeal. Histor- ical probability requires a considerable period for a religious movement to ripen up to such a man, (3) The beginnings of schismatic mysticism are within the ken of the quadrilateral (I Cor. viii. 1- 10; Rom. xiv.). Van Manen {EB, a.v. Romans, S 17) uses this fact to cast suspicion on Romans. That path, however, is cloaed to the great majority of those who reject the Pauline authorship (^ 8. Coloa- Paul the ▲postle THB NEW SCHAFF-HERZCXJ 418 Colossiaiis-Ephesianfl. (4) The first period of Gnosticism was Jewish Christian. Cerinthus, a systematic docetist, appeared as early as the last decade of the first century. When it is considered that Gnosticism was a practical religious view be- fore it became a speculative system, it does not seem an excessive strain on historical evolution to find its beginnings twenty-five years after Paul had preached his first sermon to the Gentiles. Chris- tianity, superbly inspirational and organizing, had great precipitating power. Besides, the Pauline churches, outposts of Christ in a vast heathen world, were wide open to danger from Jewish- Christian mysticism. And Paul, a bom pastor and church-builder, had a keen scent for danger. Colossians, if it stood alone, could take care of itself. It is on Ephesians, therefore, that the bur- den of the defense falls. Here the main battle must be fought. The difficulties are serious. The letter, if Paul wrote it, can not have been ad- J^^^, dressed to the Ephesians. But this does not explain the almost completely impersonal character of a letter coming from a man so ebulliently personal as Paul. It is almost en- tirely doctrinal and systematic. ** Holy apostles '* in iii. 3 has a strong second-century sound. To ascribe knowledge regarding the great mystery of human unity to " all the apostles " is un-Pauline, by the quadrilateral test-stone. Yet there are strong groimds for beUef in the epistle's genuineness. The Pauline type of sentence abounds (i. 3-14, 15-23, iii. 1-7, 14-19, iv. 11-16, etc.). The epistle is flushed fuU of prophetic feeling and consciousness. The conception of the Church is not ecclesiastical (con- trast I Timothy and Ignatius), but intensely pro- phetic. Moreover, it is inherently related to the Paliline doctrine of election (cf. Rom. viii. 28-30) and the conception of the Church as the body of Christ (I Cor. xii., xiv.; Rom. xiii.). The view of the ministry (iv. 11-16) is prophetic and pastoral (contrast I Timothy). The letter thrills with the sense of the supreme mystery, the imity of Jew and Gentile (ii. 11-iii. 13; cf. Rom. xi. 25-36). History does not duplicate great experiences. The quadrilateral vein crops out in a natural way (ii. 1-10), quite unlike the pseudepigraphist. The body of the letter, if taken outside the heroic period of the Apostolic Age, creates difficulties more seri- ous than those now besetting it. Finally, the fact that the mental movement from I Thessalonians to E}phesians presents a mental autobiography as con- tinuous and imique as the body of Aristotle's think- ing starts a presimiption in favor of Ephesians. The final judgment seems likely to be a compromise. Ephesians is a Pauline letter more or less colored by later feeling. The little letter to Philemon might well have hoped to escape suspicion, so human is it, so simple and charming. Yet scholars of deserved repute take it to be a Paulinizing allegory. Surely the allegorist who could do this thing so subtly was a master. The mystic who, by deep thinking, has reduced the things that do appear to a diaphanous veil of things that are, would be apt to have a good deal to say. Would he say it in this simple fashion and with such praiseworthy brevity? May it not be questioned whether, if this letter had not had the critical misfortune to find itself within the sacred canon, any such charge would ever have been brought against it? 6. The Pastorial Epistles: The question whether the apostle was released from imprisonment presses the conclusion that knowledge of the Apostolic Age 1 Th H^ ^ scanty and full of gaps. But the be- lease from ^®^ ^ * second imprisonment is gain- Prison. ^ ground. And if full allowance is made for the nature of the evidence, it seems to yield a favoring probability. The Pastoral Epistles contain at least a nucleus of genuine Pau- line material which it is difficult to place within the frame of the apostle's life as Acts records it. The long- vexed phrase in I Clement v (" the boimds of the west '' to which the apostle came), taken in its context, must be overcharged with rhetoric, if it is to mean Rome, rather than Spain. The Phosbe letter, unquestionably Pauline, demands a situation lying beyond the bounds of Acts. The Phodbe letter (Rom. xvi. 1-16) was written from Corinth or Cenchrea, its eastern seaport. It is a document of high value. The apostle's genius for friendship, for deep and many-sided intimacies, shines out in it. It also throws a bright light upon the social stra- tum from which Christianity in Rome made its most numerous recruits (I Cor. i. 26). A large majority of those addressed were slaves or f reedmen belong- ing to the immense aristocratic establishments of imperial Rome. The Pastoral Epistles, since the beginning of critical study, have steadily lost ground. The best 2 I Tim ^^^ some fairly conservative scholars othv. " ^^*^ ^y ^^^ them to-day is that the case against them is not closed. The difficulties besetting I Timothy appear to be in- superable. The fixed order of thought in Paul's letter- writing b broken (i. 3). The apostle, because of his splendid belief in the capacity of man for God and his delight in spiritual beginnings, was wont to go forward from the salutation to praise of his read- ers and thanksgiving (e.g., I These, i. 2 sqq. ; Rom. i. 8 sqq.). The one exception is Galatians; but the reason for this exception is found in Paul's attitude toward the Galatians at the time of writing. In I Timothy no such reason exists. Timothy ivas the most intimate member of his spiritual household. Yet the letter plunges straight into business. Jcnned to this is the fact that the personal element is a colorless minimum. Timothy himself is hardly more than a homiletic personification (vi. 11-21) to which is addressed an ordination sermon. In i. 3 is what looks like a distinct reference to II Corin- thians i. 15-17, and ii. 12-13. If I Timothy is gen- uine, it places itself in the time and mood of the quadrilateral and so becomes a psychological im- possibility. Or else in its behalf there must be as- siuned a later joiuney from Ephesus into Mace- donia exactly parallel. It is true that the Phoebe letter and the reference in the letter to Titus (iii. 12) to Nioopolis (probably in Epirus) make this possible. But in the face of other considerable possibilities no right exists to capitalise this pos- sibility. The letter is full of intention; there is no hint of the casual Herein it raaembleB Galatians Paul tha ApoMla and Ephedans. But this parallel becomes di&os- Iroua. For, while Gulatiaiis and Bphesians thrill xtith prophetic feeling, I Timothy ia wholly institu- tional, disciphoaiy, and craedal. The coticeptioa ot the Church differs from that in Ephegiana (ill. 15; contrast Eph. i. 22-23). The offices and the func- tions of the Church (bishops, deacoiia, widows) are distinct. The episcopate haa clearly emerged from Ihe corporate presbyterate. The creed (iii. 16) ia forming. In this connection it is to be noted tjiat the word " mystery " is beginning to take a new turn (iii. 9, 10). Caution, however, la necessary against the bias of the higlily subjective individual- ism of our time. The creedol element in faith was easy for St. Paul to reach. Yet between Ephesiana and I Timothy there is a gulf in feeling. And along with this goes the tact tha.t the letter abounds ia expressions (" It ia a credible saying "; " health- giving teacliing "; "contrary leaching") which are not found in the letters of the first three groups. Tlie difficulty ia more serious than the difficulty created by hapax legomena, in which fixed formulas enter. The cumulative effect of these difficulties ia an almost irreBistibIc impression ot ungenuinenesa. The letter seems to have been written by a Paulin- ist contending with Jewish-C'hristian heretics, pos- sibly about the end at the century. II Timothy is in much better case. At nearly every point where I Timothy fails to meet the test, II Timothy succeeds. It follows the Paulino order of thought (i. 3). The pergonal element is fre«h „ _ _, and varied. Timothy is a real hidi- othy Tltn» ^'i'^"'^ I'- 3~6) with flcsh-and-blood kinsfolk. The writer abounds hi ex- pressions reveahng the inner life of the apostle (I. 11-18, ii. lIKir, iv. 6-8). In iv. 9-21 is material which can not have been invented. The institu- tional element, compared with I Timothy, is a minimum. The single reference (ii. 2) is general. The thought of the quadrilateral crops out (i. 8- !)) in a natural way. The feeling of the letter is thoroughly Pauline. Pauline idioms abound (" my gospel "; " I am not aahamed," i. 12; ef. Rom. i. 16). The mental idioma of Paul appear; tor ex- ample, his use of the aoriat in describing the re- demptive effects of the death of Christ (ii. II; ct. Gal. vi. 14 and Rom. vi. 5-10}. Yet the fixed formulas of I Timothy (" It is a credible saying, etc.") pervade the epistle. The most probable con- clusion is that II Timothy is a genuine Pauline let- ter touched here and there by the Paulinizing edi- tor. The epistle to Titus, like I Timothy, violates the order of thought (i. 5 suggests the same hand that wrote I Tim. i. 3). The two together may pos- dbly indicate the beginnings of the conscious the- ory of "Apostolic Succesuon"(q. v.; also see Sit cTEB- BtoN, Apobtouc). The letter is inatitutional in its aim. its material being practically identical, so far as it goes, with I Timothy. It also lacks the pergonal element. The author's way of handling the Cre- tans (i. 12) does not seem hke Paul. To be sure, this is alippeiy ground tor aigument. Yet the apos- tle's regenerating faith in man, part and parcel of tlie enthuaiBam which founded the CatboUc Church, is misaine- What seems to be heard fs the voice of a later generation, deeply aware of the inertia of human nature, vexed with questions of discipline, and substituting the schoolmaster for the prophet. But iii. 12-14 looks like a genuine Pauline element. Zahn has proved {EirdeituTig, I. 434-435) that the Nicopolis here mentioned is in Epirus. There is no ground for supposing that such a detail is due to the historical novelist. Moreover, the salutation (i. 1-4) is strikingly Pauline. May it not be sup- posed that the fragments of a genuine letter were used by the editor of II Timothy? And that the same miler went on to write I Timothy with a free hand? It can not be said that all the problems con- nected with the Pastorals have been finally settled. This is not a favorable field for the dogmatic scholar whether he be conservative or critical. The criti- cism of the Pauline epistles haa some serious ques- tions still unsolved. But if they are tested by no other test than that to which the writings ot Plato and Aristotle are subjected, the conclusionB may be as certain here as there regarding the main point. The sweeping negative treatment of the letters is indeed a just historical nemesis on a canonizing process that largely dehumanized them. But the sane critic has no commission to execute poetic justice or to illustrate in his own person the law of recoil. There ia a solid body of genuine letters. They give ua the aelf-revelation of one ot the su- preme religious agents. It is a real autobiography, all the more valuable because singularly free from literary consciousness — a wonderfully sensitive and expressive body of thought. Insepuruble from the building ot the CuUiolic Church and cocitaining the secret of ita life and growth, it is the moat fertile portion of the Biblical field for those who would understand the divine method in revelation. Henht S. Nabh. ■a the Lif B and work of Paul is oSerDd here. Sams of church hiitory, particularly tbnse dBaliaf with the apos- \a\ic asG. For Eaglub Tvadera the three atandAni warka have looE been: W. J. Conybeare ajid J. S, Howsoq. Lon- don. IS.'iZ and oFlaa; F. W. Farmr. 2 vals.. London, 1879; T. Lswia, 2 vqIb.. Lnndoa, IStM. Olhor studies o[ the lifo and worli of Paul are; K. Sohmder. 6 vols.. Leipajo, 183l>-»e; F. C. Baur. 2 vols., Leipaia. 1S06, Ea«. tranal.. London. 1B73-75: A. Hauarath, Hddelborg. 1872: J. Stalker. Nsw York. ISS4: E. Reoan. Paris. ISeO, EaR. Imoal., London, 1890; C. Fouard. Loadon, 189«; W. M. Ramsay, SI. Paal. thi TravMer and (A> Bomnn Ciliim. London. ISSIS: P. Soebocck. Paderbom. 1897; O, Cone. Boston. 1898: G. H. Gilbert. Kew York, 1809: W. Lock, London. ISSQ; R. Binl. ib. 1900: A. WhyM, Edinburgh. 1903:C. aemen, QiHuen. 1904: H. Weinel.TabiQcen. 1904. Eng. tranal.. London. 1906; N. Heiio, Paulut der Votkir- opai€ci naeh BibrI, acxhicUn umt Tradilian, Saliibiu«, 1B05; F. X. Pmlil. Reguuburg, 1905: DB. iii. 606-731; EB. iii. 31(03-38, Boaka on npeoial pbasa of Paul's Ufe, voTk. or ngniti- oance arei J. Smith. The Vayae* and Shipurtck at St. Paul, l/indon. ISSU; J. 8. Howson, CAomrlcr of 81. Paul. ib. 1BS3; O. PReidsrar, Pauiinitm. 2 vols., ib. 1877: idem. Injlutmti af Pavl on Ike Deidapment of CkriiHaiiUv. ib. 1885; a. Mathaun. Spiriiuat DevtUipmrnt of SI. Paul, Loadoa. 1890: Van Manen. in ThT. 1890. ISOfl, 1900 l.d. EipoMmi Tima. 1898. pp. 206-211, 257-259. 314-3111): C. C, Everett, Oonwi of Paul. Edinburgh. 1S93; A. B. Bruee. St, PaoTi Conetptum of CArufianilv. Edinbur^, 1894: A. Sabatler. L-ApMrt Paul. Ea^uitu d'«n> hi*- loin it « ptnitt, Paiia, 1896; S. A. Aleiaader. Tht CAri*- tianitv of Si. Paul, Landon. 1899: H. St. J. Tbaekeray, Rtbilion of SI. Patil Ic Jacith Conltmpararv Vujuel'l, lb. 1900; W. E. Bail, St. Paul and Roman Law. Edinburgh, Pftol the Apostle 414 1901; 8. Means, St. Paul and the AtUe-Nieens Chunh, Loadon, 1003; B. W. Baoon, The Story of St. Paul: a Comparieon of AcU and EjritiUa, Boston, 1904; W. Q. Jordan, The PhUippian OoepeL; Pauline Ideals, New York, 1904; T. Nigeli. Der WortechaU dee Apoetele Paulue, QOt- tingen, 1905 (on Paul and the development of the Greek language, Paul and the Greek O. T. and Paul and the epistles ascribed to him; the most important recent con- tribution on Paul); D. Vdlter, Paulue und eeine Briefe, Strasburg, 1905; S. Monteil, Eeeai eur la chrietologie de 8. Paul, Paris. 1906; W. P. Du Bose, The Gospel aeeordine to St. Paul, New York, 1907; £. Moske. Die Bekehrunt dee heil, Paulue. Eine exegetieeh-kritieehe UfUereuchung, Monster, 1907; J. M. Campbell. Paul the Myetie, New York, 1908; W. E. Chadwiok, Social Teaching of St. Paul, London. 1906; idem, Paetoral Teaching of St, Paul, Edin- buigh, 1908; G. Munsinger, Paulue in Korinth, Neue Wege Mum Veratandnie dee Urchrieteniume, Heidelberg, 1908; F. Prat. La ThMogie de S. Paul, part i.. Paris, 1908; A. T. Robertson, Epochs in the Life of Paul: a Study of Development in PauTs Career, New York, 1909; C. E. Woods. The Ooepel of Rightneee. A Study in Pauline Philosophy, London, 1909; A. B. D. Alexander. The Ethics of St. Paul, Glasgow, 1910; J. Moffatt, Paul and Paulin- ism, Boston, 1910. II. Questions of criticism on the writings of Paul are, of course, discussed in the works on Biblical introduction — cf . the literature in and under that article, on the canon (e.g.. Zahn's), and on early Christian literature (e.g., BLar- naok's OeechichU). Consult further: G. G. Findlay. Epis- tlee of Paul the Apostle, New York, 1893; P. Gloag, Intro- duction to the Pauline Epistles, Edinbuigh, 1876; C. H. Waller, Handbook to the Epistles of Paul, London, 1887; M. Krenkel, BeitrOge sur Aufhdlung der Oesehichte und der Briefe dee PauliAS, Brunswick, 1890; D. VOlter, Die Kom- position der paulinistJien Hauptbriefe, part i., TQbingen, 1890; P. V. Schmidt, Der Oalaterbriefim Feuer der neuesten Kritik, Leipsic, 1892; C. Qemen, Die Chronologic der paidinischen Briefe, Halle, 1893; idem. Die Einheiilich- keit der paulinischen Briefe, Gdttingen, 1894; F. J. A. Hort, Prolegomena to . . , Romane and Ephesians, Lon- don, 1895; H. Lisoo, Entstehung dee t. Korintherbriefes, Berlin, 1896; R. D. Shaw, The Pauline Epietlee, Edin- buigh, 1901; W. Kelly, ShoH Introduction to the Epietlee of Paul, London, 1902; C. G. Baskerville, Side-LighU on the Epistle to the Ephesians, London, 1903; J. D. James, Oenuineneee and Authorship of the Pastoral Epietlee, Lon- don, 1906; A. Stein mann. Die Abfaeeungezeit dee Oala- terbriefes, MOnster. 1906; W.C. Van Usaien,Die Unechtheit dee Romer-briefee, Leipsic, 1906; D. Round. The Date of St. PauTe Epistle to the Oalatians, Cambridge, 1907; A. Stein- mann, Der Leserkrcis dee Galaterbriefes, MOnster, 1908; W. LQtgert, Freiheitapredigt und Schtoarmgeister in Ko- rinth, GQteniloh, 1908; idem. Die Irrlehre der Paato- ralbriefe, ib. 1909; R. Scott, The Pauline Epietlee; A Critical Study, Edinburgh. 1909; A. Schlatter. Erl&it- terungen turn Neuen Testament, vol. iii.. Die Briefe dee Paulue, Stuttgart, 1909; H. B. Bnmibaugh, Onseimue the Runaway Slave, Elgin. 111.. 1910. Among commentaries are those which cover the whole Bible or the New Testament, such as: Lange*s. Eng. transl.. New York, 1869 sqq.; Meyer's. Eng. transl.. New York. 1873 sqq. ; Cambridge Bible for Schoole, Cambridge. 1879 sqq.; B^le CommenUury, London. 1881; P. Schaff, Popular Commentary, New York, 1882-83; Pulpit Com- mentary, London and New York, 1883 sqq.; Cambridge Greek Teetament, Cambridge, 1887 sqq.; Expositor's Bible, London and New York, 1888 sqq.; Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament, Freiburg, 1892-93; Kurzgefasster Kom- mentar, Munich, 1893 sqq.; IntemationcU Critical Com- mentary, Edinburgh and New York, 1895 sqq. (in prog- ress) ; T. Zahn's Kommentar zum Neuen Testament, Leip- sic, 1903 sqq.; add C. J. EUicott's Handy Commentary, New York, 1880. Commentaries on all or on groups of the Pauline epis- tles: B. Jowett (on Romans, Galatians. and Thessaloni- ans), best ed.. London. 1859; A. F. Manoury, 4 vols., Paris. 1878-81; K. Heydt, 2 vols.. Elberfeld, 1882; J. B. Lightfoot, Colossians and Philemon, London, 1886; J. A. Beet, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Philemon, Lon- don, 1890; H. Oltramare (Romans. 2 vols.), Geneva, 1882, (Colossians, Ephesians, Philemon, 3 vob.), Paris, 1891- 1892; J. Drummond, Epistles of Paul the Apostle, Boston, 1899; E. Haupt, Die Gefangenschaftsbriefe, Gdttingen. 1899; W. G. Moorfaead, OvtUne Studies in Romans, Cor- inthians, Oalatians, and Ephesians, Cihicago, 1902; R. D. Shaw, The Pauline Epistles, Edinbuigh. 1903; J. B. Light- foot, Notes on Epistles of SL Paul, London, 1904; J. £. Belser (on Timothy and Titus and Ephesians), Freibucg, 1907-06; W. G. Rutherford, St, PauCs Epietlee to the ThessiUonians and to the CoruUhians, London, 1906. On Romans: A. Tholuck, Berlin, 1856, Eng. tnnsl., Edinbuigh, 1848; R. Haldane, New York. 1870; W. S. Flumer, London, 1871; T. Robinson, 2 vols., ib. 1871; G. Volioner, Zurich, 1875; M. Stuart, Andover, 1876; F. A. Philippi, Frankfort, 1866, Eng. transl.. 2 vols.. Edin- buigh, 1878-79; W. G. T. Shedd, New York, 1879; F. Godet, 2 vols., Paris, 1883-90, Eng. transL, of earlier ed., 2 vols., 1880-^1; J. A. Beet, London. 1882; F. Moulinie, Geneva, 1883; E. Boehmer. Bonn, 1886; C. Hodge, Phila- delphia, 1886; C. J. Vaugfaan, London, 1690; H. B. liddon, ib. 1893; W. Sanday and A. C. Heedlam, Edin- burgh and New York. 1895; F. Spitta, Q6ttingen. 1901; P. Peine, ib. 1903; H. Hoffmann, Leipnc, 1903; G. Stock- hardt, St. Louis, 1907. On Corinthians: J. E. Osiander, 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1847-58; A. Neander, Beriin, 1859; C. Hodge, 2 vols.. New York, 1860; A. Klfipper, Berlin, 1874; G. Heinrid. 2 vols., ib. 1880-^7; A. P. Stanley, London, 1682; J. A. Beet, ib. 1885; T. C. Edwards, Edinbuigh, 1865; J. J. lias, London, 1886 (on I Cor.); J. F. RAbiger, Braslau, 1886; E. P. Gk>uld, Philadelphia, 1888; C. J. Ellioott. London, 1887 (on I Cor.); F. Godet, 2 vols., Paris, 1886- 1887. Eng. transl., 2 vols., Edmbuigh. 1886-67 (on I Cor.); W. Kay. London, 1887; H. H. Henaon, Ib. 1696; H. Oouard, Potsdam, 1901; A. Sch&fer, MOnster, 1903; F. S. Gutjahr. Gras, 1907 (II Corinthians); G. H. Rendsll, London, 1909; J. E. McFadyen, New York, 1909; A. HacLaren, London, 1909; P. Bachmann, Leipsic, 1909 (II Corinthians). On Galatians: J. B. Lightfoot, London. 1695; H. A. Sehott, Leipsic, 1834; F. Windlschmann, Mains, 1843 (Roman Catholic); A. Hilgenfeld, Leipsic, 1652; C. Wieseler, G5ttingen, 1859; G. B. Winer, Leipsic. 1659; G. J. Gwynne, Dublin, 1663; G. W. Matthias, Casael 1865; J. Eadie, Glasgow, 1869; J. Venn, London, 1878; J. A. Beet, ib. 1865; R. Steck, Berlin, 1886; G. B. Stevens, Hartford, 1890; J. Drummond, London, 1693; W. M. Ramsay, ib. 1699; E. S. Askwith, ib. 1809; V. Weber. Freiburg, 1901; B. W. Baoon, London and New York, 1909; A. L. Williams, London, 1910; H. Lietsnann, Tubingen, 1910. On Ephesians: B. F. Westcott, Londoci, 1906; F. A. HoUhausen. Hanover, 1833; R. Stier, Berlin, 1648; A. Hariess, Eriangen, 1858; J. Eadie, Edinbun^ 1661; A. Monod, Paris, 1867; C. Hodge, New York, 1883; E. Ernst, Herbenthal, 1890; A. Kl5pper, GOttingen, 1691 ; R. W. Dale, London. 1892; J. Macpheraon. Edinburgh, 1892; E. Kruken- berg. GQtersloh. 1902; G. H. Whitaker, London. 1902; J. A. Robinson, ib. 1903; E. F. Stroeter, London, 1909. On Philippians: J. B. Lightfoot, London, 1895 (epochal); A. Kldpper, 1893; A. Rilliet, Geneva. 1641; B. Weiss, Berlin, 1859; W. Hoyt, New York. 1863; J. Eadie. Edin- burgh, 1884; C. J. Vaughan, 1885: J. Hutchinson, Edin- buigh, 1887; H. C. G. Moule, London, 1669; H. von Soden, TQbingen, 1906; N. Bachmann, Z^ht in Dark Placee; or. Lectures on . . . Philippians, Richmond, 1910. On Colossians: J. B. Lightfoot, London, 1695; F. Bihr. Basel. 1833; W. Bdhmer, Berlin. 1635; W. Steiger. Ei^ langen, 1835; E. T. Mayerhoff. Berlin, 1636; J. E. Hather. Hamburg. 1641; F. Bleek. Beriin, 1665; A. KlApper, Ber- lin, 1882; J. Eadie, Edinbuigh, 1664; J. Rutherford. London. 1908. On Thessalonians: E. Headland and H. B. Swete. London, 1866; A. Koch. Berlin, 1849; J. Eadie, London. 1877; J. Hutchison, Edinbuigh, 1864; P. Schmidt, Ber- lin, 1886 (on I. Thess.); A. K15pper. Kteigsbeig, 1869; G. Wohlenberg, Leipsic, 1903; G. Milligan, London. 1908; E. von DobschQts, new ed., (ji5ttingen, 1909. On the pastoral epistles: K. Knoke. 2 vois^ G6ttiiigen« 1887-89; F. C. Baur, Stuttgart. 1835; O. & Matthies. Greifswald. 1840; M. J. Mack, TQbingen. 1641; P. Fair- baim, Edinburgh, 1874; G. Cuivier, Geneva, 1676; W. Bahnsen, Leipsic, 1876 (II Tim.); H. J. Hcdtamann, Leip- sic, 1880; H. Kdlling. Beriin. 1862 (J Tim.); £. Kroken- beig. GQterrioh, 1901; J. P. Ulley, Edinlmigh. 1901; B. Weiss. Gfittingen. 1902; A. Schlatter, Oahr. 1901; A. Schumann, Leipeio, 1906 (PhileaiOQ). Paul the Apostle

MISSIONARY PRIESTS OF SAINT: A congre- galiuu familiarly known as the " Paulist Fathers " or the '' Paulists." This congregation, which Is the only religious institute of clerics in the United States that is of American origin, was founded in 1858 in the city of New York by five native American priests, all converts from Protestantism, who pre- viously had joined the Redemptorist order and were actively engaged in preaching missions throughout the United States. These men were Clarence Wal- worth and Francis A. Baker, both former Episco- palian clergymen; Augustine Hewitt, who had pre- viously passed from Congregationalism to the Epis- copalian Church; George Deshon, a graduate of West Point where he had been a classmate of Gen- eral Grant, and Isaac T. Heckcr of German Lutheran stock, who, shortly before his submission to the Roman Catholic Church, had been a member of the Brook Farm community of " Transcendentalists " near West Roxbury, Masa. At that time the direction of the Redemptorist, order in the United States was exclusively in the hands of superiors who were German or of German descent, and the German language, together with German customs and methods, prevailed in the various houses of the community. To the recently admitted American fathers this condition of things seemed to constitute a serious drawback, and the question of founding a new house as a head- quarters for English-speaking fathers, as a center of attraction for American novices, as a base for mis- uonaiy work for the non-Catholic American people, and a« a residence in which English instead of Ger- man should be the language in common use, was brought up for consideration. This project, though heartily endorsed by Archbishop Hughes and by Bishop Bayley of Newark, was rejected by the su- periors of the order both in Rome and in America, and Father Heckcr, who went to Rome to plead the case before the superior-general, was dismissed from the congregation of the Redemptorists, Aug. 2t), 1 857. Fnther Hecker remained nevertheless in touch ivitb his American associates, and some months later the idea was suggested that they establish a new mis- sionary society or congregation which in spirit and methods would be more adaptable to existing con- ditions in the United States. The plan was en- dorsed by Archbishop Hughes, and the five fathers having been canonically released from their alle- giance to the Redemptorist order, received, Mar. 6, 1858, a papal decree permitting them to orgaii- tte an independent society of missionaries to be under the direction of the local bishops. Father Hecker was elected the first superior. He drew up a provisory community rule which embodied to a great extent the regulations governing the Redemp- torists. and it received the unqualified sanction of Archbishop Hughes, July 7, 1858. It differed from that of the Redemptorists and other religious orders in that it did not require the customary vows, but accepted instead a voluntary agreement on the part of the members to live in common in accord- ance with the ipaii of the evangelical counaela. It specified missions as the chief woik of the new com- munity, and parish duties as only a subordinata function. The two cardiiial poinl« insisted upon as embodying the fundamental spirit of the new foundation were the personal perfection of the mem- bers and zeal for souls, and, in connection with the latter, special stress Haa laid on the hoped-for con- version of the people of the United States to the Roman Catholic faith through the apostohc labors of the missionaries. Another fundamental charac- teristic of the new community is worthy of note. While other congregations laid the main stress on fidelity to the rules and exercises of community life as the most important element, the Paulists give the element of personal^individualily the first place, and give it free 8cope"as far as is consistent with the exigencies of the common life. In accordance with these genera! principles and avowed intentions, the activity of the Paulist Fathers has radiated in various directions. Much successful mission work has been accomplislied throughout the country among Catholics and non-Catholics; special atten- tion has been given in their churches to the proper carrying out of the liturgical services, and in par- ticular to the reform of ecclesiastical music. In this ooanection they have organized choirs of men and boys, promoted congregational singing, and have published hymn-booka for the spread of devo- tional music. The Paulists have also striven to ele- vate the standards of Roman Catholic homiletic literature and adapt it to the needs of the American people. Beginning with 1861 a volume of the Paul- ist sermons was pubbshed annually for seven years, and later appeared three volumes of Fire Minute Sermons for Early Maeiea. In their missions and in the parishes under their control the Paulists have been strenuous and consistent advocates of tem- perance. Their propaganda in favor of sobriety has been exerted through sermons, tracts, articles in their o«-n publications and letters to the public press, through petitions to the legislature and ac- tion at the polls, through the formation of total ab- stinence societies and through the establishment of the Temperance Publication Bureau, with ita peri- odica! entitled Temperance Truth. Father Hecker, who, while yet a Redemptorist, bad published his QurtUotiB o/the Soul (New York, 1855) and Aspira- liona of Nature (1857), was always an enthusiastic advocate of the apostolate of the press, and this mode of exercising religious and ethical InBuence has licen among the dominant ideals of the Paulist community. In 1865 they estabhshed the Caiholic World Magtmnr., which has ever since been a re- spected and influential exponent of Roman Catholic topics before the American people. The Catholic Publication Society was organized in 1866 for the purpose of publishing at cost price and distributing books, pamphlets, and tracts for the instruction of Roman Catholics and the enlightenment of non- Catholics. This enterprise did not meet with the success that its promoters had hoped for, and was later supplanted by the Catholic Book Exchange. In 1892 the Paulists iiukugurated a press depart- ment of their own at their headquarters in W. Sixtieth Street, New York City, from which are issued besides the publications above mentioned, The Young Catholic, a magazine for juveniles, and The Missionary, devoted to the interests of the mis- sion work in which a large number of the fathers are always actively engaged. At present (1910), be- sides the mother house, church, school, etc., in New York and a house of studies at the Catholic Univer- sity in Washington, the Paulists have establish- ments in San Francisco, Chicago, Winchester, Tenn., Berkeley, Cal., and Austin, Tex. In the two last- named towns the Paulist communities were estab- lished chiefly in the interests of the Roman Catholic students who attend the state universities there located. The congregation has a total membership of 64 fathers, 21 students, and 10 postulants. James F. Dioscgll. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature under Hbckbr, Isaac Thomas; L. W. Reilly, in American EccUtieutical Review, Sept., 1897; Heimbucher, Orden und Konoreffotionerit iii. 498-500; Currier. Relioioua Orders, pp. 628-630.

PAUL, SAINT, HERMITS OF: A monastic order which existed in Hungary, Portugal, and France, and in each had a different origin. The members are known also as the Fathers (or Brothers) of Death. The Hungarian order arose about 1250 by the union of the hermits of Patach and Pisilia. In 1215 Bishop Bartholomæus of Fdnfkirchen had united the hermits of his diocese in the cloister of St. Jacob of Patach; in 1246 the hermit Eusebius of Gran returned with associates from the desert and built a cloister in Pisilia in 1250. The same year the two communities united and the congrega- tion thus formed was confirmed by Bishop Ladis- laus of Fdnfkirchen. In 1308 the community ac- cepted the Augustinian rule and took its name from St. Paul the Hermit (of Thebes). The order be- came strong and built up 170 monasteries, spread- ing to Germany, Poland, Sweden, and elsewhere. In Hungary its schools did good service. But in the Turkish war the houses were destroyed, and there exists now only the house at Csenstochau in Russian Poland (a celebrated place of pilgrimage), and the two houses of Rupella and Lesiiow in the diocese of Cracow. The Portuguese order was founded at Setuval by Mendo Gomez about 1420, and confirmed with the Augustinian rule by Gregory XIII. in 1578. It has lapsed and has no special significance. The French order seems to have arisen about the beginning of the seventeenth century, and its stat- utes, by Guillaume Callier, were approved by Pope Paul v., and the erection of houses was permitted by Louis XIII. Among the obligations were visit- ing of the sick, care for prisoners, attendance of the condenmed to the place of execution, and burial of the dead. The whole life was to be conditioned by the thought of death, the greeting was memento morif at meal-times a skull was kissed, and a black scapulary was worn with a skull on it. This branch was suppressed by Urban Vlll. (G. GRt)TZMACH£H.) Bibliography: Heimbucher, Orden und KongngaHonen, ii. 231-233; Helyot, Ordrea monaktiquM, iii. 324 sqq.; A. Eggerer, Frogmen pania Corvi proto-Bremici, awe re- liquia anncditim eremi-coBnahiiieorum Fratrum Eremitarum Sancti Paxdi, Vienna, 1063, continuation by M. Borkovich and N. Benger, Pressbuis. 1743; F. Bossl. Pau/iu ThAvsu, Neufltadt, 1749; Currier, Rdiguma Ordara, pp. 327-328.

PAULA, SAINT: Pupil and companion of Je- rome; b. probably at Rome in 347; d. at Bethle- hem in 404. She was a woman of unusually distin- Paul ths De»eoa Fkollciaiifl guished ancestry, the epitaph by Jerome summing up in two lines the fact that she could trace descent from Seipio, Agamemnon, the Æmilius gens, and the illustrious j£mi!ius Paulus. She was also pos- sessed of very large wealth, She was married when quite young to the Senator Toxotius, a member of the Julian gens, und was the mother of four daugh- ters, one of them Julia, generally called Eustochiuin, and one son, named after his father. Her connec- tion with Christianity seems to have come through her family, aa there is no report of her she was quite early in life inclined to and this bent was probably intensified by her in- tercourse with Epiphanius of Salamis and Paulinus of Antioch, whom she entertained during their pres* ence at the Roman synod of 382. Through these bishops she became an intimate of Jerome, who bo largely dominated her later life. She lost her hus- band in 380 and one of her daughters in 384 (an- other of her daughters died possibly in 386); and in that year she decided to leave Rome and take up her residence in the East. She disregarded the Bntrealies of her unmarried daughter BltcsiUa, who desired her mother to delay departure imtil after her marriage, and the laments of her son, whom she left to the guardianship of the pnetor. She then sailed for the EiLst, joined Jerome at Antioch, passed through Palestine to Egypt, and returned to settle at Bethlehem in 3S6. She was influential in indu- cing Maiveila (q.v.) to reside In Palestine; the letter of Paula and Eustochium to Marcella is in anno- tated English translation in Fakatine PUgrirtte' Teit Society PuUieatums (London, 1836). At Beth- lehem Paula and Eustochium built a convent, where they resided, and a hospice, then a monas- tery, and after that a convent of three degrees for women. She pursued her studies of the Bible with Jerome, having learned Hebrew and already being versed in Greek and of course in Latin. By her in- cessant charities and largess she impoverished her- self and laid a weight of debt upon her daughter, even the counsels of Jerome (who records in De CTr. ill., cxxxv., that be wrote daily to her and her daugh- ter) being unavailing in the direction of greater pru- dence. It was partly by the mortificationa to which she subjected herself that her death was occasioned. At her death the bishops of tbe surrounding cities were present, and her funeral showed by the num- bers present and the demonstrations mode the esti- mation in which she was held. She was buried in tbe cave of the nativity. Paula WHS the name also of a granddaughter of Saint Paula, the daughter of her son ToKOlius. Under Jerome's influence she was probably sent to Bethlehem and there brought up to the ascetic life under the care of her aunt Eustochium. She figures in Jerome's correspondence, and several of his com- mentaries are dedicated to her and her aunt (cf. Jerome, Bpis(„ cvii., Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2 ser., vi. 18»-19S). BiBuo<is*niT: The principal Murce is Jerome. Epiil.. cviii.. r»pTDduc«d mASB.Jua.. ii., 711 4qq.. aad is in Eq(e- truul. in NP!iF. 2 tec. vi. mS-212: Paula in muitiaDKl in other lotten (cf. the indei in the cited vol. of ypNF. ■mdcr Pnuln). Coniult furltacr PnlLadiua. Hut. Lautiaea. Ixxii : DCB. iv. 318-319; KL. ix. 1S44-4S. VIII.— 27

PAULINUS OF PELLA: Christian poet; born at Pella, probably the son of a prefect of Mace- donia named Hesperius, about 376; d. after 459. His father went as proconsul to Africa, and Pau- linus, when three years of age, was sent to Bor- deaux to be brought up by his grandfather, then consul, who is supposed to have been Ausonius (q.v.). The boy received a good education, but in- termittent fever compelled him to give up instruc- tion for the ministry. At twenty he married at the wish of his elders, and gave his time to the prop- erty of his wife, then reduced by mismanagement When he was thirty the barbarian invasions be- gan, and by that of the Goths the destruction of his wealth was completed. Continuous misfortune in- duced Paulinus to turn his attention to religious studies; he overcame his tendency to a heretical form of Christianity and entered the orthodox Church in 421. He then withdrew into solitude, lived long upon the charity of others, until he came into possession of a limited competence. His auto- biographic poem shows him reconciled to his lot in life through his religion. This was written when he was eighty-three years of age, and bears the title Eucharisticos {Eucharisticon) Deo sub ephemeridis meæ textu. In 616 lines it proceeds without born- bast, clearly and unpretentiously, to the end; it reveals knowledge of Vergil, Ausonius, Paulinus of Nola, Marius Victor, Sedulius, and Juvencus. It has been edited in M. de la Bigne, Bibliotheca pa- trum, appendix (Paris, 1579); by C. Daum (Leip- sic, 1681); by W. Brandos, in CSEL, xvi. 263-334 (Vienna, 1888). (G. Kroger.) Bibliography: W. Brandes, in ZeiUchrift far die OaUrreichi- achen Oymnaaien, xxxi (1880), 248-251, xxxii (1881). 321- 330; O. Seeck, in prolegomeoa to Synunachus, in MGB, Aud. Ant., vii (1883). 1 aqq.; A. Ebert, AUoemrine Gt- achichie der LiUeraJtur daa MiUdaitera, i. 405-409, Leipsic 1889; J. Rocafort, De Paulini Pallwi vita et carmine, Bor deaux, 1880; M. Ifanitius, Geachiehie der chrietUch4ateim- aehen Poeaie, pp. 213-218, Stuttgart. 1891; Hidoire Hi- Uraire de la France, ii. 363; DCB, iy. 246.

PAULSEN, FRIEDRICH: Educator, philoso- pher, and ethicist; b. at Langenhorn (90 m. n.w. of Hamburg) July 16, 1846; d. at Berlin Aug. 14, 1908. He received his education in the gymnasium at Altona, and at the universities of Erlangen, Bonn, and Berlin (Ph.D., 1871); became privat-docent in philosophy at Berlin, 1871, extraordinary profes- sor, 1877, and professor, 1864, thus spending prac-' tically the whole of his life in the service of that university. He waa the author of Symbola ad syn- tBmata philosophiæ moralis historica et critica (Ber- lin, 1871); Versuch einer EntwicklungageeehichU der kantischen Erkenntnisstheorie (Leipsic, 1375); Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts aiifden deuUchen Schulen und Universitäten vom Ausgang de» MHirl- altera bit iur GegenwaH (1885; Eng. transl,, The German Universities: Iheir Character and hi^orical lelUchaflilekre (2 parts, Berlin, 1889, 8th ed., 2 vols., 1906; Eng. tmnal,, A System of Ethics, Lon- don, 189S); Das Realgymruifium urut die hutnatiuti- tche BUdung (Berlin, 1836); Einleitung in die Philosophie (1862. 16th ed., 1905; Eng. trans!., /nlro- dudian to Philosophy, London, 1865); Immanuel KaTii,iHn l,ebentindseiiw Lehre(\8QS; Eng. transl., Imman-uel Kant: kit Life and DodHne, London and New York, 1902); Schopenhauer, Hamlet, Mephitto- phelea (19U0); Phitosophia mUilans (llWl): Die deutxhen Universitäten und das UniversitBt-Sludiwn (1902; Eng. transl., German Univeraitiet and Vni- veraity Study, London, 1906); Die hOheren Schulen Deutachlanda UTid ihr Lehrerstand in ihrem Ver- hOUnia zam Stoat und tur geiatltehen KuUur (1904; Eng. transl., German Eduealion, Past and Present, London, 1908); Gcaammelte VortrOge und Aufsdtxe lur Ethik, Politik und POdagogik (2 vols., 1907) ; and Modeme Ertiehung und geschUchtliche SitUiehkeit (lfM38).

PAULUS, HEINRICH EBERHARD GOTTLOB: Protestant theologian; b. at Leonberg (3 m. w.n.w. of Stuttgart) Sept. 1. 1761; d. at Heidelberg Aug. 10, 1861. He studied theology at Tubingen (1779- 1784); after which he served as vicar at the Latin school at Schonidorf; then as professor of the oriental languages at the University of Jena (1789- 1793); and third professor of theology (1793- 1803). He lectured on the Old and New Testa- ments and on dogmatic and ethical theology; edited the Neues Repertorium für biblische und morgen~ Idndiaehe Literatur (Jena, 1790); and wrote Pkilo- logische Clavis iiber die Psalmen (1791), Jesaias (1793), and Philologisch-kritischer Kommentar über (IoflAfeu«r«itam€ii( (Lübeck, 1800-04). In 1803, he became professor of theology and consistorial coun- cilor at Wiirzburg. The Protestants declined at first to attend the lectures of Paulus and the attempt was made to draw the Roman Catholic students to his lectures on encyclopedia, but they soon fell away. In 1807 he went as district and school councilor to Bam- berg and in 1808 to Nuremberg, and from there in 1810 to Ansbach. From 1811 to 1844 he made his name synonymous with educational progress at Heidelberg. His lectures embraced all branches of Old and New Testament exegesis. He had also to teach church history. His literary activity mean- while assumed an extensive scope. His most sig- nificant work was Das Leben Jesu als Grundlage einer reinen Geschichte des Urchristentums (2 vols., Heidelberg, 18:28). To this he added a scholarly supplement: Exegetisches Handbuch über die drei ersten Evangelien (.3 toIs., 1830-33). In this work Christianity is summed up in the words, " Be ye of a different mind, for the reign of deity is at hand." Pauperes Catholici 488 Pauliis distinguished between the purpose and the person of Christ. The former was, by appealing first to a change of mind, to effect a transformation of the will of the individual in the image of God, resulting in a divine kingdom for the many. The wonderful thing about Christ is his moral charac- ter. Such a spirit as his in a human body is in itself a miracle. The spiritual operations proceeding from him were supported by individual events, not then explained according to their natural causes and for the most part not handed down with their self-explaining circumstances. But the proof for the truth of Christianity does not rest upon those miracles. Paulus was sharply attacked by the Ra- man Catholic exegete Hug and suffered still more from the crushing blow which fell from Strauss' Leben Jesu, He was characterized by a colleague as the man who thinks that he believes and who believes that he thinks. He remained uninfluenced by the philosophical, ethical, or political revolu- tions of his time and continued till his death as the representative of the enlightenment of 1790. (P. TSCHACKERT.) Bibliography: C. A. von Reiohlin-Meldegg, H. E. O. PaiduM und aeine ZeU, 2 vols., Stuttcaxt, 1853 (authorita- tive); H. von Buflohe, Die freie rdigi&ae Aufkldnmg, Dannstadtt 1846; 8. Brunner, Die vier Oroeameiater der AufkiArunga-Theolooie, Paderbom, 1888; and much of thid literature under ENUOHTiiNiiBNT, Thx.

PAUPERES CATHOLICI: A Roman Catholic order confirmed by Innocent III. in 1208, composed of former Waldensians who had become reconciled with the Church. They formed two groups, one adhering to Durand of Osca (Huesca) and the other to Bernardus Primus. Both classes retained the principle of apostolic poverty (Luke x. 4), while their desire to win souls led them to a life of constant wandering. The group over which Ber- nard presided devoted themselves to manual labor in addition to their spiritual duties, while those di- rected by Durand were restricted to the religious edification of their friends and disputations with heretics. Bernard's followers seem to have been drawn from the Lombard Waldensians, and the adherents of Durand from the French sectaries. Neither of the groups enjoyed a long existence, since simultaneously with them arose the Francis- cans and Dominicans with an aim similar to their own, but with a strength which made the continu- ance of the order of Pauperes Catholici super- fluous. (O. ZOCKLERf.) Bxbuoorapht: A. W. Dieckhoff, Die Waldenser im Mittd- alter, pp. 188 sqq., Qdttingen, 1851; J. C. L. Qieeeler, Church Hist., iv. 286. 298, v. 348. 466 sqq., New York, 1868-80; Neander, Chvrch History, iv. 612-^13.

PAVIA, SYNOD OF: The Synod of Pavia is closely related to the Council of Constance, which in the celebrated Frequens decree, Oct. 9, 1417, had ordered that general councils be held more fre- quently than before; that the next be held in five years, another seven years after, and thenceforth one every tenth year; and that the place was to be designated by the pope, subject to its approval, a month before the close of the preceding council. Accordingly Pope Martin V. appointed the city of Pavia, near Milan. Provincial and diocesan synods were ordered to be held in which preliminary prop- ositions were to be discussed for the general coun- cil. There were episcopal synods betweoi 1418 and 1423 at Salzburg, Passau, Regenobuig, Maini, Cologne, and Treves. The pope, however, made little preparation, and neither he nor any cardinal or Italian prelate (excepting a president of the council) appeared. The pope excused himself and the car- dinals on the groimd of extra work and had the sessions opened on Apr. 23, 1423, by four obscure prelates. The attendance was small and there were present at adjournment to Siena four German, six French, and several English prelates, but no Italian or Spanish. The synod had not finished settling the order of business before the plague broke out in the city; and on June 22, 14^, it was decided to adjourn to Siena. The synod ended without any important results for the Church. (Paul T&chackert.) Bibuoorapht: Hefele, ConeUienoeeehiAle, viL 375-392; Manai, ConeUia, xxviiL 1081 sqq., 1067 sqq.

PAYNE, CHARLES HENRY: Methodist Epis- copal; b. at Taunton, Mass,, Oct. 24, 1830; d. at Clifton Springs, N. Y., May 5, 1899. He was grad- uated from Wesley an University, Middle town, Conn., 1856; studied theology in the Biblical Insti- tute, Concord, N. H. (now the Boston School of Theology); was pastor from 1857 until 1876, when he became president of Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, O. He was a member of the committee to re^TBe the hymn-book of the MethodiHl-Episco- pal Church in 1876; and was the author of Method- ism, Uc History and Rendu (New York, 1881), Women, und their Work in. Metiiodism (1881), and Ovidxa in Character BuUding (1883).

PAYNE, DANIEL ALEXANDER: African Meth- odist Episcopal bishop; b. in Charleston, N, C, Feb. 24, 1811; d. in Baltimore Dec. 2, 1893. He studied theology at the Lutheran theological sem- inary at Gettysburg, 183,5-38; entered the minis- try of the Lutherans in 1838, but joined the itin- erancy of the African Methodist Episcopal Church in 1843; in 1848 he was chosen historiographer for his denomination, and in 1352 was elected bishop; be was also president of Wilberforce University, Ohio, 1865-76. Among his publications the most important were History of the African Methodist Episcopal Church (3 vols., Baltimore, 1865); and Domestic Education (Ciucinnati, 1886),

PAYNE, PETER: Wycliffite; b. at Hough-on- the-Hill {15 m. s.s.w. of Lincoln) c. 1380; d. at Prague, Bohemia, 1455. He was educated at Ox- ford, imbibed Wycliffite opinions and never swerved from them. He became M.A. c. 1406, principal of St. Edmund Hall, 1410, and also of the adjoining White Hall. These poaitions he gave up in 1414. Shortly afterward he left the country and, being defamed for heresy, never came back. He found a welcome among the Hussites and was till his death one of their leaders. He belonged to the extreme orthodox parly, the Orphans, and was one of the most unyielding of them. He never completely mastered the Bohemian language, yet was trusted by the Orphans and thrust forward as their repre- sentative and defender on all occasions. In this way bis name appears frequently in Hussite his- tory both as private and public advocate of their views and always coupled with respect. He man- fully shared the adverse fortunes of his party. In 1437 he was cited by the pope for heresy and in consequence compelled to leave Prague. In 1439 he was imprisoned in the castle of Gulenstein, not far from Mies (15 m. w. of Pilsen), Austria, and was ransomed by the payment of 12,000 groechen. He was in the town of Tabor when it was taken by King George Podiebrad (1452) and thus the party was destroyed, and as he was unwilling himself to yield, he probably died in prison. He seems to have played a large and honorable part in his day, but awing to the tact that no woriu of his have been preserved, or are now aocesaibte, his reputation has suffered an eclipse. BiBLioaiuraT: For Pmyna'a anreer in Encland llu ana ■oure« is T. Guooigne'a Diaionarivn IheaUigicum (MS. in LlnDolD College Libiuy. Oxford), extncia from it piint«d by J. E. T. Rogera aa Loci a libra vrriiatum. Oxford. For ! lanli XV.. ,cipal a . Viurnn. 1867~B1. Otlipr Hat- sketch in DNB. iliv. 1 14-IlH. A uat well balanced mono- giBph, J. Baker's A Forgotten GrtrU EnolM"""'. London. 1894. is bued largoly upon F. PBlncky'a Qrtcliiehh «m Bchnien, bmkB vii.-ii., S vols.. Praxue, 1836-07. Intel- eating matter ia found in Crcigblan, Pajiacy, ii. 337-^356, .tIZ. Cansult further the ]iler.klurc under Babel, Coun- cil, of; and Hubs, John, Hl'SdlTxa,

PAYNE SMITH, ROBERT: Orientalist and theologian; b. at Chipping Campden (27 m. n.n.e. of Gloucester) Nov. 7, 1819; d. at Canterbury Mm. 31, 1895. He was educated at Pembroke College, Oxford (B.A., 1841; M.A., 1843; Boden Sanscrit scholar, 1840; Pusey and Ellerton scholar, 1843); was ordained deacon (1843) and priest (1844); and became successively head-master of the Kensington proprietary school (1853), sub-librarian of the Bod- leian Library, Oxford (1857), canon of Christ Church, Oxford, regius professor of divinity, and rector of Ewelme (1865), and dean of Canterbury (1870). He was Bampton lecturer in 1869, and an Old-Testa- lament reviser (1870-^). He edited S. Cyrilli eomtneniarii in Luew eeangdium qtuF supersurd Si/riace (Oxford, 1859); and published the English translation, A Commentary upon the Oospel accord- ing to St. Ijuke (1859). He aleo published an Eng. tranal,. The Third Part of the Ecclesiastical History of John, Bishop of Ephemis, as edited in Syriac by WUIiam Curetoti (1860). Other works are The AulhenlicUy and Messianic Irderpretaiion of the Prophecies of Isaiah (1862); Prophecy a Prepara- tion for Christ (1869); and a commentary on Jere- miah in the " Speaker's Commentary " (London, 1875), the expodtion of the books on Samuel in the PidpU Comtnenlary {1883, 1888), and on Genesis in An Old Testament Commentary by C. J. EUiott (London, 1885); and the posthumous Sermon* on the Pentateuch, with Memoir (1896). Hia chief work on which he spent the last thirty-six years of his life, the Thesaurus Syriaats (Oxford, 1868-1901), a Syriac dictionary, was exhaustive and epoch- making. Before his death all but the last of the ten fasciculi had appeared, and this was issued by his daughter. BiBLiooKAPRV: Besides the Momoit ia (be 5inni»u, ut «up.. MMisult DNB. iliv. 125-127.

PEABODY, ANDREW PRESTON: Unitarian; b. at Beverly, Mass., Mar. 19, 1811; d. at Boston Mar. 10, 1893. He was graduated from Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass., 1826, and from Harvard Divinity School, 1832; was pastor at Portsmouth, N. H., 1833-60; and professor of Christian morals, and preacher to Harvard University. 1800-81. Ho edited Th» North-American Review, 1852-61; wrote LeduTt on CkrUtian Doclrine (Boston, 1844, 3d ed., 1857); Cftris(tan Consolatuma (1846, 6th ed., 1872); Converaalion, Us Faults and Graces (1856, 3d ed., 1882); Christianity the Religion of Nature (Lowell Lectures, 18M); Sermont for ChUttren (1866); ReminitceTKfx of European Travel (New York, 1868); Manual of Moral PhUoiophy 0&73); ChrU- tianity and Science (Union Seminary Lectures, 1874, new ed., 1890); Christian Bdief and Life (Boston, 1875); Baccalaurecle Sermom {\8S5); Moral Phi- losophy: Lectures (1887); Harvard Reminitcencea (1888); Harvard Graduates whom I have knovm (1890); and King's Chapel Sermons (1891); and made translations of Cicero's De officii* (1883), De genectute (1884), De AmiirUia and " Sciplo's Dream" (1884), "Tusculan Disputations" (1886); and " Plutarch on the Delay of the Divine Juetjce " (1885).

PEABODY, FRANCIS GREENWOOD: Unitarian; b. at Boston Dec. 4, 1847. He was educated at Harvard College (A.B., 1869) and Harvard Divinity School (1872). From 1874 to 1880 he was minister of the First Parish Church, Cambridge, Mass., and in 1880 was appointed Parkman professor of theol- ogy in Harvard Divinity School. Since 1886 he has been Plummer professor of Christian morals in Harvard University. He has written Mornings in the College Chapel: Short Addresses to Young Men on Personal Religion (Boston, 1896; 2d series, 1907); Afternoons in the College Chapel: Addresses to Young Men on Personal Religion (1898); Jesus Christ and the Social Question (New York, 1900); The Religion of an Educated Man (1903); Jesu* Christ and the Christian Character (Lyman Beecher Lectures at Yale; 1905); and The Approach to tha Social Question (1909).

PEACOCKE, JOSEPH FERGUSON: Church of Ireland archbishop of Dublin, and primate of Ire- land; b. in County Queens, Nov. 5, 1835. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1857) and was ordered deacon in 1858 and ordained priest in the following year. He was curate of St. Mary's, Kilkenny (1858-61); secretary of the Hibernian Church Missionary Society (1861-63); curate of Monkstown (1863-73); incumbent of St. George's, Dublin (1873-78); and rector of Monkstown (1878- 1894). He was also prebendary of Dimlavin and canon of St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, from 1875 to 1894, when he was appointed professor of pastoral theology in Trinity College, Dublin. He was select preacher at the University of Dublin in 1876-77, 1882-83, and 1888, and at the University of Cambridge in 1899. In 1894 he was consecrated bishop of Meath, and in 1897 was elevated to the archdiocese of Dublin. He is also bishop of Glendalough and of Kildare, and prebendary of Cualaun.

PEAKE, ARTHUR SAMUEL: English Primitive Methodist layman; b. at Leek (27 m. s.e. of Man- chester), Staffordshire, Nov. 24, 1865. He was educated at St. John's College, Oxford (B.A., 1887; M.A., 1890), and was fellow of Merton College, Oxford (1890-97). He was lecturer in Mansfield College, Oxford (1890-92), and since 1892 has been a tutor in the Primitive Methodist College, Man- chester, lecturer in Lancashire Independent Col- lege since 1895, and since 1904 he has also been pro- fessor of Biblical exegesis and dean of the theological faculty in the University of Manchester. In theol- ogy he holds to, '' liberal evangelism of the Pauline type, with special emphasis on Paul's doctrines of the solidarity of the race and the mystical union of the believer with Christ." In Old-Testament criticism he is Grafian, and in New-Testament criticism defends the validity of the critical method, but is not radical in his results. He '' accepts the doctrines of the Trinity and the deity of Christ, and the redeeming quality of his death and the reality of his resurrection." He has edited the current literature section in the PHmiHve Methodist Quarterly Review since 1892 and a volume of inau- gural lectures by members of the theological faculty of Victoria University (Manchester, 1906), to which he contributed his own lecture on The Present Movement of Biblical Science, and has written A Guide to Biblical Study (London, 1897) ; The Problem of Suffering in the Old Testament (1904) ; Reform in Sunday School Teaching (1906); Christianity: Its Nature and Truth (1908, 6th ed., 1909); A Critical Introduction to the New Testament (1909) ; and Heroes and Martyrs of Faith (1910), and has prepared the volumes on Hebrews and Job for The Century Bible (Edinburgh, 1902, 1905) and Colossians for The Expositor's Greek Testament (London, 1903).

PEARSON, ELIPHALET: American theolo- gian; b. at Byfield, Mass., June 11, 1752; d. at Greenland, N. H., Sept. 12, 1826. He was educated at Harvard and soon after graduation was called to teach a grammar-school at Andover, Mass., where in 1778 he was appointed principal of the newly founded Phillips Academy. He held this position until 1786; then was professor of Hebrew and Oriental languages at Harvard, 1786-1806. In 1806 he resigned his professorship at Harvard, was ordained in the Congregational Church, and went to Andover. He was one of the founders of the Andover Theological Seminary, was professor of sacred literature 1808-09, and president of the board of trustees for nineteen years. He was founder of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, secretary of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and was the most conspicuous man in forming the American Education Society. Pearson wrote comparatively little, his most important publication being A Letter to the Candid (Boston, 1831). BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. B. Sprague, Annals of the American Pulpit, ii. 126-131, New York, 1859.

PEARSON, JOHN: Church of England bishop and scholar; b. at Great Snoring (23 m. n.w. of Norwich), Norfolk, Feb. 28, 1613; d. at Chester July 16, 1686. He was educated at Eton (1623-31) and at Cambridge (admitted at Queen's, June 10, 1631; elected scholar of King's, Apr., 1632; fellow 1634; B.A., 1635; M.A., 1639; D.D., 1660); and took orders in 1639. In 1640 he became prebendary of Salisbury and rector of Thorington in Suffolk. He was an outspoken royalist and in 1645 acted as chaplain to Lord Goring's forces at Exeter. After the king's cause was hopelessly lost he retired to London and remained there till the Restoration. From 1654 he preached weekly as lector, without remuneration, at St. Clement's, Eastcheap; and he wrote much in defense of the English Church against both Roman Catholics and Puritans. He supplied prefaces for various books, his reputation for scholarship making his commendation much sought for. Walton's Polyglot (see Bibles, Poly- GLOT, IV.) was indebted to him for pecuniary aid, but he seems to have done no work upon it. After the Restoration he became rector of St. Christopher- le-Stocks, London, prebendary of Ely, archdeacon of Surrey, royal chaplain, and master of Jesua Collie, Cambridge (1660). He was prominent in the Savoy Conference (q.v), and the same year (1661) WHS choeen to superintenii the traoalation of the prayer-book into Latin. In June, 1661, be became Margaret profesBor of divinity at Cambridge and, in 1662, master of Trinity. Ha wag conse- crated bishop of cheater in 1673. Pearson was probably the ablest scholar and eyetcniatic theologian of the English Church in the seventeenth century. The work which matle his reputation (etill a standanl in English divinity) WM An Exposition of the Creed (London, 1659), a development of sermons delivered at St. Clem- ent's. It ia a mast'erful attempt to expand the creed «o as to embrace a. summary of the arguments and authorities of the orthodox faith; marked by a judicious eelectlon of proofs, scholastic treatment, vigorous definition, and exact deduction; and set forth in an accurate style. The beet edition is that of T. Chevallier, revised by R. Sinker (Cambridge, 1899). There are abridgments by Biisil Konnett, Charles Bumey, and C. Bradley, and an analysis by W. H, Mill (London, 1837, and often). Pear- Bon's great work in the field of historical criticism was the Vindicia epiatolarum S. Igiialii (Cambridge, 1672; ed. E. ChurWn for the Library of Anglo- Catholic Theology, 2 vols., Oxford, 1852), an answer to an attack by Jean DaiU^ (Geneva, 1666) on the authenticity of the letters attributed to Ignatius of Antioch, which Pearson was led to defend by echobrly interest and, still more, by his views con- cerning the age and origin of the episcopate. For two centuries the book was the chief writing in favor of the authenticity of the letters, and lato investigations by J, B. Lightfoot and T. Zohn con- firm Pearson's judgment. In his Lectiones de Deo et altributis ejus (professorial lectures, 6rst printed in the complete edition of Pearson's Minor Theo- logieal Workt, ed. E. Churton, 2 vols., Oxford, 1844), he attempted to provide a Protestant Corpui Iheolo- gin, following the Thomistic method but aiming to correct the faults of the old scholasticism by more fundamental dependence on Scripture and critical examination of the ancient councils and authorities. His chronological writings, Amuiles CypHanici (prefixed to Bishop Fell's edition ot Cyprian, Oxford, 1682), Anrvdea Paulini (in Opera pOBlhuma, .S parts, London, 1687-88; Eng. transl. by J. H. Williams, Cambridge, 1825, and by J. H. Crowfoot, Cambridge, 1851), and DisnerloHonea de eerie ei avceeaione pnmonim Romas episcoporum (in Opera posthima) have still considerable value; Ukcwise his DeiemiinatioTies Uieologiem (publiBhed by Churton, ut sup.), brief treatises on the origin of the episcopate and on Anglican orders, two Christologicol essays, and a discussion of baptism. His Leetionce in Ada ApoaH^orum (in Opera poa- thuma; Eng. tranal. by Crowfoot with the Anntdet Pmdini, ut sup.) and collaboration in the Critiei taeri (a companion work to Walton's Polyglot, 9 vols., London, 1660), for which he wrote the preface and edited the last two volumes, are his important 'works in the exegetical field. Lastly, mention ebould be made of Oralionea idi in corrritiii publicis aeademieia habita and Coneione% od derum vi (pub- lished by Churton, ut sup.) and of two English ser- mons, the Excellency of Form* of Pra^; preachsd just before the Westminster Assembly in 1613, boldly declaring his theological and political views, and No Necttnly of Reformation of the Public Doe- trine of the Church of England (London, 1660). (C. ScHOU-t-) Bibliography: Ths b«t sketch af PennDD's life b (htt fay Churton prefixed lo tbe Minor TlHolottcal Warkt. ut sup. Coruult further; J. DarLing' Cvfiopadia Biblioffrapkim pp. 2330-31, London. 1»M: S. Clieetbun. John Ptarm. in A. Dnrrv's Marffri in BneluA Thtotnav. London. 1ST;; G. T. O. Brldgnun, HUI. 0/ tKe ChurtJi and Sianar of

PECHENARD, PIERRE LOUIS: Roman Catho- lic; b. at Gespunsart, near Charleville (48 m. n.e. of Reims), France, Dec. 5, 1842, He received his education at the petit serainaire of Cbarleville and Reims, the grand Bcminaire at Reims, and the £coIe dea Cannes. Paris; was made priest in 1868; was cure of La Neuville-aux-Toumeurs, 1869-72; asso- ciate professor in the petit seminaire at Reims, 1872-73; professor of history in the college at Charleville, 1873-76; superior of the petit eeminaire at Reims, 1876-80; vicar-general of the archdiocese of Reims, 1880-1896; rector of the Institut catho- lique of Paris, 1896-1907; and was made bishop of Soissons 1906. His principal writings deal with local history or biography or with the history of institutions. Among them may be noted: Jean Juvenal des Ursine, arrheiitqae de Reims (Paris, 1876; crowned by the academy of Reims); De sehola Retnetm decinto siecuIo C1S76); HUtoire de Oespun- «jrt (1878; new ed., 1906); Hiiimre de Vabbaye d'Igny (1883); HUloire de la congregation de Notre- Dame de Reima (2 vols., Reims, 1886); HUUnre de La NeiiviUe-avx-Toameurs (1887); De Reim* d Jenisaipm{1891); &tude kialorique aur leg confirencet tcdisiastiqtKs (Paris, 1898); L'lmmacidie Concep' liondanal'ancienneuniversiti de PariailS05); L'ln- BlUul caiheliq\te de Paris, 1S7S-1907 (1907); Vera I'action (IW?); and Panigyrique du bienheureux Jean de Montmirail (1909).

PECKHAM, JOHN: Archbishop of Canterbury; b. probably at Lewes (1 m. n.e. of Brighton), Su9- Bex, in 1240 or earUer; d. at Mortlako (9 m. w.a.w. of St. Paul's, London, Mar. 20, 1292. He was edu- cated at Oxford where he spent some time in the Franciscan Monastery; andafter 1250 at Paris where he graduated in theology. He became eleventh lector of his order at Oxford In 1270; a httle later ninth provincial minister; a year or two later tho first theological lecturer in the schools of the papal palac« at Rome, where his lectures were attended by many cardinals and bishops and obtained great fame; and in 1279 archbishop of Canterbury. Throughout his tenure of office, Pecfcham favored the papal policies at the expense of the temporal power, which in 1282 precipitated a war in Wales; and he lost no opportunity of advancing the Dominican and Franciscan orders, especially tho latter. Ho was a voluminous writer of treatises on science, such as: Perapediva communiii (Milan, 1482), Thtoriea planatarum, and De apharra; all of which are representod by coanuscripts in the British Museum. In theology, he left CoUeetanca Biblio- Tum, printed as DivinarH senteiitiartl UbrorH biblie (Paris, 1513); and De Irinilale, printed as Do aumma irinitate ei fide ealholita (London, 1610). He published also, besides other poems, PhUamda, extant in manuscript in British Museum and Bod- leian Library, and printed with the Centiloquium (Paris, 1503) of St. Bonaventura, to whom it was wrongly ascribed. BiBuoaoAPBT: The principal source ia Peelfbam's Rtcit- Irum epitManm, ed C, T. Martin for Uie BolU Stria, 3 vols., Loudon. 18B2-8fl; the prefaoes gather up in excel- in DNB, idir. 100-107, is detjuled and chlicat, and givH adequate reTerences to olher eouroo. Coneult alsa W. F. Hook, Mdm nf Die ArchbialioBa of Canierburv, 13 vols., Laadoa, 18«0-7fl.

PECOCK, REGINALD: English prelate; b. in Wales about 1395; d. probably at Thomey Abbey (9 m. n.n.e. of Peterborough) in 1459 or 1460. Ho WB3 educated at Oxford, became a fellow of Oriel CoU^e in 1417, and taught in Oxford till 1425, when the duke of Gloucester introduced him to the court at London as one of his train. By 1420 he had entered tho church, and in 1431 through Gloucester's influence he became master of the coU^e of St. Spirit and Bt. Mary, commonly called Whittington's College, which was in tlie Vintry, London, and rector of St. Michael de Paternoster Church, in Riola, near by. The two positions went together, and he held them till in 1444 he was made Polacltui 486 bishop of St. Asaph. In 1450 he was translated to ChichesteTi and became a member of the privy coundL He was a learned man and a faithful son of the Church, but, unfortunately for his personal comfort, he took too independent a course. He first comes prominently forward in 1447, when he boldly de- fended the bishops against the charges that they did not preach and that they were frequently absent from their sees. His sermon gave offense to the friars and to the progressive element of the cleigy. When in 1455 he issued his best-known book, A Repressor of Overmuch Blaming of the Clergy (ed. C. Babington, with biographical notice, in Roll's Series, 2 vols., 1860) which was intended to shut the mouths of the Lollards, he awoke a storm of criticism because in his candor he acknowledged that the Church could not be defended by appeal to Scripture, but only on philosophical grounds which he proceeded to state, and maintained that church practises which had no Scripture warrant were yet proper. In 1456 he brought out another book, The Book of Faith (ed. from MS. in Trinity College, Cambridge, with Introduction, by J. L. Morison, Glasgow, 1909), in which he again presents his rational, not to say rationalistic, grounds for the chiurch doctrines. But the latter book was still less acceptable to the hierarchy. He was con- demned for heresy by the archbishop of Canterbury (1458), forced to make a public recantation and retractation, to resign his see, and then was con- fined in a monasteify till he died. But the modem world honors him as among its forerunners. Biblioorapht: DNB, xliv. 198-202 (should be consulted for the sources, a considerable list of scattering notices being given); J. Lewis, Life of ... R. Peoock^ London, 1744, new ed., Oxford, 1820; W. Brute, Writings and ExaminaHona of . . . Pecock . . . and Others, ib. 1831; W. W. Capes. English Church in the 14th and 26th Cen- turies, ib. 1900; J. Gairdner, LoUardy and the Reformor Hon in England, i. 202-238, 255 sqq., London, 1908 (im- portant). PECTORAL CROSS. See Vestments and In- siGNiAf Ecclesiastical.

PECULIAR: The technical ecclesiastical title given to certain Anglican parishes which were ex- empt from the jurisdiction of the ordinary of the diocese, having an ordinary of their own. Their origin was in the papsd Exemption (q.v.) exercised when England was Roman Catholic; at the Refor- mation, through oversight, these parishes remained under the sovereign or other superior. During the reign of William IV. their exemption or exclusion from ordinary jurisdiction was abolished, with the sole exception of Westminster Abbey and the chap- els of the Inns of (Dourt.

PEKAH: Eighteenth king of Israel, son of Remaliah and successor of Pekahiah. His dates according to the old chronology are 758-743; ac- cording to Kamphausen 736-730; according to Whitehouse (Z>B, iii. 736) 736-733. Taking advan- tage of his position as shalish (E. V. " captain ") of Pekahiah, he conspired against him, assassinated him, and seized the throne. Tiglath-Pileser of Assyria attacked him, took certain cities, *' all the land of Naphtali, and carried them captive to As- 83rria." Hoshea the son of Elah then rose against Pekahy slew him, and reigned in his stead (II Kings zv. 25, 29-31). Other notices (II Kings zv. 37; xvi. 5 sqq.) show that Pekah, in alliance with Rezin of Damascus, attacked Jotham and Ahas of Judah. There was evidently an attempt to unite the Syrian states against Ass3rria, from which the kings of Judah held aloof and thus invited the hos- tility of the allies. Their invasion was repelled but the ultimate outcome was the dependence of Judah on Assyria, which proved fatal to the former (see Ahaz) and probably hastened Pekah's downfall. The immediate effect of the invasion upon the people and king of Judah and the policy advocated by the prophetic party are evident from Isa. vii. The inscriptions (annals of Tiglath-Pileser, addi- tions to the eponym canon, and the BiJsyloniaii chronicle) accord with the Biblical data. Tiglath- Pileser IV. came to the throne in 745 B.C. In pur- suance of his policy to restore the Assyrian rule over the West, he captured Arpad in 740 B.C.; the rest of northern Syria was subjugated in the fol- lowing year. A like course of events was repeated in 738 B.C., when Menahem of Israel bought him off for 1,000 talents of silver. In 734 B.C. Ti^th- Pileser again marched westward and attacked Philistia first to isolate Damascus. On the way he devastated Israel and made a part of its ietn^ tory an Assyrian province (cf. II Kings xv. 29). This must have been in 733 B.C., since Tiglath- Pileser states under this year " they overthrew Pekah their king and I set Ausi [i.e. Hoshea] over them " (KBf ii. 33). This is not necessarily incoo- sistent with the Biblical narrative (cf. Kittel's commentary on Kings, p. 267, Gottingen, 1900). Evidently Hoshea was the leader of an Assyiian party in Samaria which asserted itself after IV- kah's defeat. (R. KriTEL.) Bibuoorapht: The sources are II Kings xv. 27-31; ba. vii. Cionsult the pertinent sections of the literature givco under Ahab; Israbl., History of; and Kings* Books or, Schrader, KAT, pp. 264 sqq. et passim, and COT, a. 321 sqq.; DB, iii. 736-737; EB, iii. 3643; JE, ix. 584.

PEKAHIAH: Seventeenth king of Israel, sod and successor of Menahem. His dates according to the old chronology are 760-758, according to Kamphausen and modem chronographers 737-736. The latter chronology is fixed by the annals of Tiglath-Pileser III., showing that Menahem was alive in 738, and that Pekah, Pekahiah's successor, was dethroned in 734-733. The source for Pfeb- hiah's history is II Kings xv. 22-26, though corrup- tions have affected the passage; the picture of the northern kingdom given by Hosea is good for his period. The indications of the events under his successor Pekah (q.v.) are that Pekahiah deared to carry out his father's policy of friendship for the Assyrians, and that the opposing (national or anti- Asayrian) party was represented by Pekah (q.v.), the " captain " who assassinated Pekahiah and usurped the throne. Cheyne (EB, iii. 3643) ques- tions the existence of Pekahiah, and supposes th&t his name in the succession is due to a Uterary mis- understanding of the longer form of the name d Pekah (Hebr. Pekayahu). But this would necen- tate a revolution under Menahem, for which there is RELiaiOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA no room in the tuetory; II Kings xv. 22 Emplics a peaceful deaUi for Menahem. Geo. W. Gii^oke. BIBLIOOBXPBT ^ Coeuutt the peitiamC wcIJaM la the liteiB- tunt uudBr Ahau; Ibhaei^ Hmwittr of; snd Kjwos. Books or: Sclirader, KAT, pp. 2M, 32Ui DB, iii. 737: SB, iii. swi; JE, ii. 5(M,

PELAGIUS: The name of two popes. Pelagius I.: Pope 555-561. He was the son of a Roman official, and first appears as deacon accom- panying Agapetua I. (q-v.) to Constantinople in Feb., 536. He remained in Constantinople after the death of Agapetus and was made his permanent representative, or apocrisiariuB, there by Silveriua. As such lie gained great influcnw, wijoywl the con- fidence of Justinian, and waa able several times to inlervene decisively ia the ecclesiastical disputes of the Orient, In Jan., 543, be contributed not a little to the condeomation of Origenism. He returned tO,Bome in 545 and acted tbere for Vigilius (q.v.) during the latter's absence. On Dec. 17, 546, Rome was forced to swrender to the Goths under Totila, and PelagiuB had to acknowledge the barbariau as master and act as hia ambassador in peace negotia- tions with Justinian in 547. He relumed home mlhout having arranged matters to the satisfaction of the Gothic king, and the latter ordered all the clergy to leave Rome. Pelagius remained to Sicily until about 551. Pelagius was strongly opposed to the Three Chap- ter edict (see Three Chaptkr Conthovebst) and used hia influence with Vigilius to induce the lutt«r to recall the Judicalum of 548. In the spring of 553 he succeeded, and on May 14 of that year the pope signed the so-called ConMitutum, drawn up by Pela- gius (cf. L. Duchesne, in Revue des quealiom hU- l^riques, xxxvi. 425), protesting against the edict. As a oonsecguence Pelagius, who had been in Con- stantinople since about 551, was imprisoned by Justinian. He used his enforccil leisure to write Sex Hbri in defengionrm eapittdaram (preserved in part in a MS, of Orleans), and when in Dec., 553, Vigilius again turned about and conformed to the wish of the emperor, Pelagius sent forth from his cell a violent attack upon the unstable pope. Early in 555, hovrever, be followed the example of Vigiliu-i, while Justinian designated Pelagius as the successor of Vigilius. In Rome, however, they did not want Pelagius as pope, and when Vigilius died (June 7, 555) they chose the presb3^r Mareas in his place. Hareas died In August, but all hesitated to conse- crate the choice of the emperor, and it was not until Apr. 16, 556, that Pelagius could ascend the papal throne. His position was difGcult, but he Gtrove, not without succees, to conciliate the opposition. To repair the ravages of war waa another duty which devolved on the new pope, and herein be ap- peals in more pleasing light. He rehabilitated the Roman finances, refurnished the plundered churches, forty-nine bishops, twenty-ax ine deacons, at the same time not forgetting the poor. When he died, Mar. 3. 661, the worst of the evil consequences of the Gothic war in Rome and its neighborhood had been re- moved, (H. BflaUEH.) Bibliography^ Oooault: Ltbtrpantifiratit.td.lj.IiwbeMiB, i. 303-304. Puk. ISaO. ed. T. MommHn. in MGH. Gat. panl. Rom., i. 156-156. The BrioA are in UPL. Lxii. 3KI-3M. NA, V. B33 iqq., uid JaBi. Ametfa, ia«-t3e: L. Ducbeioe, in Sitvt da gvaltont AuUnquu. xx;(ri (ISS4), 428 aqq.; T. Hodckiti. Ilalu and her Invadtrt. v. SO Bqq., Oxford, 1885; J. Ltngna, Getdiic/Ut dtr rimueliBi Kir. cht. ii. 341 iqq.. Bonn, 1SS5; P. Gicgarovius, HiU. of the CU|ia/Ri>tnfT.i, 4Z6-12S, 4S8. Loodoa, 1SD4; A. KoceM.Oia RdiQiimtpottIA KaitcrJuMiniatul..i. 13Ssqq„ WQriburi. 1898; H, Huttun, Church in tht 6lh CmlmK. pp, 162 sqq., Loailon, ISST; H, Oriaar, GachichU Rami unil der PBpUt, i. 649 Hqq,. 580 »qq., Froiburi. 1901; HeJole, ClmciHmf- Khiehle. ii. 786. 798, 911. 916, Edk. tnuuJ.. iv. 351-357, Bod npooially Fr. tnuul.. ui. 1, pp. 141-145. whioh hu a rich appHTatiu of Dot«; Milmim. Latin ChriMianily. i. 471-174: BowBT, Papa. i. 370-374: PIsU'di. Papa. L 130-132; »nd Utenlure under Thhxb Coaptik Comtbo- PelagiualL: Pope 679-590. He was the aon of a Goth living in Rome and was consecrated pope Nov, 20, 579, while the Lombards were besieging the city. Two difficult problems disturbed his reign, the war with the Lombards and a contest with schismatics in Upper Italy. In 685 the exarch Smamgdus brought a temporary relief from the barbarians, and their ravages worked indirectly to the advantage of the papacy since, because of the danger of foreign rule, a party friendly to Rome grew up in Genoa and Milan. In Istria the bishops Hlubbomly refused even to discuss the three chapters (see Three Chapter Controverst) and Pelagius, by inducing Smaragdus to intervene, niade them more incensed against Rome than ever. With the Eastern Church Pelagius maintained good relations, although toward the end of his pontilicale he had to protest because Patriarch John IV. of Constanti- nople (q.v.) had assumed the title of ecumenical patriarch. In Rome he left a good memory by making his house a refuge for the old and by his church endowments. The basilica of 8, Lorenzo fuori le Mura is a monument of his zeal for building oa well as of Ihc artistic poverty of hia time. Pe- lagius died early in Feb., 590, of pestilence; he was buried in St. Peter's Feb, 6. (H. BAhher,) His great discovery in men was Gr^ory, who was his immediate successor. He sent him to Con- stantinople in 578 as his apotriaiary and kept him there ttU 5S5, and transacted through him some dehcate negotiations. He also employed Gr^ory to write an elaborate defense of the condemnation of the three chapters. Gregory introduces a reference to Pelagius (see Pelagicib, Pbuiqian Conthovbr- sieb) in his epistles and says that when PelagiuB was building tbe monument to St. Lawrence the body of the martyr was accidentally uncovered and all who saw it died within fifteen days {Epift., IV., 30, Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2d ser„ xii. 155). Bihuooriipbt: For lounKB et. tiibtr pontiAealit. ed, L. Duchesne, i, 300-301, Ptra, 1880, ed. T. Momouea. id MGH, Oat. ponf. Rom., i. 160; Paul Itte DeuoD, RiiL Lanoobardomm. book iii.. chap, xx., xxiv. iqq., in UOff, Scri^il. rir. Langob., pp. 13 iqq, Cooeult furllier: A. Fichlet, OtKjiichls do- kirtAlirJiai Trennung twixhen ijnn Orimt und drm Oceidtnt. i. 127-138. ii. &4S Mtq„ Uumoh. t864-«5: B. Niehua, Gackicht, da VcrhaUniim luueAm Kaiirrrtum and PapMtum, i. 383 tqq., Mdnilar, 1877; J. Lan^eD. GttchichU der rfnni^ehen Kifche. ii, 403 eqq.* F. OregoroviiM, Hi*, o/ Ihi CUv of Home, " - ati. Oetchichtr RamM . 745 eqq., SIS eqq,, .389; Plalina. PoprM. ii. 18,' 26, 28. London und dtr Paptte, i. 690 eqq., 075 Fnibun. 1901: Bower. Papei. i. t, L 101, 140. Pelafifui 488

PELT, ANTON FRIEDRICH LUDWIG: Ger- man theologian; b. at Regensburg June 28, 1799; d. at Kemnit» (5 m. e.s.e. of Greifswald) Jan. 22, 1861. He studied philosophy and theology at Jena, Kiel, and Berlin; became privat-docent in Berlin in 1826; professor at Greifswald in 1829, and at Kiel in 1835. He lost his position at Kiel in 1852. aft«r the subjugation of Schleswig-Holstein by the Danes; and was then called as pastor to Kemnitsi. In 1857 be becaniB superin1«n<ient of the diocese. Pelt was originally Hegelian in philosophy, but he drew near to Schleiermacher in theolo)^. He was closely associated with Claue Harms (q.v.) in fuel. but, in opposition to Hiirms, be approved the union of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches as well as all other efTorts at Evangelical unity. His lectures at Kiel covered the field of exegeticul, historical, and systematic theology, and the warm personal interest he showed in his students added much to his influence. His great work, the Theolo- giache EntyklopSdie n/s Syitem, im Zuaammenliange mil der Geaehiehte tier Iheologischen Wiaaemchaft ur\d ihrer einzdnen Ztesige (Hamburg, 1843), wit- nesses to his untiring industry and comprehensive study, is characterized by spirituality of conception, and is ejcecuted in a scholarly manner. He pub- lished also a Commentariug in Epislolas ad Theisiv- Imvicenses (Greifswald, 1829); collaborated io edit- ing Thedogitche Mitarbeiten, a periodical which aimed to combine the old supernatural ism and rationalism into a higher unity (Kiel, 1838 sqq.); and wrote much for the later years of H. F. Reuter'fl Repertorium (Berhn, 1845-60). (I. A. DoRNERtO

PENDLETON, WILLIAM FREDERICK: New Church; b, at Savannah, Ga., Mar. ^5, 1845. After serving as captain in the Civil War he was educated at Savannah Medical College (M-D-. 1S69). New York Medical College (1870), and the theological seminary at Waltham, Mass,, from which he was graduated in 187;i. He was pastor of the Chicago Society of the New Church in 1877-84, vice-chan- cellor and professor in t,he academy of the New Church, Philadelphia. in 18SI-S6, and professor of theology in the same institution since 1SS8. In 1887-97 he was assistant bishop and since 1897 has been full bishop in his denomination, and besides having been president of the academy of the New Church, Bryn Athyn, Pa., since 1897, is also pastor of the Society of the General Church of the New Jerusalem in the some town. He has compiled A Book of Doctrine for the New Church (Bryn Athyn, Pa., 1897) and A Liturgy for the New Church (1908).

PENICK, CHARLES CLIFTON: Protestant Epis- copal; b. in Charlotte County, Va., Dec. 9, 1843. He received bis education at the Danville Military School, Hampden-Sidney College, and Alexandria Theological Seminary (1869); served during the Civil War in the Thirty-eighth Virginia Regiment^ and reached the rank of quartermaster; at the end Psnitential Books Poan, William 448 of the war he took his theological course, as above, was made deacon, 1869, and priest, 1870; he then served his church at Bristol, Va., St. Georg's, Mount Savage, Md., and the Church of the Messiah, Balti- more; he was consecrated missionary bishop of Cape Palmas, Africa, in 1877, and did good service in healing divisions and establishing missions in Africa; in 1883 he resigned, and became rector of St. An- drew's, Louisville, Ky., and later at Frankfort, Ky. He has written : More than a Prophet: a Series of Expository Chapters of the Life of St. John the Baptist (New York, 1881); Our Deeds, our Memories j our Duties (1888); and Hopes, Perils, and Struggles of Negroes in the United States (1893), besides mission- ary reports and briefer papers.

PENITENTIAL ORDERS: A general name for numerous orders and religious corporations sub- mitting to classification according to their practical relations and functions, for (1) the instruction of the young; (2) nursing of the sick; (3) spiritual minis- tration; (4) redemption of captives; (5) controversy with infidels; (6) public preaching (Franciscans and Dominicans); and (7) home and foreign missions (Lazarites of France). All have the one aim is common, to attain heaven by a life of asceticism or penance. Besides this general aim some of the individual orders have penance as their special object, either lo cultivate the apirit of repentance in themselves and obligate tbemiselves outwardly to etreoitoiis works of contritioD, or in the miseion ol charity to afford a rescue for fallen peraons and lead tbem to repentance. The following are mentioned; <I) The Regular TertiarieB of the Orders of St. Francis and St. Dominic. See Francib, Saint, and Ohdeb or THE Fhancibcanb, IV., ii. 3; and Doui- »ic, Saist, A!jn THE D0MINICA.NS. (2) The Hennita of St. Augustine. See AvouaTUOANS, (3) The Order of Fonl^vraud. See Fo-irivHAun, Order or. (4) The Carmelit* Nuns. See Thereha, Saint. (5) Orders of St. Magdalen. See Maqdalkn, Saint, Orders of. (6) The Women of the Good Shepherd. See Women, CoNOBEOATiONa of. (7) Ordo pcentien- liir mnctorum marti/rum or Ordo Marice de Metro de jxenilenlia, which Qourished in Poland and Bohemia nt the beginning of the sixteenth oentury; and (8) the Ordo rtiigutsua de panitenlia called Scalzetti at Rome and sometimes Naiaretti, founded by the Spaniard John Varella y Loaada {d. 1769) and ap- proved by PopePiuaVI. in 1784; and n considerable Dumber of organisations of only local aigoificance. PEHITEirnAL PSALHS: The Church cathohc daasilies under this name Pss. vi., xxxij., xxxviij., li., cii., cxxx., andcxliii. The arnuigeroent ot these Beven paalms in a class by themselves is probably later than Auguatine, but was known in the seventh century (ct. Caasiodorus on Pa. vi,, MPL, Ixx. 60, ef. 65, and on Pa. cidii., p. 1014). He associated tbem with the aeven " remisaiona of ain in the Gospels," viz: baptism, auiferings in martyrdom, almsgiving, conversion of another, charity, forgiveness, and penitence. Since that time the penitential peolmB have often been the subject of comment and were used in private devotjona and in the hturgy. The Roman ritual prescribes their use in prayer for the sick, during the anointing with the eacred oil. In the Protestant Church the term was retained (ef. Luther's exposition published 1517 and 1525, and in his Werke, Eriangen ed. xixvii. 340), without, however, making use of the penitential psalms for liturgical purposes. (A. Hauck.)