샤프-헤르초크 종교백과

**BONAR, ANDREW ALEXANDER:** Free Church of Scotland; b. at Edinburgh May 29, 1810, youngest brother of Horatius Bonar; d. in Glasgow Dec. 30, 1892. He studied at Edinburgh; was minister at Collace, Perthshire, 1838-56, of the Finnieston Church, Glasgow, 1856 till his death. He joined the Free Church in 1843, and was its moderator in 1878. He was identified with evangelical and revival movements and adhered to the doctrine of premillenialism. With the Rev. R. M. McCheyne he visited Palestine in 1839 to inquire into the condition of the Jews there, and published *A Narrative of a Mission of Inquiry to the Jews from the Church of Scotland in 1839 *(Edinburgh, 1842); he also published a *Memoir *of Mr. McCheyne (1845); a *Commentary on Leviticus * (1846); *Redemption Drawing Nigh, a defence of Premillenialism *(1847); *Christ and his Church in the Book of Psalms *(1859); edited Samuel Rutherford's *Letters *(1863); and wrote many tracts, pamphlets, and minor biographies. BIBLIOGRAPHY: *A. A. Bonar, Diary and Letters, *edited by his daughter, Marjory Bonar, London, 1895, who published also a volume of *Reminiscences, *ib. 1895.

**BONAR, HORATIUS:** Free Church of Scotland; b. in Edinburgh Dec. 19, 1808; d. there July 31, 1889. He studied at Edinburgh; became minister at Kelso 1837, at the Chalmers Memorial Church, Edinburgh, 1866; with his congregation he joined the Free Church in 1843. He was a premillenarian and expressed his views in books, such as *Prophetical Landmarks *(London, 1847), and in the *Quarterly Journal of Prophecy, *which he founded in 1849. He is best known for his poems and hymns which include "What a friend we have in Jesus," "I heard the voice of Jesus say," and others equally familiar. The best known collections of his verse are *Hymns of Faith and Hope *(3 vols., 1857-66); *The Song of the New Creation and other pieces *(1872); *Hymns of the Nativity *(1878); *Songs of Love and Joy *(1888); *Until the Daybreak and other hymns left behind * (1890). His prose publications, besides sermons, tracts etc., include *The Night of Weeping, or words for the suffering family of God *(1846); *God's Way of Peace *(1862); *The White Fields of France: or the story of Mr. McAll's mission to the workingmen of Paris and Lyons *(1879); *Life and Work of G. T. Dodds *(1884). BIBLIOGRAPHY: *Horatius Bonar, a Memorial, *London, 1889; S. W. Duffield, *English Hymns, *pp. 168-169 and passim, New York, 1886; Julian, *Hymnology, *pp. 161-162; *DNB, *supplement vol. i, 231-232.

**BONAVENTURA** (Giovanni di Fidanza, called *Doctor Seraphicus*): Theologian; b. at Bagnorea (50 m. n.n.w. of Rome) 1221; d. at Lyons July 15, 1274. He entered the order of St. Francis probably in 1238; went to Paris, 1242 or 1243, and studied under Alexander of Hales; lectured there on the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard and on the Holy Scriptures till the university suspended lectures in 1255; was chosen general of his order, 1257; cardinal bishop of Albano, 1273. His last public act was an impressive speech delivered before the Council of Lyons in May, 1274, for the union of the Eastern and Western churches. He was canonized by Sixtus IV in 1482. In defense of his order, before he became its general, during the contest between the Sorbonne and the mendicant monks, he wrote his *De paupertate Christi, * in reply to William of St. Amour's *De periculis novissimorum temporum *(1256); by a somewhat forced and sophistical argumentation he represents voluntary poverty as an element of moral perfection. Of his general views on monastic life he has given an exposition in his *Determinationes quæstionum circa regulam Francisci. *In his administration he was mild yet firm. As a teacher and author he occupies one of the most prominent places in the history of medieval theology; not so much, however, on account of any strongly pronounced originality as on account of the comprehensiveness of his views, the ease and clearness of his reasoning, and a style in which still linger some traces of the great charm of his personality. His mystical and devotional writings—as, for instance, *De septem itineribus æternitatis*—are almost imitations of Hugo of St. Victor. His dialectical writings are more independent. His *Breviloquium *(ed. Da Vicenza, 2d ed., Freiburg, 1881) is one of the best expositions of Christian dogmatics produced during the Middle Ages. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bonaventura's works have been published in many editions, of which the best are that by Peltier, 15 vols., Paris, 1863-71, and that prepared by the Franciscans, 10 vols., Clairac, 1882-93. Of his real or supposititious works accessible in English translation, the following may be mentioned: *The Mirror of the Blessed Virgin Mary, *Dublin, 1849; *Psalter of the Blessed Virgin, * London, 1852; *The Life of Christ, *ib. 1881; *The Month of Jesus Christ, *ib. 1882; *The Life of St. Francis of Assisi, *4th ed., ib. 1898; *St. Bonaventura's Instructions for the Season of Lent; *ib. 1884; *The Soul's Progress in God * (transl. of the *Itinerarium mentis in deum*) is in the *Journal of Speculative Philosophy, *vol. xxi (1887). For his life consult: *ASB, *July 14, vol. iii, pp. 838-860; *Histoire littéraire de la France, *xix, 266-291; A. M. da Vicenza, *Der heilige Bonaventura . . . in seinem Leben und Wirken, *Germ. transl. from the Italian, Paderborn, 1874; *Le Cardinal S. Bonaventure . . . sa vie, sa mort et son culte à Lyon, *Lyons, 1875; L. C. Skey, *Life of St. Bonaventure, *London, 1889. On his works consult: A. de Margerie, *Essai sur la philosophie de S. Bonaventure, *Paris, 1855; W. A. Hollenberg, *Studien zu Bonaventura, *Berlin, 1862; J. Richard, *Étude sur le mysticisme spéculatif de S. Bonaventure, *Paris, 1873; Fidelis a Fauna, *Ratio nova collectionis operum omnium . . . Bonaventuræ, *Paris, 1874; A. Maria a Vicetia et Johannes a Rubino, *Lexicon Bonaventurianum philosophico-theologicum, *Venice, 1880; J. Krause, *Die Lehre des heiligen Bonaventura über die Natur der körperlichen und geistigen Wesen, *Paderborn, 1888.

**BOND, WILLIAM BENNETT:** Anglican archbishop of Montreal and primate of all Canada; b. at Truro (8 m. n.n.e. of Falmouth), Cornwall, England, Sept. 10, 1815; d. at Montreal Oct. 9, 1906. He came to Newfoundland while in early youth and was educated at Bishop's College, Lennoxville, P. Q., being ordered deacon in 1840 and ordained priest in the following year. After being successively a traveling missionary in 1840-42 and a missionary at Lachine, P. Q., in 1842-48, he was curate of St. George's, Montreal, from 1848 to 1860 and rector of the same church from 1860 to 1878. He was likewise archdeacon of Montreal in 1870-72 and dean in 1872-78. In the latter year he was consecrated archbishop of Montreal, and in 1901 was elected metropolitan of Canada, while in 1904 he became primate of all Canada. He was also president of the theological college of the diocese of Montreal.

**BONET-MAURY, AMY GASTON CHARLES AUGUSTE: **French Protestant; b. at Paris Jan. 2, 1842. He was educated at the Lycée Napoléon (now Collège Henri IV), the Sorbonne (baccalauréat ès lettres, 1860) and the universities of Geneva and Strasburg (1868). He was successively pastor of the Walloon Reformed Church at Dort in 1868-72 and of the French Reformed Church at Beauvais (Oise) in 1872-79. In 1879 he became professor of church history in the faculty of Protestant theology of the University of Paris, and now holds the same position in the Independent Divinity School of Paris. From 1885 to 1889 he was librarian of the Musée Pédagogique. In theology he is a liberal evangelical. He wrote: *Les Origines de la réforme à Beauvais *(Paris, 1874); *Gerard de Groote, un précurseur de la réforme au quatorzième siècle *(1878); *E quibus fontibus Nederlandicis hauserit scriptor libri cui titulus est De Imitatione Christi *(1878); *Des Origines du christianisme unitaire chez les Anglais *(1881; Eng. transl., London, 1883); *Arnauld de Brescia, un réformateur au douzième siècle * (Paris, 1881); *De opera scholastica fratrum vitæ communis in Nederlandia *(1889); *G. A. Bürger et les origines anglaises de la ballade littéraire en Allemagne * (1890); *Ignace Döllinger, 1799-1890 *(1892); *Lettres et déclarations de J. J. I. Döllinger au sujet des décrets du Vatican, traduites de l'Allemand *(1893); *Le Congrès des religions à Chicago en 1893 *(1895); *Histoire de la liberté de conscience depuis l'Édit de Nantes jusqu'à juillet 1870 *(1900); *Les Précurseurs de la réforme et de la liberté de conscience dans les pays latins du douzième au quinzième siècle * (1904); *Edgar Quinet, son œuvre religieuse et son caractère moral *(1903); and *L'Islamisme et le christianisme en Afrique *(1906).

**BONIFACE: **The name of nine popes. **Boniface I: **Pope 418-422. After the death of Zosimus, a part of the clergy and people chose the archdeacon Eulalius to succeed him (Dec. 27, 418); he was recognized by the prefect Symmachus and consecrated in the Lateran two days later. But another faction held an election on the 28th, and chose Boniface, the son of the priest Jocundus, consecrating him on the following day. In accordance with the report of Symmachus, the emperor Honorius recognized Eulalius, and Boniface had to leave Rome. His supporters appealed to the emperor, representing him as the choice of the majority. Honorius called a council to meet at Ravenna, Feb. 8, 419, to decide the matter, but it reached no conclusion, and another was summoned for May 1, both candidates being forbidden to enter Rome in the mean time. Eulalius, however, entered the city on Mar. 18, and had to be removed forcibly; and Honorius now recognized Boniface, who took up his duties on Apr. 10. This contest caused Honorius to decree that in any subsequent case of a contested election, both candidates should be set aside and a new choice made. When Boniface I intervened in any ecclesiastical disputes, he showed great justice and moderation. The clergy of Valence accused their bishop Maximus of grievous crimes; Boniface referred the matter to a Gallic synod, reserving to himself the right to review its decision. Considering the privilege granted by Pope Zosimus (417) to Bishop Patroclus of Arles, to consecrate bishops for the provinces known as *Viennensis, Narbonensis prima, * and *Narbonensis secunda, *to be an infringement of earlier canonical provisions, he did not hesitate to withdraw it so far as to allow the bishop of Narbonne this metropolitan privilege for the *Provincia Narbonensia prima. *He was involved in long-drawnout negotiations with the patriarch of Constantinople. Certain Illyrian bishops, wishing to bring charges against Bishop Perigenes of Patras, who had been chosen metropolitan of Corinth, getting satisfaction neither from the papal delegate for Illyria, Bishop Rufus of Thessalonica, nor from the pope himself, turned to Atticus of Constantinople for redress. The latter procured an edict from the emperor Theodosius II (421), placing Illyria under the jurisdiction of Constantinople. Boniface made strong representations to the Byzantine court (Mar., 422), but would probably not have been successful had not the influence of the Western emperor Honorius prevailed with Theodosius, who withdrew the edict. Finally, Boniface had inherited from his predecessor a difficult controversy with the African church (see ZOSIMUS); he had no better success than Zosimus in securing the recognition in Africa, of the right of appeal to Rome. On the contrary, the Synod of Carthage in 419 confirmed the seventeenth canon of the synod of 418, which positively forbade to priests and lower clergy any such appeals, and tolerated them for bishops only on condition that the prescription appealed to could be shown to be Nicene; as a matter of fact, it came from the Council of Sardica. Boniface died Sept. 4, 422, and is reckoned among the saints of the Roman Catholic Church. (A. HAUCK.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: *Liber pontificalis, *ed. Duchesne, i, 227, Paris, 1886; *ASB, *Oct., xi, 605-616; F. Gregorovius, *Geschichte der Stadt Rom, *i, 170 sqq., Stuttgart, 1875, Eng. transl., London, 1900; J. Langen, *Geschichte der römischen Kirche bis Leo I., *pp. 763 sqq., Bonn, 1881; Jaffé, *Regesta, *i, 52; Hefele, *Conciliengeschichte, *ii, 122, Eng. transl., ii, 466; Bower, *Popes, *i, 162-166; Neander, *Christian Church, *ii, 208, 235, 652. **Boniface II: **Pope 530-532. After the death of Felix IV (middle of Sept., 530), a contested election followed. The minority, in obedience to the dying charge of Felix, chose the archdeacon Boniface, a Goth; the majority elected Dioscurus, a Greek, and both were consecrated on the same day (Sept. 22). The Roman senate took cognizance of the matter, forbidding under heavy penalties any proceedings in the lifetime of a pope looking toward the elevation of a successor. The schism was soon ended by the death of Dioscurus, Oct. 14. The *Liber pontificalis *asserts that Boniface proceeded with great violence against his adherents; and we have evidence that five years later the bitterness caused by this was not extinct among the Roman clergy. The close of the Semi-Pelagian controversy falls in the pontificate of Boniface II. In a letter to Cæsarius of Arles he pronounced against the opinion that man could attain faith in Christ by his own resources, without the help of divine grace; and at the same time, in accordance with the wishes of Cæsarius, he confirmed the decisions of the Synod of Orange. He was always zealous in maintaining, if it was not possible to extend, the papal claims to jurisdiction. When Bishop Stephen of Larissa in Thessaly appealed to him from a sentence of deposition pronounced by the patriarch of Constantinople, Boniface endeavored to reassert the old rights of the Roman See over Illyria, which had been obsolete for a hundred years. The proceedings of a synod held in Rome for this purpose (Dec., 531) seem to have been fruitless, for soon afterward the see of Larissa was filled by a nominee of Constantinople. After attempting in vain to designate the deacon Vigilius as his successor, Boniface died in Oct., 532. (A. HAUCK.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: *Liber pontificalis, *ed. Duchesne, i, 281, Paris, 1886; F. Gregorovius, *Geschichte der Stadt Rom, *i, 329, Stuttgart, 1875, Eng. transl., London, 1900; L. Duchesne, *La Succession du pape Félix IV., *Rome, 1884; J. Langen, *Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Leo I. bis Nikolaus I., *p. 305, Bonn, 1885; R. Baxmann, *Die Politik der Päpste von Gregor I. bis auf Gregor VII., *i, 20 sqq., Elberfeld, 1868; Jaffé, *Regesta, *i, 111; Schaff, *Christian Church, *iii, 326, 869; Neander, *Christian Church, *ii, 711; Hefele, *Conciliengeschichte, *ii, 737-742, Eng. transl., iv, 165, 167, 171 sqq.; Bower, *Popes, *i, 331-333. **Boniface III: **Pope 607. He was a Roman by birth, previously a deacon and *apocrisiarius *at the court of Constantinople, to which he had been sent by Gregory the Great in 603. Apparently he was still there when the election took place, as nearly a year elapsed between the death of his predecessor and his consecration (Feb. 19, 607). As (in modern language) nuncio at Constantinople, he had apparently maintained friendly relations with the usurper Phocas, which would account for the favorable decision made by the latter on a point of great importance to the papal claims. One of the commissions given to him by Gregory was the settlement of the strife over the title of "universal bishop" claimed by the patriarch of Constantinople, John the Faster; Gregory did not claim it for himself, but he was unwilling that it should be borne by another. The *Liber pontificalis, *Paulus Diaconus, and Bede all assert that Phocas recognized Rome as *caput omnium ecclesiarum. *Though the fact is not denied, it is to be regarded rather as a triumph of papal politics, which did not disdain the alliance of a base and criminal ruler, than as a historical justification of the claims of Rome. Boniface died Nov. 12, 607. (A. HAUCK.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: *Liber pontificalis, *ed. Duchesne, i, 316, Paris, 1886; Paulus Diaconus, *Hist. Langobardorum, *iv, 36, in *MGH, Script. rer. Langob., *ed. G. Waitz, Hanover, 1878, Eng. transl., p. 177, Philadelphia, 1907; F. Gregorovius, *Geschichte der Stadt Rom, *ii, 102, Stuttgart, 1876, Eng. transl., London, 1900; J. Langen, *Geschichte der römischen Kirche . . . bis Nikolaus I., *p. 500, Bonn, 1885; Bower, *Popes, *i, 425-427; Mann, *Popes, *I, i, 259-262. **Boniface IV: **Pope 608-615. He was the successor of Boniface III after an interregnum of ten months. He kept up the same friendly relations with Phocas, from whom he acquired the Pantheon in Rome, built as a heathen temple, and transformed it into a church. When Heraclius, who overthrew Phocas in 610, was endeavoring to find a way to reconciliation with the Monophysites, Boniface seems to have approved of his plans; which probably accounts for a letter of Columban written from Bobbio (c. 613), informing him that people call him a receiver and protector of heretics who deny the double nature of Christ, and warning him that his power will remain only so long as he maintains the true faith. Boniface died May 25, 615. (A. HAUCK.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: *Liber pontificalis, *ed. Duchesne, i, 317, Paris, 1886; Jaffé, *Regesta, *i, 220; Paulus Diaconus, *Historia Langobardorum, *iv, 36, in *MGM, Script, rer. Langob., * ed. G. Waitz, Hanover, 1878, Eng. transl., p. 178, Philadelphia, 1907; Bede, *Hist. eccl., *ii, 4, ed. Plummer, vol. i, p. 88, Oxford, 1896; R. Baxmann, *Die Politik der Päpste, *i, 150, Elberfeld, 1868; F. Gregorovius, *Geschichte der Stadt Rom, *ii, 102, Stuttgart, 1876, Eng, transl., London, 1900; J. Langen, *Geschichte der römischen Kirche . . . bis Nikolaus I., *p. 501, Bonn, 1885; Neander, *Christian Church, *iii, 32, 34, 134; Bower, *Popes, *i, 428-429; Mann, *Popes, *I, i, 268. **Boniface V: **Pope 619-625. The *Liber pontificalis * tells that he was a Neapolitan, that he distinguished himself as pope by his love of peace and kindness, and that he issued a number of decrees affecting the functions of the different orders of the clergy. Bede and William of Malmesbury mention several letters addressed to English personages; the most important is that preserved by the latter, a letter to Justus, archbishop of Canterbury (625); confirming for all time the position of his diocese as the metropolitan see of Britain, and extending his powers. Boniface died Oct. 25, 625. (A. HAUCK.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: *Liber pontificalis, *ed. Duchesne, i, 321, Paris, 1886; Jaffé, *Regesta, *i, 222; Bede, *Hist. eccl., *ii, 7, ed. Plummer, vol. i, pp. 93-95, Oxford, 1896; F. Gregorovius, *Geschichte der Stadt Rom, *ii, 122, Stuttgart, 1876, Eng. transl., London, 1902; Mann, *Popes, *I, i, 294; Bower, *Popes, *i, 430-432. **Boniface VI: **Pope 896. He was the son of Hadrian, a Roman, and was elevated to the papal throne in April or May, 896, by a popular movement, on the death of Formosus, although he had twice been deposed from his spiritual functions by John VIII on charges affecting his moral character, and apparently was never canonically restored. He maintained his position only for fifteen days, as the party hostile to Formosus carried through the election of Stephen VI, who drove him out. Others say that he died fifteen days after his election. (A. HAUCK.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jaffé *Regesta, *i, 439; *Annales Fuldenses, * ed. G. H. Pertz, in *MGH, Script., *i, 412, Hanover, 1826; R. Baxmann, *Die Politik der Päpste, *ii, 70, Elberfeld, 1869; J. Langen, *Geschichte der römischen Kirche . . . bis Gregor VII., *p. 303, Bonn, 1892; Bower, *Popes, *ii, 229. **Boniface VII: **Pope 974, 984-985. After the downfall of Benedict VI, Crescentius, the leader of the nobles, caused the election of the deacon Boniface, called Franco (June, 974). One of his first acts was to order his predecessor to be put to death. But he was able to hold his own only for six weeks, after which he fled to Constantinople. Here he remained for more than nine years—or as long as Otto II lived to protect the popes set up by him, Benedict VII and John XIV. Otto died Dec. 7, 983, and the fugitive Boniface immediately asserted his claims. He reappeared in Rome, and in the following April defeated John XIV, imprisoned him in the castle of Sant'Angelo, and had him either poisoned or starved to death there. Eleven months later, this "horrible monster" (as a contemporary calls him) met a like fate, dying, it seems probable, by assassination in the summer of 985; his body was mutilated and insulted by the infuriated populace. Gfrörer's hypothesis that his murder was caused by the empress Theophano has no support in the original authorities. (A. HAUCK.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jaffé, *Regesta, *i, 485; Herimannus Augiensis, *Chronicon, *ed. G. H. Pertz, in *MGH, Script., *v, 116 sqq., Hanover, 1844; Gerbert, *Acta concilii Remensis, * ed. G. H. Pertz, *MGH, Script., *iii, 672, ib. 1839; L. C. Ferucci, *Investigazioni . . . su la persona ed il pontificato di Bonif. VII, *Lugo, 1856 (attempts to clear Boniface of the charges); J. M. Watterich, *Pontificum Romanorum vitæ, *i, 66, Leipsic, 1862; J. Langen, *Geschichte der römischen Kirche . . . bis Gregor VII., *Bonn, 1892. **Boniface VIII **(Benedetto Gaetani): ### Policy and Successes in Italy. Pope 1294-1303. He was born at Anagni [c. 1235], and probably studied civil and canon law at Paris. He began his ecclesiastical career as canon of Todi, held benefices in Lyons and Rome, and became notary of the Curia. Martin IV made him a cardinal in 1281, and under Nicholas IV and Celestine V he was one of the most prominent members of the sacred college, being employed in the most varied missions. He encouraged Celestine V in his project of retirement to ascetic seclusion, and even drew up the formula of abdication, by which he was to profit; for, less than a fortnight after Celestine had laid down the papal dignity, it was bestowed upon his adviser (Dec. 24, 1294). Even before his consecration, the new pope asserted his prerogatives by revoking many appointments of his two predecessors, deposing archbishops and bishops appointed by Celestine without the consent of the cardinals, and leaving Naples for Rome with all his court, in spite of the efforts of Charles II to detain him there. He was consecrated and crowned in St. Peter's, Jan. 23, 1295, and soon took an active part in the conflicts of the time, offering to mediate between Genoa and Venice in February. Sicily occupied him next; it had freed itself from French domination in 1282, chosen Peter III of Aragon as king, and thus dissolved the feudal connection with Rome. Peter's son and heir, James II, showed himself ready to abandon Sicily after Aragon had fallen to him by the death of his elder brother. Another brother, however—Frederick—stepped in and assumed the Sicilian crown, and neither repeated papal anathemas nor an armed league against him could make him renounce it; in 1302 he obtained favorable terms of peace, and in 1303 papal recognition. Boniface also intervened in the strife between the Blacks and Whites of Florence, in favor of the former, and sent a legate to Tuscany. From the sojourn of Dante in Rome as the ambassador of the *Bianchi * dates the bitter hatred which he displays for Boniface VIII. In agreement with the *Neri, * Boniface brought Charles of Valois to Tuscany in 1301 as governor; but his five months' rule accomplished nothing but the alienation of the last sympathizers of the pope there. Boniface had real power only in the south of Italy and some central cities. Charles II of Naples became the obedient servant of the Curia, while Pisa, Velletri, Orvieto, and Terracina chose Boniface as their ruler. But a hostile party was forming in Rome, led by the two Colonna, cardinals, who disapproved of the close alliance with Charles II and secretly supported the pretensions of the house of Aragon in Sicily. In 1297 the pope stripped them of all their ecclesiastical dignities; and on the same day they formally renounced their allegiance to him, declaring Celestine's abdication to have been invalid and appealing to a general council. Boniface deprived the whole family of their possessions, one after another, and soon Palestrina alone held out against the papal army. The Colonna submitted in 1298; but when, the next year, Boniface destroyed Palestrina, contrary, they asserted, to a promise of ultimate restitution, they took up arms once more against him. Again they were defeated, and their estates divided between their enemies, the Orsini and the Gaetani. ### Denmark, Hungary, and Poland. Soon after his accession, Boniface became involved in complications beyond the boundaries of Italy. Eric VIII of Denmark had imprisoned the archbishop of Lund in 1294, really to extort money from him, but nominally on the ground of conspiracy. In 1295 Boniface sent a legate to demand his release on pain of excommunication and interdict. These penalties were imposed in 1296, but Eric held out until 1302, though even then the pope did not succeed in restoring the deposed archbishop. In the contest for the throne of Hungary, on the ground that he had been "set over princes and kingdoms, to put down iniquity," and that Hungary belonged on special grounds to the Apostolic See, he claimed the deciding voice; in 1300 he sent Charles Robert, grandson of Mary of Sicily, to the Hungarians as their king; but they first clung to Andrew III, and after his death elected the son of Wenceslaus II of Bohemia as Ladislaus V. At the moment of Boniface's death, Wenceslaus was preparing to unite with Philip the Fair against him, and his interests clashed with the pope's in another place as well—in Poland, which had elected Wenceslaus in 1300, to take the place of the deposed King Ladislaus. Again Boniface claimed suzerain rights, supported the exiled king, who had sought his aid, and forbade Wenceslaus to assume the crown without the papal sanction; but, as in Hungary, his words were not heeded. ### Germany. He met with somewhat greater success in Germany. The undertaking given by Adolf of Nassau, in the Treaty of Nuremberg (Aug. 21, 1294), to support Edward I of England against Philip IV, displeased the pope, who wished to see peace between France and England. He wrote to Adolf forbidding him to take up arms, and reproaching him for not having announced his election to him. Adolf returned a submissive answer, and received some privileges in return, but the papal legates were bidden still to insist on peace. He even went so far as to impose a year's truce on all three kings (1295), which, at its expiration, he renewed for another two years. In 1296 he commanded them to submit their differences to his decision; but only Adolf sent his representatives to Rome. On June 27, 1298, Boniface decided that neither Philip nor Adolf must overstep his boundaries, and that these must be restored where they had been violated. Adolf never heard of this decision; four days before it was rendered, he had been deposed by the electoral princes, and on July 2 he fell in battle against his rival Albert of Austria. Boniface took a lofty tone with Albert, summoning him to appear within six months and submit his claims to the throne, since it belonged to the pope to examine the person chosen king of the Romans, and reject him if unsuitable. Albert delayed until he made his position secure in Germany, and then sent his ambassadors (Mar., 1302) with liberal promises and the required evidence. Boniface needed his help against France too badly to raise any objection, and recognized him as king of the Romans and future emperor. Albert, in return, renounced his alliance with Philip, and made all possible theoretical and practical concessions. ### England. But a more stubborn obstacle was found in the king and parliament of England. When Edward I had conquered Scotland for the second time in 1298, Boniface claimed that country also as a fief of the Holy See, and summoned Edward before his tribunal for having ventured to lay hands upon it. Edward laid the bull before Parliament in 1301; the reply of the English people was that Scotland had never been a papal fief, that their king should not answer the summons, and that, even if he wished to, they would not permit it. On May 7 Edward informed the pope that he would not give up Scotland; and Boniface was obliged to be content with the answer, because in the mean time the memorable conflict with France had broken out. ### France. Philip the Fair was a ruler after the very pattern of Macchiavelli's later description, knowing no law but self-interest, and sticking at nothing to accomplish his ends. His relations with Boniface had at first been friendly, but he was probably offended by the pope's above-mentioned interference with his designs against England. When in 1296 the clergy of both France and England complained to Boniface of the taxes laid upon them by their sovereigns for warlike purposes, he answered by the bull *Clericis laicos *(Feb. 25, 1296). It opened with the offensive assertion that the laity had always been and still were hostile to the clergy, and proceeded to forbid all princes to tax the clergy of their dominions without papal sanction, under pain of excommunication. Edward, though at first protesting, declared in 1297 that no further tax should be laid upon the clergy without their consent; but Philip responded by forbidding all exportation of gold and silver, coined or uncoined, from France (Aug., 1296). This cut off so large a portion of the papal revenue that Boniface modified his attitude in the bull *Ineffabilis amoris *(Sept. 25), and yielded more completely in three briefs (Feb. and July, 1297) extremely conciliatory in tone; in the same spirit he completed the canonization of Louis IX in August, and the discord seemed in a fair way to be removed. But it was not long in breaking out again. Philip had welcomed to his court some of the exiled Colonna family, and had lent a willing ear to their unmeasured abuse of the pope, which did not spare his moral character. The king's misuse of the *droit de régale *(see RÉGALE), on the other hand, had been giving increasing provocation to the pope since 1299. An open rupture came in 1301; and by that time both contestants had increased their pretensions and were ready to wage a more bitter war than ever. Boniface chose to send as legate to Paris a Frenchman, Bernard de Saisset, bishop of Pamiers, who was for several reasons *persona non grata *at the French court, and his haughty tone at this time made him no better liked. Philip refused to see him; and, then, when he had returned to Pamiers, brought him back to Paris, and had him tried and condemned on a charge of treason and lese-majesty. On Dec. 5, 1301, Boniface demanded that his ambassador should immediately be set free to come to Rome; and at the same time he summoned the principal French churchmen and jurists to assemble in Rome Nov. 1, 1302, to take counsel with him in the difficulties of the French question. Notifying Philip of this, amid the most passionate reproaches, in the bull *Ausculta fili, *he commanded him also to appear in person or by proxy at this assembly; the assertions were repeated that God had set the Vicar of Christ over princes and kingdoms, thus giving him charge to ordain what might be needed for the removal of scandals and for the welfare of the kingdom of France. To meet this, Philip summoned his estates to Paris for Apr. 10, 1302, and laid before them not the bull *Ausculta fili, *but a document purporting to be the pope's utterance, which far surpassed even the real one in matter of offense. The estates, stirred up by this, voted to stand by the king. Toward the end of the year, Philip notified the pope that he would have none of his arbitration in the struggle with England; and Boniface now urged Edward to war instead of peace. Peace, however, was made in 1303. Meantime, as a result of the synod which the pope opened on Oct. 30, 1302, at which not a few French prelates were present in spite of Philip, the Bull *Unam sanctum *was drawn up, asserting in the most definite terms the theory of "the two swords," and the necessity to salvation of submission to the pope. Some futile attempts at conciliation took place in the early part of 1303, but Philip was declared on Apr. 13 to have rendered himself liable to excommunication. Two months later, the king assembled his nobles, prelates, and jurists, and his answer came in the form of a definite accusation against Boniface under twenty-four separate heads of the most appalling nature. Impressed by this, the assembly resolved to appeal to a general council against him; but since he would have to be forced to attend it, the collection of funds for this purpose was begun. William of Nogaret, the king's vice-chancellor, went to Italy and struck up an alliance with Sciarra Colonna, who had the wrongs of his family to avenge. They enlisted a number of the nobles of the Campagna, and used money freely, winning adherents even among Boniface's fellow townsmen of Anagni, where he was then holding his court. He had resolved to make formal publication of the anathema against Philip on Sept. 8; but early on the morning of the 7th, William and his adherents, a few hundred strong, gained an entrance into the town, penetrated even into the sleeping apartments of Boniface, and when he refused all concessions made him a prisoner in his own palace. On the 9th the citizens rose and liberated him; Nogaret and Sciarra Colonna were forced to flee, while Boniface returned to Rome Sept. 25. But, worn out by the long strife, he died Oct. 11. ### Character and Achievements of Boniface. His defeat is to be seen not in the circumstances of his captivity and his death, but in the fact that the spiritual weapons he wielded proved utterly unequal to the conquest of the aroused national feeling of France. The national spirit showed itself more powerful than the ecclesiastical. This defeat inflicted a staggering blow upon the authority of the papacy. Yet Boniface was no ordinary man. Though he was between seventy and eighty when he became pope, he showed no trace of the weakness of age; his will was unbending, his mind clear and logical. But his whole heart was set on power. In some ways he reminds of Gregory VII, and he could no more hope to escape conflicts than could the unflinching Hildebrand. But he did not in the conflict show the moral loftiness of Hildebrand—to say nothing of that of such men as Nicholas I and Innocent III. Nor is his personality without moral flaws. He had no scruple in using the funds he had raised for the recovery of the Holy Land in his own wars; nor is the reproach unfounded that he used the privileges of his position to surround his own family with princely splendor. When he strove for peace, as between England and France, his determining motive was plainly the desire to show himself the supreme arbiter of nations; when he had nothing to gain, he was ready enough to set them against each other, as he set Albert I and Edward I against Philip. Fair criticism must, however, reject the accusations of debauchery entirely, since they rest on no trustworthy testimony; and quite as groundless is the charge of heresy brought against him by his foes. Clement V had good foundation for the doubtful praise which he bestows upon Boniface when he calls him a destroyer of heretics; for he not only confirmed, but even strengthened the laws passed against heresy by Frederick II. He had a great influence on the development of the canon law by the issue in 1298 of his so-called *Liber sextus,*—a continuation of the five books which Gregory IX had put together in 1234; it contains his own decrees as well as those of his predecessors since Gregory's time. It must be mentioned to his credit that he erected higher schools at Avignon and at Fermo in the March of Ancona, modeled after the University of Bologna, for the study of theology, civil and canon law, medicine, and the liberal arts; and he has a special title to the gratitude of Rome for the refounding of the Roman University, originally established by Charles of Anjou in 1265. (A. HAUCK.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: Walter de Heminghburgh, *Chronicon de gestis regum Angliæ, *ed. H. C. Hamilton, pp. 39 sqq., London, 1848; Rishanger, *Chronica, *ed. H. T. Riley, pp. 145 sqq., 483 sqq., ib. 1865; *Annales Parmenses majores, * in *MGH, Script., *xviii (1863), 715 sqq.; *Chronicon Colmar, * ib. xvii (1861), 263; Guilelmus de Nangiaco, *Chronicon, * ib. xxvi (1882), 647 sqq. The bulls *Clericis laicos * and *Unam sanctam *are translated in Thatcher and McNeal, *Source Book, *pp. 311-313, 314-317, and other relevant documents on pp. 276, 313; the bulls are also in Henderson, *Documents, *pp. 435-437; *Unam sanctam *is in Robinson, *European History, *i, 346-348; the *Clericis laicos *is also in Gee and Hardy, *Documents, *pp. 87-88; the Lat. text is in Reich, *Documents, *pp. 191-195. Valuable for sources is also G. Digard, M. Faucon, and A. Thomas, *Les Régistres de Boniface VIII. Recueil des bulles de ce pape . . . d'après les MSS. originaux des archives du Vatican, *5 vols., Paris, 1884-90; T. H. Finke, *Aus den Tagen Bonifaz VIII., *Münster, 1902. For Boniface's life and activities consult: L. Tosti, *Storia di Bonifazio VIII., *2 vols., Monte Cassino, 1846; Jorry, *Histoire du pape Boniface VIII., *Plancy, 1850; W. Drumann, *Geschichte Bonifacius VIII., *2 vols., Königsberg, 1852 (critical); A. von Reumont, *Geschichte der Stadt Rom, *ii, 618, Berlin, 1868; A. Potthast, *Regesta pontificum Romanorum, *ii, 1923-2024, 2133, Berlin, 1875; F. Gregorovius, *Geschichte der Stadt Rom, *v, 502, Stuttgart, 1878, Eng. transl., London, 1898; W. Wattenbach, *Geschichte des römischen Papsttums, *216 sqq., Berlin, 1876; Balan, *Il Processo di Bonifazio VIII., *Rome, 1881; F. Rocquain, *La Papauté au moyen âge. . . . Boniface VIII., *Paris, 1881; idem, *Philippe le Bel et la bulle Ausculta fili, *in *Bibliothèque de l'école des chartes, *1883, pp. 393-394; B. Jungmann, *Dissertationes selectæ, *vol. vi, Regensburg, 1886; J. Berchtold, *Die Bulle Unam sanctam, * Munich, 1887; W. Martens, *Das Vaticanum und Bonifaz VIII., *Freiburg, 1888; Neander, *Christian Church, * iv, 67, 632, v, 1-13 and passim; Hefele, *Conciliengeschichte, * vi, 281 sqq.; Bower, *Popes, *iii, 43-55, 64; R. Scholz, *Die Publizistik zur Zeit . . . Bonifaz VIII., *Leipsic, 1903. On his relations to the various European states consult: F. C. Dahlmann, *Geschichte von Dänemark, *i, 425 sqq., Hamburg, 1840; R. Pauli, *Geschichte von England, * vol. iv, Gotha, 1855; E. Boutaric, *La France sous Philippe le Bel, *pp. 88 sqq., Paris, 1861; A. Baillet, *Histoire des démêlés du pape Boniface VIII. avec Philippe le Bel, * Paris, 1818; E. Engelmann, *Der Anspruch der Päpste auf Konfirmation bei den deutschen Königswahlen, *Breslau, 1886; Fessler, *Geschichte von Ungarn, *i, 451 sqq., ii, 3 sqq., Leipsic, 1867-69; J. B. Sagmüller, *Die Tkätigkeit und Stellung der Cardinäle bis Bonifaz VIII, *Freiburg, 1895; J. Caro, *Geschichte Polens, *Gotha, 1863. **Boniface IX **(Pietro Tomacelli): Pope 1389-1404. He came of a noble Neapolitan family, and was made a cardinal by Urban VI, whom he succeeded Nov. 2, 1389. He is said to have been judicious, affable, and pious, but without learning or knowledge of affairs. His principal aim was the restoration of the papal authority in Rome and the States of the Church, for which he labored not unsuccessfully. The Romans, it is true, expelled him from the city in 1392, but fearful that he might fix his residence permanently elsewhere, they recalled him in the following year. He returned on condition of the surrender of a great part of the civic liberties; and another rising in 1398 gave him the opportunity to limit them still further. He was fortunate also in regard to Naples, where things were in a condition very unfavorable to the papacy, owing to the confused policy of Urban VI. Clement VII and Louis II of Anjou thought the time had come to make a thorough conquest of the kingdom, but Boniface made a close alliance with King Ladislaus and finally gained a complete victory over the French, holding Naples in the Roman obedience. By the aid of his political influence, Boniface hoped to succeed in ending the great schism, at first depending on the German king Wenceslaus, whom he invited to Rome for coronation as emperor; but matters were in too critical a state in Germany for him to leave. An appeal to Charles VI of France in 1392 to abandon his allegiance to Clement had no good result; nor had a similar attempt in Castile. The hope of accommodation raised by the death of Clement VII (Sept. 16, 1394) was destroyed by the action of the Avignon cardinals, who elected Benedict XIII. In the contests resulting in the deposition of Wenceslaus and the attempt to put the count palatine Rupert in his place, Boniface wavered from side to side, and only expressed his willingness to recognize Rupert in 1403 from a fear that he would be thrown into the arms of the king of France. Boniface acquired an unenviable reputation for avarice, nepotism, and simoniacal transactions. He died Oct. 1, 1404. (A. HAUCK.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: Some of the sources for a history of Boniface IX are the following: The bulls are in O. Raynaldus, *Annales ecclesiastici, *ed. Baronius, continued by A. Theiner, Paris, 1864 sqq.; the *Diplomata *are in *Monumenta vaticana historiam Hungariæ illustrantia, *vol. iii, Budapest, 1888; Dietrich von Nieheim, *De Schismate, * book ii, chap. 6 sqq., ed. G. Erler, pp. 129 sqq., Leipsic, 1880; Gobelinus Persona, *Cosmodromium, *in H. Meibom, *Rerum Germanicarum, *i, 316 sqq., Helmstadt, 1688; and a *Vita *in L. A. Muratori, *Rerum Italicarum script., *III, ii, 830, 25 vols., Milan, 1723-38. Consult further: M. Jansen, *Papst Bonifatius IX., *Freiburg, 1904; *Historia . . . de Bonifazio nono, *Venice, 1613; N. Valois, *La France et le grand schisme, *ii, 157, Paris, 1898; Creighton, *Papacy, *i, 111-183; Pastor, *Popes, *i, passim; Neander, *Christian Church, *vol. v, passim; Bower, *Popes, *iii, 143-152; Hefele, *Conciliengeschichte, *vi, 812.

**BONIFACE, SAINT:** The apostle of the Germans; b. at Crediton (8 m. n.w. of Exeter), Devonshire, between 675 and 683; d. a martyr on the banks of the Borne near Dokkum (13 m. n.e. of Leeuwarden), in Friesland, June 5, 755. He was an Englishman of a distinguished family of Wessex, and was originally named Winfrid or Wynfrith. His studies were begun at the monastery of Adescancastre (Exeter?), and continued at Nutshalling or Nursling, near Winchester. Here he won distinction for learning and practical wisdom, and at an early age was made master of the monastic school. ### Early Missionary Work. Disregarding brilliant prospects at home, from 717 Boniface gave himself to missionary work on the Continent. After a brief effort in Friesland—the field of his countryman Willibrord—he went to Rome and received a commission from the pope (Gregory II) as missionary to Central Germany. He began his labor in Thuringia and Hessia, the easternmost of the lands of the Franks, where he found not only heathen but Christians and priests who knew nothing and wanted to know nothing of Roman discipline and order. They were probably converts and disciples of Iro-Scottish and British monks, who had long been laboring among the tribes from the Rhine to the Saale and southward to the Alps (see CELTIC CHURCH IN BRITAIN AND IRELAND, II, 2, § 3, III, 2, § 2). For two or three years Boniface's activity was diverted to Friesland, but then he returned to the Franks, and, with the help of two landed proprietors, founded a central settlement for himself and companions at Amöneburg on the Ohm in Hessia. His success was great and led to a summons to Rome from Gregory II. There he was consecrated bishop and swore fidelity to the canons of the Church; he was charged to be on his guard against heretical priests and anti-Roman bishops. About 724 he returned to Germany, provided with letters of recommendation to the major domus, Charles Martel, to the clergy, chieftains, and people. Charles Martel granted him protection, and, after confirming recent converts in Hessia, and felling the sacred oak of Thor near Geismar, Boniface went eastward into Thuringia, and established its first monastery at Ohrdruf. He founded many churches, converted the heathen, expelled the anti-Roman priests, and in ten years had won a new province for the Church and the pope. ### Organization. Being promoted to the dignity of archbishop, Boniface organized his Church by founding the sees of Würzburg, Buraburg, and Erfurt, and by building monasteries and nunneries, which he filled with monks and nuns from England and endowed and improved with the help of English money. Bavaria next claimed his attention. Anti-Roman influence was strong there and among the neighboring Alemanni, but, with the authorization of Gregory III, in a few years, Boniface placed men in sympathy with Rome in the sees of Regensburg, Passau, Salzburg, and Freising, and substituted the Benedictine rules for those of Columban in the monasteries. On the death of Charles Martel (741), his sons Karlman and Pepin, who had been brought up under monkish influence, succeeded to his power. In 742 Karlman called upon the papal legate to regulate the affairs of the Church for the East Franks. Under the guiding influence of Boniface two synods were held and measures were adopted concerning the monastic and scholastic discipline, the restoration of church estates which had been lost, the introduction of Roman marriage laws, celibacy of the clergy, the expulsion of the old British itinerant priests and bishops, the extirpation of remnants of heathenism, the establishment of the hierarchical order, and the like. There was some opposition from the nobles, certain of the bishops, and the people, who were attached to their old customs, but at court and in the Council the adversaries of the "reformation of the Church" lost all authority. ### Archbishop. In 744 Pepin followed the example of his brother. A synod was held at Soissons, and Boniface was given a free hand, notwithstanding resistance from the Frankish clergy. For a long time, however, he was unable to alienate the people from their old priests and bishops, such as Adalbert and Clement. A general Frankish synod in 745 published new agenda for both divisions of the country and promised Boniface the metropolitan see at Cologne. In 747 the Frankish bishops with Boniface at the head signed in due form a bill of submission in which they acknowledged the papal rights, laws, and power, and promised obedience and faithfulness. By this action the bond between the Frankish empire and Rome was sealed; the "Prince of the Apostles" was to be head and master in the countries north of the Alps. Pope Zacharias had every reason to be grateful to his legate. Instead of Cologne, Boniface received Mainz as his see. Here he was near his old mission field in Hessia and Thuringia, and from Mainz he could direct the building of his favorite foundation, the abbey of Fulda. Worldly affairs now occupied him little. After the death of Willibrord he desired strongly to continue the Friesian mission. In 754 he spent some time in Friesland. The next year he again descended the Rhine with a large following and pitched his camp on the little river Borne, expecting the newly baptized would come thither for confirmation. But the camp was attacked by night by a band of heathen and Boniface and his entire company were massacred. He is buried at Fulda. An English synod shortly after his death proclaimed him patron of the English Church by the side of Gregory the Great and Augustine. Pius IX in 1875 ordered to invoke his name because of troubles in Germany and England. Many churches in Germany are dedicated to him. [A number of writings have been attributed to Boniface. Those most commonly regarded as genuine are letters, a collection of ecclesiastical statutes, a Latin poem called *Ænigmata de virtutibus, *and several shorter poems.] A. WERNER. BIBLIOGRAPHY: *S. Bonifacii opera quæ extant omnia, *ed. J. A. Giles, 2 vols., London, 1844, contains, besides the genuine and supposed works of Boniface, his life, written within ten years of his death by Willibald, a presbyter of Mainz. The works, Willibald's life, and a life by Othlo, a monk of St. Emmeram's at Regensburg, written at Fulda between 1062 and 1066, are in *MPL, *lxxxix. Better editions are: Of the letters, Willibald's life, the so-called *Passio S. Bonifatii *(11th century), and extracts from Othlo and a life by an unknown writer of Utrecht in *Monumenta Moguntina, *ed. P. Jaffé, *Bibliotheca rer. Germ., *vol. iii, 1866; the biographical matter also issued separately with title, *Vitæ S. Bonifatii, *Berlin, 1866; cf. also *Vitæ S. Bonifatii, *ed. W. Levison, Hanover, 1905; of the letters, ed. E. Dümmler, in *MGH, *Epist., iii (1892), *Epistolæ Merovingici et Carolini ævi, *i; of the poems, ed. idem, in *MGH, Poet. Lat. ævi Car., *i (1881), pp. 1-23; of Willibald's life, ed. A. Nürnberger, Breslau, 1895, and, with Othlo's prologue, in *MGH, Script., *ii (1829). For the letters consult F. Loofs, *Zur Chronologie der auf die fränkischen Synoden des heiligen Bonifatius bezüglichen Briefe der bonifazischen Briefsammlung, * Leipsic, 1881; G. Pfahler, *Die bonifatianische Briefsammlung chronologisch geordnet, *Heilbronn, 1882. For modern accounts in German from the Roman Catholic standpoint, consult: J. C. A. Seiters, *Bonifacius, . . . nach seinem Leben und Wirken geschildert, *Mainz, 1845; G. Pfahler, *St. Bonifacius und seine Zeit, *Regensberg, 1880; F. J. von Buss, *Winfred Bonifacius, *ed. R. von Scherer, Gras, 1880. From the Protestant standpoint: J. P. Müller, *Bonifacius. Eene kerkhistorische Studie, *2 vols., Amsterdam, 1869-70; A. Werner, *Bonifacius . . . und die Romanisirung von Mitteleuropa, * Leipsic, 1875; O. Fischer, *Bonifatius der Apostel der Deutschen, *ib. 1881; J. H. A. Ebrard, *Bonifatius, der Zerstörer des columbanischen Kirchenthums auf dem Festlande, *Gütersloh, 1882, cf. his *Iroschottische Missionskirche des 6ten-8ten Jahrhunderts, *ib. 1873; G. Traub, *Bonifatius. Ein Lebensbild, *Leipsic, 1884. For life in Eng. consult: G. W. Cox, *Life of Boniface, *London, 1853; Mrs. Hope, *Boniface and the Conversion of Germany, * ib. 1872; G. F. Maclear, *Apostles of Mediæval Europe, *pp. 110-128, London, 1888; I. G. Smith, *Boniface, *in *Fathers for English Readers, *ib. 1896; J. M. Williamson, *Life and Times of St. Boniface, *ib. 1904. Consult also: H. Hahn, *Bonafaz und Lul, *Leipsic, 1883; G. Woelbing, *Die mittelalterlichen Lebensbeschreibungen des Bonifatius untersucht, *ib. 1883; Moeller, *Christian Church, *ii, 74-83; Schaff, *Christian Church, *iv, 92-100; *DCB, *i, 324-327; *DNB, *v, 346-350; Neander, *Christian Church, *iii, 46-96 et passim.

**BONIFATIUS-VEREIN **("Boniface Society"): A Roman Catholic society of Germany, having as its object "to promote the spiritual interests of Catholics living in Protestant parts of Germany, and the maintenance of schools" (by-laws, § 1). The tendency toward freer relations between different confessions and shifting of confessional connections in Germany in the earlier years of the nineteenth century aroused the anxiety of the Church of Rome. According to a statement in the Ultramontane *Münchener historisch-politische Blätter *(lxviii, 45) the Roman Church lost between 1802 and 1870 more than 500,000 souls in South Germany, whereas the loss in North Germany between 1802 and 1850 was estimated at one million. The "Francis Xavier Society," which had its headquarters at Lyons in France, and properly speaking was a missionary society, took care of the "missions" in Germany as far as possible; but until 1848 no Roman Catholic church or school could be established in Germany without the consent of the government. These restrictions were done away with in 1848, and when the third convention of Roman Catholics met at Regensburg, Oct. 4, 1849, at the suggestion of Döllinger, at that time an ardent champion of Rome, and of Count Josef von Stolberg, son of the famous convert Frederick Leopold von Stolberg, the Bonifatius-Verein was founded. Paderborn was chosen as the center of operation. Pius IX approved the society, Apr. 21, 1852, and Leo XIII favored the priests belonging to it with indulgences, Mar. 15, 1901. In Bavaria the society was not favorably received at first on account of similar societies already existing, and in North Germany it seemed to be a failure by 1853. But after 1857, owing to the exertions of Bishop Martin of Paderborn and of Alban Stolz, it progressed rapidly and in 1899 celebrated the golden jubilee of its successful activity. The society obtains the means necessary for carrying on its work in various ways: (1) from collections in the churches; (2) from private persons who obligate themselves to pay for a number of years the minister's salary in a certain congregation; (3) from donations to a permanent endowment fund; (4) from societies which collect seemingly worthless objects, as cigar ends, corks, and the like; the income from these societies, used particularly for orphan asylums and like institutions, amounted from 1885 to 1891 to 1,490,539 marks; (5) from the profits of the Bonifatius printing-house and the Bonifatius second-hand book-stall at Paderborn; (6) from periodicals and pamphlets; (7) from academical Bonifatius societies, which built the Catholic church at Greifswald; (8) from societies of a like character, as the "Boniface Society of the Catholic Noblemen of Silesia," the "Boniface Society of Catholic Ladies for Church Vestments and Furniture," and others. The aggregate receipts from all these sources between 1849 and 1899 were 36,000,000 marks; and between 1849 and 1901 more than 29,000,000 marks were expended for 2,240 stations. In 1902 the revenues aggregated 442,000 marks, and expenditures 310,000 marks. The territory of the Bonifatius-Verein comprises Germany, Austria with Bosnia and Herzegovina, Switzerland, Denmark, and Luxembourg. In Germany special attention is paid to the Protestant parts of Prussia, above all Berlin; Saxony, Brunswick, and Mecklenburg are also regarded as missionary fields. In Bavaria, Nuremberg, formerly wholly Protestant, is especially an object of the propaganda in order to connect the northern and southern parts of Bavaria. C. FEY. BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. J. Kleffner and F. W. Woker, *Der Bonifacius-Verein. Seine Geschichte, seine Arbeit und sein Arbeitsfeld, 1849-1899, *2 parts, Paderborn, 1899; *Bonifaciusblatt, * ib. 1853 sqq.; *Schlesisches Bonifacius-Vereins-Blatt, *Breslau, 1880 sqq.

**BONI HOMINES:** A name borne by several monastic brotherhoods, particularly by the Grammontensians (see GRAMMONT, ORDER OF), the *Fratres saccati, *or Sack Brethren, and an order of canons regular founded in Portugal by John Vicenza (d. 1463), physician and professor at Lisbon, afterward bishop of Lamego, and later bishop of Vizeu. In 1425 Vicenza and his followers, who had made pilgrimages throughout Portugal, received the Benedictine cloister of San Salvador in Villar de Frades. They adopted the dress and statutes of the canons regular of San Giorgio in Alga, at Venice, and received papal confirmation under this title. In another house near Lisbon they received the name Canons Regular of the Congregation of St. John the Evangelist. The *Boni homines *of San Salvador were later included under this title. They gradually attained a strength of fourteen houses in Portugal, and also maintained missions in India and Ethiopia. After the Minims had come into possession of the house of the Grammontensians at Vincennes they, too, came to be called *bons hommes. *Even at an earlier date it seems that the Minims in Paris had been contemptuously called *bons hommes. * The same name was also appropriated by certain heretical sects, for instance, by the Cathari (see NEW MANICHEANS) and by the Brethren of the Free Spirit. In Florence, in the thirteenth century, the twelve men elected to restore order after the withdrawal of the Ghibellines were called *buoni uomini, *likewise the overseers of the thirteen city districts in Rome in the fourteenth century.

**BONIZO (BONITHO):** Bishop of Sutri; b. at Cremona c. 1045; d. at Piacenza July 14, probably 1090. As a young cleric he joined the Patarene movement (see PATARENES) in Cremona and Piacenza. He came to Rome in 1074, possibly in consequence of his conflict with Bishop Dionysius of Piacenza, and was himself made bishop of Sutri in 1075 or 1076. In the spring of 1078 he was in Lombardy as legate, and back in Rome by November, when he took part in the synod that discussed Berengar's teachings. A zealous partizan of Gregory VII, he was imprisoned by Henry IV in 1082 and entrusted for safe-keeping to the antipope Guibert of Ravenna (Clement III). He contrived to escape, but never returned to his see. In 1085 he found shelter with Countess Matilda, and in the summer of 1086 was chosen bishop of Piacenza by the Patarene party. His election being uncanonical, Anselm of Milan, the metropolitan, refused to install him; but he succeeded in gaining the approval of Pope Urban II in 1088 or 1089. He did not long enjoy his triumph, meeting a violent death in a rising of the imperialist party. The most important of his writings, the *Liber ad amicum * (ed. E. Dümmler, *MGH, Libelli de lite, *i, 1891), composed between the death of Gregory VII and the accession of Victor III (1085-86), besides discussing the question whether a Christian may bear arms in the defense of the Church (which he answers in the affirmative), showing by an extended historical sketch that the Church grows under persecution. The chief value of the work is due to its presentation of the ideas of Gregory and his adherents; it informs us how the papal camp judged of the numerous theological and ecclesiastico-political controversies of the time, and as a whole is one of the most noteworthy productions of the Gregorian party. Often as it has been appealed to as a contemporary source, it has to be used with caution, owing not only to carelessness and errors of detail, but to demonstrable perversions of history, as in the account of the Canossa episode. In fact, it is colored throughout by the author's subjective standpoint. The *Liber in Hugonem schismaticum * (presumably Cardinal Hugo Candidus) has unfortunately been lost. As a canonist Bonizo left a large *Decretum *in ten books, from which Mai published extracts in 1854. CARL MIRBT. BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Saur, *Studien über Bonizo, *in *Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, *viii, 397-464, Göttingen, 1868; E. Steindorff, *Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich III.,* i, 457-462, ii, 473-482, Leipsic, 1874, 1887; W. Martens, *Ueber die Geschichtschreibung Bonizos, *in *Tübinger theologische Quartalschrift, *1883, pp. 457-483; idem, *Gregor VII, *2 vols., Leipsic, 1894; H. Lehmgrübner, *Ueber des Leben des Bonizo . . . *, in *Benzo von Alba, *pp. 129-151, Berlin, 1887; G. Meyer von Knonau, *Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich IV., *vols. i, ii, Leipsic, 1890-94; C. Mirbt, *Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors VII., *ib. 1894; idem, *Die Wahl Gregors VII., *Marburg, 1892.

**BONNER, EDMUND:** Bishop of London; b., probably at Hanley, Worcestershire, about 1500; d. in the Marshalsea prison, at Southwark, near London, Sept. 5, 1569. He studied at Pembroke College (then called Broadgate Hall), Oxford (B.C.L., 1519; D.C.L., 1525), and was ordained about 1519. He received his first preferment from Cardinal Wolsey; after the death of Wolsey (1530) he served the king, received a number of benefices, and was employed at different times as ambassador to the pope, to the king of France, and to the emperor; he was made bishop of London in 1539. He fell out with the privy council, which undertook to govern under Edward VI (1547), and in 1549 was reprimanded for not enforcing the use of the new prayer-book, deprived of his bishopric, and imprisoned. The accession of Mary (1553) brought his release and reinstated him in his see. He is remembered chiefly by his connection with the religious persecutions of the reign of Mary and it is said that in three years he condemned more than two hundred persons to the stake. In 1559, after the accession of Elizabeth, he refused to take the oath of supremacy and was imprisoned and kept in confinement till his death. It has been usual to represent Bishop Bonner as unprincipled and cruel; yet his firmness in following the unpopular course and the suffering undergone in consequence do not indicate a lack of principle; to judge and condemn heretics was one of the duties of his position, and it is not clear that he took delight in undue severity; there is documentary evidence that he acted under pressure from the queen and her husband (Philip II of Spain). He was unpopular in London apart from the persecutions. He wrote a preface for the second edition of Gardiner's *De vera obedientia *(Hamburg, 1536) and published a collection of *Homilies *for his diocese (London, 1555, and many later editions). BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources for a life are in the *State Papers of Henry VIII, *in the *Rolls Series, *15 vols., ed. by various hands, London, 189-. Consult also: S. R. Maitland, *Subjects Connected with the Reformation in England, *London, 1849; *DNB, *vi, 356-360.

**BONNET,** ben"nê', **ALFRED MAXIMILIEN:** French classical scholar; b. at Frankfort Nov. 3, 1841. He was educated at Bonn University, and, after being a professor at the academy of Lausanne in 1866-74 and at the École Monge and the École Alsacienne at Paris in 1874-81, was successively lecturer and instructor in the faculty of letters at Montpellier. Since 1890 he has been professor of Latin in the same institution. In 1898 he was elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and has written, among other work, *Narratio de miraculo a Michaele archangelo Chonis patrato, adjecto Symeonis Metaphrastæ de eadem re libello *(Paris, 1890) and *Le Latin de Grégoire de Tours *(1890); and has prepared editions of the *Liber de miraculis beati Andreæ apostoli, *in *MGH, Script. rer. Merov., *i (1885), 821-846, the Acts of Thomas (Leipsic, 1883) and of Andrew (1895), and the *Acta apostolorum apocrypha *(1891 sqq.; in collaboration with R. A. Lipsius).

**BONNET, JULES:** French Protestant layman; b. at Nîmes (40 m. n.e. of Montpellier) June 30, 1820; d. there Mar. 23, 1892. He was educated as a lawyer, but became a professor in the University of France and gained recognition by his works on the history of the Reformation. He was also secretary of the Société d'Histoire du Protestantisme Français and editor of its publications. Among his works special mention may be made of the following: *Olympia Morata, épisode de la renaissance en Italie *(Paris, 1850; Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1852); *Lettres françaises de Calvin *(2 vols., 1854; Eng. transl., 4 vols., Edinburgh, 1855-57); *Calvin au val d'Aoste *(1861); *Aonio Paleario, étude sur la réforme en Italie *(1863; Eng. transl., London, 1864); *Récits du seizième siècle *(1864); *Nouveaux récits du seizième siècle * (1869); *La Réforme au château de Saint Privat * (1873); *Notice sur la vie et les écrits de M. Merle d'Aubigné *(1874); *Derniers récits du seizième siècle * (1875); *Quelques souvenirs sur Augustin Thierry * (1877); *Famille de Curione, récit du seizième siècle * (Basel, 1878); *Histoire des souffrances du bienheureux martyr Louis de Marolles *(Paris, 1882); *Souvenirs de l'Église réformée de la Calmette *(1884); and *Récits du seizième siècle, troisième série *(1885). He also edited the *Mémoires de la vie de Jean de Parthenay-Larchevêque, sieur de Soubise *(Paris, 1879), while his own letters from 1851 to 1863 have been edited by E. de Bude (Geneva, 1898).

**BONNIVARD,** ben"nî"var', **FRANÇOIS DE:** The "Prisoner of Chillon"; b. at Seyssel on the Rhone (21 m. s.w. of Geneva) c. 1493; d. at Geneva 1570. As a younger son he entered the Church and became prior of St. Victor near Geneva; certain other benefices to which he thought he was entitled he failed to receive through the intrigues of Charles III, duke of Savoy; in consequence he joined the party of the young Genevan patriots who were resisting the duke's attempts to gain control of the city. When the duke entered Geneva in 1519, Bonnivard fled, but fell into the hands of the duke, and was imprisoned for twenty months. On May 28, 1530 he was arrested near Lausanne, taken to the castle of Chillon at the east end of Lake Geneva and kept there for six years. It is this imprisonment which Byron has immortalized in verse more musical than truthful. The first two years were tolerable; but after a visit from the duke in 1532 he was put in the dungeon now shown to visitors. It is only a local tradition that he was chained to a pillar. In the spring of 1536 the Bernese took the castle and freed Bonnivard. During his incarceration the priory and church of St. Victor had been razed and the income of the estates applied to the city hospital. As indemnification he was pensioned and given a liberal sum to pay his debts. He adopted the Reformation and married four times, but no time happily. He made the city of Geneva his heir on condition that it should pay his debts; but his estate consisted only of certain books which formed the beginning of the city library. Bonnivard's literary activity was the chief reason for the forbearance which his contemporaries showed him; his career was somewhat wavering, time-serving, and dishonorable. In 1517 he was entitled "poet-laureate," and after his liberation he was commissioned by the magistracy to write a history of the republic of Geneva. This work, *Les Chroniques de Genève *(published at Geneva, 2 vols., 1831), ends with 1551, is full of anecdotes and interesting, but unreliable. Other works which have been published are: *Advis et devis des langues *(Geneva, 1849); *Advis et devis de la source de l'idolatrie et tyrannie papale *(1856); *De l'ancienne et nouvelle police de Genève *(1865). BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. J. Chaponnière, *Mémoire sur Bonnivard, * Geneva, 1846; F. Gribble, *Lake Geneva and its Literary Landmarks, *London, 1901.

**BONNUS, HERMANNUS (Hermann Gude?): ** German Reformer; b. at Quackenbrück, in Osnabrück, 1504; d. at Lübeck Feb. 12, 1548. He was educated apparently first at Münster, then in Bugenhagen's school at Treptow, but certainly entered the University of Wittenberg in 1523, coming under the influence of Luther and Melanchthon. In 1525, probably, he migrated to Greifswald, and about two years later went to Gottorp to act as tutor to the six-year-old son of Frederick I of Denmark. Thence he was called to Lübeck in 1530, and (on Bugenhagen's organization of the Evangelical Church there) made superintendent in the following February. Here he remained until his death, in spite of calls to Hamburg in 1532 and to Lüneburg in 1534. He represented his town in the conference of the six free cities of Lübeck, Bremen, Hamburg, Rostock, Stralsund, and Lüneburg, held at Hamburg in 1535 to concert measures for dealing with Papists, Anabaptists, and Sacramentarians. In 1543 he visited Osnabrück to take part in the establishment of a Reformed system and liturgy which received the approval of the bishop, Franz von Waldeck, and was later extended to the whole diocese. The attempt to carry it into that of Münster was forcibly resisted by the chapter, but met with partial success in the country districts. His influence was extended by his Low German catechism (1539) and by his services to the hymnody of this dialect. He certainly edited and revised several collections of both German and Latin hymns, and probably contributed some of his own. He took a courageous part against the democratic revolution in Lübeck under Wullenweber, and in his *Chronika der kaiserlichen Stadt Lübeck *(1539) pointed out the dangers of innovating tendencies. After the formal adoption of the Augsburg Confession in 1535, he contended successfully against the efforts of the Roman Catholic party to regain control and against the propaganda of the Anabaptists. His office required him to expound the Scriptures, and his discourses on the Acts and on the liturgical epistles for the Sundays were published. In accordance with the Hamburg decisions, which had required preachers to dwell upon the examples of the saints, he published in 1539 a compilation of hagiographical extracts. The king of Denmark tried to secure him for an important office (probably the bishopric of Sleswick), but he refused to leave Lübeck, where his body was deposited amid universal mourning in St. Mary's church. (G. KAWERAU.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Spiegel, *Hermann Bonnus, *Göttingen, 1892; G. Bossert, in *TLZ, *1892, pp. 260 sqq.

### BONOSUS AND THE BONOSIANS. Heresy and Suspension of Bonosus (§ 1). Final Condemnation of Bonosus (§ 2). Bonosians in Spain and Southern Gaul (§ 3). Sympathy between Bonosians and Arians (§ 4). Relation between Bonosus and the Bonosians (§ 5). ### 1. Heresy and Suspension of Bonosus. From a letter written to Anysius of Thessalonica and the other Illyrian bishops, soon after the Synod of Capua (winter of 391-392), by either Pope Siricius or an unknown Italian bishop, we learn certain facts about a bishop Bonosus, whose see is not given. He had been accused, apparently by neighboring bishops, but of what does not clearly appear in the letter, except that he had asserted that Mary bore other children to Joseph, after the birth of Jesus. The case came before this synod at Capua, called by the emperor Theodosius to put an end to the schism at Antioch (see MELETIUS OF ANTIOCH); but the synod referred it to the bishops whose dioceses bordered on those of both parties, especially the Macedonian prelates. The decision was in favor of suspension, a temporary provision being made for the administration of Bonosus's diocese. He wrote to St. Ambrose to know whether he was bound to heed this sentence, and Ambrose counseled patience. Meantime the bishops hesitated to make the sentence absolute, and would have been glad of the opinion of the writer of the letter. He, however, whether Siricius or some one else, declared that it did not belong to him "to decide as if by authority of a synod"; the responsibility, he told them, rested on them of forming such a decision that neither the accused nor the accusers should be able to evade it. So much consideration was not usually shown to "heretics"; there may have been circumstances connected with the case which we do not know. But to deny the perpetual virginity of Mary was a serious offense from the standpoint of the time (see HELVIDIUS). Ambrose speaks *(De instit. virg., *v, 35) of a bishop being accused of this "sacrilege"–probably meaning Bonosus. It is, therefore, evident that at this time Bonosus was accused of no worse or further heresies. ### 2. Final Condemnation of Bonosus. Some twenty years later we hear more of Bonosus in two letters of Innocent I–one to Marcian of Naïssus, northwest of Sardica, and a later one to the bishops of Illyria. From them it appears that Bonosus had been definitely condemned by his fellow bishops, and had then founded a separate ecclesiastical organization of his own. For the avoiding of scandal, those who had been ordained by him were, if they wished it, received back into the Church as clerics. Innocent allows this only in the case of those ordained by Bonosus before his condemnation; but here again his heresy is not specified. Twenty years later still (431), Marius Mercator names Marcellus, Photinus, "and lately the Sardican bishop, Bonosus, who was condemned by Pope Damascus, among the followers of Ebion." There is practically no doubt that this is the same Bonosus; in this case, and accepting the statement of Marius, we have learned that Bonosus was bishop of Sardica, and that his errors had grown, after 392, into dynamistic Monarchianism. We have no further information as to the fate of his following in the Balkan peninsula. The mention of him in the so-called *Decretum Gelasii, *even if it was written by Gelasius, and the anathemas pronounced against him by Vigilius in 552 and 553 prove nothing on this point. If Gregory I in his *Epistola ad Quiricum * really named the *Bonosiaci *with the Cataphrygians as heretics who needed rebaptism because they did not believe in Christ the Lord, this is not very strong evidence for the continued existence of the body, and tells nothing of its locality. ### 3. Bonosians in Spain and Southern Gaul. The case is different with the repeated mentions of *Bonosiaci *or *Bonosiani *by the writers of Spain and southern Gaul. Gennadius quotes the Spanish bishop Audentius (end of fourth century) as having specially written against them, which proves at least that Gennadius knew them; he speaks in another place of "Photinians, who now are called Bonosians." A little later Avitus of Vienne mentions them in two well-known passages; in one he expresses himself in relation to King Gundobad (see BURGUNDIANS) as willing to accept their baptism. The 17th canon of the so-called Second Synod of Arles (generally placed 443-452) shows the same conciliatory attitude; but the Third Synod of Orléans (538) tells us that the Bonosians rebaptized their converts, which may be taken to show that their baptism was not then recognized by the other side. About the same time, according to Isidore of Seville, Justinian of Valencia was writing against them his lost *Liber responsionum contra Bonosianos, qui Christum adoptivum filium et non proprium dicunt. *While for Gaul the latest reference is given by the Synod of Clichy in 626 or 627; showing thus their gradual extinction there, in Spain they were attracting attention fifty years later; the Synod of Toledo in 675, declaring that Christ was the Son of God by nature, not by adoption, was plainly directed against them. On the other hand, the mention of Bonosus–not of the Bonosians–in the Adoptionist controversy (see ADOPTIONISM) does not prove that they lasted to the eighth century in Spain, nor is the medieval view that Adoptionism was a revival of the heresy of Bonosus worth considering. They really disappear with the end of the seventh century. ### 4. Sympathy between Bonosians and Arians. That these mentions of Bonosians from the fifth to the seventh centuries are not merely the survival of an old term of opprobrium, but that they really existed in Spain and southern Gaul at that period has long been justly accepted. It is still further confirmed by a passage of Avitus, whose true reading (*Bonosiacorum *for *bonorum*) has only lately been established. Writing to Sigismund, his convert son of the Arian king Gundobad, he gives the information that the latter had formally promised to set up a Bonosian community in his kingdom by the establishment of a bishop of their faith, and that this body was recruited from the Arians. This would explain the attitude of Gennadius toward their baptism. Avitus took an opposite view, either to conciliate the king, who at that time gave hopes of his conversion, or from motives of general policy. The Bonosians began to be absorbed into the Arian body; toward the end of Gundobad's reign Avitus had hopes that they would entirely disappear, if the king could be induced to let his promises to them lapse into oblivion. The later history shows that this hope proved false, because the sect was not confined to Burgundian territory; and it is not surprising that sharp measures were taken against those who remained obdurate in their heresy under Catholic rule. Only one thing can be urged against the correctness of the account here given–the recognition of the validity of Bonosian baptism by the synod said to have been held at Arles about 450; but this really tells the other way, for general support is now accorded to the theory put forth in the eighteenth century that this second synod of Arles never had any existence, the canons attributed to it being nothing but a collection of various older synodical decisions made toward the end of the fifth century, and canon xvii having then first been heard of. Accordingly it is safe to say that the Bonosians in the generally Arian territories of the Burgundians and the West-Goths were the followers of Bonosus of Sardica, though the name Bonosus was not an uncommon one. ### 5. Relation between Bonosus and the Bonosians. Isidore of Seville says expressly that they had sprung "from a certain bishop Bonosus," and the "plague of the Bonosians" did not begin in the Burgundian kingdom, since Avitus speaks of it as *ab infernalibus latebris excitata. *The district in which Bonosus of Sardica labored bordered on territories held in his time by the West-Goths, and relations may well have remained close between that region and the West-Goths of the south of Gaul; so that the passage of his teaching from the Balkan peninsula into the Burgundian kingdom, which was in close contact with the West-Goths, is perfectly possible, and we may safely conclude to accept the statement of Marius Mercator. (F. LOOFS.) The wide-spread acceptance of the Adoptionist view of the person of Christ from the apostolic time throughout the Middle Ages and beyond (Ebionites, *Shepherd *of Hermas, Theodotas of Rome, Paul of Samosata, the Paulicians, most medieval sects, many Anabaptists, and others) makes it easy to account for this aspect of the teaching of the Bonosians as well as for the Spanish Adoptionism of the eighth century without the supposition of its independent origin in either case. For much valuable information on the early origin and the persecution of Adoptionist Christology cf. F. C. Conybeare, *The Key of Truth; A Manual of the Paulician Church of Armenia. The Armenian Text edited and translated with illustrative Documents and Introduction *(Oxford, 1898). A. H. N. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ceillier, *Auteurs sacrés, *v, 708-711; C. W. F. Walch, *Historie der Ketzereien, *iii, 598-625, Leipsic, 1766; A. Helfferich, *Der westgothische Arianismus, *Berlin, 1860; C. Binding, *Das burgundisch-romanische Königreich, * vol. i, Leipsic, 1868; Hefele, *Conciliengeschichte, *vols. ii, iii; *DCB, *i, 330-331.

**BONWETSCH,** bon"vetch', **GOTTLIEB NATHANAEL:** German Protestant theologian; b. at Nortla, Russia, Feb. 17, 1848. He was educated at the universities of Dorpat (1866-70), Göttingen (1874-75), and Bonn (1877-78), the time between his residence at these universities being spent in practical pastoral work. He became privat-docent at Dorpat in 1878 and associate professor of church history four years later, while from 1883 to 1891 he was full professor in the same university. Since 1891 he has been professor of church history at Göttingen. In addition to numerous contributions to theological journals and religious encyclopedias, he edited Thomasius's *Dogmengeschichte der alten Kirche * (Erlangen, 1886) and the *Studien zur Geschichte der Theologie und Kirche *in collaboration with R. Seeberg (Leipsic, 1897 sqq.); and has written *Die Schriften Tertullians untersucht *(Bonn, 1878); *Die Geschichte des Montanismus *(Erlangen, 1881); *Unser Reformator Martin Luther *(Dorpat, 1883); *Kyrill und Methodius, die Lehrer der Slaven *(Erlangen, 1885); *Methodius von Olympus, i, Schriften *(Leipsic, 1891); *Studien zu den Kommentaren Hippolytus zum Buche Daniel und Hohenliede *(1897); *Hippolytus Werke * (Berlin, 1897; in collaboration with H. Achelis); and *Die Apokalypse Abrahams, das Testament der vierzig Märtyrer *(1898). He also edited, in collaboration with P. Tschackert, the thirteenth and fourteenth editions of J. H. Kurtz's *Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte * (2 vols., Leipsic, 1899, 1906).

**BOOS, MARTIN:** Roman Catholic priest; b. at Huttenried near Schongau, Bavaria, Dec. 25, 1762; d. at Sayn, near Coblenz, Aug. 29, 1825. He studied at Dillingen under Sailer, Zimmer, and Weber. He followed the extreme practises of asceticism as a penance for sin, all to no avail, as he believed, and then developed a doctrine of salvation by faith which came very near to pure Lutheranism. This he preached with great effect. He was driven from Bavaria by the opposition of the ecclesiastical authorities and other priests and lived in Austria from 1799 to 1816, when he was compelled to leave that country. His last years were spent at Düsseldorf and Sayn. BIBLIOGRAPHY: His autobiography was edited by J. Gossner, Leipsic, 1831, Eng. transl., London, 1836, who also issued two volumes of his sermons, Berlin, 1830. Consult also F. W. Bodemann, *Gesammelte Briefe von, an und über Martin Boos, *Frankfort, 1854.

**BOOTH, BALLINGTON:** General-in-chief and president of the Volunteers of America; b. at Brighouse (4 m. e.s.e. of Halifax), Yorkshire, England, July 28, 1859. He was educated at a private school in Bristol and subsequently at Trenton Collegiate Institute and Nottingham Seminary, Nottingham, England. He was commander of the Salvation Army in Australia from 1885 to 1887, and held the same office in the United States from 1887 to 1896. In the latter year his connection with the Salvation Army ceased, however, and he established a similar though not identical organization known as the Volunteers of America, of which he has since been the head. He was ordained at Chicago in August, 1896, a presbyter in the Christian Church.

**BOOTH, CATHERINE (MUMFORD):** "Mother of the Salvation Army"; b. at Ashbourne (13 m. n.w. of Derby), Derbyshire, England, Jan. 17, 1829; d. at Clacton-on-Sea (13 m. s.e. of Colchester), Essex, Oct. 4, 1890. She was educated chiefly at home, and in 1844 removed with her parents to London. In the same year she joined the Wesleyan congregation at Brixton, but four years later was debarred from that organization, together with others. These "Reformers," as they called themselves, then formed a separate congregation, and in 1851 she became acquainted with her future husband, William Booth, likewise an excommunicated "Reformer." Four years later they were married, and in 1858 she first took public part in her husband's pastoral work at Gateshead, Durham, where he was then located. Two years later, after the publication of a pamphlet defending the right of women to preach, she delivered her first sermon in her husband's pulpit, and within the next three years began to conduct independent religious meetings, leading successful missions at Margate in 1867 and at Portsmouth in 1873. Meanwhile the plan which resulted in the formation of the Salvation Army was maturing, and the new organization was definitely formulated in 1877. Mrs. Booth herself took an active part in the work, especially among women and children. Her greatest work as a revivalist was done in 1886-87, but in the following year she was stricken with cancer, which ultimately caused her death. She wrote *Papers on Practical Religion * (London, 1879); *Papers on Aggressive Christianity * (1881); *Papers on Godliness *(1882); *Life and Death * (1883); *The Salvation Army in Relation to the Church and State *(1883); and *Popular Christianity *(1887). BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. St. G. de L. Booth Tucker, *The Life of Catherine Booth, *2 vols., London and Chicago, 1892; T. Chappell, *Four Noble Women and their Work, *ib. 1898.

**BOOTH, WILLIAM:** Commander-in-chief of the Salvation Army; b. at Nottingham, England, Apr. 10, 1829. He was educated by a private theological tutor of the Methodist New Connexion Church, and began his career as an open air preacher at the age of fifteen. He entered the ministry of the Methodist New Connexion Church in 1852, and was successively a traveling evangelist and a circuit preacher until 1861, when he left the denomination to devote himself entirely to evangelistic work. In 1865 he founded at London the Christian Mission for the amelioration of the condition of the destitute and vicious population of the eastern portion of London, and this developed, in 1878, into the Salvation Army. He has traveled extensively in the interests of his Army, and has written *Salvation Soldiery *(1890); *In Darkest England and the Way Out * (1890); and *Religion for Every Day *(1902). BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. St. G. de L. Booth Tucker, *Life of General William Booth, *Chicago, 1898; T. F. G. Coates, *The Prophet of the Poor; the Life Story of General Booth, *London, 1905.

**BOOTH TUCKER, EMMA MOSS:** Salvation Army worker; b. at Gateshead, Durham, Jan. 8, 1860; d. near Dean Lake, Mo., Oct. 28, 1903. She was the daughter of William Booth, the founder of the Salvation Army, and from 1880 to 1888 was in charge of the international training homes of that organization. In the latter year, she married Frederick St. George de Lautour Tucker (see the following article), and went with him successively to India and London, whence she came to the United States in 1896. She held the rank of consul in the Salvation Army, and had equal powers with her husband in its control. She died from injuries received in a railroad accident. A volume of selections from her writing has been published under the title *The Cross and Our Comfort *(London, 1907).

**BOOTH TUCKER, FREDERICK ST. GEORGE DE LAUTOUR:** Secretary for Foreign Affairs of the Salvation Army; b. at Monghyr (80 m. e. of Patna), Bengal, Mar. 21, 1853. He was educated at Cheltenham College, England, and passed the examinations for the India Civil Service in 1874. After two years of additional study, he was appointed to the Punjab, where he was successively assistant commissioner and treasury officer. He resigned from the service, however, in 1881 to join the Salvation Army, which he established in India in the following year. He remained in command of the Army there until 1891, when he was transferred to London as secretary for international work. He held this office for five years, and from 1896 to 1904 was commander of the Army in the United States. Since the latter year he has been Secretary for Foreign Affairs of the Salvation Army, with headquarters in London, and is thus responsible to General William Booth for all work of the organization outside of the British Isles. In 1888 he married the daughter of Gen. William Booth (see the preceding article) and subsequently assumed the name of Booth Tucker. He has written *In Darkest India and the Way Out *(Bombay, 1891); *The Life of Catherine Booth *(2 vols., Chicago, 1892); *Life of General William Booth *(1898); and *Favorite Songs of the Salvation Army *(1899).

**BOOTHS, FEAST OF.** See TABERNACLES, FEAST OF.

**BORA, KATHARINA VON:** Luther's wife; b. of an old family of Klein-Laussig, near Bitterfeld in Meissen, Jan. 29, 1499; d. at Torgau Dec. 20, 1552. She was placed in the Cistercian convent of Nimpsch at Grimma (17 m. s.e. of Leipsic) when a child and became a nun in 1515; with the cognizance of Luther she and eight other nuns fled from the convent Apr. 4, 1523, and repaired to Wittenberg. She is said to have refused an offer of marriage from Dr. Kasper Glatz, vicar at Orlamünde, and at the same time to have expressed a preference for Amsdorf or Luther. She was married to the latter June 13, 1525, and bore him six children. She proved a true wife, was a good housekeeper, and the marriage was a happy one. After Luther's death (Feb. 18, 1546) she remained at Wittenberg, much of the time in poverty. Her death was due to an accident which occurred as she was on the way, with her children, to Torgau to escape the plague at Wittenberg. BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Beste, *Die Geschichte Katharinas von Bora, *Halle, 1843; F. G. Hofmann, *Katharina von Bora oder Luther als Gatte und Vater, *Leipsic, 1845; A. Stein, *Katharina von Bora, Luthers Ehegemahl, *Halle, 1897; A. Thoma, *Katharina von Bora, *Berlin, 1900. Consult also the various biographies of Luther. The chief of the many libels concerning Luther's marriage is Eusebius Engelhard's (Michael Kuen) *Lucifer Wittenbergensis, *2 vols., Landsberg, 1747-49.

**BORBORITES, BARDELITES.** See GNOSTICISM.

**BORDELUMIANS:** A separatistic sect formed at Bordelum, a village of Sleswick, about 1739, under the leadership of a pietistic Saxon theological student named David Bähr. They originally consisted of fifteen or twenty persons, and claimed to be saints who had advanced further than Paul according to Rom. vii, 24. Since they believed that they had received special gifts from God, they decried the Church as the house of the devil, and despised the sacraments. As being pure, to whom all things were pure, they rejected marriage in favor of free love, and instituted a communism of property for their financial support. An edict of Christian VI, issued June 11, 1739, condemned the leaders to imprisonment; those who had led an immoral life were punished according to the laws, and the remainder were admonished. The leaders managed to escape the punishment, however, Bähr, who had seduced a married woman, fleeing to Jena. Expelled from that city, he returned to Holstein, and was imprisoned at Glückstadt. Having become a cripple in consequence of the rough treatment to which he had been subjected in prison, he was released, and died wretchedly, still unconverted, at Bredstädt in 1743. His adherents caused much trouble to the pastor of Bordelum. PAUL TSCHACKERT. BIBLIOGRAPHY: *Acta historico-ecclesiastica, *vol. v, part 29, p. 653 sqq., and Supplement, pp. 1014 sqq., 20 vols., Weimar, 1734-38, continued in 13 vols., till 1790.

**BORDIER,** bor"dyê', **HENRI LÉONARD:** Reformed Church of France; b. in Paris Aug. 8, 1817; d. there Aug. 31, 1888. He was educated at the École de Droit and the École des Chartes in Paris, and licensed in law and as paleographic archivist in 1840; thereafter he devoted himself to historical studies. He was successively assistant to the historian Augustin Thierry; assistant in the Academy of Inscriptions; secretary *par interim * of the École des Chartes; a member of the commission on the departmental archives of the minister of the interior (1846); archivist of the national archives (1850), and dismissed on the establishment of the Empire. He was, during the siege of Paris, on the commission upon the papers of the Tuileries; and in 1872 was nominated honorary librarian in the department of manuscripts in the Bibliothèque Nationale. He was for many years on the committee of the Société d'Histoire du Protestantisme Français, and prepared numerous works, noted for their accuracy. Among them may be mentioned: various notices in the *Bibliothèque de l'École des Chartes *(Paris, 1841-86); *Histoire générale de tous les dépôts d'archives existant en France *(1855); *Les Églises et monastères de Paris * (1856); an edition of the *Libri miraculorum aliaque opera minora *of Gregory of Tours, Latin text with French translation (4 vols., 1857-64); a French translation of the *Historia Francorum *of Gregory of Tours (2 vols., 1859-61); *Les Inventaires des archives de l'Empire *(1867); *Une Fabrique de faux autographes *(1869); *Chansonnier huguenot du seizième siècle *(1869); *L'Allemagne aux Tuileries, de 1850 à 1870, collection de documents tirés du cabinet de l'Empereur *(1872); *La Saint-Barthélemy et la critique moderne *(Geneva, 1879); *L'École historique de Jérôme Bolsec *(Paris, 1880); *Nicolas Castellin de Tournay, réfugié à Genève, 1564-1576 *(1881); *Description des peintures et autres ornements contenus dans les manuscrits grecs de la Bibliothèque Nationale *(1885). With E. Charton he published in 1860: *Histoire de France d'après les documents originaux et les monuments de l'art de chaque époque. * At the time of his death he was engaged upon a new and enlarged edition of the brothers Eugène and Émile Haag's *La France protestante *(originally 12 vols., Paris, 1845-59), and had brought out the first five volumes (1877-86).

**BOREEL,** bo"rêl', **ADAM:** Preacher and sectary; b. at Middelburg, in Zealand, 1603; d. in Amsterdam 1666. He was pastor of a Reformed congregation, but resigned his office, and became the leader of a separatistic party, which acknowledged no other religious authority than the Scripture. His work, *Ad legem et testimonium *(1645), attracted great attention. Here he developed that the written word of God, without any human commentary, was the sole means of awakening faith; that the Church had fallen completely away from the Lord; that the Christian ought to shun all connection with the Established Church, and confine himself to his private devotion, etc. His minor writings, fifteen in number, were collected at Amsterdam, 1683. His followers, known as Boreelists, never attained to much importance.

**BORNEMANN,** bor'ne-man, **FRIEDRICH WILHELM BERNHARD:** German Lutheran theologian; b. at Lüneburg (68 m. n.n.e. of Hanover) Mar. 2, 1858. He was educated at the universities of Göttingen (Ph.D., 1879) and Leipsic, and was successively tutor at Bremen (1879) and Medingen (1880). Two years later he became inspector of the seminary at Göttingen, and in 1884 was privat-docent for church history in the same university. In 1886 he was appointed inspector of the seminary for theological candidates at Magdeburg, where he became professor in the following year. From 1898 to 1902 he was professor of theology at Basel, and since the latter year has been pastor of the Luther Church at Frankfort. His works include *In investiganda monachatus origine quibus de causis ratio habenda sit Origenis *(Göttingen, 1886); *Die Unzulänglichkeit des theologischen Studiums *(Leipsic, 1886; anonymous); *Kirchenideale und Kirchenreformen *(1887); *Schulandachten *(Berlin, 1889); *Bittere Wahrheiten *(5th ed., Göttingen, 1891); *Unterricht im Christentum *(1891); *Die Thessalonicherbriefe * (1894; in *Kritisch-exegetischer Kommentar über das Neue Testament*); Historische und praktische Theologie (Basel, 1898); *Die Allegorie in Kunst, Wissenschaft und Kirche *(Freiburg, 1899); *Einführung in die evangelische Missionskunde *(Tübingen, 1902); and *Bete und Arbeite! *(Leipsic, 1904; a collection of sermons). He likewise translated the "Confessions" of St. Augustine (Gotha, 1889).

**BORNHAEUSER,** born-hoi'zer, **KARL BERNHARD:** German Lutheran; b. at Mannheim (43 m. s.w. of Frankfort) May 19, 1868. He was educated at the universities of Halle and Greifswald, and was pastor at Sinsheim (1890-94) and Carlsruhe (1894-1902). In 1902 he became associate professor of systematic and practical theology at Greifswald, and in 1905-06 was also assistant to the professor of practical theology at Halle. Became professor of systematic and practical theology at Marburg, 1907. He has written *Vergottungslehre des Athanasius und Johannes Damascenus *(Gütersloh, 1903); and *Wollte Jesus die Heidenmission? *(1903).

**BORNHOLMERS:** Danish sect of the nineteenth century. During the first part of the century different parts of Sweden were permeated with sects which emphasized the gospel of the free and unmerited grace of God in Christ. About 1805 the *Nya Läsare *("New Readers") originated in the congregation at Piteå in Norrbotten, deviating from the old *Läsare, *who adhered to the Lutheran doctrines, by asserting that saving faith may be found in those whose hearts are still attached to sin and the world, and by regarding the importance attributed to the law as a temptation to pharisaical self-righteousness. In the course of time this party, headed by a soldier named Erik Stalberg, broke with the State Church, and finally the "New Readers" declared that the ministers of the latter preached the doctrine of the devil. In the fifth decade of the century, the Finnish preacher Frederik Gabriel Hedberg, afterward provost and preacher at Kimito in the archbishopric of Abo, evolved similar views in a work on "Pietism and Christianity," in which he accused Spener and his followers of teaching that man must be holy and pure before he can rely on the unmerited grace in Christ, whereas Hedberg seems to have regarded man as a soul hungering for grace, but utterly unable to aid himself in the attainment of salvation. In 1846 a party of Hedbergians was formed at Stockholm and Helsingland which rejected all preaching of repentance. A like tendency was manifested by the sect headed by Karl Olof Rosenius (b. 1816; d. 1868), who had been greatly influenced by the Methodist George Scott, who labored in the Swedish capital. Rosenius, who sought to remain a true Lutheran throughout his life, emphasized the grace of God in Christ. His sermons and his magazine, which he entitled *Pietisten, *although he was opposed to the legalism of the Pietists, exercised an important influence on the religious life of Sweden. Hedbergianism and the writings of Rosenius gave rise between 1850 and 1870 to a new evangelical party in many parts of Sweden, whose sole dogma was the forgiveness of sins without merit of the sinner, and whose watchword, "the world is justified in Christ," won them many proselytes not only in Sweden and Norway, but also in the American Synod of Missouri. The new evangelism found a fertile soil in the Danish island of Bornholm (in the Baltic Sea, 90 m. e. of Zealand), which became the center of propaganda for a part of Denmark. The movement was inaugurated by P. C. Trandberg, a powerful preacher of repentance, who had broken with the State Church, and by 1863 had gathered about him almost a thousand followers. Trandberg sent out laypreachers, and the "Bornholmers," as they were called, were soon found in North Zealand, Copenhagen, Lolland, Falster, and West Jutland. His adherents gradually lost confidence in him, however, and in 1877 he resigned. Later he became professor in the Dano-Norwegian department of Chicago Theological Seminary and died in 1896. As a rule, the Bornholmers are pious and earnest, and their antinomistic theory usually becomes nomistic, and even quasipietistic in practise, thus forming a bond of union between them and the "Inner Mission" in Denmark, and making them one of the means to awaken spiritual life in many of the Danish people. F. NIELSEN.

**BOROWSKI,** bo-rov'skî, **LUDWIG ERNST VON:** A prominent Prussian evangelical preacher; b. at Königsberg June 17, 1740, of a well-to-do Polish family which had emigrated on account of its religion; d. in Berlin Nov. 10, 1831. In his fourteenth year he went to the University of Königsberg, where he was one of Kant's earliest pupils, practised oratory, and showed an inclination toward literature. His theological convictions were not influenced by Kant, despite a lasting personal devotion, but rather by the supernaturalist school. In 1758 Kant recommended him to General von Knobloch as a tutor in his family; but before long Field-marshal von Kunheim, impressed by Borowski's oratorical gifts, urged him to become a military chaplain. This career he finally took up in 1762, being ordained by Süsamilch, and joining his regiment in the camp at Sorau soon afterward. He remained with the army until 1770, when Süsamilch had him appointed superintendent of the district of Schaaken in East Prussia. Here he labored diligently for twelve years, until he was called to a pastoral charge in his native town. The development of his preaching powers and theological knowledge won him increasing prominence; in 1793 the king appointed him a member of the special commission on churches and schools, and he received the title of consistorial councilor in 1804. When the storms of war burst over Germany, he rose to the height of the occasion, and his eloquent exhortations had a deep effect on Frederick William III and his queen, who resided in Königsberg from 1807 to 1809. The king's warm affection and respect continued to be shown through the years that followed. In 1812 he made Borowski general superintendent, in 1815 first court preacher, in 1816 a bishop, and in 1829 archbishop of the Prussian Evangelical Church. These last years of his life, old as he was, were full of incessant activity; he was president of the Bible Society and of the Missionary Union founded in 1822. Outside of his preaching, however, he gave more thought to the training of his candidates for ordination than to anything else, and even in the wanderings of his last illness his mind was occupied with them. (HERMANN HERING.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: Selected sermons and lectures, with sketches of his activities by von Kahle and E. Oesterreich, were published by his grandson, K. L. Volkmann, Königsberg, 1833. Consult also *ADB, *iii, 177.

**BORRHAUS, MARTIN** (generally known as **CELLARIUS**): German theologian; b. at Stuttgart 1499; d. at Basel Oct. 11, 1564. Being educated and adopted by his kinsman Simon Cellarius, he called himself Cellarius until about forty years of age, although the name of his parents seems to have been Burress or Borrhus. In 1515 he was made *magister artium *at Tübingen, where he became intimately acquainted with Melanchthon, two years his senior. He was made bachelor of theology under Reuchlin at Ingolstadt in 1521, and became a friend of Marcus Stübner at Wittenberg. The eight sermons delivered by Luther after his return from the Wartburg impressed Cellarius deeply, but his zeal in defense of Stübner was such that he left Wittenberg, where he had treated Luther with rudeness, and went to Switzerland, whence he traveled by way of Austria and Poland to Prussia, which had just embraced the Evangelical faith. There he was tried, and required to sign a bond in which he promised to return at once to Wittenberg. His interview with Luther in 1526 filled the latter with respect for Cellarius, who now settled in southern Germany, winning the hearts of Capito and Butzer in Strasburg. In 1527 he published his first work, *De operibus Dei, *and in 1544 he was appointed professor of the Old Testament at Basel, where, in collaboration with Castello and Curio, he composed a polemical treatise under the name of Martin Bellius, directed against Calvin in the Servetus controversy. He rejected infant baptism, but was a firm believer in predestination. CARL ALBRECHT BERNOULLI. BIBLIOGRAPHY: *ADB, *iii (1876), 381; E. Egli, *Zwingliana, * i, 30-31, Zurich, 1904; C. Gerbert, *Geschichte der Strassburger Sektenbewegung zur Zeit der Reformation, 1524-34, * Strasburg, 1889. References will be found in the lives of the Reformers Luther, Melanchthon, Butzer, Zwingli.

**BORROMEO, CARLO:** Italian prelate and reformer; b. at Arona (on the s.w. shore of Lago Maggiore, 37 m. n.w. of Milan) Oct. 2, 1538; d. at Milan Nov. 3, 1584. He was the nephew of Giovanni Angelo Medici (afterward Pope Pius IV), and even in his boyhood showed an inclination for the priesthood, receiving his first benefice at the age of twelve through the resignation of an uncle. Four years later he went to Pavia, where he studied law, and had just taken his degree in 1559, when the newly elected Pius IV invited him to Rome. His rise was extraordinary, and at the age of twenty-two he was a cardinal and the archbishop of Milan. When the Council of Trent was reopened on Jan. 18, 1562, Borromeo used his influence in securing the sharp formulation of questions relating to discipline and faith. He also governed the Romagna and the March, both of which had been added to the papal dominions in the course of the fifteenth century. In foreign politics nothing took place without him and he was also an active member of the Congregation of the Inquisition, besides being the protector of the Franciscans, the Knights of Malta, and the Carmelites. He could maintain such an activity, however, only while he lived at Rome; conforming to the decision of the Council which required all bishops to reside in their own dioceses, he removed to Milan, where he had already prepared a house for the Jesuits, who acted as his instruments in reorganizing his diocese of Milan. Borromeo's activity here had scarcely begun when Pius IV died, but his successor Pius V assisted the archbishop in the reorganization of the largest of the Italian dioceses, which was to be a model for all. Borromeo founded seminaries for the better education of the clergy in the strictest ecclesiastical spirit, and also introduced rigid church discipline, beginning with the clergy; his efforts to popularize synodical work and to improve the existing orders, as well as his introduction of others, such as the Theatines, into Italy were all designed to further the same object. In revenge, some degenerate monks who had been affected by his reform, planned his murder, but by a miracle, as it was claimed, he escaped the bullet of his would-be assassins. Hand in hand with the reform within the Church went a merciless severity against every form of "heresy" in Lombardy, the Valtellina, and the Engadine, as well as against "witches" in Valcamonica. During the plague of 1576 he heroically cared for the sick and buried the dead, while the officials fled in terror from the city. His statue near Arona still recalls the memory of Borromeo, who became, by his canonization in 1610, the saint of the Counter reformation. K. BENRATH. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The *Opera omnia *appeared in Milan, 1747. The earlier biographies are antiquated by the works of A. Sala: *Documenti circa la vita e le opere di San C. Borromeo, *3 vols., Milan, 1857-61, and *Biografia di C. Borromeo, *ib. 1858; *The Life of St. Charles Borromeo, * ed. E. H. Thompson, London, 1858, new ed., 1893; *St. Charles and his Fellow Labourers, *ib. 1869; C. Sylvain, *Histoire de S. Charles Borromée, *3 vols., ib. 1884; C. Camenisch, *Carlo Borromeo und die Gegenreformation im Veltlin, *Chur, 1901; E. Wymann, *Der heilige Karl Borromeo, * Stans, 1903.

**BORROW, GEORGE (HENRY):** English adventurer and writer; b. at East Dereham (15 m. w.n.w. of Norwich), Norfolk, July 5, 1803; d. at Oulton (15 m. s.e. of Norwich), Suffolk, July 26, 1881. His boyhood was unsettled, his father, a soldier, moving about the country with his regiment. In 1819 he was articled to a solicitor at Norwich, but abandoned the work, went to London, and lived as a hack writer for the publishers. Then he took to wandering about England, and visited France, Spain, and Italy. In 1833 he was sent by the British and Foreign Bible Society to St. Petersburg to superintend the publication of a Manchu translation of the New Testament (published in eight volumes, 1835); he continued in the service of the Society, most of the time in Spain, till 1840. Then he married and adopted a more settled life in England. He had much aptitude for languages and acquired a knowledge, though not scientific, of many tongues, being particularly noted for his acquaintance with the Romany, the dialect of the Gipsies, with whom he associated much both on his wanderings and after his return to England. He published a Romany word-book (London, 1874), translations, and romances which tell the story of his life with more or less fiction interwoven. He edited a translation of the New Testament into Spanish (Madrid, 1837) and translated the Gospel of Luke into the dialect of the Gitanos (Spanish Gipsies; 1837) and into Basque (1838). Complete editions of his works were published in five volumes in London and New York. The best known of them are *The Zincali; or an Account of the Gipsies in Spain *(2 vols., London, 1841) and *The Bible in Spain *(3 vols., 1843). BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. I. Knapp, *The Life, Writings, and Correspondence of George Borrow, *2 vols., London, 1899; W. A. Dutt, *George Borrow in East Anglia, *ib. 1896; *DNB, * v, 407-408.

**BOSCHI,** bos'kî, **GIULIO:** Cardinal; b. at Perugia, Italy, Mar. 2, 1838. He was educated in his native city and completed his studies at Rome, where he became the secretary of Cardinal Pecci (afterward Pope Leo XIII) in 1861. In 1888 he was consecrated bishop of Todi, and seven years later was translated to the see of Sinigaglia. In 1900 he was elevated to the archbishopric of Ferrara, and in the following year was created cardinal priest of S. Lorenzo in Panisperna.

**BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA:** Two provinces of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Previous to the Treaty of Berlin (1878) they formed the extreme northwestern part of Turkey in Europe, but since 1908 they have been part of Austria. Bosnia has the Hungarian and Austrian provinces of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia on the north and west, Servia to the east, and to the south Herzegovina, which is bounded on the east by Montenegro and on the south and west by Dalmatia. The capital is Sarajevo in Bosnia, the chief town and former capital of Herzegovina, Mostar. The area is about 16,200 and 3,500 miles respectively; the population (1896) 1,591,036, of whom 219,511 are credited to Herzegovina. The natives are nearly all Slavs of the Servian branch. The number of foreigners living in the land is estimated at 71,000, most of them having entered the country since the Austrian occupation. The religious statistics for 1895 were as follows: Greek-Orientals, 673,246 (43 per cent.); Mohammedans, 548,632 (35 per cent.); Roman Catholics, 334,142 (21 per cent.); Jews, 8,213; other religions (mostly Protestants), 3,859. The Mohammedans, in the main converts from Christianity since the Turkish conquest in the fifteenth century, are not of the most rigid kind, although they made a brave stand against the Austrian government. They are the landed proprietors of the country and merchants in the towns. They are under the Sheik ul Islam in Constantinople and a Rais al Ulama in Sarajevo. They have a large endowment fund for mosques, schools, hospitals, and the like, which is now administered under government supervision. The free exercise of their religion is guaranteed to them. The Roman Catholics are descendants of the older population and constitute the larger number of the artisans in the cities and the farmers. They are most numerous in the districts of Travnik and Mostar. The Franciscans have been active among them since the thirteenth century and have done much for them. Their condition has much improved since the Austrian occupation. There is an archbishop of Bosnia, who since 1881 has resided at Sarajevo, and there are suffragan bishops of Banjaluka, Mostar and Duvno, and Marcana and Trebinje. The provincial seminary is at Banjaluka, where there are also four schools for boys and four for girls and an orphan asylum under the charge of Trappist monks. The adherents of the Greek Church are under the patriarch of Constantinople and the metropolitans of Sarajevo, Dolnja Tuzla, and Mostar. They are most numerous in the north, are farmers and traders, and are inferior to both the Latins and Mohammedans in education. Less than ten per cent. of the entire population can read or write, and the church schools are poor. Public schools are being established and there are three higher schools (two gymnasia and a *Realschule*), ten trade schools, and a normal school. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The church statistics are included in those for Austria. Consult: V. Klais, *Geschichte Bosniens bis zum Zerfall des Königreichs, *Leipsic, 1885; *Bosniens Gegenwart und nächste Zukunft, *Leipsic, 1886; *Die Lage der Mohammedaner in Bosnien, *Vienna, 1900 (answered by *Kallay und Bosnien-Herzegovina, *Budapest, 1900).

**BOSO:** Third English cardinal; d. after 1178. His name was Boso Breakspear and he was a nephew of Pope Adrian IV (Nicholas Breakspear). He belonged to the Benedictine monastery of St. Albans, but went to Rome probably under Eugenius III. From Nov. 6, 1149, to May 3, 1152, he calls himself *Romanæ ecclesiæ scriptor. *Adrian IV made him his chamberlain early in his pontificate, probably therefore in 1154, and later made him cardinal deacon of Sts. Cosmas and Damian; under Alexander III he became cardinal priest of St. Pudentiana. With the latter title his signature appears to a number of papal bulls from March 18, 1166, to July 10, 1178, soon after which he appears to have died. He was a strong supporter of the policy of Adrian and Alexander. He wrote nine poetical lives of female saints, which are still in manuscript and was a poet of considerable merit. For the papal biographies composed by him see LIBER PONTIFICALIS. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources for a life are in Thietmar of Merseburg, *Chronicon, MGH, Script., *iii (1839), 750. Consult Migne, *Encyclopédie théologique, *vol. xxxi, *Dictionnaire des Cardinaux, *s.v.; T. Greenwood, *Cathedra Petri, *London, 1856; *DNB, *v, 421; *KL, *ii, 1129-30. Consult also the biographies of Adrian IV and Alexander III.

**BOSSE, FRIEDRICH:** German Lutheran; b. at Rossla (38 m. w. of Halle) Aug. 23, 1864. He was educated at the universities of Tübingen, Berlin (Ph.D., 1886), Marburg, Heidelberg, and Greifswald, completing his studies in 1890. In the following year he became privat-docent at the University of Greifswald, and from 1892 to 1894 was provisional professor in Königsberg. In the latter year he was appointed associate professor of church history at Kiel, and five years later returned in a similar capacity to Greifswald, where he still remains. He has written *Prolegomena zu einer Geschichte des Begriffes "Nachfolge Christi" *(Berlin, 1895).

**BOSSUET,** bes"sü"ê', **JACQUES BÉNIGNE:** Bishop of Meaux (about 27 m. e.n.e. of Paris); b. at Dijon Sept. 27, 1627; d. in Paris Apr. 12, 1704. He began his studies in the Jesuit school of Dijon, and finished at the Collège de Navarre, Paris. He became priest and doctor of theology, 1652; after some time spent in retirement at St. Lazare, he went to Metz, where he was canon and archdeacon, acquired great fame as a preacher, and engaged in controversy with representatives of the Reformed Churches. At the request of his bishop he published his first work (1655), a *Réfutation *of the catechism of Paul Ferry. In 1669 he was made bishop of Condom, Gascony, but resigned this office after he was appointed tutor to the dauphin (1670). When the education of his pupil was finished, in 1681, he was made bishop of Meaux. Bossuet adopted the Cartesian philosophy, to which he added the Thomist theology and a great admiration for Augustine. He is generally considered the foremost of French preachers; and, in so far as the art of eloquence is concerned, his six *Oraisons funèbres *(best collected eds., by Lequeux, Paris, 1762, and, with notes, etc., by A. Gasté, 1883) must be ranked among the finest specimens of Christian oratory, though they reflect the splendor and greatness of Louis Quatorze more vividly than the power and humility of the Gospel. As tutor to the dauphin he wrote *De la connaissance de Dieu et de soi-même *(1722; better ed., 1741) and *Discours sur l'histoire universelle depuis le commencement du monde jusqu'à l'empire de Charlemagne * (1681; 5th ed., enlarged, 1703; the continuation to 1661, published 1806, was printed from his notes), the latter of which is a strikingly original attempt to construct a Christian philosophy of history on the principle that the destinies of nations are controlled by providence in the interest of the Roman Catholic Church. Among his controversial writings against the Protestants, the two most remarkable are *Exposition de la doctrine de l'Église catholique sur les matières de controverse *(1671) and *Histoire des variations des Églises protestantes *(2 vols., 1688; best ed., 4 vols., 1689). The latter was sharply criticized by Jurieu and Basnage, and involved its author in a long and vehement controversy. He characterized the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) as "le plus bel usage de l'autorité," but he was no ultramontanist. He presided in 1682 over the assembly of the French clergy which the king had convened to defend the royal prerogatives and the liberties of the Gallican Church against the claims of the pope. Nor was he in the least tainted by mysticism. His attacks on Fénelon and the Quietists approached very near to persecution. He was one of the greatest of the many distinguished men who lent brilliancy to the century of Louis XIV, but he was a representative of his time, and his ideas of church polity corresponded to, if they were not dictated by, the king's "l'état, c'est moi." BIBLIOGRAPHY: There have been many editions of his works; the basis of most of them is that prepared by the Abbé Pérau, at government expense, 20 vols., Paris, 1743-1750; three volumes of *Œuvres posthumes, *ed. by C. F. Leroy were published in 1753; the best edition is the *Œuvres complètes, *by F. Lechat and others, 31 vols., 1862-66; with appendix of *Œuvres inédites, *2 vols., 1881-1883. Besides many single sermons accessible in English translation, the following works may be mentioned: *Select Sermons and Funeral Orations, *1801; *A Survey of Universal History, *1819; *A Conference *[between Bossuet and J. Claude, Mar. 1, 1679] *on the Authority of the Church, * London, 1841; *An Exposition of the Doctrine of the Catholic Faith, * 1841; *Elevations to God, *1850; *The History of the Variations of the Protestant Churches, *2 vols., Dublin, 1836; *Meditations, *London, 1901. For a bibliography consult H. M. Bourseaud, *Histoire et description des MSS. et des éditions originales des ouvrages de Bossuet, *Paris 1898 (includes translations). For his life and writings and his relations to Fénelon, Jansenism, Quietism, etc., consult: L. F. de Bausset, *Histoire de Jacques Bénigne Bossuet, *4 vols., Paris, 1814, Besançon, 1846; M. M. Tabaraud, *Supplément aux histoires de Bossuet . . . composé par . . . de Bausset, *Paris, 1822; F. le Dieu (his secretary), *Mémoires et journal sur la vie et les ouvrages de Bossuet, *4 vols., ib. 1856-57; A. Réaume, *Histoire de J.-B. Bossuet et de ses œuvres, *3 vols., ib. 1869; Mrs. H. L. (Farrer) Lear, *Bossuet and his Contemporaries, *London, 1874; C A. Sainte-Beuve, *Essays on Men and Women, *ib. 1890; R. de la Broise, *Bossuet et la Bible, *Paris, 1891; G. Lanson, *Bossuet, *ib. 1891 (a study of the writings); A. Rébelliau, *Bossuet, historien du protestantisme, *ib. 1891; Sir J. F. Stephen, *Horæ Sabbaticæ, * vol. ii, London, 1892; C. E. Freppel, *Bossuet et l'éloquence sacrée au xvii, siècle, *Paris, 1893; J. Denis, *Querelle de Bossuet et de Fénelon, *ib. 1894; L. Crouslé, *Fénelon et Bossuet. Études morales et littéraires, *2 vols., ib. 1894-95; A. M. P. Ingold, *Bossuet et jansénisme, *ib. 1897.

**BOST, PAUL AMI ISAAC DAVID:** Swiss evangelist; b. at Geneva June 10, 1790; d. at La Force (6 m. w. of Bergerac), France, Dec. 14, 1874. He devoted four years to theology at the University of Geneva, but gained little spiritual profit from his studies, and was ordained in 1814 in a spirit of empty formalism. In 1816 he accepted a call as assistant pastor at Moutiers-Granval in the Canton of Bern, where he remained two years, ascribing to this period his firm belief in the doctrines of grace and justification. A parish proved too small for his energies, however, and in 1818, under the auspices of the "London Continental Society," he began the missionary journeys which were to occupy almost thirty-five years of his life. After the first of these trips, he withdrew from the Church of Geneva, and in the following year was in Colmar. He was expelled from France, however, and began a roving life, oppressed by poverty and burdened with a large family, yet preaching in Offenbach, Frankfort, Hanau, Friedrichsdorf, and Carlsruhe. In 1825-26 Bost was in Geneva as the pastor of the free church of Bourg-de-Four. In answer to the attacks of the State Church, he published his *Défense de ceux des fidèles de Genève qui se sont constitués en églises indépendantes *(Geneva, 1825), charging the national Church with abandoning the Gospel and adopting Arianism. He was accordingly tried for slander, but was acquitted, although he was fined 500 francs for his libelous statements regarding the "Compagnie des pasteurs." Despite the fact that this trial marked a union of the divergent elements of the Free Church, Bost resigned his pastorate at Bourg-de-Four and founded a new congregation at Carouge near Geneva, which he dissolved after two years in favor of a more diversified activity, establishing the religious and political magazine *L'Espérance *in 1838. Two years later he successfully sought readmission to the clergy of Geneva, without retracting any of his views. After a brief pastorate at Asnières and Bourges in France, he was appointed chaplain of the prison of the Maison Centrale at Melun, where he remained until 1848, then living successively at Geneva, Nîmes, Neuchâtel, Jersey, and Paris, and spending his last years at La Force. The chief works of Bost, who also gained a certain amount of reputation as a writer of hymns, are as follows: *Genève religieuse *(Geneva, 1819); *Histoire des frères moraves * (2 vols., 1831; abridged Eng. transl., London, 1834); *Sur la primauté de Pierre et son Épiscopat *(3 pamphlets, 1832); *Histoire générale de l'établissement du Christianisme *(a revised translation of Blumhardt's *Versuch einer allgemeinen Missionsgeschichte der Kirche Christi, *4 vols., Valence, 1838); *Les prophètes protestants *(Melun, 1847); and *Mémoires pouvant servir à l'histoire du réveil religieux *(Paris, 1854-55). (E. BARDE†.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Guers, *Premier réveil à Genève, *Paris, 1871; Lichtenberger, *ESR, *ii, 373-374.

**BOSTON, THOMAS:** Church of Scotland; b. at Dunse (13 m. w. of Berwick-upon-Tweed), Berwickshire, Mar. 17, 1677; d. at Ettrick (40 m. s. of Edinburgh), Selkirkshire, May 20, 1732. He studied at the University of Edinburgh; became minister at Simprin, Berwickshire, 1699; at Ettrick, 1707. By circulating the *Marrow of Modern Divinity *among his friends he started the Marrow Controversy. He wrote much and has exercised great influence in the Presbyterian Churches both of Scotland and England. The works by which he is now best known are *Human Nature in its Fourfold State of Primitive Integrity, Entire Depravation, Begun Recovery, and Consummate Happiness or Misery *(Edinburgh, 1720), commonly called "Boston's Fourfold State"; *The Sovereignty and Wisdom of God Displayed in the Afflictions of Men *(1737; reprinted as *The Crook in the Lot, *with memoir, Glasgow, 1863). He left an autobiography published as *Memoirs *(Edinburgh, 1776; ed. G. H. Morrison, 1899), and printed from Boston's manuscript, with introduction, notes, and bibliography by G. L. Low, under the title *General Account of my Life *(Edinburgh, 1907). His *Whole Works *edited by S. McMillan were published in twelve volumes at Aberdeen in 1848-52. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the autobiography mentioned above, consult: A. à Wood, *Athenæ Oxonienses, *ed. P. Bliss, iii, 407-409, 4 vols., Oxford, London, 1813-20; Jean L. Watson, *Life and Times of Thomas Boston, *Edinburgh, 1883; A. Thomson, *Thomas Boston, *London, 1895; *DNB, *v, 424-426.

**BOTTOME, MARGARET (McDONALD):** Founder of the King's Daughters; b. in New York City Dec. 29, 1827; d. there Nov. 14, 1906. She was educated at a private school in Brooklyn, and in 1850 married the Rev. Frank Bottome. She had already become interested in religious and philanthropic work, and in 1876 began to give Bible talks in the homes of prominent New York women, continuing them for twenty-five years. In 1886 she organized the order of King's Daughters, basing her system on Edward Everett Hale's *Ten Times One is Ten. *In the following year the society was enlarged to include men, and the name was changed to the present International Order of the King's Daughters and Sons. In 1896 she was elected president of the women's branch of the International Medical Mission. She was also an associate editor of the *The Ladies' Home Journal, * and in addition to a few pamphlets and a large number of contributions to religious magazines wrote *The Guest Chamber *(New York, 1893); *Crumbs from the King's Table *(1894); and *A Sunshine Trip to the Orient *(1897).

**BOUDINOT,** bu"dî"no', **ELIAS:** American man of affairs and philanthropist; b. at Philadelphia May 2, 1740; d. at Burlington, N. J., Oct. 24, 1821. He was a lawyer and eminent in his profession; represented New Jersey in the Continental Congress 1778-79 and 1781-84, was chosen president in 1782, and, as such, signed the treaty of peace with Great Britain; he was member of the first three national congresses, and director of the United States mint 1795-1805. He was a member of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (1812-21), and first president of the American Bible Society (1816-21). He was wealthy and gave liberally for philanthropic purposes during his life and in his will. He wrote *The Age of Revelation; or the age of reason shown to be an age of infidelity *(Philadelphia, 1801), in reply to Thomas Paine; *The Second Advent or Coming of the Messiah in Glory shown to be a scriptural doctrine and taught by divine revelation *(Trenton, N. J., 1815); and *A Star in the West; or a humble attempt to discover the long lost tribes of Israel *(1816), in which he advocated the view that the American Indians are the ten lost tribes. He also published anonymously in the *Evangelical Intelligencer *for 1806 a memoir of William Tennent (reprinted New York, 1847). His *Journal or Historical Recollections of American Events during the Revolutionary War *was printed at Philadelphia in 1894. BIBLIOGRAPHY: *The Life, Public Services, Addresses, and Letters of Elias Boudinot, *edited by Jane J. Boudinot, 2 vols., Boston, 1896.

**BOUHOURS,** bu"hür', **DOMINIQUE:** Jesuit; b. in Paris May 15, 1628; d. there May 27, 1702. He entered the Society of Jesus at sixteen, and acquired such renown as a teacher that the young Longueville princes and the son of Colbert were put under his care. Besides a number of biographical and other works, he made (with two other Jesuits, Tellier and Bernier) a translation of the New Testament from the Vulgate into French (Paris, 1697-1703).

**BOUQUET,** bu"kê', **MARTIN:** Benedictine of St. Maur; b. at Amiens Aug. 6, 1685, d. in Paris Apr. 6, 1754. He entered the Benedictine order at St. Faron, Meaux, in 1706, and was ordained priest. His knowledge of Hebrew and Greek secured his appointment as special assistant to Montfaucon in his editorial labors. When the great edition of the *Scriptores rerum Gallicarum et Francicarum *came to be made (it had been projected by Colbert as early as 1676, and was entrusted to the Benedictines of St. Maur in 1723), he was placed in charge of it. Difficulties were encountered owing to his opposition to the bull *Unigenitus, * which caused the king to banish him from Paris; but he succeeded in preparing the first eight volumes for publication (1738-52). Other members of the congregation brought out five more after his death (1757-86). Interrupted by the Revolution, the work was taken up again by the Institute, and later by the Academy of Inscriptions, by whom ten more volumes were published in the nineteenth century.

**BOUQUIN,** bu"kan', **PIERRE (PETRUS BOQUINUS):** French Calvinist; b. either in the province of Saintonge or in that of Guienne; d. at Lausanne 1582. The first certain date in his life is his taking the degree of doctor of theology at the university of Bourges Apr. 23, 1539. He was a Carmelite monk at Bourges and rose to be prior; but, embracing the Reformation, he left his monastery in 1541 and went first to Basel, then to Leipsic and Wittenberg, where he had letters to Luther and Melanchthon. The latter recommended him to Butzer when a theologian was required to continue the lectures which Calvin had delivered in Strasburg. Here he began to lecture on Galatians in September, 1542. Later he returned to Bourges, where he lectured on Hebrew and the Scriptures, gaining protection and a pension from Margaret of Navarre, and being allowed by the archbishop to preach in the cathedral. The Protestant leaders, Calvin, Farel, and Beza, seem to have suspected him of intending to desert the Reformation; but his teaching brought him again into conflict with the Roman authorities, and he left Bourges once more for Strasburg in 1555. Here he remained until the elector Otto Henry appointed him in 1557 to a provisional professorship in the University of Heidelberg, which was made permanent the next year. In the internal dissensions of Protestantism he took an increasingly decided Calvinistic stand, and in the reign of Frederick III was thus the only Heidelberg theologian to retain his position, and was made head of the faculty and a member of the new Reformed church council (1560). This period of prosperity ended, however, with the death of Frederick III, after which he was deprived of his position (1577), and became, a year later, professor and preacher at Lausanne. His numerous works are mainly polemical treatises against the Lutherans and Roman Catholics. (E. F. KARL MÜLLER.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: Biographical material is found in his *Brevis notatio . . . de cæna domini, *pp. 140-179, Heidelberg, 1582. Consult further: M. Adam, *Vitæ eruditorum, * ii, 72 sqq., Heidelberg, 1706; E. and É. Haag, *La France protestante, *ed. H. L. Bordier, ii, 875 sqq., Paris, 1879.

**BOURDALOUE,** bur"da"lu', **LOUIS:** Jesuit preacher; b. at Bourges Aug. 20, 1632; d. in Paris May 13, 1704. He was for some time a teacher in literature and philosophy; in 1665 he was sent to preach in the provinces, in 1669 was recalled to Paris; after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, he was sent to Languedoc to preach to the Protestants; his last years he devoted to the service of the poor and unfortunate in Paris. As a man he was justly esteemed and loved; as a preacher his strength is in the clearness of his argument, its readiness and its cogency. The first edition of his works was edited by Bretonneau (16 vols., Paris, 1707-34); a good recent edition is that of Lille, 1882 (6 vols.). BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Pauthe, *Bourdaloue, d'après les documents nouveaux, *Paris, 1900; A. Feugère, *Bourdaloue, sa prédication et son temps, *ib. 1874; M. Lauras, *Bourdaloue, sa vie et ses œuvres, *2 vols., ib. 1881; E. de Ménorval, *Bourdaloue, *Paris, 1897; F. Castets, *La Vie et la prédication d'un religieux au xvii. siècle, *vol. i, Montpellier, 1901.

**BOURIGNON,** bu"rî"nyen', **DE LA PORTE, ANTOINETTE:** Fanatical enthusiast; b. at Ryssel (Lille), then in the Spanish Netherlands, Jan. 13, 1616; d. at Franeker, Friesland, Oct. 30, 1680. She grew up neglected and solitary on account of a facial deformity, afterward removed by an operation, and came to love isolation and communion with God. For a time her older sister drew her into the world; but she shrank from marriage, and once thought she heard the voice of God asking her, "Canst thou find a lover more perfect than I?" She thought of becoming a Carmelite, but concluded that the true Christians were not to be found in the cloisters, and sought another way to leave the world. Her father tried to force a marriage upon her in 1636; she fled in a male disguise, and after many romantic adventures was brought home, but took refuge at Mons under the protection of the archbishop. When her plans for founding an ascetic community on a primitive model were hindered, she went to Liége and made another unsuccessful attempt. On her father's death she brought suit against her stepmother for his entire property and won it. Now she fell under the influence of a doubtful friend of mysticism, Jean de St. Saulieu, who induced her to take charge of a home for orphan girls (1653), which she put under the Augustinian rule and made cloistered (1658). Her rule there came to an untoward end in 1662, when she took flight under serious accusations of cruelty. She went first to Ghent and then to Mechlin, where she found an adherent in the superior of the Oratorians, Christian de Cort. Soon she developed a fantastical system, based on alleged revelations. As the "woman clothed with the sun" of the Apocalypse, she was to revive the teachings of the Gospel and gather her spiritual children around her into a communistic, priestless brotherhood; she was the second revelation of the Son of Man on earth. The books which Antoinette now began to publish contain the bitterest condemnation of the Roman Catholic Church, reject infant baptism, and the Trinity was exchanged for a sacred triad of truth, mercy, and justice. She had dealings with the Jansenists, but rejected their teaching on predestination. In 1667, with De Cort, she went to Amsterdam and lived for a while in the happy exchange of views with the most various heretics and fanatics. The following years are occupied with the history of the attempt to find a home for her elect on the island of Nordstrand in the North Sea, which De Cort had discovered as the destined place. His financial troubles, which make up a large part of the story, ended only with his imprisonment at Amsterdam and his death in 1669. Antoinette, as his heir, was for several years more much occupied with courts of justice, not without danger of imprisonment, and went from Amsterdam to Haarlem, thence to Sleswick, and finally to Husum to be as near as possible to Nordstrand. Here she might have been left in peace if she would have given up her claims. But she set up a printing-press and carried on the liveliest literary controversy, until her press was confiscated by the government. So her story proceeds, amid quaint and vivid details too numerous to give here, until she is found at Hamburg in 1679 formally charged with sorcery by a former adherent, an eccentric colonel of artillery named La Coste. She fled to escape arrest, and remained in hiding until her death the next year. The points of her quietistic mysticism need no discussion; for herself the important one was her own position as bride of the Holy Ghost and channel of revelation. Though she was probably more of an adventuress than even an enthusiast or an insane woman, the solemn prophetic tone of her visions and divine messages continued for some time to attract readers who believed in her inspiration; but her community seems to have been entirely scattered at her death. (G. KAWERAU.) Antoinette had many followers in Scotland, more, it is said, than in any other country. Prominent among them were the Rev. James Garden (1647-1726), who rose to be professor of divinity at King's College, Aberdeen, and was deprived in 1696 because he had refused to sign the Westminster Confession of Faith, and his younger brother, Rev. George Garden (1649-1733), who after being one of the ministers of St. Nicholas, the town parish of Aberdeen, was "laid aside" by the privy council in 1692 because he refused to pray for William and Mary and in 1701 was deposed from the ministry because he had advocated Bourignonianism in his book, *An Apology for M. Antonia Bourignon *(1699), a reply to books by his brother-in-law, the Rev. John Cockburn (1652-1729), entitled *Bourignianism Detected; or, the Delusions and Errors of A. Bourignon and her Growing Sect. Narrative i. *(London, 1698), *Narrative ii. *(1698), and *A Letter to his Friend giving an account why the other Narratives about Bourignianism are not yet published, and answering some Reflections passed upon the first *(1698). The General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1701, 1709, and 1710 passed deliverances against Bourignonians in which their views are thus described: I. They denied (1) the divine permission of sin and that divine vengeance and eternal damnation were inflicted upon it; (2) the decrees of election and reprobation; and (3) the doctrine of the divine foreknowledge. II. They asserted (1) that Christ had a twofold human nature, one produced of Adam before the woman was formed, and the other born of the Virgin Mary; (2) that in each soul before birth are a good and an evil spirit; (3) that the will is absolutely free, and there is in man some infinite quality which makes it possible for him to unite himself to God; (4) that Christ's nature was sinfully corrupt, so that by nature he was rebellious to the will of God; (5) that perfection may be attained in this life; and (6) that children are born in heaven. Notwithstanding these deliverances, the views of Antoinette Bourignon continued to exist in Scotland and in 1711 Bourignonianism was put among the heresies which candidates for the ministry were required formally to disown when applying for ordination. BIBLIOGRAPHY: An edition of the works of Antoinette Bourignon was published in 19 vols., at Amsterdam, 1680-86. She wrote two accounts of her life: *La Parole de Dieu, ou sa vie intérieure *(1634-63), Mechlin, 1663; and *La Vie extérieure *(1616-61), Amsterdam, 1668. These were continued by her disciple, Pierre Poiret, in *Sa vie continuée, reprise depuis sa naissance et suivie jusqu'à sa mort, *appended to a later edition of the preceding. Her autobiography in Eng. transl. under the title *The Light of the World; a Most True Relation of a Pilgrimess Travelling Towards Eternity, *3 parts, London, 1696, reprinted, ib. 1863; abridged, ib. 1786. Consult especially A. van der Linde, *Antoinette Bourignon, Das Licht der Welt, *Leyden, 1895 (cf. on this G. Kawerau, in *GGA, *1895, pp. 428 sqq.).

**BOURNE, FRANCIS:** Roman Catholic archbishop of Westminster; b. at Clapham (a suburb of London) Mar. 23, 1861. He was educated at St. Cuthbert's College, Ushaw (1869-75), St. Edmund's, Ware (1875-80), St. Thomas's Seminary, Hammersmith (1880-81), St. Sulpice, Paris (1881-1883), and the University of Louvain (1883-84). He was ordained to the priesthood in 1884, and after serving as assistant at Blackheath, Mortlake, and West Grinstead for five years, was appointed rector of Southwark Diocesan Seminary, holding this position until 1898, also acting for several years as professor of moral theology and Holy Scripture. He was named domestic prelate to the pope in 1895, and in the following year was consecrated titular bishop of Epiphania and coadjutor to the bishop of Southwark. He was bishop of Southwark from 1897 to 1903, and since the latter year has been archbishop of Westminster. He practically refounded St. John's Seminary at Wonersh, and has been most active in movements for social reform in the diocese of Southwark. He represented the Roman Catholics of England at the St. Augustine celebrations at Arles in 1897, as well as the English Roman Catholic bishops at Autun in 1899, and led the English pilgrims to Lourdes in 1902.

**BOURNE, HUGH.** See METHODISTS, I, 4.

**BOUSSET,** bu"set', **JOHANN FRANZ WILHELM:** German Protestant; b. at Lübeck Sept. 3, 1865. He was educated at Erlangen, Leipsic, and Göttingen (Th.Lic., 1890) and became privat-docent at the latter university in 1890, being made associate professor of New Testament exegesis six years later. Theologically he belongs to the liberal historical school. In addition to minor contributions, he has written *Evangeliencitate Justins des Märtyrers *(Göttingen, 1891); *Jesu Predigt im Gegensatz zum Judentum *(1892); *Textkritische Studien * (Leipsic, 1894); *Antichrist *(Göttingen, 1895; Eng. transl. by A. H. Keane, London, 1896); *Kommentar zur Offenbarung des Johannes *(in the *Kritisch-exegetischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament, * 1896); *Religion des Judentums im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter *(Berlin, 1903; 2d ed., 1906); *Das Wesen der Religion *(Halle, 1903); *Was wissen wir von Jesus? *(1904); *Jesus *(Halle, 1904; Eng. transl., London, 1906); and *Erklärung des Galater- und ersten und zweiten Korintherbriefes, *in J. Weiss's *Schriften des Neuen Testaments neu übersetzt *(Göttingen, 1905). Since 1897 he has edited the *Theologische Rundschau * in collaboration with W. Heitmüller, and the *Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments *in collaboration with H. Gunkel since 1903.

**BOUTHILLIER,** bu"tîl"lyê', **DE RANCÉ, ARMAND JEAN LE.** See TRAPPISTS.

**BOWEN, GEORGE:** Methodist Episcopal foreign missionary; b. at Middlebury, Vt., April 30, 1816; d. in Bombay, India, Feb. 5, 1888. He was graduated at Union Theological Seminary, New York City, in 1847; was ordained by the presbytery of New York, and the same year went to Bombay under the American Board. He spent the rest of his life in that city, but severed his connection with the American Board in 1855 and was an independent missionary till 1872 when he connected himself with the Methodist Episcopal missionary society. He edited the Bombay *Guardian *from 1854 on; and was also the secretary of the Religious Tract Society of Bombay. By the volumes which have been made up from his writings he has helped many spiritually. They are: *Daily Meditations * (Philadelphia, 1865); *Discussions by the Seaside * (Bombay, 1857); *Love revealed. Meditations on the parting words of Jesus with his disciples in John xiii. to xvii. *(Philadelphia, 1872); *Verily, Verily. The Amens of Christ *(1879).

**BOWEN, JOHN WESLEY EDWARD:** Methodist Episcopalian; b. at New Orleans, La., Dec. 3, 1855. He was educated at the University of New Orleans (B.A., 1878) and Boston University (Ph.D., 1887). After acting as professor of ancient languages at Central Tennessee College, Nashville, Tenn., from 1878 to 1882, he held successive pastorates at Boston (1882-85), Newark, N. J. (1885-1888), and Baltimore and Washington (1888-92), while during the latter incumbency he was likewise professor of church history and systematic theology in Morgan College, Baltimore, and also professor of Hebrew in Howard University, Washington, in 1891-92. Since 1893 he has been president and professor of historical theology in Gammon Theological Seminary, Atlanta, Ga. He was a member and examiner of the American Institute of Sacred Literature in 1889-93, as well as secretary and librarian of the Stewart Missionary Foundation for Africa. He was likewise a member of the general conferences of 1896, 1900, and 1904, and from 1892 to 1900 was a member of the board of control of the Epworth League. He is the editor of *The Voice of the Negro, *and the *Stewart Missionary Magazine, *and has written *National Sermons, Africa and the American Negro *(Philadelphia, 1891); *University Addresses *(Atlanta, 1895); *Discussions in Philosophy and Theology *(1895); and *The United Negro *(1902).

**BOWER, ARCHIBALD:** Professed convert from Roman Catholicism to Protestantism; b. at Dundee Jan. 17, 1686; d. in London Sept. 3, 1766. He was educated at Douai, went to Italy, became a Jesuit 1706, and in 1723 was made a counselor of the Inquisition at Macerata, Italy. In 1726 he fled secretly to England, and, after some years, joined the Established Church; he gained influential patrons, who procured him employment in literary work and teaching. In 1745 he was readmitted into the Society of Jesus, but, after two years, again professed to leave the Church of Rome. His principal publication was the *History of the Popes *(7 vols., London, 1748-66; reprinted with a continuation by S. H. Cox, 3 vols., Philadelphia, 1844-45), which was attacked by Alban Butler and John Douglas as a mere translation of Tillemont and earlier writers without proper acknowledgment. Bower's character for virtue as well as veracity is not above suspicion. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The *DNB, *vi, 48-51, furnishes a succinct account of his life and the charges against him, with a list of literature upon him.

**BOWMAN, THOMAS:** The name of two contemporary American bishops. 1. Methodist Episcopal bishop; b. at Berwick, Pa., July 15, 1817. He was educated at Dickinson College (B.A., 1837), and two years later entered the Baltimore conference of the Methodist ministry. He taught in the grammar-school of Dickinson College in 1840-43, and five years later founded Dickinson Seminary, Williamsport, Pa., of which he was the president until 1858, when he was chosen president of Asbury (now De Pauw) University, Greencastle, Ind. In 1864-1865 he was also chaplain of the United States Senate. He resigned the presidency of Asbury University in 1872, when he was elected bishop, and since that time has officially visited all the conferences of his denomination in the United States, Europe, India, China, Japan, and Mexico. 2. Bishop of the Evangelical Association; b. in Lehigh township, Northampton County, Pa., May 28, 1836. He studied at the Vanderveers Seminary, Easton, Pa., and entered the ministry of the Evangelical Association. He was pastor in the eastern Pennsylvania conference 1859-75, and was presiding elder of the same conference 1870-75. He has been a bishop since 1875, and since 1896 principal of the Union Biblical Institute at Naperville, Ill., which is the theological seminary of the Evangelical Association. He characterizes his theological position as "Arminian-evangelical." He has published a revision of the catechism of his Church, also an account of the disturbance in the Evangelical Association.

**BOWNE, BORDEN PARKER:** American educator; b. at Leonardville, N. J., Jan. 14, 1847. Died at Brookline, Mass., Apr. 1, 1910. He was educated at the University of New York (B.A., 1871), and studied at Halle, Göttingen, and Paris. From 1876 he was professor of philosophy at Boston University. He was chairman of the Philosophical Department at the St. Louis World's Fair in 1904 and an honorary member of the Imperial Education Society of Japan. His writings are: *The Philosophy of Herbert Spencer *(New York, 1874); *Studies in Theism *(1879); *Metaphysics *(1882); *Philosophy of Theism *(1887); *Introduction to Psychological Theory *(1887); *Principles of Ethics * (1892); *Theory of Thought and Knowledge *(1897); *The Christian Revelation *(Cincinnati, 1898); *The Christian Life *(1899); *The Atonement *(1900); *Theism *(Deems lectures for 1902; New York, 1902); and *The Immanence of God *(Boston, 1905).

**BOWRING, SIR JOHN:** English Unitarian; b. at Exeter Oct. 17, 1792; d. there Nov. 23, 1872. He served his country as member of Parliament (1835-37 and 1841-49), in the public service in China and the Far East (1849-59), and as member of various governmental commissions; he was an ardent Utilitarian and first editor of the *Westminster Review *(1825). He was a remarkable linguist and an enthusiastic student of literature. His writings relate to public affairs, give the results of his travels, and include numerous translations, particularly of the popular poetry of Eastern Europe; he edited the works of Jeremy Bentham with biography (11 vols., London, 1838-43). He is mentioned here for his hymns, many of which are in general use, as "God is love, his mercy brightens," "From the recesses of a lowly spirit," "In the cross of Christ I glory," "Watchman, tell us of the night," "We can not always trace the way," and others. BIBLIOGRAPHY: *Autobiographical Recollections, with Memoir * by [his son] Lewin Bowring, London, 1877; *DNB, *vi, 76-80; S. W. Duffield, *English Hymns, *pp. 263-263, New York, 1886; J. Julian, *Dictionary of Hymnology, *pp. 166-167, London, 1907.

**BOY-BISHOP:** A popular custom of the Middle Ages to provide a diversion for the boys of a church or cathedral choir or school, and to reward the most deserving. One of the number was chosen "bishop," most commonly on St. Nicholas's day (Dec. 6), and in episcopal dress and attended by his fellows as priests, he went through the streets bestowing his blessing. Often he entered into the church and conducted some part of the service, at times delivering a sermon, prepared for the purpose by an older head (cf. the *Concio de puero Jesu *of Erasmus, edited by S. Bentley, London, 1816, which was spoken by a boy of St. Paul's School, London, on such an occasion). The boys occupied the seats of the clergy while the latter sat in the lowest places. In some localities the game lasted from St. Nicholas's day until Holy Innocents' day (Dec. 28). It was very popular in England, where it was observed not only in the churches and schools, but at the court and in the castles of the nobility; the boys were called "St. Nicholas's clerks." The custom was forbidden in 1542 but was restored under Mary. It was also common in France, although repeatedly forbidden there (by the papal legate, 1198; the synods of Paris 1212, Cognac 1260, Nantes 1431; the chapter of Troyes 1445). In some places, as Reims and Mainz, it lasted till the eighteenth century. See FOOLS, FEAST OF, and consult the works mentioned in the bibliography of that article.

**BOYCE, JAMES PETIGRU:** American Baptist; b. at Charleston, S. C., Jan. 11, 1827; d. at Pau, France, Dec. 28, 1888. He was graduated at Brown University 1847; studied theology at Princeton Theological Seminary, 1849-51; became pastor of the Baptist church at Columbia, S. C., 1851; professor of theology in Furman University, Greenville, S. C., 1855; chairman of the faculty, and professor of systematic theology in the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, opened at the same place in 1859. He was opposed to secession, but went with his State into the Civil War; was chaplain of the Sixteenth South Carolina volunteers 1861-62; member of the legislature 1862-65; of the State council and on the staff of Gov. A. G. Magrath 1864-65; member of the State convention for reconstruction 1865. At the close of the war he returned to his duties in the seminary, reopened it and reestablished it with much labor, and made considerable contributions to its support from his own means. In 1872 he was transferred to the chair of church government and pastoral duties, but was absent much of the time for the next few years arranging for the removal of the seminary to Louisville, Ky., which was accomplished in 1877. In 1887 he returned to his old department of systematic theology. He was president of the Southern Baptist Convention 1872-79 and in 1888. Besides sermons, speeches, and articles he published *Three Changes in Theological Education * (Greenville, 1856); *A Brief Catechism of Bible Doctrine *(Memphis, 1872); *An Abstract of Theology *(Louisville, 1882; rev. and enlarged ed., Baltimore, 1887; rev. and annotated by F. H. Kerfoot, Philadelphia, 1898). BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. Broadus, *Memoir of James Petigru Boyce, *New York, 1893.

**BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON:** Established Church of Scotland; b. at Auchinleck (28 m. s. of Glasgow), Ayrshire, Nov. 3, 1825; d. at Bournemouth, Hampshire, England, Mar. 1, 1899. He studied at King's College and the Middle Temple, London, and at the University of Glasgow (B.A., Glasgow, 1846); was ordained minister of Newton-on-Ayr 1851; minister of Kirkpatrick-Irongray, near Dumfries, 1854-59; of St. Bernard's, Edinburgh, 1859-65; first minister of the city of St. Andrews from 1865. He won distinction both as a clergyman and a writer (over the signature A. K. H. B., and the *sobriquet *"The Country Parson"), and was perhaps the most widely known minister of the Scottish Church. In 1866 he was made chairman of a committee to prepare a new collection of hymns and filled the place with much judgment and tact. He was moderator of the General Assembly in 1890. The most notable of his many books were *Recreations of a Country Parson *(3 series, London, 1859-78); *Leisure Hours in Town *(1862); *Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson *(3 series, 1862-75); *The Commonplace Philosopher in Town and Country *(1862-64); *Counsel and Comfort Spoken from a City Pulpit * (1863); *The Autumn Holidays of a Country Parson * (1864); *Critical Essays of a Country Parson *(1865); *Sunday Afternoons in the Parish Church of a University City *(1866); *Lessons of Middle Age *(1867); *Changed Aspects of Unchanged Truths *(1869); *Present Day Thoughts *(1870); *Seaside Musings * (1872); *A Scotch Communion Sunday *(1873); *Landscapes, Churches, and Moralities *(1874); *From a Quiet Place *(1879); *Our Little Life *(2 series, 1881-84); *Towards the Sunset, Teachings after Thirty Years *(1882); *What Set him Right, with other chapters to help *(1885); *Our Homely Comedy and Tragedy *(1887); *The Best Last, with other papers *(1888); *To Meet the Day through the Christian Year *(1889); *East Coast Days and Memories * (1889); *Twenty-five Years of St. Andrews *(2 vols., 1892), autobiographical reminiscences, continued in *St. Andrews and Elsewhere *(1894), and *Last Years of St. Andrews *(1896). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult, besides the autobiographical sketches mentioned above: A. Lang, in *Longman's Magazine, * May, 1899; *DNB, *supplement vol. i, 244-245.

**BOYLE, ROBERT, AND THE BOYLE LECTURES:** Robert Boyle was born at Lismore Castle (30 m. n.e. of Cork), Waterford, Ireland, Jan. 25, 1627, son of Richard Boyle, earl of Cork; d. in London Dec. 30, 1691. He studied at Eton and (1638-44) at Geneva and elsewhere on the Continent; on his return to England he lived at first on his estate, Stalbridge, Dorsetshire, after 1654 in Oxford, and after 1668 in London. As a scientist he holds a high rank and has been considered the heir to both the methods and abilities of Francis Bacon. He was one of the founders of the Royal Society (1662), and was constantly engaged in investigations which resulted in numerous publications. He wrote many theological, moral, and religious essays, gave freely for the translation of the Bible into various languages, and was liberal in private charity. He was governor of the Corporation for the Spread of the Gospel in New England (see ELIOT, JOHN). In his will he left an endowment of £50 annually for the Boyle Lectures, a series of 8 sermons, to be delivered each year in some church, against unbelievers. For the lectures St. Paul's was used in 1699 and 1701, the parish church of St. Mary le Bow 1711-1805, Westminster Abbey 1852-53, the Chapel Royal, Whitehall, 1864-85, while the lectures of 1903-05 were delivered in the Church of St. Edmund, Lombard St. The first course was given by Richard Bentley (1692); his successors have included some of England's most prominent theologians. A selection from the sermons was published by Gilbert Burnet, vicar of Coggeshall, in 4 vols., London, 1737. A partial list of the published Boyle Lectures down to 1892-93 is given in J. F. Hurst, *Literature of Theology *(New York, 1896). Since then there have been published the lectures for 1895, W. C. E. Newbolt, *The Gospel of Experience * (London, 1896), and for 1903-05 by R. J. Knowling, *The Testimony of St. Paul to Christ * (London, 1905). Boyle's complete works with life were published by Thomas Birch (5 vols., London, 1744; 2d ed., 6 vols., 1772). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Aside from the life by Birch there are available: A. à Wood. *Athenæ Oxonienses, *ed. P. Bliss, ii, 286, 4 vols., London, 1813-20; A. C. Brown, *Development of the Idea of Chemical Composition, *pp. 9-14, Edinburgh, 1869; *DNB, *vi, 118-123.

**BRACE, CHARLES LORING: **American philanthropist; b. at Litchfield, Conn., June 19, 1826; d. at Campfer in the Engadine, Switzerland, Aug. 11, 1890. He was graduated at Yale 1846; studied at the Yale Divinity School 1847-48 and at Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1848-1849; traveled and studied in Europe for two years; in 1853 he became first secretary and executive agent of the Children's Aid Society of New York, and remained such till his death. He planned and developed the work and supported it in the earlier days with much self-sacrificing labor; industrial and night schools were established, lodging-houses provided for newsboys and for girls, reading-rooms opened, summer charities instituted, and nearly 100,000 boys and girls were assisted to new homes and occupations with healthful and moral surroundings. By thus removing incipient criminals a marked diminution in juvenile crime was shown in the police reports of New York. The history of the work was given by Mr. Brace in his annual reports and in his two books, *Short Sermons to Newsboys, with a history of the formation of the Newsboys' Lodging House * (New York, 1866); and *The Dangerous Classes of New York, and twenty years' work among them * (1872; enlarged ed., 1880). He published several works of travel of a popular character such as *Home Life in Germany *(1853); *The New West * (1869); and as results of considerable thinking and study, *Gesta Christi, a history of humane progress under Christianity *(1882; 4th ed., 1884); and *The Unknown God, or inspiration among pre-Christian races *(1890). BIBLIOGRAPHY: *C. L. Brace, His Life, chiefly told in his own Letters, *edited by his daughter, Emma Brace, New York, 1894.

**BRACKMANN, ALBERT:** German Protestant historian; b. at Hanover June 24, 1871. He was educated at the universities of Tübingen, Leipsic, and Göttingen, and occupies the position of associate professor of history at the University of Marburg. He is a collaborator of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Göttingen for the publication of early papal documents, and in addition to a number of contributions to historical periodicals has written: *Urkundliche Geschichte des Halberstädter Domkapitels im Mittelalter * (Wernigerode, 1898).

**BRADFORD, AMORY HOWE:** American Congregationalist; b. at Granby, N. Y., Apr. 14, 1846. He was educated at Genesee College, Hamilton College (B.A., 1867), Andover Theological Seminary (1870), and Oxford University. Since 1870 he has been pastor of the First Congregational Church, Montclair, N. J. He was associate editor of *The Outlook *from 1894 to 1901, member of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions deputation to Japan in 1895, and moderator of the National Council of Congregational Churches in 1901-04. He is also first secretary and second president of the American Institute of Christian Philosophy, and was elected president of the American Missionary Association in 1904. He was Southworth Lecturer at Andover Theological Seminary in 1902-03 and George Sheppard Lecturer at Bangor Theological Seminary in 1906. In theology he is a liberal evangelical. He has written *Spirit and Life *(New York, 1888); *Old Wine, New Bottles *(1892); *The Pilgrim in Old England *(1893); *Heredity and Christian Problems * (1895); *The Growing Revelation *(1897); *The Sistine Madonna *(1897); *The Holy Family *(1899); *The Art of Living Alone *(1899); *The Return to Christ *(1900); *The Age of Faith *(Boston, 1900); *Spiritual Lessons from the Brownings *(New York, 1900); *Messages of the Masters *(1902); *The Ascent of the Soul *(1905); and *The Inward Light *(1905).

**BRADFORD, JOHN:** Church of England Protestant martyr; b. at Manchester about 1510; burned at Smithfield July 1, 1555. He was in the service of Sir John Harrington, the king's paymaster in France; began to study law in the Temple 1547, but the next year turned to divinity and entered St. Catherine's Hall, Cambridge (M.A., by special grace, 1549); was elected fellow of Pembroke Hall 1549; became prebendary of Kentish Town in the church of St. Paul, 1551; was chaplain to Bishop Ridley, in 1552 one of the king's six chaplains in ordinary, and preached in many localities with great fervor and earnestness. In August, 1553 (six weeks after the accession of Mary), he was arrested on the charge of preaching seditious sermons and committed to the Tower; he was examined before Bishops Gardiner, Bonner, and others in January, 1555, and condemned as a heretic. His writings (chiefly sermons, letters, and devotional pieces) were edited for the Parker Society by Aubrey Townsend (2 vols., Cambridge, 1848-53). BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Stephens, *Memoirs of John Bradford, * London, 1832; *The Life of John Bradford, *vol. iii of *Library of Christian Biography, *London, 1855; *DNB, *vi, 157-159.

**BRADLAUGH, CHARLES:** English freethought advocate and politician; b. at Hoxton (a suburb of London) Sept. 26, 1833; d. at London Jan. 30, 1891. He was educated in local schools until the age of twelve, when his business life began. A few years later he became an advocate of freethought, and rapidly achieved notoriety for his propaganda. His attitude seriously affected his career, and at the age of seventeen he enlisted as a private soldier, remaining in the army three years. He then entered a solicitor's office, and soon rose to a position of responsibility. Meantime he had resumed his campaign for freethought, and in 1858 began a platform tour of the provinces, advocating not only radicalism in religion, but also in politics. From 1862 until his death, excepting in 1863-66, he was the proprietor of the republican *National Reformer, *and in his advocacy of radical politics was secretary of the fund raised in 1858 to defend E. Truelove for publishing a vindication of Orsini's attempt to assassinate Napoleon III. He was likewise a member of the parliamentary reform league of 1866, and drew up the first draft of the Fenian proclamation issued in the following year, while three years later he was the envoy of the English republicans to the Spanish republican leader Castelar, and was likewise nominated as candidate for a division of Paris on the foundation of the French republic in the same year. He then attempted to go to Paris on the outbreak of the Commune to be an intermediary between Thiers and the insurrectionists, but was arrested at Calais and forced to return to England. In 1868 Bradlaugh's attempts to gain a seat in the House of Commons began, but his avowed principles caused his defeat both in that year and in 1874. Six years later, however, he was returned, and by his refusal to take the required oath on the Bible initiated a struggle which involved him in repeated scenes in the House of Commons and in eight legal actions. He was again and again excluded from the House, his willingness to take the oath as a mere matter of form, or to affirm, being overruled by the plea that he was an avowed freethinker. Nevertheless, he was reelected for Northampton by special elections after his expulsion in 1881 and 1882, and at the general election in 1886 was once more returned, being permitted this time to take his seat, which he retained until his death. During this troubled period of his life he was also involved in a contest for the abolition of all restrictions on the press, beginning with his refusal, in 1868, to give security to the government against the publication of blasphemy and sedition in his *National Reformer. *In the following year another legal contest resulted in the passage of the Evidence Amendment Act, by which the evidence of freethinkers was declared admissible, a judge having refused to take his testimony on the ground that he was a freethinker. A few years later, in 1874, he became associated with Annie Besant, who was assistant editor of the *National Reformer *until 1885, when she resigned on account of his opposition to socialism. In 1876 they were sentenced to six months' imprisonment and a fine of £200 for the publication of the *Fruits of Philosophy, * which advocated the artificial restraint of the increase of population. The sentence was suspended, however, and the contest resulted in the passage of an act removing the remaining restrictions on the press. In Parliament Bradlaugh was active in securing the passage of a number of measures, of which the chief was one permitting the substitution of an affirmation for the oath both in the House of Commons and in the courts. In 1889 he visited India, and during his final illness the resolutions of his expulsion from the House of Commons were unanimously expunged. The writings of Bradlaugh were chiefly brief controversial pamphlets and contributions to the press. Among them the most important are *The Impeachment of the House of Brunswick *(London, 1872); *Autobiography *(1873); *Land for the People *(1877); *The New Life of David * (1877); *Genesis, its Authorship and Authenticity * (1882); and *The True Story of my Parliamentary Struggle *(1882). BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. S. Headingley, *Biography of Charles Bradlaugh, *London, 1880; C. R. Mackay, *Life of Charles Bradlaugh, *ib. 1888; H. Bonner (his daughter), *Charles Bradlaugh: A Record of his Life and Work, *2 vols., ib. 1894.

**BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE:** Dean of Westminster; b. at High Wycombe (30 m. w.n.w. of London), Buckinghamshire, Dec. 11, 1821; d. in London Mar. 12, 1903. He studied at Rugby under Arnold (1837-40), and at University College, Oxford (B.A., 1844; M.A., 1847); was fellow of University College 1844-50; became assistant master at Rugby 1846; head master of Marlborough College, Wiltshire, 1858; master of University College, Oxford, 1870; dean of Westminster, London, succeeding Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, 1881; resigned his deanery 1902. He edited and revised Arnold's *Latin Prose Composition *(London, 1881), and published *Aids to Writing Latin Prose *(1884); *Recollections of Arthur Penrhyn Stanley *(1883); *Lectures on Ecclesiastes *(Oxford, 1885; new ed., 1898); *Lectures on the Book of Job *(1887); and assisted R. E. Prothero in preparing the *Life and Correspondence of Arthur Penrhyn Stanley *(2 vols., London, 1894).

**BRADSHAW, WILLIAM:** Puritan; b. at Market Bosworth (12 m. w. of Leicester), Leicestershire, 1571; d. at Chelsea 1618. He studied at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and became fellow of Sidney Sussex College in 1599; took orders but never received a living owing to his Puritan principles, and spent much of his time in retirement in Derbyshire, whence he made many journeys in behalf of the cause to which he was devoted. His chief work was *English Puritanism: containing the main opinions of the rigid sort of those that are called Puritans in the Realm of England *(London, 1605; Latin transl., by William Ames, Frankfort, 1610; an abstract is given in Neal's *History of the Puritans, * part ii, chap. i). The main point of his system was that he would subject no congregation to any ecclesiastical jurisdiction "save that which is within itself." He would have the members delegate their powers to pastors and elders, retaining that of excommunication. No clergyman should hold civil office. He was strongly opposed to "ceremonies." He was not a separatist and held that the king as "the archbishop and general overseer of all the churches within his dominions" had the right to rule and must not be resisted except passively. He published many other works and tracts, most of them anonymously. BIBLIOGRAPHY: A fair biography and references to the somewhat abundant literature may be found in *DNB, * vi, 182-185.

**BRADWARDINE, THOMAS:** Archbishop of Canterbury; b. probably at Chichester, Sussex, 1290; d. in London Aug. 28, 1349. His name is variously spelled (Bragwardin, Brandnardin, Bredwardyn, etc.), in public documents he is usually called Thomas de Bradwardina, and a title often given him is *Doctor Profundus. *He studied theology, philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy at Merton College, Oxford; lectured there; became chancellor of St. Paul's Church at London; in 1339 accompanied Edward III as his confessor in campaigns in France; in 1349 was chosen archbishop of Canterbury, was consecrated at Avignon and died a few weeks afterward. He was highly esteemed by Wyclif, Jean Gerson, and Flacius. He was the author of a large work entitled *De causa Dei contra Pelagium *[ed. Sir Henry Savile, London, 1618], in which he attempted to show that the theology as well as the Church of his time were Pelagian. He gave the name Cainites to those who gave up hope in God and depended upon their own merits; his personal experience gave him a different conception: "In the schools of the philosophers I rarely heard a word concerning grace, . . . but I continually heard that we are the masters of our own free actions." Rom. ix, 16 had seemed to him to be wrong; "but afterward . . . I came to see that the grace of God far preceded all good works both in time and in nature–by grace I mean the will of God." Bradwardine wished to support this position on theoretical grounds. He acknowledged Augustine as his master. The sum of his teaching is as follows: God is complete perfection and goodness, is good action itself, free from the potentiality of imperfection. He is not limited by mentality. He is the first cause, the absolute principle of being and motion. Therefore, no one can act nor can anything "happen"; God works or orders events. Divine foreknowledge is will exercised long before, or predestination of [man's] will. God's will, moreover, is unchanging. Everything takes place by virtue of the immutable antecedent necessity caused by the divine volition. Hence man can say nothing "more useful or efficacious . . . than 'thy will be done.'" The effects of predestination are the gift of grace in the present, justification from sin, award of merit, perseverance to the end, and unending bliss in the world to come. The result of this line of thought is, of course, determinism of a Thomistic type. In spite of this theory, Bradwardine, like Augustine, asserted the reality of free will. His historical importance consists in the fact that he was one of the most powerful champions of the Augustinian movement which took place toward the end of the Middle Ages. This movement contributed to the dissolution of scholasticism and to a new understanding of Christian doctrine from the point of view of personal faith. R. SEEBERG. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The scanty notices of his life are collected by Sir Henry Savile in the preface to his edition of the *Causa Dei. *For his mathematical works consult M. Cantor, *Geschichte der Mathematik, *ii, 102 sqq., Leipsic, 1892. Consult further G. V. Lechler, *De Thomas Bradwardino, * Leipsic, 1862; idem, *Johann von Wiclif und die Vorgeschichte der Reformation, *i, 229 sqq., Leipsic, 1873; Eng. transl., pp. 88-96, London, 1878; K. Werner, *Der Augustinismus in der Scholastik des späteren Mittelalters, * pp. 337 sqq., Vienna, 1883; R. Seeberg, *Dogmengeschichte, * ii, 192, Leipsic, 1898; *DNB, *vi, 188-190.

**BRADY, NICHOLAS:** Church of England clergyman and poet; b. at Bandon (20 m. s.w. of Cork), County Cork, Ireland, Oct. 28, 1659; d. at Richmond, Surrey, May 20, 1726. He studied at Christ Church, Oxford (B.A., 1682), and Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1685; M.A., 1686; B.D. and D.D., 1699); took orders in Ireland and received two livings in the diocese of Cork. He was a zealous promoter of the Revolution of 1688 and soon thereafter removed to England; became lecturer at St. Michael's, Wood Street, London; minister at St. Catherine Cree, 1691; rector of Richmond, 1696, and of Clapham, 1706. He was also rector of Stratford-on-Avon, 1702-05, and conducted a school at Richmond. He was chaplain to William III, to Mary, and to Queen Anne. He published a tragedy, *The Rape, or the Innocent Imposters * (London, 1692), a translation of the Æneid of Vergil (4 vols., 1726; now extremely rare), and two volumes of sermons (1704-06); but is remembered chiefly for his share in the *New Version of the Psalms of David, *produced jointly by himself and Nahum Tate

### BRAHMANISM. Vedism, the Age of the Vedas and their Ancillary Literature. The People of the Vedas and their Gods (§ 1). The Rig-Veda (§ 2). The Sama- and Yajur-Vedas (§ 3). The Atharva-Veda (§ 4). Brahmanism and the Pantheism of the Upanishads. The Upanishads (§ 1). The Six Orthodox Systems of Philosophy (§ 2). The Age of the Buddhistic and Jainistic Heresies. Brahmanism is the orthodox religion of India, the most ancient of all Indo-Germanic faiths of which there is record. In itself the most catholic and elastic of cults, its test is the recognition of the divine authority of the Vedas; its outward sign is reverence for the gods, some of whom are comparatively late and foreign in origin; and, for the Brahmans, its end is emancipation from the sorrow of existence and the misery of reincarnation through reabsorption into the divine essence of the All-Soul. Brahmanism may be divided into three periods: I. The Age of the Vedas and their Ancillary Literature; II. Brahmanism and the Pantheism of the Upanishads; III. The Age during which the Buddhistic and Jainistic Heresies Prevailed. The two phases which are included in the Brahmanistic counterreformation and rise of the Hindu sects, and modern Hinduism and the unitarian movements are treated under Hinduism. ### I. Vedism, the Age of the Vedas and their Ancillary Literature ### 1. The People of the Vedas and their Gods. (the Brahmanas and Sutras–the former a sort of Hindu Talmud; the latter brief verses in technical language, a favorite form of expressing rules): At a period of remote antiquity, possibly between 2000 and 1500 B.C., a section of the Indo-Germanic peoples known by various names, of which the most common are Indians and Aryans, broke off from the kindred Iranian stock and wandered southward and eastward through Afghanistan into the Punjab or the "Five Waters," in the extreme northwest of the Indian peninsula. Like the Iranians of Persia, they were divided into the three classes of priests, warriors, and husbandmen, whence were to be formed later the three higher castes, and were a nomadic and agricultural people, filled with the joy of living, valiant in war, daring freebooters, hot in love and reveling in wine, almost everything, in short, that the later Hindus were not. Their gods were like themselves, concrete and strong: Surya, the bright deity of the sun; Indra, the blinding lightning which ushers in the rainy season; Agni, the god of fire; and Soma, the deified inspiration of strong drink and of the divine courage which it gives. Few are the deities which show the softer side of the early Aryan mind, such as Ushas, the goddess of the dawn, or Varuna, the god of the sky-ocean, who watches over all and even later in this period receives praises which almost savor of monotheism. ### 2. The Rig-Veda. The beliefs of the Aryans of this period are contained in the Rig-Veda, a book of hymns, the earliest literary records of the Indo-Germanic race, to which the most probable date assigned is 1500-500 B.C. This Veda is divided into ten books containing 1,022 hymns. Books ii-vii form the "family books," composed by successive generations of families of bards. Book ix is restricted to the Soma hymns, while i and viii, and especially x, the latest of all, are more diverse in contents and authorship. Within this range of space and time are represented many phases of religious thought, ranging from crass polytheism through intricate henotheism or syncretism to a quasimonotheism, or rather pantheism; varying from earnest faith to incipient skepticism; touching, too, on daily life as well as on worship and sacrifice. It must not be supposed, however, that the faith of the Veda is naive or childlike. It is, on the contrary, quite developed and occasionally even corrupt. Many of the hymns were undoubtedly composed for the ritual, although it is scarcely possible to regard the entire collection as subservient to the liturgy. Untenable also is the theory of the French school which reduces the entire Rig-Veda to a mass of allegory, nor are the conclusions of the realistic school, which regards this Veda as entirely Indic and interprets it rationalistically, altogether free from criticism. To the elucidation of a collection so extended both in space and time no single method of interpretation is adequate. Naiveté and mature thought, liturgy and hymnology, allegory and realism must each be recognized as occasion demands, must even be combined at times to give a true representation of the Vedic Hinduism. The basis of the Vedic religion is nature-worship. Each element is deified, the fire as Agni, the dawn as Ushas, the sky as Varuna, and the lightning of the storm as Indra. A single object in nature may be represented by many gods, as when the sun is venerated under the names of Surya, " the glowing one"; Savitar, "the enlivener"; Bhaga, "the bestower of boons"; Pushan, "he who causeth to flourish"; and Vishnu, "the mighty one." While these names may represent the deity in different aspects, as do the Egyptian Ra and Tum, the gods of the rising and the setting sun, it must not be forgotten that variance in name and even in concept of the same divinity may have been in its origin mere local divergence in expression for one and the same god, for the Rig-Veda was composed by many minds, at many places, in many periods. Behind nature-worship doubtless lay the earlier phase of animism, although its traces are obscured in the Vedic texts. Still more scanty are the evidences of ancestor-worship, or the cult of ghosts, though this phase was perhaps rather officially ignored than popularly absent. The eschatology of the Rig-Veda is comparatively simple, and resembles in its meagerness the poverty of early Semitism as represented by the Assyro-Babylonian religion. Allusions to the future state of the dead are practically confined to the late tenth book. Yama, the first of men to die, is the king of the dead; and apparently the blessed, i.e., the brave and generous, go when they die to the sun, where they engage in revelry like that of the Norse heroes of Asgard. The unblessed dead merely disappear, for hell is, in Indian thought, a late theological invention, devised to counterbalance the joys of heaven. In the latest portion of the Rig-Veda, moreover, appear the chief hymns later rubricized in the ritual, if indeed they were not, at least in part, designedly composed for an already existing liturgy. ### 3. The Sama- and Yajur-Vedas. Beside the Rig-Veda exist two other canonical Vedas, and a fourth which is uncanonical. The Sama or "Song" Veda is composed of verses taken chiefly from the eighth and ninth books of the Rig-Veda and arranged for the liturgy. Far more important is the Yajur or "Sacrificial" Veda, which exists in several recensions, the chief being the Vajasaneyi or "White" Yajur-Veda, so called from being composed only in verse, and the Taittirya and Maitrayani, which are termed "black," since the verse of the text is intermingled with a quasicommentary and amplification in prose. The arena implied is no longer the Punjab but the "middle district," around the modern Delhi, which the Aryans had reached in their slow migration eastward. The change of locality, however, is dwarfed into insignificance by the alteration in religious tone. The frank delight in life which characterizes the Rig-Veda is changed to mysticism and an ever-increasing ritualism. Religion has given place to magic. The principle of henotheism which is so marked a feature of the Rig-Veda, through which poetic enthusiasm comes to attribute to one divinity the names and attributes of another, thus elevating him for the nonce into the supreme and only object of adoration, becomes in the Yajur-Veda symbolism carried to its limit. A thing is no longer like something else, it is something else. The Brahman is no longer merely a priest, he is a god with all the attributes of divinity, while prayer and sacrifice are now means of compelling the deity to perform the will of his worshipers, instead of being modes of propitiation or bargaining. The religion of India now centers in the sacrifice, and a ritual is developed which is perhaps the most elaborate that the world has ever seen. While the power of the Brahmans was thereby increased until they were apotheosized, the view is antiquated which regards the development of the liturgy as the ecclesiastical device of a cunning and self-interested priesthood, despite the enormous fees which were given for the performance of sacrifice. The pantheon of this period suffers little diminution as compared with the epoch of the Rig Veda, but the gods have declined in power, although some have been greatly magnified, such as Kala (Time), who played no part in the earliest Veda. The epithets and the functions of the gods become separate divinities in many cases, and an All-God now gains the full recognition which is only suggested even in the latest portions of the Rig-Veda. The legends of the deities, on the other hand, are richly developed, though their quantity is more admirable than their quality. This, however, is a recrudescence of popular beliefs previously not officially recognized, rather than new speculations of the Brahmans, though this faith of the people finds its application in the explanation and proof of the sacrifice. The rules for the Brahmanic ritual are contained not only in the various recensions of the Yajur-Veda, but in the still more important Brahmanas, of which each school of each of the Vedas has at least one, while the Tandin recension of then Same-Veda has three. Additional details are contained in the Srautasutras, and the ritual for daily life may be found in the various Grihyasutras. ### 4. The Atharva-Veda. Beside the three canonical Vedas and their ancillary literature, representing the official religion of the Vedic and Brahmanic periods, stood a Veda of magic–the uncanonical Atharva-Veda. The pantheon of the Rig-Veda is here a jumbled confusion of divinities, at their head a supreme god of all, while eschatology has so far developed as to recognize a place of torment for the malignant dead. The predominant note of the Atharva-Veda is magic. It is filled with all manner of charms and incantations for wealth and for children, for long life and good health, for love and for revenge, charms for plants, animals, and diseases, curses and maledictions for the destruction of enemies and for counteracting the enemy's black magic. Linguistically and chronologically far later than the Rig-Veda, the material of the Atharva-Veda is in all probability as old in some of its parts as the most ancient portions of the Rig. It is an invaluable document for early Hindu religion as the oldest monument of its popular faith. ### II. Brahmanism and the Pantheism of the Upanishads: The enormous structure of ritualism erected by the Yajur-Veda, the Brahmanas, and the Sutras gradually became a burden too heavy to be borne; liturgy was then undermined by philosophical speculation. Traces of this are already evident in the later portions of the Rig-Veda, as in the famous hymn (x, 121) whose refrain runs: "To whom (as) god shall we offer sacrifice?" thus affording a basis for the Brahmanas to create a god "Who." By this time, moreover, an All-God was definitely recognized in Prajapati, "the lord of creatures," but it was reserved for the close of the Brahmanic period to ignore the gods and arrive at God. ### 1. The Upanishads. The Upanishads, the literary records of this phase of thought, represent a perfection of pantheism which has never been equaled, and their influence is a mighty factor in Hindu thought of the present day. Salvation is no longer to be attained by works, but by knowledge, and the entire teaching of the Upanishads may be comprised in the one famous phrase found in the Chandogya Upanishad: *Tat tvam asi, *"That art thou," or, in other words, "Thou art the Infinite." Though the *summum bonum *of the Upanishads is this saving knowledge and the reunion with the All-Soul which it brings, such a consummation is not requisite for all, since there are many who do not desire it, and for them minor blessings are reserved in a future life. The existence of the gods is not denied, though they be but phases of the All-Soul, nor is the advantage of sacrifice denied, for such offerings are still imperative. Herein lies, perhaps, the secret of the origin of the Upanishads. The concluding portion of each Brahmana is an Aranyaka, or "forest-book," designed for the use of those forest hermits who had passed beyond the need of sacrifice, and in each Aranyaka is an Upanishad. Primarily, therefore, the Upanishads represented the text-books of those who had passed through the sacrificial stage of their religious life and were henceforth free to meditate on sacred things as seemed best in their own eyes. Later, however, the Upanishads became a special form of the sacred writings of the Hindus; and served as the basis of the most lofty of all their six orthodox systems of philosophy. To see in them a religious revolt of the second, or warrior, caste against Brahman control, as certain scholars have sought to do, seems, on the whole, scarcely warranted. ### 2. The Six Orthodox Systems of Philosophy. Somewhat subsequent to the Upanishads were developed the six orthodox systems of Indian philosophy, the Samkhya and Yoga, the Vaiseshika and Nyaya, and the Purvamimamsa and Vedanta. Of these the Vaiseshika and Nyaya are systems of logic rather than of philosophy; the Samkhya and Yoga, which supplement each other, are essentially dualistic; while the Purvamimamsa and Vedanta, of which the former is the least important of all the systems, represent the spiritual aftermath of the Upanishads, and are, accordingly, rigidly pantheistic. ### III. The Age of the Buddhistic and Jainistic Heresies: Beneath the excessive ritual of the Brahmanistic period and the pantheistic speculations of a chosen few still lay the popular faith of the Aryan invaders of India. Meanwhile, however, the course of immigration had moved still further to the east and become centered about the holy city of Benares. The doctrine of the misery of all earthly existence was by this time accepted by all, and the teachings of metempsychosis were fully established. The worship of Siva, originally a local godling of some aboriginal western tribe, was attaining such popularity that he was opposed as the Destroyer to the Vedic sun-god Vishnu, who was worshiped as the Preserver (of the universe). For the sake of symmetry, Brahma, denoting in the Rig-Veda "prayer," was developed by the priestly theologians into Brahma, the Creator, who, though on the whole a pale abstract deity, respected rather than worshiped, formed the third member of the *trimurti, *or triad. The religious texts of this period are comparatively few, though from them may be gleaned data of the greatest importance for a knowledge of India's faith. The principal sources are the law books, especially the famous code of Manu, and the Mahabharata, the great epic of India and the longest poem of all literature. From the point of view of orthodox Hinduism, however, the epoch, possibly because of the comparative scantiness of material, presents less of interest than any of the others. It was, on the other hand, essentially the age of heresy, this term denoting in India simply a formal denial of the divine authority of the three canonical Vedas. There had, of course, been heretics and infidels long before this period; traces of them occur as early as the tenth book of the Rig-Veda, but it was not until the period under consideration that heresies of lasting importance were able to develop. In the sixth century B.C. arose two independent teachers, both from the Kshatriya, or warrior, class and both accordingly more or less antagonistic to the Brahmans. Forebodings of such a struggle between the two upper castes are not lacking in the Upanishads, where, in more than one instance, a warrior rose superior to a Brahman in theological learning. Rebelling against Brahman supremacy, ignoring salvation by sacrifice, rejecting the authority of the Vedas, teaching emancipation from the pain of life and the misery of rebirth by personal service to all living creatures however lowly, and choosing, moreover, with pointed significance, as their linguistic medium the despised popular dialects instead of the hallowed Sanskrit of the Brahmans, Sakya Muni (Buddha) and Mahavira founded the religions which still exist as Buddhism and Jainism. When, after the lapse of nearly a millennium, those two religions lost their hold upon India, a new form of Brahmanism arose in what is known as Hinduism, the basis of which was a compromise between the orthodox and philosophical Brahmanism of pre-Buddhistic times and the religions of the Dravidian and other non-Aryan peoples of southern India. See INDIA. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature of India itself is enormous, and that upon it is almost as great. A bibliography of India is much needed. The most accessible and convenient body of sources for the English reader is the *SBE, * more than half of which is devoted to translations from the various departments of Indian literature. Outside of this collection, the following texts and translations are important: *Sanskrit Texts, Sacred Hymns, *6 vols., London, 1849-74, new ed., 1890-92; H. H. Wilson, *Rig-Veda Sanhita, *6 vols., ib. 1850 sqq. (a translation); *Rig-Veda, * a transl. by P. Peterson, ib. 1888; H. Grassmann, *Rigveda übersetzt, *4 vols., Leipsic, 1876-77; *Rig-Veda, *by A. Ludwig, in 6 vols., Prague, 1875-88 (Germ. transl., introduction and commentary); *Sama-Veda, *T. Benfey, Leipsic, 1848 (text and Germ. transl.); R. T. Griffith, *Hymns of the Rigveda, Transl. with Commentary, *4 vols., Benarea, 1889-92; idem. *Hymns of the Samaveda, Transl. with Commentary, *ib. 1893; idem. *Hymns of the Atharva-Veda, * ib., 2 vols., 1895-96; *Atharvaveda, *by A. Ludwig, 2 vols., Prague, 1876 (Germ, transl.); *Atharva-Veda, livre vii (viii, xiii) traduit *. . . par V. Henry, Paris, 1891-1892; *The Aitareya-Brahmana, *transl. by M. Haug, 2 vols., Bombay, 1863; the *Brahmanas *of the *Sama Veda *have been edited by A. C. Burnell, 6 vols., London, Trübner, n.d.; *Atharva-Veda Samhita, Translation and . . . Commentary * by W. D. Whitney, ed. C. R. Lanman, 2 vols., Boston, 1906; *The Vedantasara, A Manual of Hindu Pantheism, * transl. by G. A. Jacob, ib. 1881. Parts of some of the *Upanishads *have been edited and translated by E. Roer, 19 parts, Calcutta, n.d., and by E. B. Cowell, 2 parts, ib. 1861. Important is J. Muir, *Original Sanskrit Texts, *5 vols., London, 1868-73. The *Sutras *are represented in the Germ. transl. by A. F. Stensler, Leipsic, 1876, in the Eng. transl. of W. D. Whitney, New Haven, 1871, and of G. Thibaut, London, Trübner, n.d. On the history of Indian literature consult: A. Weber, *The White Yajur Veda, *Berlin, 1849; idem, *A Hist. of Indian Literature, *London, 1882 (critical and brief); F. Max Müller, *Hist. of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, *ib. 1860 (now out of print); A. Kaegi, *Der Rigveda, *Leipsic, 1881, Eng. transl., London, 1886; F. Nêve, *Les Époques littéraires de l'Inde, *Paris, 1887; J. C. Oman, *The Great Indian Epics, *London, 1884 (a condensation of the stories, with notes); A. A. Macdonell, *Hist. of Sanskrit Literature, *ib. 1900; E. W. Hopkins, *The Great Epic of India, *New Haven, 1901. On the philosophy the best single book is F. Max Müller, *Six Systems of Indian Philosophy, *London, 1899, cf. his *Three Lectures on the Vedanta Philosophy, *ib. 1894. Other works are J. Davies, *The Sankhya Karika of Iswara Krishna. An Exposition of the System of Kapilà, *ib. 1881; A. E. Gough, *Philosophy of the Upanishads, *ib. 1882; Ram Chandra Bose, *Hindu Philosophy popularly Explained, * Calcutta, 1888; M. Williams, *Indian Wisdom, *London, 1893; R. Garbe, *Philosophy of Ancient India, *Chicago, 1897 (an excellent "first book"); J. Kreyher, *Die Weisheit der Brahmanen und des Christentums, *Gütersloh, 1901; P. Deussen, *Philosophy of the Upanishads, *Edinburgh, 1905; idem, *Die Geheimlehre des Veda, *Leipsic, 1907; idem, *Outlines of Indian Philosophy, *Berlin, 1907; L. D. Barnett, *Some Sayings of the Upanishads, *London, 1906; S. A. Desai, *A Study of the Indian Philosophy, *ib. 1907. On the religion of India the best single book is R. W. Frazer, *Literary Hist. of India, *New York, 1898. H. T. Colebrooke, *Essays on the Religion and Philosophy of the Hindus, *2d ed. by his son, 3 vols., London, 1873, is a classic, with which should be put C. Lassen, *Indische Alterthumskunde, *4 vols., Bonn, 1847-61. Of high value is J. H. Wilson, *Essays on the Religion of the Hindus, *2 vols., London, 1861-62. Other treatises are: S. Johnson, *Oriental Religions, India, *Boston, 1872; F. Max Müller, *Lectures on . . . Religions of India, *London, 1879; A. Barth, *Religions of India, *ib. 1882; W. J. Wilkins, *Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, *ib. 1882; A. W. Wallis, *Cosmology of the Rig Veda, *ib. 1887; M. Williams, *Religious Life and Thought in India, *ib. 1887; G. A. Jacob, *Hindu Pantheism, *ib. 1889; J. Dowson, *Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, *ib. 1891; *Religious Systems of the World, *ib. 1893; H. Oldenberg, *Die Religion des Veda, *Berlin, 1894; idem, *Ancient India, its Language and Reigions, *London, 1896; E. W. Hopkins, *Religions of India, *Boston, 1895 (very useful, systematic and clear, gives list of works); idem, *India, Old and New, *New York, 1902; M. Phillips, *The Teaching of the Vedas, *London, 1895; Z. A, Ragozin, *Vedic India, *ib 1895; A Weber, *Vedische Beiträge, *Berlin, 1895; A. Hillebrandt, *Vedische Mythologie, *3 vols., Breslau, 1902; J. C. Oman, *Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India, *London, 1903; J. M. Mitchell, *Great Religions of India, *New York, 1905; E. B. Haven, *Benares the Sacred City. Sketches of Hindu Life and Religion, *London, 1906.

**BRAHMO SOMAJ:** A Hindu theistic society. Its aim is the monotheistic reform of the Hindu polytheistic religion. The founder, Rammohan Roy (b. 1774), of Brahman descent, through the study of the Koran and the Bible became estranged from his ancestral belief, and was attracted by Christianity, without, however, getting beyond a rationalistic pantheism. He endeavored to formulate a universal monotheism based upon various ancient scriptures. He denounced ethnic impurities, but maintained the institution of caste. In 1816 he gathered a small community at Calcutta, the *Atmiya Sabha, *of which he was the leader till his death, Sept. 28, 1833, at Bristol, England, where he acted as political agent. The weakened reform party was strengthened in 1839 by the founding of the *Tatwabodhini Sabha, * whose leader was Babu Devendranath Tagore. He held aloof from Christian influences in the patriotic effort to restore (what he regarded as) the pure religion of the Vedas, but finally conceived a deistic system on the basis of reason, rejecting all scriptures. In 1862 the religious community was reorganized as the *Adi Somaj. *Meanwhile a follower named Dayanand Saraswati had turned again to the Vedas, which he regarded as teaching a purely theistic religion, and as anticipating also the results of modern culture. He founded the *Arya Somaj, *the adherents of which came afterward under spiritualistic influences. The two societies last named found a competitor in the adherents of Babu Keshav Chandra Sen (b. Nov. 19, 1838, at Calcutta), who, through European culture had become dissatisfied with the religion of his ancestors, and attempted to find rest in philosophy. But this brought no satisfaction to his religiously disposed mind. After much study of the Bible he came to a decision, and in 1858 joined the *Adi Somaj. *For a time he cooperated with Devendranath Tagore, but finally found himself at variance with this conservatively disposed leader, who did not approve his bold denunciation of the shameful practises of heathenism, and even of caste. After the rupture which naturally resulted, in 1863 he founded the *Brahmo Somaj *of India, which soon developed an activity that almost rivaled the Christian propaganda. He went to England in 1870, where he was much honored. Many Christian ideas tending to promote his cause were brought back by him to India, and the *Brahmo Somaj *found many adherents. But he grew more conservative and gradually drew away from Occidental influences. The representatives of progress separated and founded the *Sadharan Brahmo Somaj. *Only the less important members of the former community adhered to Chandra Sen, who lost himself more and more in a dark mysticism. Finally he appeared as the founder of a world-religion ("The New Dispensation"), as he claimed by divine command. For the new Church he prepared a ritual and teaching. Nevertheless, his success was not striking, though by his small circle of adherents he was almost worshiped. He died January 8, 1884. His successor, Babu Protap Chandra Mozumdar, had great difficulty in preventing the further disruption of the community, and little progress was made. In 1891 it numbered 3,051 members, mostly in Bengal. The *Arya Somaj *had a larger success, developing especially in the United Provinces and the Punjab, numbering some 40,000 members. But few of the Brahmo Somaj have accepted Christianity. See INDIA, III, 1. R. GRUNDEMANN. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources: *Indian Mirror, *Calcutta, 1861-1880; *Sunday Mirror, *ib.1880-82; *The Liberal and the New Dispensation, *ib. 1881 sqq.; *Theistic Annual, *ib. 1872 sqq.; *Theistic Quarterly Review, *ib. 1879. Consult also: Mary Carpenter, *Last Days in England of Romohun Roy, * London, 1886; K. Chunder Sen, *Brahmo Somaj, *ib. 1870; J. Hesse, *Der Brahmo Somaj . . . *, in *Basler Missions Magazin, *1876, pp. 385 sqq.; Kesavachandra, *Brahmo Somaj, *Calcutta, 1883; F. Max Müller, in *Biographical Essays, * London, 1884 (gives accounts of recent religious movements); T. E. Slater, *Keshab Chundra Sen and the Brahma Samaj,* Madras, 1884; P. C. Mozoomdar, *Life and Teachings of Chunder Sen,* Calcutta, 1887; H. Baynes, *Evolution of Religious Thought in India,* London, 1889 (a full account); L. J. Frohmeyer, *Neuere Reformbestrebungen in Hinduismus,* in *Basler Missions Magazin,* 1888, pp. 129 sqq.; *The Offering of Devendranath Tagore,* transl. by M. M. Chatterji, Calcutta, 1889; Rammohun Roy, *English Works,* 2 vols., London, 1888; Navakanta Chattopadhyaya, *Life and Character of Ram Mohun Roy, * Dacca, 1890; C. N. Aitchison, *The Brahmo Somaj, * in *Church Missionary Intelligencer,* 1893, pp. 161 sqq.

**BRAIG, KARL VON BORROMAEO:** German Roman Catholic; b. at Kanzach (a village near Buchau, 30 m. s.w. of Ulm) Feb. 10, 1853. He was educated at the University of Tübingen (Ph.D., 1877), where he was instructor in dogmatic theology in 1879-83, and was parish priest at Wildbad and district inspector of schools, except for tours of Austria, Germany, France, Italy, and England, from 1883 to 1893. In the latter year he was appointed associate professor of apologetics and dogmatics at the University of Freiburg, and four years later was promoted to his present position of full professor of the same subjects. He is also director of the dogmatic seminar in the university, and has written *Zukunftsreligion des Unbewussten * (Freiburg, 1882); *Kunst des Gedankenlesens* (Frankfort, 1886); *Encyklopädie der theoretischen Philosophie * (Stuttgart, 1886); *Gottesbeweis oder Gottesbeweise? * (1888); *Apologie des Christentums* (Freiburg, 1889); *La Matière * (Paris, 1891); *Die Freiheit der philosophischen Forschung * (Freiburg, 1894); *Vom Denken * (1896); *Vom Sein * (1896); *Vom Erkennen * (1897); *Leibniz, sein Leben und die Bedeutung seiner Lehre * (Frankfort, 1901); *Zur Erinnerung an Franz Xavier Krauss * (Freiburg, 1902); *Wesen des Christentums * (1903); and *Der Papst und die Freiheit * (1903).

**BRAINERD, DAVID:** Missionary to the American Indians; b. at Haddam, Conn., Apr. 20, 1718; d. at the home of Jonathan Edwards (to whose daughter Jemima he was engaged), Northampton, Mass., Oct. 9, 1747. He entered Yale College in 1739 and was expelled in his junior year; it was the time of the Great Awakening and Brainerd, who was "sober and inclined to melancholy" from childhood, sympathized with the "New Lights" (Whitefield, Tennent, and their followers); he attended their meetings when forbidden to do so, and criticized one of the tutors as having "no more grace than a chair"; as a consequence he was expelled. He was licensed at Danbury, Conn., July 29, 1742; was approved as a missionary by the New York correspondents of the Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge, Nov. 25, 1742, and labored among the Indians at Kaunaumeek (Brainerd, Rensselaer County, N. Y., 18 m. s.e. of Albany) Apr., 1743–Mar., 1744; was ordained as a missionary at Newark, N. J., June 12, 1744; ten days later began work at what was intended to be his permanent station, at the forks of the Delaware, near Easton, Penn.; in October he visited the Indians on the Susquehanna, and June 19, 1745, began to preach at Crossweeksung (Crosswick, 9 m. s.e. of Trenton), the scene of his greatest success. His life among the Indians was one of hardship and suffering borne with heroic fortitude and self-devotion; his health gave way under the strain and he relinquished the work, Mar. 20, 1747, dying from consumption. The portions of his diary dealing with his work at Crossweeksung (June 19–Nov. 4, 1745, and Nov. 24, 1745–June 19, 1746) were published before his death, by the commissioners of the Society (*Mirabilia dei inter Indicos: or the rise and progress of a remarkable work of grace among a number of the Indians in the provinces of New Jersey and Pennsylvania;* and *Divine Grace Displayed: or the continuance and progress of a remarkable work of grace, * etc., both published at Philadelphia, 1746, and commonly known as "Brainerd's Journal"). All of his papers, including an account of his early life and the original copy of his diary, were left with Jonathan Edwards, who prepared *An Account of the Life of the Late Rev. David Brainerd * (Boston, 1749), omitting the parts of the diary already published. The life and diary entire, with his letters and other writings, were edited by S. E. Dwight (New Haven, 1822) and by J. M. Sherwood (New York, 1884). His place as missionary was taken, at his request, by his brother John (b. at Haddam, Conn., Feb. 28, 1720; d. at Deerfield, N. J., Mar. 18, 1781). He was graduated at Yale, 1746. His work was hindered by disputes about title to Indian lands, war, and opposition from the Quakers; he was dismissed by the Society in Scotland in 1755, reengaged in 1756, again dismissed in 1757, and again asked to return in 1759; the funds provided by the Society and by the Synod of New York and New Jersey were insufficient, and he gave freely from his own scanty means; he served the whites no less faithfully than the Indians and was at the same time both foreign and home missionary; after 1777 he had charge of a church at Deerfield. Consult his life by Thomas Brainerd (Philadelphia, 1865).

**BRAINERD, THOMAS:** American Presbyterian; b. at Leyden, Lewis County, N. Y., June 17, 1804; d. at Scranton, Penn., Aug. 22, 1866. He gave up the study of law for theology, and was graduated at Andover in 1831; was pastor of the Fourth Presbyterian Church, Cincinnati, 1831-33; of the Pine Street (Third) Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia, 1837 till his death. He was a leader of the New School branch of the Presbyterian Church, a personal friend of Lyman Beecher and Albert Barnes; was distinguished for patriotic ardor and services during the Civil War. He wrote much for religious periodicals, edited the *Cincinnati Journal, * a Presbyterian religious paper (1833-36), and a young people's paper, and wrote the *Life of John Brainerd * (Philadelphia, 1865). His great-great-grandfather was an uncle of David and John Brainerd, the missionaries. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mary Brainerd, *Life of Rev. Thomas Brainerd,* Philadelphia, 1870.

**BRAMHALL, JOHN:** Protestant archbishop of Armagh; b. at or near Pontefract (22 m. s.s.w. of York), Yorkshire, 1594; d. at Omagh (30 m. s. of Londonderry), County Tyrone, Ireland, June 25, 1663. He studied at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge (B.A., 1612; M.A., 1616; B.D., 1623; D.D., 1630); took orders about 1616 and distinguished himself in Yorkshire, where he received several appointments. In 1633 he went to Ireland as chaplain to Wentworth (afterward Earl of Strafford); became archdeacon of Meath, and, in 1634, bishop of Derry. He did much to increase the revenues of the Irish Church, and tried to establish episcopacy more firmly. Most of the time from the Irish insurrection of 1641 till the Restoration he spent on the Continent, was made archbishop of Armagh in 1661, and as such displayed a commendable moderation in striving to secure conformity. His works were collected by John Vesey, archbishop of Tuam, and published at Dublin in 1677; they include five treatises against Romanists, three against sectaries, three against Hobbes, and seven miscellaneous, in defense of royalist and Anglican views. The works are reprinted in the *Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology * (5 vols., Oxford, 1842-45) with life.

**BRANDENBURG, BISHOPRIC OF:** A diocese established by Otto the Great in 948, including the territory between the Elbe on the west, the Oder on the east, and the Black Elster on the south, and taking in the Uckermark to the north. It was originally under the archiepiscopal jurisdiction of Mainz, but in 968 was transferred to that of Magdeburg. The disturbances of 983 practically annihilated it; bishops continued to be named, but they were merely titular, until the downfall of the Wends in the twelfth century and the German settlement of that region revived the bishopric. Bishop Wigers (1138-60) was the first of a series of bishops of the Premonstratensian order, which chose the occupants of the see until 1447; in that year a bull of Nicholas V gave the right of nomination to the elector of Brandenburg, with whom the bishops stood in a close feudal relation. The last actual bishop was Matthias von Jagow (d. 1544), who took the side of the Reformation, married, and in every way furthered the undertakings of Elector Joachim II. There were two more nominal bishops, but on the petition of the latter of these, the electoral prince John George, the secularization of the bishopric was undertaken and finally accomplished, in spite of legal proceedings to have the bishopric declared immediately dependent on the empire and so to preserve it, which dragged on into the seventeenth century.

**BRANDENBURG, CONFESSIONS** or **CONFESSIONS OF THE MARK** (*Confessiones marchicæ, * i.e., *Brennoburgenses*): The confessions of the mark Brandenburg during the Reformation. They are three in number: (1) the Confession prepared by order of Johann Sigismund, elector of Brandenburg, 1614, which was intended to reconcile the views of Luther with those of Calvin (see SIGISMUND, JOHANN); (2) the Leipsic Colloquy, 1631, i.e., the declarations of the theologians who took part in the Colloquy of Leipsic, 1631; (3) the Declaration of Thorn, 1645 (see THORN, CONFERENCE OF). BIBLIOGRAPHY: The text of the three confessions is in J. C. W. Augusti, *Corpus librorum symbolicorum,* pp. 369 sqq., Elberfeld, 1827 and in H. A. Niemeyer, *Collectio confessionum in ecclesiis reformatis publicatarum, * pp. 642 sqq., Leipsic, 1840. Consult Schaff, *Creeds,* ii, 554-563.

**BRANDES,** bran'dez, **FRIEDRICH HEINRICH:** German Reformed; b. at Salzuflen (48 m. s.w. of Hanover) Apr. 25, 1825. Educated at the University of Berlin, he was successively second preacher and rector at Salzuflen from 1853 to 1856, and pastor at Göttingen from 1856 to 1901. Since the latter year he has been court-preacher at Bückeburg. Among his numerous writings those of theological interest are: *Wir werden leben, Gespräche über Unsterblichkeit * (Göttingen, 1858); *John Knox, der Reformator Schottlands * (Elberfeld, 1862); *Katechismus der christlichen Lehre * (Göttingen, 1865); *Verfassung der Kirche nach evangelischen Grundsätzen* (2 vols., Elberfeld, 1867); *Zur Wiedervereinigung der beiden evangelischen Kirchen * (Göttingen, 1868); *Des Apostels Paulus Sendschreiben an die Galater* (Wiesbaden, 1869); *Geschichte der kirchlichen Polizei des Hauses Brandenburg, * (2 vols., Gotha, 1872-73); *Blicke in das Seelenleben des Herrn * (Gütersloh, 1888); *Unser Herr Christus. i, Seine Person* (1901); and Einigungen der evangelischen Kirchen ein Befehl des Herrn (Berlin, 1902).

**BRANDT, WILHELM: ** Dutch Protestant; b. at Amsterdam July 22, 1855. He was educated for the ministry of the Dutch Reformed Church and was a pastor until 1891, when he went to Berlin, where he resided for two years. Since 1893 he has been professor of New Testament exegesis and the history of religions at the University of Amsterdam. In theology he belongs to the historico-critical school, and has written *Die mandäische Religion* (Leipsic, 1889); Mandäische Schriften (Göttingen, 1893); and *Die evangelische Geschichte und der Ursprung des Christenthums * (Leipsic, 1893).

**BRANN, HENRY ATHANASIUS:** Roman Catholic; b. at Parkstown (27 m. s.w. of Drogheda), County Meath, Ireland, Aug. 15, 1837. He came to the United States at the age of ten, and was educated at St. Mary's College, Wilmington, Del., St. Francis Xavier's College, New York City (B.A., 1857), St. Sulpice, Paris (1857-60), and the American College, Rome (D.D., 1862). He was ordained to the priesthood at Rome in 1862, being the first priest of the American College, and from 1862 to 1864 was vice-president of Seton Hall College, South Orange, N. J., where he also taught theology. Four years later he became director of an ecclesiastical seminary at Wheeling, W. Va., where he remained until 1870, when he was appointed rector of St. Elizabeth's Church, Fort Washington, N. Y. Twenty years later he became rector of St. Agnes Church, New York City, where he still remains. He is archdiocesan censor of books and has written *Curious Questions * (Newark, N. J., 1867); *Truth and Error * (New York, 1871); *Essay on the Popes* (1875); *The Age of Unreason* (1881); *The Immortality of the Soul* (1882); and *Life of Archbishop Hughes *(1892).

**BRANN, MARCUS:** German Jewish historian; b. at Rawitsch (64 m. s. of Posen) July 9, 1849. He was educated at the University of Breslau (Ph.D., 1873) and the rabbinical seminary in the same city, from which he was graduated in 1875. He was then a rabbi in various cities of Germany until 1891, when he was appointed to succeed H. Graetz as professor of history and Biblical exegesis in the Jewish theological seminary at Breslau, where he still remains. He has written: *De Herodis Magni filiis patrem in imperio secutis * (Breslau, 1873); *Die Söhne des Herodes * (1873); *Geschichte der Gesellschaft der Brüder in Breslau * (1880); *Geschichte der Juden und ihrer Literatur * (2 vols., 1893-94); *Geschichte des Rabbinats in Schneidemühl * (1894); *Geschichte der Juden in Schlesien * (3 parts, 1895-1901); *Ein kurzer Gang durch die jüdische Geschichte * (1895); *Ein kurzer Gang durch die Geschichte der jüdischen Literatur * (1896); *Lehrbuch der jüdischen Geschichte * (4 vols., 1900-03); and *Geschichte des jüdischen theologischen Seminars* (1904). He has likewise edited the *Jahrbuch zur Belehrung und Unterhaltung * since 1890, and from 1892 to 1899, in collaboration with D. Kaufmann, edited the *Monatsschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums, * becoming its sole editor on Kaufmann's death in the latter year. He likewise collaborated with F. Rosenthal in editing the *Gedenkbuch zur Erinnerung an David Kaufmann * (Breslau, 1900).

**BRANT,** brant, **SEBASTIAN:** German satirist; b. at Strasburg 1457; d. there May 10, 1521. He was but ten years old when his father died, and, after being educated privately, entered the University of Basel in 1475, where the strife between realism and nominalism had been revived as a struggle between humanism and scholasticism. There Brant devoted himself half-heartedly to the study of law, but his preference for philosophy and poetry proved too unremunerative to yield him a livelihood, so he was obliged to take up the study of jurisprudence in earnest, and finally received the degree of doctor of civil and canon law in 1489. Meanwhile he had developed a literary activity which led him, in addition to the lectures which he delivered after 1484, to write book upon book, partly on jurisprudence, both in Latin and the vernacular, and partly in verse, chiefly in German. Filled with longing for his native city, he applied for the vacant position of syndic, and secured it in the early part of 1501, both through his own reputation and through the recommendation of Johann Geiler. Two years afterward he was appointed secretary of the municipality, and later was made imperial councilor to the emperor Maximilian. Though Brant was either the author or the editor of a long series of books, there is but one which has preserved his fame to the present day, the *Narrenschiff * (Basel, 1494). The end of the Middle Ages, which marked the wreck and ruin of all the ancient conditions in Church and State, as well as in moral and social life, was felt most keenly in Germany, where it evoked a spirit of satire which spared neither life nor death. The most striking representative of this tendency, next to the Dance of Death, is the *Narrenschiff* of Brant. Wherever the poet looked, he saw only folly, regardless of sex, age, or estate, and as at carnival the mummers ran through the streets in the guise of fools, often with ships on wheels, he regarded life as a great carnival, where fool on fool took his seat in the ship of fools to voyage to Narragonia, the land of fools. Brant was, therefore, in this sense the spokesman of his time, and his work has become immortal in that it is a mirror of the period. He remained true, moreover, to the genius of the German people, despite his attraction toward humanism and his numerous sentiments and parallels drawn from the classics. His views and his habits of thought were taken from the life around him, and his German, though evidently based on his Latinity, is neither as awkward nor as unintelligible as that of Niclas of Wyle immediately preceding him or that of his successor Hutten. He was so far from intending to restrict his work to the learned that he even considered those who did not know how to read, and accordingly adorned his book with pictures as a substitute for the letters. The *Narrenschiff, * therefore, alternates between picture and text, thus giving a double representation of folly, an arrangement which divides the poem into disjointed fragments succeeding each other by chance rather than by design, although the diversity of the material would scarcely have permitted the author to mold it into a homogeneous whole. Yet Brant was swayed by two opposing tendencies, and while, on the one hand, he did not hesitate to expose the faults in the external life of the Church with its lack of faith, and its lack of morality, he feared to touch its inner and higher teachings, and lamented the wavering bark of St. Peter, upbraiding the heretics and regarding the printer as an unmixed evil. (E. STEINMEYER.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: The *Narrenschiff * was reprinted many times and was as frequently revamped, especially in the Latin translation of Jakob Locher Philomusus (1497). In 1497 it was translated into French, four years later into Latin verse by Jodocus Badius Ascensius, in 1519 into Low German, and in 1635 into Dutch, while in 1509 it was rendered into English by Alexander Barclay under the title of the *Ship of Fools. * The best German edition is by F. Zarncke, Leipsic, 1854, next to it is that by K. Goedeke, ib. 1872. In 1498 a series of sermons was based upon the *Narrenschiff * by Geiler of Kaisersberg, and it was repeatedly imitated, as in the *Von S. Ursulen-Schifflein,* by the Brotherhood of St. Ursula (Strasburg, 1497), and by Brant's compatriot, Thomas Murner, in his *Narrenbeschwörung* (1512). Bibliographies are given by C. Schmidt, *Histoire littéraire de l'Alsace,* i, 189-333, ii, 340-373, Paris, 1879, and K. Goedeke, *Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung,* i, 383-392, Dresden, 1884. The best accounts of the life of Brant are to be found in the introductions to the editions of the *Narrenschiff * by Zarncke and Goedeke, ut sup. Consult also C. Schmidt, *Notice sur Sébastian Brant, * in the *Revue d'Alsace, * new series, vol. iii, 1874.

**BRASTBERGER, IMMANUEL GOTTLOB:** Popular German preacher; b. at Sulz (40 m. s.w. of Stuttgart), Württemberg, 1716; d. July 13, 1764, as *Spezialsuperintendent * at Nürtingen. His sermons on the Gospels, *Evangelische Zeugnisse der Wahrheit zur Aufmunterung im wahren Christenthum * (Stuttgart, 1758) are still read, the eighty-fifth edition having appeared at Reutlingen in 1883, and a translation into Polish in 1905.

**BRASTOW, LEWIS ORSMOND:** Congregationalist; b. at Brewer, Me., Mar. 23, 1834. He was educated at Bowdoin College (B.A., 1857) and Bangor Theological Seminary (1860), and held successive pastorates at the South Congregational Church, St. Johnsbury, Vt. (1860-73), and the First Congregational Church, Burlington, Vt. (1873-84), in addition to being chaplain of the Twelfth Vermont Volunteers in the Civil War. Since 1885 he has been professor of practical theology in Yale Divinity School. He was a member of the Constitutional Convention of the State of Vermont in 1870. In theology he is a conservative liberal, and in addition to numerous briefer contributions has written *Representative Modern Preachers * (New York, 1904) and *The Modern Pulpit *(1906).

**BRATKE, EDUARD:** German Protestant; b. at Neuhaus (a village near Waldenburg, 43 m. s.w. of Breslau), Silesia, Feb. 26, 1861; d. at Breslau Jan. 30, 1906. He was educated at the universities of Berlin, Göttingen (Ph.D., 1883), and Breslau (licentiate of theology, 1885). In 1886 he became privat-docent of the latter university, but four years later was called to Bonn as associate professor of church history, remaining there until 1903, when he returned to Breslau as full professor of the same subject. He wrote *Justus Gesenius und seine Verdienste um die hannoverische Landeskirche* (Göttingen, 1883); *Luthers fünfundneunzig Thesen und ihre dogmenhistorischen Voraussetzungen *(1884); *Wegweiser zur Quellen- und Literaturkunde der Kirchengeschichte *(Gotha, 1890); *Das neuentdeckte vierte Buch des Danielkommentars des Hippolytus* (Bonn, 1891); *Das sogenannte Religionsgespräch am Hof der Sasaniden *(Leipsic, 1900); *Die Weisheit des Todes *(Gütersloh, 1902); and *Euagrii altercatio legis inter Simonem Judæum et Theophilum Christianum* (Vienna, 1904; text and commentary).

**BRATTON, THEODORE DU BOSE:** Protestant Episcopal bishop of Mississippi; b. at Winnsboro, S. C., Nov. 11, 1862. He studied at the University of the South, Sewanee, Tenn., but withdrew in 1882, a few months before graduation, because of trouble with his eyes. He was at once appointed proctor of the university, and in 1883 became a teacher in the preparatory school attached to the same institution. He pursued theological studies in St. Luke's Theological Hall, the seminary of the University, and was graduated in 1887. He was ordered deacon in the same year and was priested in 1888, after having been a missionary in his native State in the interval. He was then rector of the Church of the Advent, Spartanburg, S. C., 1888-99, also being professor of history in Converse College, Spartanburg, 1890-99, after which he was rector of St. Mary's School for Girls at Raleigh, N. C. In 1903 he was consecrated third bishop of the diocese of Mississippi.

**BRAUN, JOHANN WILHELM JOSEF:** Roman Catholic theologian and scholar; b. at Gronau (30 m. n.w. of Münster) Apr. 27, 1801; d. at Bonn Sept. 30, 1863. He was associated with the University of Bonn as a student from 1821 to 1825, adjunct professor from 1829 to 1833, and professor of theology from 1833. For the part which he took in the Hermesian controversy see HERMES, GEORG. With J. H. Achterfeld, he published the *Zeitschrift für Philosophie und katholische Theologie* from 1832 to 1852. His *Bibliotheca regularum fidei * (Bonn, 1844) and a number of occasional archeological studies should also be mentioned. A. HAUCK

**BRAY, GUIDO DE.** See BRÈS.

**BRAY, THOMAS:** Church of England; b. at Merton, near Cherbury (17 m. s.w. of Shrewsbury), Shropshire, 1656; d. in London Feb. 15, 1730. He studied at Oxford (B.A., All Souls, 1678; M.A., Hart Hall, 1693; B.D. and D.D., Magdalen, 1696), took orders about 1678, and soon won friends and advancement by his "exemplary behaviour and distinguished diligence." In 1690 he became rector of Sheldon, Warwickshire. In 1696 Bishop Compton of London appointed him commissary for Maryland. He was unable to sail for the colony until Dec., 1699, landed in Mar., 1700, but after a residence of less than six months returned to England, finding he could better promote the interests of the province there. From 1706 he was rector of St. Botolph Without, Aldgate, London. Bray's life furnishes a striking example of what can be accomplished by energy, good judgment, and disinterested benevolence. As soon as he was appointed commissary for Maryland he took up the work, and, while detained in England, tried to find there suitable men to send out as missionaries and formed a plan to provide them with books. He did not limit his good services to Maryland, and his plan grew into a scheme for a "Protestant congregation *pro propaganda fide* by charter from the king." When this failed in spite of persistent endeavor, he organized a voluntary society to provide libraries at home and abroad and to support schools and missions for the colonies and the heathen. The first meeting was held Mar. 8, 1699, and this was the beginning of the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge. In June, 1701, he divided its work and procured a royal charter for a second society—the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. From his appointment as commissary till he was able to sail he bore his own expenses and he paid the costs of his voyage. By his return he forfeited his salary, which was available only when he was in Maryland. A present of £400 he devoted to public use. He collected and managed a fund for the instruction of the negroes in the provinces, and, at the age of seventy-one, became interested in the prisoners in the London jails and undertook to ameliorate their condition. It is believed that he influenced General Oglethorpe to found the colony of Georgia. His benefactions were continued by numerous bequests in his will. Bray's exertions resulted in the foundation of nearly forty libraries in America. In 1699, just before he sailed for Maryland, he wrote that he had sent books to the value of £2,400 into the plantations, "whereby thirty libraries have been already advanced, and a foundation is laid of seventy libraries more." The greater number were in Maryland, but there were several in Virginia, two in North Carolina, and one each in Boston, Rhode Island, New York City, Albany, New Jersey, Philadelphia, and Charleston. That at Annapolis, Md., was the largest collection of books at the time in the plantations and was the first lending library in the British colonies. Its remains are now in the possession of St. John's College, Annapolis. The remnant of the Boston library is in the Boston Athenæum. After a severe illness in 1723 Bray chose four friends to assist in the management of the negro schools and continue his work after his death. Thus originated "Dr. Bray's Associates for Founding Clerical Libraries and Supporting Negro Schools," an association which has continued to exist and in 1906 reported 130 libraries maintained in England and Wales and 153 in sixty-seven colonial and missionary dioceses; during the year two new libraries were founded and negro schools were maintained in Nova Scotia and the Bahama Islands. The total number of libraries founded in Great Britain and the colonies is over 500. About eighty of the total number were founded by Dr. Bray, exclusive of those established in America. A reorganization of the "Associates" was effected in 1905, and a division of the funds was made whereby the income of an endowment amounting to about £7,000 will be applied to the support of the schools; the remainder of the funds, amounting to about £4,500, will be used to establish, maintain, or augment theological libraries in Great Britain or elsewhere for the use of clergymen of the Church of England and students who are candidates for holy orders. While at Sheldon, Bray planned *A Course of Lectures upon the Church Catechism, in 4 volumes,* and completed vol. i, twenty-six lectures, *On the Preliminary Questions and Answers * (Oxford, 1696); the book proved popular, brought him upward of £700, extended his reputation to London, and helped to secure his appointment as commissary; vols. ii-iv were not completed. In connection with his library plans he published: *Bibliotheca parochialis, or a scheme of such theological heads as are requisite to be studied by every pastor of a parish, with a catalogue of books * (London, 1697; 2d ed., much changed, 1707); *An Essay towards Promoting All Necessary and Useful Knowledge * (1697), closing with a catalogue of sixty-three books "designed to lay the foundation of lending-libraries to be fixed in all the market-towns in England "; *Bibliotheca catechetica, or the country curate's library* (1702); and *Primordia bibliothecaria * (1726), in which he gives "several schemes of parochial libraries" and outlines a method "to proceed by a gradual progression from strength to strength, from a collection not much exceeding in value £1 to £100." *Several Circular Letters to the Clergy of Maryland * (1701) treats of the "work of catechising" and the "duty of preaching," with many practical directions for the use of books; a list for a "layman's library" is appended. Of interest as Americana are: a sermon on *Apostolic Charity,* preceded by *A General View of the English Colonies in America with Respect to Religion * (London, 1698); a sermon on *The Necessity of an Early Religion,* preached before the Assembly of Maryland (Annapolis, 1700; the earliest extant work printed in Maryland); *The Acts of Dr. Bray's Visitation at Annapolis, May 23-25, 1700 * (London, 1700; reprinted in F. L. Hawks's *Contributions to the Ecclesiastical History of the United States,* vol. ii, New York, 1839, pp. 497-523); *A Memorial Representing the Present State of Religion on the Continent of North America * (1700). He was a strong Anti-Romanist, and another noteworthy publication was *Papal Usurpation and Persecution * (1712), intended as a supplement to Fox's *Book of Martyrs.* The materials gathered for this volume and a continuation of it, which he did not complete, he left to Sion College, London. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bray's *Life and Designs, * written probably, by Richard Rawlinson (d. 1755) and preserved in manuscript in the Bodleian Library, has been made the basis of all subsequent accounts (such as *Public Spirit Illustrated in the Life and Designs of the Rev. Thomas Bray,* London, 1746, 2d ed., with notes and the report of the "Associates" for 1807, by Henry J. Todd, 1808), and has been printed in full, with valuable notes and *Selected Works Relating to Maryland, * by B. C. Steiner, *Maryland Historical Society Fund Publication no. 37, * Baltimore, 1901. An article by Mr. Steiner in *The American Historical Review, * ii (1897), 59-75, gives an account of Bray's American libraries. Some information concerning the fate of those in England may be found in the *Transactions and Proceedings of the First Annual Meeting of the Library Association of the United Kingdom,* pp. 51-53, 145-150, London, 1879. A paper by J. F. Hurst on *Parochial Libraries in the Colonial Period, * in *Papers of the American Society of Church History,* vol. ii, part 1, New York, 1890, deals with the Bray libraries. The "Associates" (address, 19 Delahay St., London, S. W.) publish an annual report which contains a brief *Memoir of Dr. Bray.*

**BRAZIL:** A republic of eastern South America; area, 3,218,100 square miles; population, 15,000,000. Brazil became independent of Portugal by the creation of the Empire of Brazil in 1822, which was superseded without war in 1889 by the United States of Brazil, forming a republic with a new constitution framed in 1891. Each of twenty states sends representatives to the senate and house of deputies, but retains a large measure of self-government. It is expressly forbidden to "create, support, or prevent religious denominations," the basal principle being the free exercise of all religions, so far as they are not prejudicial to the public welfare. No religion, therefore, receives aid from the State, and civil marriage before a magistrate is legal, while instruction in the schools is required to be secular, the religious orders being suppressed. Simultaneously with the promulgation of this constitution, and partly in consequence of it, there was a rapid increase in immigration from Europe to Brazil, although for many years previously a considerable number of Italians had been coming to the country. This, however, made little change in religious conditions, although in more recent times the German immigration has somewhat increased, and a small number of North Americans has been added to the Italians, particularly in the cities; this increase, predominantly Protestant, is almost negligible in comparison with the numbers of Italians, Portuguese, and Spaniards. Non-German Protestant denominations are also represented, especially in the maritime towns, where there are English churches, which, however, do not always have permanent rectors. The Presbyterians, particularly from North America, have settled in considerable numbers in São Paulo, where they have established a college, and the American Seaman's Friend Society has an agent in the capital, Rio de Janeiro. In 1899 the Protestant Episcopal Church made the Rev. Lucien Lee Kinsolving bishop of southern Brazil, with residence at Rio Grande do Sul (São Pedro). In 1907 his diocese was made an integral part of the American Episcopal Church. German Protestantism is represented over an extensive territory and has numerous centers, as is shown by the existence of two great ecclesiastical bodies, the "Evangelical German Synod," subject to the jurisdiction of the higher church council of Berlin since 1869, and the "Evangelical Synodical Union" of 1884. The latter receives its clergy not only from Berlin, but also through the missionary societies of Barmen and Basel, especially in view of the number of Swiss immigrants to Brazil. Many German evangelical communities, as well as scattered members of the Evangelical Church are found both in Rio de Janeiro itself and the state of the same name (including Petropolis) and the state of Espirito Santo (including Leopoldina), and especially in the four southern states of São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul. In the latter state there are forty congregations, while in Santa Catharina 7,500 Protestants live in the German city of Blumenau alone, and of the 100,000 Germans in the state about two-thirds are evangelical. All the districts with a German population are richly provided with schools, even though all branches of instruction are not as thorough as might be desired. Evangelical schools, however, are not infrequently replaced by interdenominational religious schools. In the Roman Catholic German communities careful provision is made for schools, and in a number of colonies the educational activity of the clergy is such that they receive salaries from the State. The Roman Catholic Church has two archdioceses in Brazil: (1) Bahia or São Salvador (founded as a bishopric in 1555, made an archbishopric in 1676), with the suffragan bishoprics of Alagoas (founded 1900; residence at Maceió), Amazon (1893; residence Manáos), Belem or Pará (1719), Fortaleza or Ceará (1854), Goyaz (1826; residence Uberava), São Luiz (1677; residence Maranhão) Olinda (1676), Parahyba (1893), and Piauhy (1902; residence Therezina); and (2) São Sebastião or Rio de Janeiro (1676; made an archbishopric 1893), with the suffragan bishoprics of Curitiba (1893), Cuyabá (1745), Diamantina (1854), Marianna (1745), São Paulo (1745), Petropolis (1893), São Pedro (1848; residence Porto Alegre), Pouso Alegre (1900), and Espirito Santo (1896; residence Vitoria). There is also the exempt prelature of Santarem (1903). While secular priests are chiefly employed in the service of the Church, they are lacking in many districts and their training is defective. Despite the suppression of the orders, therefore, many of the larger ones have numerous representatives. Although they have few stations, they are actively engaged in the conversion of the Indians, among whom the Jesuits worked with great success in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in the ranges of the Cordilleras and along the Upper Amazon. In 1767 the Portuguese expelled the Jesuits from Brazil. The aborigines in the interior of Brazil still remain uninfluenced by any missionary activity. WILHELM GOETZ. BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the country and people consult: J. C. and D. P. Kidder, *Brazil and the Brazilians,* New York, 1896; [Miss M. R. Wright], *The New Brazil, its Resources and Attractions,* London, 1901; Santa-Anna Néry, *The Land of the Amazons,* New York, 1901; *United States of Brazil: a Geographical Sketch, with special Reference to Economic Conditions and Prospects of Future Development, * Bureau of Am. Republics, Washington, 1901; T. C. Dawson, *The South American Republics, * vol. i, New York, 1903. On religious matters consult: F. Badaro, *Les Couvents au Brésil,* Florence, 1897; H. P. Beach, *Protestant Missions in South America,* New York, 1900; J. S. Dennis, *Centennial Survey of Foreign Missions,* ib. 1902; H. C. Tucker, *Bible in Brazil,* ib. 1902. An exhaustive work of reference is A. L. Garraux, *Bibliographie brésilienne,* Paris, 1898.

**BREAD AND BAKING:** Bread was for the Hebrews the chief article of diet, as it is for modern Palestinian peasants. In early times it was made from barley, which was later displaced by wheat, except as it remained the staple for the poorer classes, though now it is not regarded as altogether wholesome. Primitive usage was to roast the ears of grain, which were so eaten especially at harvest time (Ruth ii, 14), and, thus prepared, still form a convenient food for travelers. In primitive preparation of grain for food, a sort of mortar was used to crush it into the coarser meal, a handmill for the flour. The latter, of primitive form, is still used in the East and consists of two stones, the lower one the harder, the middle surfaces not flat, but respectively concave and convex, the upper with a hole in the center in which the post of the lower is set and into which the grain is poured for grinding. The work of grinding fell to the women or to slaves, though the later and larger mills were turned by beasts. The preparation of meal or flour was a daily task, done as there was need for the product. The dough was mixed in a wooden kneading-trough, and in early times was unleavened, as is the case generally with the modern Bedouin. The dough was made up round, flat or disk-shaped, and baked on a layer of heated stones from which the coals were removed when the dough was placed upon the stones to bake and then replaced. Mention is made (Lev. ii, 5) of an iron plate or pan for baking. There came to be finally two forms of oven, both in common use among the modern peasantry, one of which is heated from the outside, the other from the inside. The art of baking was developed with the other arts till it became a handicraft or trade, and gave its name to a street in Jerusalem (Jer. xxxvii, 21; cf. Hos. vii, 4). Bread was used in sacred offerings at first either leavened or unleavened; later the former was excluded (Ex. xxiii, 18; Lev. ii, 11). (I. BENZINGER.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: An excellent account, perhaps the best, is to be found in *DB*, i, 315-319. Consult also: E. Robinson, *Biblical Researches,* ii, 416-417, New York, 1856; C. M. Doughty, *Arabia Deserta,* i, 131 and passim, London, 1888; Benzinger, *Archäologie,* pp. 62-66, 2d ed.; H. Vogelstein, *Die Landwirtschaft in Palästina,* Berlin, 1894; *EB,* i, 604-605.

**BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN:** American Presbyterian; b. at Cabell's Dale, near Lexington, Ky., July 4, 1797; d. there Aug. 4, 1841. He studied at Princeton and was tutor there 1820-21; was chaplain of Congress 1822-23; was ordained Sept. 10, 1823, and was pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church, Lexington, Ky., 1823-26; of the Second Presbyterian Church, Baltimore, 1828-31; corresponding secretary of the Board of Education of the Presbyterian Church at Philadelphia 1831-36; professor of pastoral theology in Princeton Seminary 1836-38; secretary of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions 1838-40. He was president of the American Colonization Society, and at the time of his death was president-elect of Oglethorpe University, Georgia. He was a leader of the Old School party and an ardent controversialist. He published a discussion with Archbishop Hughes of New York under the title *Roman Catholic Controversy * (Philadelphia, 1836) and some minor controversial essays.

**BRECKINRIDGE, ROBERT JEFFERSON:** Presbyterian minister, brother of John Breckinridge; b. at Cabell's Dale, near Lexington, Ky., Mar. 8, 1800; d. at Danville, Ky., Dec. 27, 1871. He was graduated at Union College, 1819; practised law in Kentucky, 1823-31, and was a member of the State legislature, 1825-29; studied theology at Princeton, 1831-32, was ordained Nov. 26, 1832, and was pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church, Baltimore, 1832-45; president of Jefferson College, Pennsylvania, 1845-47; pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, Lexington, Ky., and at the same time State superintendent of public instruction, 1847-53; professor of theology at Danville Seminary, 1853-69. He was a stanch Old School Presbyterian and the author of the "Act and Testimony" (1834), complaining of the prevalence of doctrinal errors, the relaxation of discipline, and the violation of church order, which played an important part in the disruption of the Presbyterian Church; he opposed the reunion in 1869. He was a bitter opponent of the Roman Catholic Church. During the Civil War he defended the Union cause and was president of the national Republican convention at Baltimore in 1864 which renominated Abraham Lincoln for the Presidency. During his residence in Baltimore he edited *The Literary and Religious Magazine *(1835-43), and *The Danville Review * at Danville (1861-65); his principal literary work is two volumes, *The Knowledge of God, * objectively and subjectively considered (New York, 1857-59).

**BRECKLING, FRIEDRICH:** A forerunner of the Pietistic school; b. at Hanved near Flensburg, Sleswick, 1629; died at The Hague Mar. 16, 1711. He studied at Rostock, where he imbibed the theology of Arndt; then at Königsberg, where syncretism was dominant, at Helmstädt, where his relation Calixtus then was, at Wittenberg, Leipsic, Jena, and Giessen. Here his thesis for the master's degree (1653) was criticized as savoring of Weigelianism, but he refused to alter it, and published it at Amsterdam under the title *Mysterium magnum, Christus in nobis * (1662). He became closely allied with Tackius, and went deeper into theosophy by the aid of Hermes Trismegistus, Paracelsus, and Böhme. Going to Hamburg, he read Betke's *Antichristentum, * and was much influenced by its conception of priestless Christianity. After some years of wandering in search of knowledge, he was ordained to be his father's assistant and ultimate successor; but violent attacks on the local clergy caused his deposition and imprisonment in 1660. Escaping, he went to Amsterdam and got a charge at Zwolle, where he spent eight years of comparative quiet, but was again deprived of his office, and lived in retirement at Zwolle (1668-72), Amsterdam (1672-90), and The Hague (1690-1711). He maintained a correspondence with Spener and with Gottfried Arnold, whom he helped in his church history, and was busily engaged as a writer. In spite of his weaknesses, he deserves remembrance as a link in the chain of mystical natures who prepared the way for Spener and the Pietistic movement. (F. NIELSEN.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Arnold, *Kirchen und Ketzergeschichte,* iii, 148-149, iv, 1103-04, Frankfort, 1729; A. Ritschl, *Geschichte des Pietismus,* ii, 1, 128, 146, Bonn, 1884; L. J. Moltesen, *F. Breckling, et Bidrag til Pietismens Udviklingshistorie, * Copenhagen, 1893.

**BREDENKAMP, KONRAD JUSTUS:** German Lutheran; b. at Basbeck (a village near Stade, 22 m. w.n.w. of Hamburg) June 26, 1847; d. at Verden (21 m. s.e. of Bremen) Mar. 25, 1904. He was educated at the universities of Erlangen, Bonn, and Göttingen, and was pastor at Kuppentin, Mecklenburg, from 1872 to 1878. He then resided at Göttingen for a year, and from 1880 to 1883 was privat-docent at Erlangen. In the latter year he accepted a call to Greifswald as professor of theology, and remained there until 1889, after which he was honorary professor of Old Testament exegesis at Kiel until his death. He wrote *Der Prophet Sacharja erklärt *(Erlangen, 1879); *Vaticinium quod de Immanuele edidit Jesaias (vii, 1-ix, 6) *(1880); *Gesetz und Propheten *(1881); and *Der Prophet Jesaia erläutert *(1887).

**BREECHES BIBLE.** See BIBLE VERSIONS, B, IV, § 9.