Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological & Ecclesiastical Literature

Wilmsen, Friedrich Eduard a Protestant theologian of Germany, was born January 29, 1736, at Halle. In 1777 he was called as pastor of the Parochial Church to Berlin, where he died, May 23, 1798. He is the author of, *De Sapientia Christi in Seligendo ad Apost. Gentt. Munus Paullo Conspicua *(Halle, 1756): — *Betrachtungen uber Weisheit und Thorheit im gemeinen Leben der Menschen *(Berlin, 1786): — *Moralische Predigten *(ibid. 1798; edited by F. Ph. Wilmsen): — *Predigten fur Hausvater und Hausmutter *(Leipsic, 1776). He also translated into German S. Clarke's *Paraphrase of the Four* *Evangelists *(Berlin, 1763, 3 volumes). See Winer, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *1:243, 569; 2:204, 207. (B.P.)

Wilmsen, Friedrich Philipp a Protestant theologian of Germany, was born February 23, 1770, at Magdeburg, and died at Berlin, May 4, 1831. He is the author of, *Briefe zur Beforderung des katech. Studiums *(Berlin, 1794-98): — Die *biblischen Geschichten des Alten und Neuen Testaments *(ibid. 1809): — *Das Leben Jesu Christi beschrieben *(ibid. 1816): — *Luther der Reformator *(ibid. 1817): — *Eusebia, Andachtsubungen in Gesangen, *etc. (ibid. 1827): — *Eugenia oder das Leben des Glaubens und der Liebe *(ibid. 1820): — *Herzenserhebungen fur stille Abendstunden *(Hanover, 1830). See Winer, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *1:862; 2:62, 71, 130, 253, 257, 262, 266, 333, 370, 393; Zuchold, *Bibl. Theol. *2:1453. (B.P.)

Wilna, Elijah also called *the Pious *(החסיד), was born in 1720 at Selz, near Brisk, in Poland His natural endowments were so extraordinary that when eleven years of age he was not only a thorough Hebraist, but unraveled the mysteries of the Cabala, and was master of astronomy, geometry, grammar, etc.; and at the age of thirteen (1733) was appealed to as a great authority and teacher. In addition to his marvelous native powers, he possessed a real love of learning and great assiduity, as well as .an independent fortune, and lived till 1797. Like Mendelssohn and Wessely, Wilna was laboring to produce a reformation in Poland with the special purpose to check the mischief wrought in the Jewish community by the Chasidim, who at his time had become very powerful. Wilna's writings are very numerous. Up to the year 1760 he had written the, prodigious number of sixty volumes, of which fifty-four, appeared between 1802 and 1854. We mention the following: *Commentary on the Order. Zeraim *(Lemberg, 1797, and often; last ed. Stettin, 1860): *— Commentary on the Order Toharoth *(*Brinn, *1802 and often last ed. Stettin; 1860): *Text-critical Glosses on the Mechilta *(Wilna, 1844): — *Critical Notes on the Babylonian Talmud *(Vienna, 1807, and often): — Critical *Notes on the Pirke de R. Elieser *(Warsaw, 1854): *— Critical Notes on the Pesikta *(Breslau, 1831.): *— Scholia to the Greatei and Lesser Seder Olam *(Wilna, 1845): *— Glosses on the Thirty-two Hermeneutical Rules of Rose *(Sklow, 1803): *— The Mantle of Elijah, *a commentary on the Pentateuch (first printed in the Pentateuch edition published at Dobrowna, 1804, and again at Halberstadt. 1859-60)-: — A *Commentary on Isa 1:12 and* *Habakkuk *(Wilna, 1820; 2d ed. ibid. 1843, edited arid supplemented by his grandson Jacob Moses of Slonim): — *A Commentary on Jonah *(ibid. 1800): — *A Commentary on Proverbs *(Sklow, 1798, and often): — *A Commentary on Job 1-6 *(Warsaw, 1854): — A *Commentary on the Song of Songs *(Prague, 1811; Warsaw, 1842):*A Commentary on the Chronicles *(Wilna, 1820; 2d ed. ibid. 1843): *— A Commentary on the Book Jezira *(Grodno, 1806): — *A Commentary on the Zohar *(Wilna, 1810): — *A Hebrew Grammar *(ibid. 1833)-: — A *Topographical Description of Palestine, and a Treatise on the Solomonic Temple *(Sklow, 1802, and often): — *A Commentary on the Third or Ezekiel's Temple *(Berlin, 1822). See Fuirst, *Bibl. Jud. *3, 516-521; Jost, *Gesch. d. Judenth. u. s. Sekten, *3, 248 sq.; Kitto, *Cyclop. *s.v.; Gratz, *Gesch. d. *Juden, 11, 118 sq.; Heschel, ס8 עליות אליהו (Wilna, 1856); Finnl, קריה נאמנה (containing a history of the congregation of Wilna, biographies of its rabbins, etc. [ibid. 1860]), p. 133 sq. (B. P.)

Wilson, Adam, D.D. a Baptist minister, was born at Topsham, Me., Feb. 3,1794. He was a. graduate of Bowdoin College in the class of 1819, and during his freshman year he joined the newly constituted Baptist Church in his native town. He studied theology with Rev. Dr. Stoughton, of Philadelphia, and was ordained in 1820. After preaching some months he was settled as pastor at Wiscassett, Me. His special vocation seemed to be rather as a stated supply of churches, and in this capacity he acted for a number of years. A new denominational paper having been started in Portland, Me., the *Zion's Advocate, *he became its editor and proprietor, conducting it with marked ability, and making it exceedingly useful in promoting the interests of the Baptist denomination in his native state. The last years of his life were spent in Waterville, Me., of the college in which place he was a trustee for forty years. His death occurred at Waterville, Jan. 16, 1871. "A man of energy and industry, of decided character and marked wisdom and discretion, and of genial disposition, he ever had the respect, confidence, and affection of the communion whose interests he espoused, and was: eminently a good man." See *Necrology of Bowdoin College *(J. C. S.).

Wilson, Bird, D.D., LL.D. a Protestant Episcopal clergyman, was born at Carlyle, Pa., in 1777. He graduated at Philadelphia College in 1792; studied law, and became president-judge of the Court of Common Pleas for the seventh Circuit of Pennsylvania in'1802; was ordained deacon in the Protestant Episcopal. Church in 1819; was rector of St. John's Church, Norristown, Pa., from 1819 to 1821; professor of systematic divinity in the Episcopal General Theological Seminary in New York from 1821 to 1850, and emeritus professor from 1850 until his death, April 14,1859. He published *Memoirs of the Life of the Right Rev. William White, Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the State of Pennsylvania, *and edited *Abridgment of the Law, by Matthew Bacon *(1811-13), and the *Works of the Hon. James Wilson, LL. D. *(1803-4). See a *Memorial *(1864) by W. White Bronson.

Wilson, Christopher, D.D. an English clergyman, was born in 1714; became prebendary of London in. 1745, of Westminster in 1748, and bishop of Bristol ins 1783. He died in 1792. His publications consist of a few single sermons.

Wilson, Daniel, D.D. a colonial bishop of the Church of England, was born in Spitalfields, London, in 1778. Destined by his parents for trade, he was apprenticed at fourteen to his uncle, a silk merchant. He was then a giddy boy; but in 1797 he was converted, and determined to abandon trade. In 1798 he entered St. Edward's Hall, Oxford, where he graduated A.B. in 1802, and A.M. in 1804.. -He had previously been ordained in 1801, and began his ministry in that year as curate to Mr. Cecil in Chobham. "In 1803 he was appointed to a tutorship at Oxford, where he remained for about eight years and a half, during which time he was first curate of Worton, and then of St. John's Chapel, London, where he remained until the year 1824. He then became vicar of Islington, discharging the duties of that office until 1832, when, on the death of Dr. Turner, bishop of Calcutta, he was appointed his successor, and from that time to his death, in 1858, he was devoted to the arduous and indefatigable labors for the promotion of Christianity in India, which have made his name conspicuous in the history of missions. Bishop Wilson was a man of studious habits and solid learning, with little respect for forms or ceremonies, compared with inward experience; destitute of the elegant culture and graceful address of Heber, one of his most distinguished predecessors, he was stern in purpose and explicit in speech. His energy in the discharge of duty was almost without a parallel. Social in his disposition, fond of conversation, and exercising a generous hospitality, he appears to have had few attachments and intimacies. Free from worldliness, from every trace of self-indulgence, from all duplicity and guile, he found his highest glory in the progress of the faith; and in his zeal, courage, firmness, and self-devotion, must be regarded as a model of the missionary bishop." In theology he belonged to the evangelical party of the Church of England -the earnest school of Newton, Hill, and Cecil. He died at Calcutta, Jan. 2, 1858. A copious biography is furnished in Bateman's *Life of Bishop Wilson *(Lond. 1860, 2 vols. 8vo; Boston, 1860, 8vo). Besides occasional sermons, charges, etc., he published *Sermons *(5th ed. ibid. 1826, *8vo*)*: — Evidences of Christianity *(4th ed. ibid. 1841, 2 vols. 12mo): *— Divine Authority of the Lord's Day *(ibid. 1831, 12mo; 3d ed. 1840): *Sermons Preached in India *(ibid. 1838, 8vo): *— Lectures on Colossians *(ibid. 1845, 8vo): *— Tour on the Continent *(1825, 2 vols. 8vo). See *Life, *by Bateman; *London Rev. *July, 1860, p. 470; *Amer. Ch. Rev. *1858, 2, 177.

Wilson, Harry Bristow, D.D. an English clergyman. was born in London in 1774; educated at Merchant- Taylors' School, and at Lincoln College, Oxford; was appointed third undermaster of Merchant-Taylors' School in 1798, and second undermaster in 1805, in which office he continued until 1824, when he resigned; became curate and lecturer of St. Michael's, Bassishaw, in 1807; and was rector of St. Mary Aldermary and St. Thomas the Apostle from August 2, 1816, until his death, November 21, 1853. He published a volume of *Sermons on Several Subjects *(1807): — *History of Merchant-Taylors' School *(1812- 14): — *Index to the Bible *(1818), and other works. See (Lond.) *Gentleman's Magazine, *1854, 1:536.

Wilson, Henry Rowan, D.D. a Presbyterian divine, was born near Gettysburg, Adams Co., Pa., Aug. 7, 1780. He pursued his preparatory course in a classical school in the neighborhood; graduated at Dickinson College in 1798; studied theology privately; was licensed to preach by the Presbytery of Carlisle in 1801; and was ordained and installed pastor of the congregations at Bellefont and at Lick Run, Center Co., Pa., in 1802. In 1806 he was called to the professorship of languages in Dickinson College, which position he held for ten years, until he became pastor of the Church at Silver Spring in 1816. In May, 1824, he was installed pastor of the Church in Shippenasburg; in 1838 he accepted the general agency of the Board of Publication in the Presbyterian Church; in 1842 he became pastor of the Church at Neshaminy, Hartsville, Bucks Co., Pa., where he continued till October, 1848, when, at his own request, the pastoral relation was dissolved. He died March 22, 1849. Dr. Wilson was a man of strong mind; an able, energetic, and popular preacher; "his record is on high." See *Sprague, Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *4:300; Nevin, *Churches of the Valley. *(J. L. S.)

Wilson, Hugh Nesbitt, D.D. a Presbyterian minister, was born at Elizabeth, N. J., May 7, 1813. He early felt the power of religion and united: with the Second Presbyterian Church of Elizabeth at about fifteen years of age. He graduated at the College of New Jersey in the class of 1830, and, after teaching for a short time in Trenton, N.J., entered Princeton Theological Seminary, where, after taking a full course of study, he graduated in 1834. During the years 1833-35, he held the place of tutor in the college. As an instructor, he was faithful, thorough, and able. His manners were gentle, winning, and most agreeable and he always commanded the unbounded respect as well as the affection of the students. He was licensed by the Presbytery of Elizabethtown, April 23, 1835, and ordained as an evangelist by the same presbytery Oct. 7, in the same year. His first field of labor was on Long Island, where he began to supply the Church at Southampton in September, 1835, but soon after he received and accepted a call to become its pastor, and was installed June 29, 1836. Here he had a long, useful, and happy pastorate of nearly sixteen years. His labors were largely blessed in. gathering many souls into the Church, and he enjoyed the unbounded love of an attached people. For reasons connected with his health he resigned his charge April 13, 1852, and was immediately afterwards settled at Hackettstown, N. J. There he was installed June 23, 1852, and labored six years with great acceptance but having received a call to the Second Reformed (Dutch) Church of New Brunswick, N. J., he resigned his charge at Hackettstown May 1, 1858, and was installed at New Brunswick May 27, in the same year. After laboring at the latter place four years, he resigned this charge in May, 1862. It is not often that a minister is invited back in later life to serve the congregation, which enjoyed his first ministrations. This happened to Dr. Wilson. After leaving New Brunswick, he was invited to supply for a time the Church at Southampton, which he began to do in August, 1863. In the next year he received a regular call, and was again installed as pastor on Sept. 25, 1864. But, after three years, his health, which had for a long time been far from strong, hopelessly failed, and he resigned May 1, 1867, and in June of the same; year he removed to Germantown, near Philadelphia. Here, in an extremely infirm and disabled condition, but patient and trustful, he continued to reside until his death, which occurred June 4, 1878. Dr. Wilson was a director in Princeton Seminary from 1851 until he resigned in 1858, on entering another denomination. He was, in the truest sense of the word, a Christian gentleman; was a fine classical scholar and a man of extensive reading. As a preacher, he was earnest, affectionate, instructive, and popular. The blessing of God attended his labors in every place where he was settled. See Corwin, *Manual of the Ref. Church, s.v. *(W. P.S.)

Wilson, James Patriot, D.D. a Presbyterian divine, was born at Lewes, Sussex Co., Del., Feb. 21, 1769. He graduated with high honor at the University of Pennsylvania in August, 1788; was admitted to the bar in 1790; licensed to preach by the Presbytery of Lewes in 1804, and in the same year was ordained and installed as pastor of the united congregations of Lewes, Cool Spring, and Indian River. In 1806 he accepted the pastoral charge of the First Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia, where he remained until he resigned in 1830. He died Dec. 9, 1830. Dr. Wilson was a profound thinker and a learned preacher of the Gospel. He published, *Lectures upon Some of the Parables and Historical Passages of the New Test. *(1810, 8vo): *— An Easy Introduction to Hebrew *(Phila. 1812, 8vo; 1817, 8vo): *— An Essay on Grammar *(1817,8vo; Land 1840, 18mo): *— Common Objections to Christianity *(Phila. 1829, 12mo): *— The Hope of Immortality *(1829, 12mo); — *A Free Conversation on the Unpardonable Sin *(1830): — *The Primitive Government of Christian Churches: — Liturgical Considerations *(1833): — also many single sermons and pamphlets. He edited *Sermons of the Rev. John Ewing, D.D., with a Life *(Easton, 1812, 8vo): — *Ridgley's Body of Divinity, with Notes. *(1814). See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *4:353; Allibone, *Dict. of Brit. and Amer. Authors, s.v.; Analect. Mag. *11,177. (J.L.S.)

Wilson, James, D.D. a bishop of the Church of Ireland, was a native of Dublin, and a student of Trinity College, from which he received his degree of A.M. in 1809. He occupied the post of examining chaplain to Dr. Whately, archbishop of Dublin, and was consecrated bishop of Cork in 1848. He died at Cork, Jan. 5, 1857, aged seventy-five years. His title at the time of his death was bishop of Cork, Cloyne, and Ross. See *Amer. Quar. Church Rev. *1857, p. 149.

Wilson, John A., D.D. a Protestant Episcopal clergyman, was born at Washington, D.C., in 1810. He graduated from Kenyon College and Gambler Theological Seminary; was rector of Zion Church, Pontiac, Michigan, from 1840 to 1847, and thereafter of St. Luke's Church, Ypsilanti, until 1882. He died May 7, 1885.

Wilson, John Glasgow, D.D. a minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, was born in Maury County, Tennessee, in 1826. He was piously reared in the Presbyterian Church, graduated from Nashville University at the age of sixteen, and licensed to preach at twenty-four; served for twenty years as president of Huntsville Female College and Warren College, Kentucky; in 1876 became pastor of St. John's Church, St. Louis; in 1880 presiding elder, and died August 5, 1884. See *Minutes of Annual Conferences of the M.E. Church South, *1884, page 142.

Wilson, John Makemie,D.D. a Presbyterian divine, was born in Mecklenburg County, N. C., in 1769. He graduated with the highest honor at Hampden Sidney College in 1791; studied theology privately under the direction of the Rev. James Hall, D.D.; was licensed to preach by the Presbytery of Orange, N. C., in 1793, and immediately after was sent by the Commission of Synod on a missionary tour through the counties in the lower part of the state. He was ordained in 1795, and continued in this mission work until 1801, when he accepted a call from the congregations of Rocky River and Philadelphia. In 1812 he opened a school especially for the accommodation of the young men of his charge who wished to devote themselves to the ministry; this school he continued for-about twelve years, and twenty-five of his pupils became ministers of the Gospel. He died July 30,1831. Dr. Wilson possessed a strong, penetrating, and well-cultivated mind. As a member of the judicatories of the Church, no man of his day was held in higher repute. He preached the Gospel with great fidelity and fervency, and with strong faith in the spirit of God to give it effect. He published, a *Sermon *(1804): *— Sermon *(1811): — and an *Appendix *to a work on psalmody by the Rev. Dr. Ruffner, of Virginia. See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, 4:*90; Foote, *Sketches of North Carolina; *Allibone, *Dict. of Brit and Amer. Authors, *s.v. (J. L. S.)

Wilson, John, D.D. a missionary of the Scotch Free Church to Bombay. Though not so widely known as Dr. Duff, he was a kindred spirit. His influence had become very great in India, where he spent forty-eight years of missionary toil. While at home a short time, he was made moderator of the General Assembly, and men rose up everywhere to do him honor. He returned to India and assumed his labors, continuing in vigorous health until a few months before his death, which occurred in Bombay in 1875. See *Presbyterian, *Jan. 1, 1876. (W. S.)

Wilson, Joshua Lacy, D.D. a Presbyterian divine, was born in Bedford County, Va., Sept. 22, 1774, and in the fall of 1781 removed to the neighborhood of Danville, Ky., with his mother and stepfather, John Templin, father of Terah Templin. He was brought up to the trade of a blacksmith, and had no education beyond what his mother gave him till he was twenty-two years old. At that period he was converted. He soon after commenced the study of law, but abandoned it for theology; was licensed to preach in 1802, and in 1804 was ordained pastor of Barcstown and Big Spring churches, Ky. In 1805 he sat as a member of the Commission of Synod in the Cumberland difficulties. In 1808 he became pastor of the First Presbyterian Church in Cincinnati, where he remained for thirty-eight years, part of the time teaching a classical school. In the great controversy, which divided the Presbyterian Church in 1837, he bore an active and prominent part. He died Aug. 14, 1846. Dr. Wilson was a self-educated man, of unbending integrity, candor, and conscientiousness. For thirty-eight years he was at the head of every social, moral, and intellectual enterprise of the day in Cincinnati, and to his personal influence Cincinnati College is largely indebted for its existence and prosperity. He published, *Episcopal Methodism, or Dagonism Exhibited *(1811), and a number of sermons and theological pamphlets. See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *4:308; Allibone, *Dict. of Brit and Amer. Authors, *s.v. Davidson, *Hist. of the Presb. Church in Kentucky, *p. 364-366. (J.L. S.)

Wilson, Matthew, D.D. eminent as a Presbyterian divine, a physician, and a teacher, was born in Chester County, Pa., Jan. 15, 1731. He received his education in an academy in New London, Pa., studied theology privately, was licensed to preach in April, 1754, ordained in October, 1755 and installed pastor of the congregations at Lewes and Cool Spring, Del., in April, 1756. He was regularly bred to the medical profession, and few physicians of his day manifested more medical skill and learning. He died March 30, 1790. Dr. Wilson was an instructive and persuasive preacher; learned, pious, patriotic, and benevolent in an eminent degree. He contributed medical papers to *Aitken's Amer. Mag. *1775, and *Carey's Amer. Mus. *vol. 4 and *Observations on the Winter of *1779-80 to *Trans. Amer. Soc. *vol. 3; and left prepared for the press (never published) *A Therapeutic Alphabet. *See Thacher, *Amer. Med. Biog. *2, 197; Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit,* 3, 178; Allibone, *Dict. of Brit and Amer. Authors, *s.v. (J. L. S.)

Wilson, N.W., D.D. a Baptist minister, was born in Pendleton County, Virginia, October 20, 1824. He was ordained in 1858, and after having been a pastor of country churches for several years, was invited to the pastorate of the Church at Chapel Hill, N.C., and subsequently to Farmdale, Virginia, where he remained two years. In 1870 he was called to the Grace Street Church Richmond; in 1875 he removed to New Orleans, and. became pastor of the Colosseum Church. He died of the yellow fever in 1878. He is spoken of as having been "one of the most eloquent ministers in the South." See Cathcart, *Bapt. Encyclop. *page 1260. (J.C.S.)

Wilson, Robert G., D.D. a Presbyterian divine, was born in Lincoln County, N. C., Dec. 30, 1768. He pursued his preparatory studies at an academy in Salisbury, N.C.; graduated at Dickinson College in 1790; studied theology privately; was licensed to preach April 16, 1793, by the Presbytery of South Carolina; and was ordained and installed pastor of Upper Long Cane Church, in Abbeville District, May 22, 1794. He was offered a professorship in South Carolina College, and was also invited to become principal of an academy in Augusta, Ga.; but he declined these offers, and accepted, in 1805, a call to become pastor of a small Church, then lately organized, in Chillicothe, O., where he remained nineteen years, greatly beloved by his people and signally blessed in his labors. In 1824 he resigned his charge by advice of the presbytery, and accepted an invitation to the presidency of the Ohio University, at Athens, over which he continued to preside until 1839, when, on account of the increasing infirmities of age, he resigned the office, returned to Chillicothe, and engaged to preach as a stated supply for the Union Church. He died April 17,1851. Dr. Wilson was an instructive preacher. He excelled as a member of the judicatories of the Church. In' no situation, however, in which he was placed were the energies of his mind brought into more vigorous and effective exercise than in the presidency of Ohio University. When he, entered upon that office, the institution .was greatly depressed; but he gave to it the whole power of his vigorous mind, and his success, was indicated within a few years by a very considerable increase of both funds and students. He published, three single sermons (1817, 1828, 1829): — a sermon in the *Presb. Preacher *(1833): — and an *Address to the Graduating Class of Ohio University *(1836). See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, 4:*122; Foote, *Sketches of North Carolina; *Allibone, *Dict. of Brit and Amer. Authors, *s.v. (J. L. S.)

Wilson, Samuel B., D.D. a Presbyterian divine, was born in South Carolina about 1782, studied in the usual schools of the day, was pastor for thirty-seven years, and subsequently professor in the Union Theological Seminary of Virginia, at length *emeritus *until his death, in August, 1869. See Nevin, *Presbyterian Encyclop. *s.v.

Wilson, Samuel Jennings, D.D., LL.D. an eminent Presbyterian minister and educator, was born near Washington, Pennsylvania, July 19, 1828. He graduated from Washington College in 1852, and from the Western Theological Seminary in 1855, was licensed to preach the same year, served two years as teacher in the seminary, in 1857 became professor there, and continued in office until his death, August 17, 1883. See Nevin, *Presbyterian Encyclop. *s.v.

Wilson, Sir Thomas (1), LL.D. a statesman and divine of the reign of queen Elizabeth, was born at Stroby, in Lincolnshire, about 1524. He was educated at Eton and at King's College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1546. He took orders in the Church of England; became tutor to the two sons of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, by Mary, ex-queen of France, but both of his pupils soon died; withdrew to the Continent on the accession of queen Mary, in 1553; was imprisoned by the Inquisition at Rome on account of heresies alleged to be contained in his *Logic *and *Rhetoric,: *and was put to the torture; obtained his liberty at the death of pope Paul IV in 1555, in consequence of. a fire which caused the populace to break open the doors and allow the prisoners to escape; returned to England and became private secretary to queen Elizabeth in 1558; was appointed one of the masters of requests, and master of St. Katherine's Hospital, near the Tower; went as envoy to the Netherlands in 1576; became secretary of state and colleague of Sir Thomas Walsingham in 1577; was made dean of Durham in 1579; and died in London, June 16,1581. He published a *Latin Biography of his two pupils, Henry and Charles Bandon *(*1551*)*.: — The Rule of Reason, Containing the Arte of Logique set forth in Englishe *(eod.): — The *Arte of Rhetorike, for the Use of all Suche as are Studious of Eloquence* (*1553*)*: — The Three Orations of Demosthenes, *etc. (1570): — and A *Discourse uppon Usurye by Waye of Dialogue and Oracions, *etc. (1572). See Strype, *Annals; *and Chalmers, *Biog. Dict. *s.v.

Wilson, Thomas (1) an English Puritan divine of the 16th century, preached at St. George's Church in Canterbury thirty-six years, was chaplain to lord Wotton, and died in January 1621. He was the author of a *Dialogue Concerning Justification by Faith *(1610): — *God's Eternal Purpose *(1611): — *Complete Christian Dictionary *(1612): — *Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans *(1614): — *Receipt against Heresies: *— *Christ's Farewell to Jerusalem *(eod.): — *Theological Rules *(1615), and other works. See Chalmers, *Biog. Dict. *s.v.

Wilson, Thomas (2) an English clergyman and school-master, was born in 1748. He was master of the grammar school at Clitheroe, Lancashire, for about forty years, and died in 1813. He was the author of *An Archaeological Dictionary; or, Classical Antiquities of the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, Alphabetically Arranged, *and a volume of *Miscellanies.*

Wilson, Thomas (2), D.D., LL.D. a Church of England divine, was born at Burton, Cheshire, Dec. 20, 1663. Little is known of his early life. He was educated at Chester and at Trinity College, Dublin, quitting the university in 1686, and receiving an appointment to Winwick, Lancashire. In 1692 he was ordained priest, and became domestic chaplain to the earl of Derby, and tutor to his son; and in 1796 entered upon his duties as bishop of Sodor and Man, in which he remained faithful till death, 1755. Bishop Wilson was remarkable for his humility, his conscientiousness, and his devotedness to Christian duty. He was a man of prayer and deep piety. *See Christian Observer, *1820, p. 569, 713, 785; *Church of England Magazine, *1836, p. 245; and *Christian Remembrancer, *1829, p. 729.

Wilson, Thomas (3), D.D. an English divine, son of bishop Thomas, was born at Kirk Michael, in the Isle of Man, Aug. 24, 1703. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated A.M., Dec. 16, 1727; became prebendary of Westminster in 1743; was forty-six years rector of St. Stephen's, Walbrook; and died at Alford House, Bath, April 15, 1784. He published, *Distilled Liquors the Bane of the Nation; Review of the Project for Building a New Square at Westminster *(1757); *The Ornaments of the Churches Considered, *etc. (1716).

Wimmer, Gabriel a Lutheran theologian of Germany, was born at Sagan, in Silesia, October 29, 1671, and died at Alten-Morbitz, in the diocese of Borna, March 14, 1745, in his first and only parish, to which he was appointed in 1697. He is the author of *Ausfuhrliche Liedererklarung *(Altenburg, 1749, 4 parts, published by his son). He also wrote some hymns, which are still in use. See Koch; *Gesch, d. deutschen Kirchenliedes, *5:497 sq. (B.P.)

Wimpheling, Jakob a German humanist, was born July 26, 1450. At Freiburg he was the pupil of Geiler von Kaiserberg (q.v.). An epidemic drove him to Erfurt, but he eventually completed his university course at Heidelberg. He became master in philosophy in 1471, and began the study of canon law, exchanging it, however, ere long for that of theology. In 1479 he was made dean of the philosophical faculty, in 1481 superintendent of the Artist College and rector, in 1483 bachelor of theology and licentiate. Soon afterwards he was consecrated to the priesthood, and made preacher and canon at the cathedral of Spires. He was, however, rather suited to be an educator than a preacher, by reason of physical debility and a weak voice, and the natural bias of his mind. He was incessantly busy with his pen, and constantly had charge of a number of young men, whom he inspired with a love of learning and of truth, which made them, as a rule, the ready, and, in some instances, effective supporters of the Reformation, when that movement began. In this period (1497) he wrote the *Isidoneus Germanicus, *one of his most important works, and one of the first to direct the course of education into a new channel. Fourteen years were spent at Spires, when he resolved upon retiring with Christoph von Utenheim (q.v.), Geiler von Kaiserberg, and others, to a hermitage in the depths of theBlack Forest, but was hindered from the execution of the plan by a transfer to the faculty of arts at Heidelberg, September 13, 1498. It was characteristic of his spirit that while concerned to introduce a purer Latin, and engaged in the delivery of lectures on rhetoric and poetry, he should confine himself chiefly to the teaching of Christian authors like Jerome and Prudentius, and that he should reject the study of heathen authors as being injurious to youth. From this judgment he excepted Cicero, Virgil, and a few others only; but slight as was this concession, it obliged him to deliver two apologetic discourses to prove, against the assaults of monastic adversaries, the utility of humanistic studies. In 1500 he resigned his professorship on the invitation of Utenheim, to resume the project of a hermit life, but while tarrying at Strasburg, Utenheim was made administrator of the diocese of Basle, and Wimpheling: accordingly remained with Kaiserberg, and completed (1502) the edition of Gerson's works, upon which the fatter had been employed since 1488. At this time he came into conflict with the notorious barefoot monk Thomas Murner (q.v.), through the publication of a work intended to promote the loyalty of Strasburg towards Germany, and basing its plea on the false statement that the Gaul of Coesar's time had never extended to the Rhine, but only to the borders of Austrasia, subsequently a German province; and as he was victorious in the dispute, he retained his erroneous opinion while he lived. In December 1502, Utenheim succeeded to the see of Basle, and invited Wimpheling to collect and examine existing synodal statutes, with a view to reforming the clergy of the diocese. After completing this work Wimpheling returned to Strasburg to take possession of a summissariat, to which he was appointed, but which was given to another person. He was therefore obliged to resume the training of young men as a means of earning a livelihood, and accepted a tutorship over the sons of his friends, Sturm and Paulus. A tract written at this time for one of these young men, in which he proved that Augustine had never been a monk, and that the boast of monasticism, that all wisdom takes refuge in a cowl, was false, since neither the ancient philosophers nor Moses, nor yet Christ and the apostles, the early fathers of the Church, and later venerable men, such as Gregory the Great, Bede, Alcuin, etc., were in any wise identified with monasticism, brought upon him the full weight of monkish fury, and made him the earliest of humanists to experience its rage. His books enraged many of the secular clergy also, as they contained frequent exposures of the abuses tolerated in the Church, and of vices existing among her ministers, and persisted in demanding a reform of these evils. He was accused at Rome, but pope Julius II commanded the ignorant monks to be silent. Wimpheling now undertook the work of improving the current methods of educating the young, but with indifferent success, as he received no encouragement from persons in authority. He also wrote a history of the diocese of Strasburg, which is still a source of some value. After the death of Geiler von Kaiserberg he wrote an appreciative characterization of the great preacher who had so long been his friend. His next important occupation was the drawing up of the list of complaints laid to the charge of the papacy by the German people, by direction of the emperor Maximilian I. To the list he added a number of recommendations, touching, e.g., the plurality of benefices, and an adaptation of the French *Pragmatic Sanction *to German conditions, which were favorably received, as was a supplementary work entitled *Medulla, Sanctionis Pramaticae. *A nunnery in the diocese of Basle was placed in his charge by his friend, bishop Utenheim, and in this place he spent several years. In 1512 he wrote a valuable psedagogical work, entitled *De Proba Institutione Puerorum in Trivialibus et Adolescentum in Universalibus Gymnnasiis; *but he felt himself to be too old to put his theories into practice at the head of a school, and therefore declined a call to teach theology at Strasburg. The warfare with the monks was continued steadily, and drew forth from him a number of exposures of their conduct, and ultimately a broadside from the authors of the *Epistolce Obscurorum Virorum. *Towards the close of 1515 he retired to his native town of Schlettstadt, and thenceforward made that place his home. He surrounded himself with a company of ambitious young men, and organized a literary society which included Bucer and Phrygio among its members, and for a time commended the Wittenberg scholars as promoters of improved methods of study. Wimpheliuig himself greeted the rise of the Reformation, and approved of Luther's course. In 1518 he submitted an opinion to the emperor at the diet of Worms, which, though guarded, was certainly not adverse to Luther's interests. He soon found, however, that the new movement was taking on more extensive proportions, and assuming a more radical character than he had expected, and, with the timidity which characterized the class to which he belonged, he not only withdrew from its support, but even wrote to Luther to persuade him that the canon of the mass contained nothing contrary to the doctrines and usages of the early Church. He saw with pain that the Reformation was the fruitage of a seed which he had himself helped to sow. Wimpheling's life and character were full of contradictions, growing out of the fact that while he saw clearly the corruption and danger of the Church and the age, he yet failed to understand the methods through which alone a reform could be secured. He trembled at the idea of lay hands attempting an improvement, even though they might be the hands of emperor or king, and shrank in terror from the idea of assailing the pope and existing institutions in the Church. With scholarly bias he thought that the study of theology would alone elevate the clergy and reform the Church. His psedagogical writings contained many ideas which were reduced to practice by Protestant teachers in the next generation, though he was still too much a schoolman to intend more than a reform in grammatical and rhetorical instruction with his proposals. He cared more for a return to the elegant and correct style of classical writers than for the study of the teachings of antiquity as a means of culture for the mind. He studied the hymnology of the Church, and attempted its improvement. He also wrote an *Epitome Rerum Germanicarum, *which is interesting as the first essay towards the writing of German history. Wimpheling's style was easy and perspicuous, precise, often elegant, lively, and witty, though verbose. He wrote poetry which lacked inspiration and fancy, and which may be characterized as mere practice in Latin versification. He was, in brief, rather practical than speculative, and was devoid of originality. His writings were generally brief tractates, filled with citations from other books, and the influence they exerted was largely due to the elevated sentiments they expressed. His personal bearing was amiable, modest, and yet helpful. Reuchlin honored him as a sturdy supporter of religion, and, after his death, November 17, 1528, Erasmus wrote a very beautiful letter in his praise to Vlatten. For material towards his biography, consult Riegger, *Amenuitates Literariae Friburgenses *(Ulm, 1775; Fasc. 2), and see, generally, Herzog, *Real-Encyklop. *s.v.

Wimpina, Konrad (really *Koch; *for he adopted the name Wimpina from the town of Wimpfen, his father's native place), a scholastic theologian and defender of Tetzel, the indulgence peddler, was born at Buchen, or Buchheim, in the Oden forest, A.D. 1459 or 1460. He was educated at Leipsic, and held a professorship in that university. In 1502 he became licentiate, and in 1503 doctor of theology. Envy charged him with holding heterodox views at this time, but he succeeded in repelling the charge before the archbishop of Magdeburg. In 1505 he, in his turn, assailed Martin Polichius with a charge of heterodoxy, because that writer had characterized scholastic speculations as useless, and had recommended philological studies as possessing a higher value for theology. Wimpina was associated with the founding of the University of Wittenberg, and immediately afterwards was made professor of theology and rector in the University of Frankfort-on- the-Oder. On Luther's promulgation of his theses against indulgences, Wimpina assumed the defense of Tetzel. Two disputations in Tetzel's favor appeared in 1517, which were generally credited to Wimpina, and which were chiefly remarkable as postulating a distinction between punitive and reformatory punishments in connection with the theory of indulgences. In 1530 Wimpina attended the Diet at Augsburg, in. the character of associate author of the *Conflation *of the *Augsburg Confession, *and also as a member of the commission appointed to effect a reconciliation of parties with respect to points in dispute. He died, either May 17 or June 1., 1531, in the monastery of Amorbach, *Literature — Gieseler, Kirchengesch. *vol. 3; Loscher, *Reform. Acta und Documenta *(Leips. 1720),1. 86 sq.; *Unschuldige Nachrichten *(ibid. 1716); De Woette, *Luther's Brieffe, *etc. (Berlin, 1825), vol. 1; Seckendorff, *Ausfuhrl. Hist. d. Lutherthums *(Leips. 1714); Sost and Olpe, *Tetzel u. Luther, *etc. (1853) [Rom. Cath.; *Herzog, Real-Encyklop. *s.v.

Wimple is the rendering, in the A. V. at Isa 3:22, of the Heb. מַטַפִּהִח, *mitpachach *(from טָפִח*, to spread *out; Sept. translates undistinguishably; Vulg. *linteamenta*), which is translated "veil" in Luther 3:15, but it signifies rather a kind of shawl or mantle (Schroder, *De Vestitu Mulier. Hebr. *c. 16). The old English and now obsolete term means a kind of hood or veil in use at the time the translation was made, and was not a bad representative of the original. The word occurs in Spenser: ***"For she had laid her mournful stole aside, And widow-like sad wimple thrown away."*** ***"But (she) the same did hide Under a veil that wimpled was full low; And over all a black stole she did throw, As one that inly mourned."*** *SEE VEIL*.

Wimple, in ecclesiastical phrase, is a name for a hood or veil, especially the white linen cloth bound about the forehead, and covering the necks of nuns (q.v.).

Wimr in Norse mythology, is the river through which Thor waded when he journeyed towards Geirrodsgard. The daughter of the giant made its waters so high that they reached to his neck.

Winchell, James Manning a Baptist minister, was born at North East, Dutchess County, N.Y., September 8, 1791; was converted about 1807; entered Union College in 1808; graduated from Brown University in 1812; was licensed by the Baptist Church at North East, October 4 of the same year; supplied the Baptist Church at Bristol, R.I., during 1813; was ordained pastor of the First Baptist Church in Boston, Massachusetts, March 30, 1814; and died February 22, 1820. He published an edition of *Watts's Psalms and Hymns, with a Supplement, and Two Discourses, Exhibiting an Historical Sketch of the First Baptist Church in Boston from 1665 to 1818 (1819)*. See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, *6:595.

Winchelsey, Robert archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Winchelsea, and educated at Canterbury. From Canterbury School he proceeded to Paris, and there his success was remarkable. At an early age he received his degree of A.M., and soon after was appointed rector of the university. On his return to England he became a member of Merton College, Oxford. In 1288 he was appointed chancellor of Oxford. He was also appointed archdeacon of Essex. He was translated to Canterbury in 1293, and enthroned in grand style by Henry, prior of his church at Canterbury, in 1295. It seems that of all the primates of all England, none was ever so unpopular as archbishop Robert. He was so self-willed and haughty that he placed himself as it were, in opposition to the country just when the nation was rising to national independence. He was so unscrupulous in the means he adopted and the measures he proposed that he at length involved himself in the guilt of high-treason. Towards the close of his life, he divided his time between Oxford and Canterbury. "Whatever may have been said of his faults as a public-character-and they were many and great all his contemporaries bear testimony to his worth in private life." He exercised boundless charities to the poor, and their gratitude invested him with the character of a saint. He died at Otford, May 11, 1313. See Hook, *Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury, *3, 368 sq.

Winchester, Councils OF *(Concilium Wintoniense). *Winchester is a city of England, capital of Hampshire, situated on the right bank of the Itchin, twelve miles north- north-east of Southampton and sixty-two miles west-south-west of London. Several ecclesiastical councils have been held there, as follows: **I. **Was held in 856, in the presence of three kings. It was enacted that in future the tenth part of all lands should belong to the Church, free of all burdens, as an indemnification for the losses sustained by the incursion of the Normans who had ravaged England. See Mansi, *Concil. *8:243; Wilkins, *Concil. *1:184. **II. **Was held in 975, by St. Dunstan, in consequence of the disturbances raised by certain clerks, whom he had deprived of their churches on account of marriage and scandalous life. The well-known incident of the image of our crucified Savior having decided in favor of the monks, is said to have occurred in this council. The clerks were condemned, and implored the intercession of the young king Edward, who entreated Dunstan to re- establish them, but in vain. See Mansi, *Concil. *9:721; Wilkins, *Concil.* 1:261. **III. **Was held in 1021, under king Canute, to confirm the exemption of the abbey of St. Edmund. See Mansi, *Concil. *9:843; Wilkins, *Concil. *1:297. **IV. **Was held on the octave of Easter, 1070, in the presence of William the Conqueror. The three legates of Rome, Hermenfride, bishop of Syon, and the cardinals John and Peter, presided. Stigand of Canterbury was deposed, (I) for having retained the bishopric of Winchester together with the archbishopric of Canterbury; (2) for having worn the pall of his predecessor Robert until the pope sent him a new one; and (3) for having received the pall from the anti-pope, Benedict X. Agelmar, bishop of the East Angles, and several abbots were also deposed. Walfred, bishop of Worcester, claimed from William certain lands belonging to his bishopric which the latter had withheld, and the claim was allowed. Thirteen canons were published. **1. **Concerning the coming-in of bishops and abbots by simoniacal heresy. **2. **Of ordaining men promiscuously, and by means of money. **3. **Of the life and conversation of such men. **4. **That bishops should celebrate councils twice a year. **5. **That bishops ordain archdeacons and other ministers of the sacred order in their own churches. **6. **That bishops have free power in their dioceses over the clergy and laity. **7. **That bishops and priests invite laymen to penance. **8. **Of apostatizing clerks and monks. **9. **That bishops have their sees ascertained, and that none conspire against the prince. **10. **That laymen pay tithes, as it is written. **11. **That none invade the goods of the Church. **12. **That no clerk shall bear secular arms. **13. **That clerks and monks be duly reverenced, let him that does otherwise be anathema. See Johnson, *Eccl. Canons, *sub ann.; Mansi, *Concil. *9:1202; Wilkins, *Concil. *1:322. **V. **Was held probably in 1071, by archbishop Lanfranc. Sixteen canons were published, the heads only of which remain to us. **1. **That no one be allowed to preside over two bishoprics. **2. **That no one be ordained by means of siloniacal heresy. **3. **That foreign clergymen be not received without letters commendatory. **4. **That ordinations be performed at the certain seasons. **5. **Of altars, that they be of stone. **6. **That the sacrifice be not of beer, or water alone, but of wines mixed with water only. **7. **Of baptism, that it be celebrated at Easter or Whitfinntide only, except there be danger of death. **8. **Whitmnasses be not celebrated in churches before they have been consecrated. **9. **That the corpses of the dead be not buried in churches. **10**. That the bells be not tolled at celebrating in the time of the Secret (Secretum Missae). **11. **That bishops only give penance for gross sins. **12. **That monks who have thrown off their habit be admitted neither into the asimy, nor into any convent of clerks, but be esteemed excommunicated. **13. **That every bishop celebrate a synod once a year. **14. **That tithes be paid by all. **15. **That clergymen observe continence, or desist from their office. **16. **That chalices be not of wax or wood. It was probably resolved in this council that an institution of penance for the soldiers of William of Normandy, left by the legate Hermenfride, should be executed. It is in thirteen heads. See Johnson, *Eccl. Canons, *1078; *Wilkins, Concil. *1:365. **VI. **Was convoked by William the Conqueror, and held in 1072; fifteen bishops were present, with Hubert, the Roman legate, and many abbots and barons. The dispute between the archbishops of Canterbury and York was examined with care, and it was established, both from ecclesiastical history and by popular tradition, that, from the time of St. Austin till the last one- hundred and forty years, the primacy of the see of Canterbury over the whole of Great Britain had been recognised; that the archbishop of Canterbury had often held ordinations and synods in the very city of York itself. At the following Whitsuntide it was also decided, in a synod held at Windsor, that the see of York was subject to that of Canterbury. See Mansi, *Concil. *9:1211; Wilkins, *Concil. *1:324. **VII. **Was held in 1076, by archbishop Lanfranc. Six canons were published. **1. **Forbids canons to have wives. Enacts that such priests as live in castles and villages be not forced to dismiss their wives if they have them. Forbids such as have no wives to marry, and bishops to ordain in future any who do not declare that they have no wife. **2. **Forbids to receive a clerk or monk without letters from his bishop. **3. **Forbids the clergy to pay any service for his benefice hut what he paid, in the time of king Edward. **4. **Laymen accused of any crime to be excommunicated after the third summons to appear before the bishop, if they refuse. **5. **Declares a marriage made without the priest's benediction to be a state of fornication. **6. **Forbids all supplautation of churches. See Johnson, *Eccl. Canons;* Mansi, *Concil. *10:351; Wilkins, *Concil. *1:367. **VIII. **Was held August 29, 1139, under archbishop Theodore, against king Stephen, who had seized upon certain houses belonging to the churches of Salisbury and Lincoln, and thrown the two prelates into prison. Stephen himself was cited to appear before the council. Henry, bishop of Winchester, the pope's legate, complained of the injury done to the cause of religion by those who plundered the property of the Church upon the plea of the ill-conduct of the bishops. He required that the king should begin by re-establishing the injured bishops, who, by the common law, were incapacitated from pleading on account of their seizure. The king sent a warning to the bishops, that none of them should have the boldness to make complaint to Rome against him. Upon this the council broke up without settling anything, for the king refused to submit to the judgment of the prelates, and the latter did not think it advisable to employ ecclesiastical censures against him upon their own responsibility, and surrounded as they were by his power. See Wilkins, *Concil. *1:419; Mansi, *Concil. *10:1014. **IX. **Was held in 1143, on the Monday after the octave of Easter, by Henry, bishop of Winchester, legate a latere. Two constitutions were published. **1. **Declares that none who violated a church or churchyard, or laid violent hands upon a clerk or religious person, should be absolved by any person but the pope. **2. **Declares that the plough and husbandman in the field slhould, enjoy the.same peace as if they were in the churchyard. All who opposed these decrees were excommunicated with candles lighted. See Wilkins, *Concil. *1:421; Johnson, sub ann., Mansi, *Concil. *10:1024.

Winchester, Elhanan a Universalist minister, was born at Brookline, Mass., Sept. 30, 1751. He was of Welsh descent, the son of a respectable and industrious mechanic, the eldest of a family of fifteen children; vas very precocious, naturally of a feeble constitution, and remarkably amiable; received a careful religious training and excellent educational privileges; joined the Baptists in 1769, united in marriage the same year, and soon after began his ministerial career. In 1771 he preached at Rehoboth, Mass., where his youth, extraordinary memory, eloquence, apparent zeal, and singular dress excited interest and drew multitudes to his meetings. His subsequent appointments were: Grafton, 1772; Hull, 1773-74; Welch Neck, S.C., 1775-79, meanwhile traveling and preaching extensively every summer in the Middle and Eastern States; Philadelphia, Pa., 1780, where and when he accepted the Restoration theory. He sailed to England in 1787, and continued his journeys in Europe until about 1795, when he returned to Philadelphia. He died of hemorrhage of the lungs in Hartford, Conn., April 18, 1797. Mr. Winchester was gentle and zealots in temperament; diligent and faithful by habit; exemplary in life; a thoroughly scriptural and evangelical and unusually fascinating preacher; and a voluminous, clear, captivating writer. His writings embrace, *A Collection of Hymns *(1784): *— A Serious Address to Youth on the Worth of the Soul *(1785): — *Dialogues on Universal Restoration *(*1788*)*: — Lectures on the Prophecies *(1790-91, 2 vols. 8vo): *— The Process and Empire of Christ, a Poem, *(*1793*)*,: — Ten Letters to Thomas Paine, in Reply to his Age of Reason *(1794): — *Political Catechism: --Hymns on the Restoration *(1795): besides many sermons. See Stone, *Biography of Rev. Elhanan Winchester *(Boston, 1836).

Winchester, Samuel Gover a Presbyterian minister, was born at Rock Run, Hartford Co., Md., Feb. 17, 1805. He received a good academical training; began the study of law, but afterwards studied theology in the Theological Seminary at Princeton, N.J; was licensed to preach by the Presbytery of Baltimore in 1829; and was ordained and installed pastor of the Sixth Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia, Pa., May 4, 1830. In 1837 he resigned his charge and was employed as an agent of the-General; Assembly's Board of Domestic Missions; in the autumn of the same year he accepted a call to the Presbyterian Church in Natchez, Miss., where he continued in- the faithful discharge of his duties until his death, Aug. 31,1841. Mr. Winchester was the author *of Companion for the Sick *(1833), altered from Willison's *Afflicted Man's Companion, *with additions: — *Christian Counsel to the Sick *(*1836*)*: — A Discourse at Oakland College *(1838): — *The Theatre* (Phila. 12mo): *— Importance of Family Religion, with Prayers and Hymns* (1841, 12mo). See Sprague, *Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, 4:*754; Allibone, *Dict. of Brit and Amer. Authors, s.v. *(J.L.S.).

Winchester, Thomas, D.D. a learned English divine, was born in the County of Berks about the beginning of the 18th century. He was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford; was a tutor there for many years; received a fellowship in 1747; became rector of Appleton, Berkshire, in 1761; held for some years the curacy of Astley Chapel, near Asbury, in Warwickshire; and died May 17, 1780. He published *A Dissertation on the XVIIth Article of the Church of England, *etc. (1773).

Winckelmann, Johann a Lutheran theologian of (Germany, was born in 1551 at Homburg, in Hesse. He studied at different universities; received the degree of doctor of divinity at Basle in 1581, and was appointed court preacher at Cassel in 1582. In 1592 he was called, as professor of theology to Marburg; in 1607 he received the chair of theology at Giessen, and in 1612 the superintendency there. He died Aug. 16,1626. He wrote commentaries on the Minor Prophets, the gospels of SS. Mark and Luke, the epistles to the Romans and Galatians; on St. Peter's and James's epistles, and on the Apocalypse. He also wrote dissertations on different passages of Scripture and on theological and other subjects. See Freher, *Theatrum Eruditorum; *Witte. *Menornice Theologorum; *Jocher, *Algemeines Gelehrten Lexikon, *s.v. (B. P.)

Winckler (or Winkler), Johann one of the most faithful, important, and judicious of the friends of Spener (q.v.), was born July 13, 1642, at Gilzern, near Grimma, and was educated at Leipsic and Tübingen. He had become acquainted with Spener before he entered upon his first pastorate at Hamburg in 1671, and received ordination at his hands. In 1672 Winckler became. superintendent at Braubach; 1676, court preacher at Darmstadt; 1678, pastor at Mannheim; and 1679, superintendent at Wertheim. He had already, at Darmstadt, begun to hold private devotional meetings, such as he had observed to be a useful means of grace in the ministry of Spener at Frankfort. On Aug. 31, 1684, he was, on the recommendation of Spener, chosen chief pastor of St. Michael's at Hamburg, and that city continued afterwards to be his home while he lived. Soon after his settlement in Hamburg (1686), he came into controversy with Dr. John Friedr. Mayer, pastor of St. Jacobi, respecting the theatre, which Mayer defended against Winckler's aspersions; and the dispute was renewed with greater acrimony when Dr. Schultz, the senior of Hamburg, submitted a formula, made 'binding by an oath, and directed against all fanatics, to the ministers of Hamburg for their signature.' Winckler and his friends Horb and Hinckelmann (q.v.) refused to sign the paper, and various theologians in other places, among them Spener, had written against its adoption, while Mayer became its impassioned advocate. Winckler ultimately felt constrained to discuss the matter in dispute in the pulpit, which he did in four sermons delivered April 25 to May 16, 1693. In the course of the dispute Horb was expelled from the city, but Mayer was thoroughly defeated. An amnesty was secured in June, 1694. In 1699 the death of Schultz transferred the office of senior to Winckler, and Mayer chose, in consequence, to remove to Greifswald. Winckler died April 5, 1705. Winckler had few equals as a preacher, though his sermons are difficult to read by reason of the extraneous matter inserted when they were prepared for the press. Some of them extend over one hundred pages, and are theological treatises rather than sermons. He was eminent as a scholar in exegesis and Biblical theology, and had A. H. Francke for his pupil; he rendered meritorious service to the cause of education in the enlarging of a number of schools and- the founding of many others. He was from an early period of his life a supporter of the principles and methods of Spener, writing in their defence *Bedenken iiber Kriegsmann's Symuphomnesis, *etc. (Hanau, *1679*)*: — Antwort auf Dilfeld's gründl. Erorterung der Frage von den Privatzusammenkuinften *(ibid. 1681): — and *Sendschreiben an Dr. Jannekenium *(Hamburg, 1690); but he was not a blind supporter of Spener, and preserved an independent' character to the end, as is illustrated especially by his judgment in the case of the fanatical Fraulein v.d. Asseburg, expressed *in Schriftnzmssiges Bedenken *(ibid. 1693). Francke prepared for the founding of the Halle Orphanage at Winckler's house in 1688; and in the same year Winckler drew up the plan for a Bible Society, and began its work by the issue of several editions of the Bible at the expense of himself and a number of friends. He caused a new liturgy and hymn-book to be prepared for the Church of Hamburg, and devised a systematic plan for examining candidates. See Geffeken, *Joh. Winckler u.* *d. Hamb. Kirche in seiner Zeit, *etc. (ibid. 1684- 1705; 1861). — Herzog, *Real-Encyklop. s.v.*

Wind **(**רוּחִ***, **rzach; *Sept. πνεῦμα, ἄνεμος*; *Vulg. *spiritus, ventus). *This Hebrew word signifies *air in motion *generally, as breath, wind, etc. Both the Septuagint words occur in the following definition of wind by Aristotle *(De Mundo, *c. 4): "Wind *(*ἄνεμος*) *is nothing else but a large quantity of air flowing, which is called πνεῦμα*." *So also Plato has μεγάλῳ τινὶ πνεῦματι for a high wind *(Phcedon, § *24, edit. Forster). Josephus also uses πνεῦμα βιαῖον for a violent wind *(Ant. *14:2, 2), as Lucian also does, βιαίῳ πνεάματι *(Ver. Hist. *I, 1:714). The Vulgate word *spiritus, *from *spiro*, "to breathe," "blow," is applied in like manner in Latin, as by Virgil *(AEneid, *12:365): "Boreae cum spiritus alto Insonat AEgeo," "When the northern blast roars in the AEgean." **1. **The wind as *a natural phenomenon *(Ge 3:8; Job 21:18; Job 30:15,22; Job 37:21; Ps 1:4; Ps 103:16; Pr 30:4; Ec 1:6; Ec 11:4; Isa 7:2; Isa 17:13; Isa 40:7; Jer 10:13; Jer 51:16; Amos 14:13). It is poetically ascribed to the immediate agency of God (Ps 135:7; Ps 147:18; comp. Baruch 6:61). In the New Test. it occurs in Mt 11:7; Mt 14:24; Mr 4:39; Joh 3:8; Ac 27:4; Eph 4:14; Jas 1:6; Re 6:13; Re 7:1). Throughout the New Test. the word is ἄνεμος*, *except in our Lord's illustration, Joh 3:8. In the Apocrypha ἄνεμος occurs in Wisdom 5:14; 13:2, etc.; but πνεῦμα in 17:18; Ecclus. 5:9; 22:18; Song of the Children, 26:42). We might perhaps attribute the exclusion of the word πνεῦμα*, *for " the wind," from the New Test., to its having become almost entirely appropriated to "heavenly things." In Ac 2:2, we have πνοή, translated '"wind;" Vulg. *spiritus. *It means the same in Homer *(Iliad, *5:697), πνοήfor πνοή βορέαο*, *"the breath or blast of Boreas;" comp. Job 37:10, Sept. In Ge 3:8, "the cool of the day," or rather *"wind *of the day," indicates the evening, since in the East a refreshing breeze arises some hours before sunset; Vulg. *ad auram post meridiem. *Comp. Song 2:17; Song 4:6; where the words "until the day break and the shadows flee away" should be rendered "until the day *breathe *or *blow" *(i.e., till evening); Heb. שיפוח ; Sept. διαπνεύσῃ*; Vulg. aspiret. *The evening breeze is still called, among the Persians, "the breeze of the day " (Chardin, *Voyage, *4:48). In Am 4:13, God is said to "create the wind." Although this idea is very conformable to the Hebrew theory of causation, which does not recognize second causes, but attributes every natural phenomenon immediately to the divine agency, yet the passage may perhaps be directed against the *worship *of the winds, which was common among ancient nations. Comp. Wisdom 13:2. Herodotus relates the same of the Persians (1:131). The words of our Savior "a reed shaken with the wind" (Mt 11:7), are taken by some in the natural, and by others in a metaphorical sense. The former view is adopted by Grotius, Beza, Campbell, Rosenmuller, Schleusner, and Wetstein; and is confirmed, as Rosenmuller observes, by the antithesis of the rich man, whose magnificence all gladly survey. The comparison is adopted to reprove the fickleness of the multitude (comp. verse 15, and Eph 4:14). **2. **The wind occurs as the *medium of the divine interposition, *or *agency* (Ge 1:2; Ge 8:1; Ex 15:10; Nu 11:31; 1Ki 18:45; 1Ki 19:11; Job 1:19; Isa 11:5; Jon 1:4). In the New Test., the wind was supernaturally employed at the day of Pentecost, like the "sound " and "fire" (Ac 2:3). Indeed, our Lord's illustration (Joh 3:8), and the identity of the Hebrew and Greek words signifying breath, wind, and spirit, lead to the inference that the air in motion bears the nearest resemblance of any created object to divine influence, and is therefore the most appropriate medium of it. *SEE SPIRIT*. To this class of instances we refer Ge 1:2, "And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters." Along with Patrick and Rosenmuller, we construe the phrase, "a wind of God," a wind employed as the medium of divine agency. Rosenmuller compares Ps 104:30; Ps 147:8; Isa 40:7. Dr. Lee refers to 1Ki 18:12; 2Ki 2:16, and Ps 33:6; Isa 11:4. In the two latter passages, he observes that the word is equivalent to *power, *etc. The commotions of the elements, etc., through means of which the petulance of Elijah was reproved (1Ki 19:11), are best understood as having occurred in vision (camp. Da 2:35; Zec 5:9). **3. **The wind is used *metaphorically *in the following instances: "The wings of the wind" denote the most rapid motion (2Sa 22:11), where the phrase may be a poetical representation also of the incident recorded (2Sa 5:24; Ps 104:3). The onomatopoeia in the two former passages, in Hebrew, is remarkable. Anything light or trifling is called wind (Job 7:7; Isa 41:29; Ps 78:39; comp. Eph 4:14; Ecclus. 5:9). Violent yet empty speech is called "a strong wind," or a mere tempest of words (Job 8:2). "Vain knowledge" is called דִּעִתאּרוּחִ, knowledge of wind (Job 15:2); "vain words," words of wind (16:3). Many expressive *phrases *are formed with this word. "To inherit the wind," denotes extreme disappointment (Pr 11:29); "to hide the wind," impossibility (27:16); to "labor for the wind," to labor in vain (Ec 5:16); "to bring forth wind," great patience and pains for no purpose (Isa 26:18; comp. Ho 8:7; Ho 12:1); "to become wind," to result in nothingness (Jer 5:13). "The four winds" denote the four quarters of the globe (Eze 37:9); "to scatter to all winds," to disperse completely (5:10; 12:11; 17:21); "to cause to come from all winds," to restore completely (Eze 37:9). "The wind hath bound her upon her wings," means deportation into a far country (Ho 4:19); "to sow the wind and reap the whirlwind," unwise labor and a fruitless result (Ho 8:7); "to feed on the wind," to pursue delusory schemes (Ho 12:1); "to walk in wind," to live and act in vain (Mic 2:11); "to observe the wind," to be over-cautious (Ec 11:4); to "winnow with every wind," to be credulous, apt to receive impressions (5:9). *Comparisons*. — Disappointment, after high promise or pretension, is "as wind without rain" (Pr 25:14); the desperate speeches of an afflicted person are compared to wind (Job 6:26). *Symbolically*. — Empires are represented as having wings, and "the wind in their wings" denotes the rapidity of their conquests (Zec 5:9). The wind is often used as the symbol or emblem of calamities (Isa 32:2; Isa 41:16; Isa 57:13; Isa 64:6); destruction by the Chaldaean army (Jer 4:11-12; comp. Wisd. 4:4; 5:23; 11:20). "The windy storm" (Ps 55:8) denotes Absalom and his party. The wind is the frequent emblem of the divine chastisements (Isa 27:8; Jer 22:22; Jer 51:1, etc. *Beautiful expressions *occur, as in Isa 27:2, "He stayeth his rough wind in the day of the east wind;"' that is, God doth not aggravate the misfortunes of mankind by his chastisements; to "make a weight for the winds " (Job 28:25). *Mistranslations. *— In Ps 78:39, "He remembered that they were but flesh, a wind that passeth away and cometh not again," should probably be rendered, "a *spirit *going away and not returning." All the versions make the words relate to the soul of man. Homer has a very similar description of death *(Iliad, *9:408). In Ec 1:5-6, the translation is faulty, and the sense further obscured by a wrong division of verses. The passage should be read: "The sun also ariseth and the sun goeth down, and hasteth to his place where he ariseth, going to the south and circulating to the north. The wind is continually whirling about, and the wind returneth upon its whirlings." All the versions give this rendering; our version alone mistakes the meaning. The phrase "brought forth wind," is understood, by Michaelis as an allusion to the female disorder called. empneumatosis, or windy inflation of the womb *(Syrutagma, Comment. *2:165). The Syriac translator also understood the passage in this way: "Enixi sumus ut illae quae ventos pariunt." **4. **The *east wind (*רוחאּקדים*, *ἄνεμος νότος, ἄνεμος καύσων νότος*, ventus urens. spiritus vehemens, ventus auster. *קדים***, ***καύσων*, ardor, aestus, ventus urens). *Both forms denote the natural phenomenon (Ge 41:6,23; Job 38:24; Ps 48:7; Ps 78:26; Jon 4:8). Considerable indefiniteness attends the use of these words. Dr. Shaw remarks that every wind is called by the Orientals קדים, an east wind, which blows from any point of the compass between the east and north, and betwveen the east and south *(Travels, *page 285). Accordingly, the Sept. often understands this word to mean the south, as in Ex 10:13; Ex 14:21 (see Bochart, *Hierozoicon, *II, 1:15). If the east wind happens to blow a few days in Palestine during the months of May, June, July, and August, it occasions great destruction to the vines and harvests on the land, and also to the vessels at sea on the Mediterranean (Ho 13:15: Jon 4:8; Job 14:2; Job 15:2; Isa 40:7; Ge 41:6,23; Eze 17:10; Eze 19:12; Eze 27:26; Ps 48:7; Ps 103:5). In Jon 4:8, the phrase occurs, קדים חרישית רוח, a still or sultry east wind. For testimonies to the destructiveness of this wind in Egypt and Arabia, see Niebuhr, *Beschrieb. von Arabien, *page 8; Thevenot, *Voyages, *I, 2:34; Hackett, *Illustrations of Scripture, *page 135. The east wind crosses the sandy wastes of Arabia Desert before reaching Palestine, and was hence termed "the wind of the wilderness" (Job 1:19; Jer 13:24). It is remarkably dry and penetrating, and has all the effects of the *sirocco *on vegetation (Eze 17:10; Eze 19:12; Ho 13:15; Jon 4:8). It also blows with violence, and is hence supposed to be used generally for any violent wind (Job 27:21; Job 38:24; Ps 48:7; Isa 27:8; Eze 27:26). It is probably in this sense that it is used in Ex 14:21, though the east, or at all events the north-east, wind would be the one adapted to effect the phenomenon described, viz. the partition of the waters towards the north and south, so that they stood as a wall on the right hand and on the left (Robinson, *Researches, *1:57). In this, as in many other passages, the Sept. gives the "south" wind *(*νότος*) *as the equivalent for the Greek *kadim. *Nor is this wholly incorrect, for in Egypt, where the Sept. was composed, the south wind has the same characteristics that the east has in Palestine. The Greek translators appear to have felt the difficulty of rendering *kadim *in Ge 41:6,23,27, because *the parching *effects of the east wind, with which the inhabitants of Palestine are familiar, are not attributable to that wind in Egypt, but either to the south wind, called in that country the *khamsin, *or to that known as the *samum, *which comes from the south-east or south-south-east (Lane's *Modern Egypt, *1:22, 23). It is certainly possible that in Lower Egypt the east wind may be more parching than elsewhere in that country, but there is no more difficulty in assigning to the term *kadim *the secondary sense of *parching, *in this passage, than that of *violent *in the others before quoted. As such, at all events, the Sept. treated the term both here and in several other passages, where it is rendered *kaus6n (*καύσων*, *lit. the *burner). *In Jas 1:11, the A.V. erroneously understands this expression of the burning heat of the sun. In Palestine the east wind prevails from February to June (Raumer, page 79). It is used *metaphorically *for pernicious speech, a storm of words (Job 15:2); calamities, especially by war (Isa 27:8; Jer 18:17; Eze 17:10; Eze 19:12; Eze 27:26; Ho 13:15). In this latter passage the east wind denotes Shalmaneser, king of Assyria; in Eze 27:26, it denotes the Chaldseans. Tyre is there represented under the beautiful allegory of a ship towed into deep waters, and then destroyed by an east wind. A very similar representation is given by Horace *(Carm. *1:14). The east wind denotes divine judgment (Job 27:21). "To follow the east wind," is to pursue a delusory and fatal course (Ho 12:1). **5. ***West wind (*רוח ים, ἄνεμος ἀπὸ θαλάσσης*, ventus ab occidente). *The west and south-west winds reach Palestine loaded with moisture gathered from the Mediterranean (Robinson, 1:429), and are hence expressively termed by the Arabs "the fathers of the rain" (Raumer, page 79). The little cloud "like a man's hand" that rose out of the west, was recognised by Elijah as a presage of the coming downfall (1Ki 18:44), and the same token is adduced by our Lord as' one of the ordinary signs of the weather (Lu 12:54). Westerly winds prevail in Palestine from November to February. See WEST. **6. ***North wind (*רוח צפון, Pr 25:23, ἄνεμος βορέας*, ventus Aquilo).*The north wind, or, as it was usually called, " the north," was naturally the coldest of the four (Ecclus. 43:20), and its presence is hence invoked as favorable to vegetation, in Song 4:16. It is further described in Pr 25:23, as bringing (A.V. "driveth away" in text; "bringeth forth" in marg.) rain; in this case we must understand the north-west wind, which may bring rain, but was certainly not regarded as decidedly rainy. The difficulty connected with this passage has led to the proposal of a wholly different sense for the term *taphon, viz. hidden place. *The north-west wind prevails from the autumnal equinox to the beginning of November, and the north wind from June to the equinox (Raumer, *Palest. *page 79). *SEE NORTH*. **7. ***South wind (*דרום *, *Job 37:17; תימן, Ps 78:26; λίψ**, ***ventus Africus, *Lu 12:55; νότος [Sirocco], Ac 27:13). The south wind, which traverses the Arabian peninsula before reaching Palestine, must necessarily be extremely hot (Job 37:17; Lu 12:55); but the rarity of the notices leads to the inference that it seldom blew from that quarter (Ps 78:26; Song 4:16; Ecclus. 43:16); and even when it does blow, it does not carry the *samurm *into Palestine itself, although Robinson experienced the effects of this scourge not far south of Beersheba *(Researches, *1:196). In Egypt the south wind *(khamsin) *prevails in the spring, a portion of which, in the months of April and May, is termed *el-khamsin *from that circumstance (Lane, 1:22). *SEE SOUTH*. **8. ***The four winds *(ארבע רוחות**, **τα τέσσαρα πνεύματα, οἱ τέσσαρες ἄνεμοι*, quatuor venti). *The Hebrews speak only of four winds; and so Josephus *(Ant. *8:3, 5). This phrase is equivalent to the four quarters of the world (Eze 37:9; Eze 2 Esdras 13:5), the several points of the compass, as we should say (Da 8:8). See Tristram, *Nat. Hist. of the Bible, *page 33. *Phrases. *— "Striving of the four winds" is great political commotions (Da 7:2; comp. Jer 4:11-12; Jer 51:1); to "hold the four winds" is by contrary to secure peace (Re 7:1); "to be divided to the four winds" implies utter dispersion (Da 11:4; Jer 49:32; Eze 5:10,12; Eze 17:2). So also the phrase ἐκ τῶν τεσσάρων ἀνέμων (Mt 24:31) means from all parts of the world (Mr 13:27). **9. **The Hebrews, like other ancient nations, had but few *nanes of winds. *Homer mentions only βορέας, νότος, ζέφυρος*, *and ευρος*. *Aul. Gellius, indeed, complains of the infrequency of names of winds in ancient writers *(Noct. Att. *2:22). The same indefiniteness appears in Herodotus (see Larcher's notes on, 1:188). In the course of time the Greeks and Romans added eight other winds to the original four, but that appearing too minute a. division, they reduced the additional ones to four, thus making only eight in all. The names of these may be seen in Larcher *(ut supra), *or Pliny *(Hist.* *Nat. *18:34). Further information may be found in Coray's *Translation of Hippocrates, De AEribus, Aquis et Locis *(Paris, 1800); *Discours Preliminaire, *and see index. For a comparative table of the English, Latin, and Greek divisions of the winds, and their names, amounting to more than thirty, see Beloe's Herodotus *(Polymnnia, *notes, 3:293, Lond. 1791). One Greek name of a wind occurs in Ac 27:14, Εὐροκλύδων*, Euroclydon, *a tempestuous wind in the Mediterranean, now called a *Levanter. *The Alexandrian MS. has Εὐρακύλων ; Vulg. *Euroaquilo; *Syriac, אורקלידון**. **The common reading, Εὐροκλύδων*, *seems derived from Ευρος, *Eurus, *"east wind," and κλδύων, a wave," quasi an eastern tempest. Other MSS. read Εὐρυκλύδων*, Euryclydon, *from εὐρύς*, *"broad," and κλύδων; a wave," or rough wavy sea; and then the word would mean the wind which peculiarly excites the waves. Shaw defends the common reading, and describes the wind as blowing in all directions from the north-east round by the north to. the south-east *(Travels, *page 330, 4to; see Bower's conjectures, and Doddridge, *in loc.).* The Hebrews had no single terms indicating the rrelative velocity of the air in motion, like our words breeze, gale, etc. Such gradations they expressed by some additional word, as "great," רוחאּגדולה, "a great wind" (Jon 1:4), "rough," קשה, etc. Nor have we any single word indicating the destructive effects of the wind, like their verbs סער and שֹער as ואסער (Zec 7:14, etc.), and answering to the Greek word ἀνεμόφθορος (see Sept. of Ge 41:6,23). *Our metephorical *use of the word *storm *comes nearest. The term *zilaphdh *(זַלעָפָה ), in Ps 11:6 (A.V. "horrible"), has been occasionally understood as referring to the *samunzm *(Olshausen, *in loc.; *Gesen, *Thesaur. *page 418); but it may equally well be rendered "wrathful," or "avenging" (Hengstenberg, *in loc.). *The phrase רוח סערה, "stormy wind," πνεῦμα καταιγίδος*, spiritus procellae, *occurs in Ps 107:25; Ps 148:8. It is metaphorically used for the divine judgments (Eze 13:1; Eze 1; Eze 13). The word סערה is usually translated "whirlwind;" it means, however, more properly a storm (2Ki 2:1,11; Job 38:1; Job 40:6; Zec 9:14; Sept. συσσεισμός, λαῖλαψ, νέφος ; Vulg. *turbo; *Ecclus. 43:17; συστροφὴ πνεύματος*, *48:9; λαίλαπι πυρός;). We have notice in the Bible of the ilocal squalls (λαῖλαψ — Mr 4:37; Lu 8:23), to which the sea of Gennesareth was liable in consequence of its proximity to high ground, and which were sufficiently violent to endanger boats (Mt 8:24; Joh 6:18). The Hebrew word is used metaphorically for the divine judgments (Isa 40:24; Isa 41:16); and to describe them as sudden and irresistible (Jer 23:19; Jer 25:32; Jer 30:23). "A whirlwind out of the north " (Eze 1:4) denotes the invasion from Babylon. Another word, סופה, is also translated "whirlwind," and properly so. It occurs in Job 37:9; Isa 21:1. It is used as a simile for complete and sudden destruction (Pr 1:27); and for the most rapid motion, "wheels of warchariots like a whirlwind " (Isa 5:28; Jer 4:13). Total defeat is often compared to "chaff scattered by a whirlwind" (Isa 17:13). It denotes the rapidity and irresistibleness of the divine judgments (Isa 66:5). The *phrase *"to reap the whirlwind" denotes useless labor (Ho 8:7); "the day of the whirlwind," destruction by war (Am 1:14). "The Lord hath his way in the whirlwind," is probably an allusion to Sinai (Na 1:3). A beautiful comparison occurs in Pr 10:25: "As the whirlwind passeth, so is the wicked no more: but the righteous is an everlasting foundation." *SEE WHIRLWIND*.

Winder, Henry D.D. a learned English Dissenter, was born at Hutton John, in the parish of Graystock, Cumberland, May 15, 1693. He was educated at Penruddock and at Whitehaven; continued his studies privately in Dublin for two years; became pastor of a congregation at Tunley, Lancashire, and was ordained in 1716; was chosen pastor of the meeting at Castle Hey, Liverpool, in 1718, where he continued to labor until his death, Aug. 9, 1752. He is known to, the literary world by his "ingenious and elaborate work," *A Critical and Chronological History of the Rise, Progress, Declension, and Revival of Knowledge, Chiefly Religious, in Two Periods; the Period of Tradition, from Adam to Moses; and thee Period of Letters, from Moses to Christ, *(1745). A second edition appeared in 1756, *with Memoirs *of his life, by Rev. George Bronson D.

Windesheim (or Windesen), a Dutch monastery of the order of Regular Canons, celebrated as the center of a somewhat extensive congregation of reformed convents, flourished in the former half of the 15th century. It was intimately connected with the association of *Brethren of the Common Life, *having been established by Radewin, the pupil and successor of Gerhard Groot, to serve as a rallying-point for its members. Berthold ten Have, a citizen of Zwoll, in Zealand, and one of Groot's converts, donated his homestead property of Windesen, worth above three thousand florins, to the prospective monastery on the inception of the plan, and other donations followed, so that the convent became an accomplished fact in 1386. Six brothers constituted its original congregation. The church was dedicated, and the investing of the brothers with the robes of their order was performed October 16. 1387, Henry of Huxaria being made temporary superior, with the title of rector. Vos von Huesden, who succeeded to the government of the convent as prior, four years afterwards, became the real founder of its importance. During thirty-three years he was zealous in the promotion of its internom prosperity, as well as in the erection of its buildings and the extension of its influence. Its riches became immense under his administration, and the number of monasteries, and also of nunneries, connected with it, increased remarkably. Among these the monastery of St. Agnes, near Zwoll, became chiefly famous, through Thomas a Kempis and Johann Wessel, who were its inmates. In 1402 the first convocation of the general chapter was held at Windesheim. In 1435 the Council of Basle directed Windesheim to undertake the reformation of the convents of Regular Canons in Germany. This reformatory work extended in time even to the convents of other orders, and continued until the general reformation of the 16th century brought it to a close. The convent of Windesheim itself continued to exist luntil the end of the 16th century, and a chapter of Windesheim even until the 18th century. Its members were bound only by the three *substantialia *of monasticism, the vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, and they employed themselves, particularly during the earlier period, with the copying of manuscripts and industrial pursuits. Their reformatory labors aimed merely at a re- establishment of the earlier monastic discipline by reducing ascetical requirements to a tolerable degree. See Busch, *Chronicon Windesemense *(Antwerp, 1621); *De Rel. Maonaster. quorund. Saxoniae, *in Leibnitz, *Scriptores Brunsvic. *c. 2; Delprat, *Over d. Brmoderschap van G. Groote *(2d ed. Arnhelm, 1856; Germ. ed. by Mohnike, Leipsic, 1846); Herzog, *Real-Encyklop. *s.v.

Windheim, Christian Ernst Von a Protestant theologian of Germany, was born at Wernigerode, October 29, 1722. He studied at Halle, and after completing his course went to Helmstadt, where he commenced his philosophical lectures. In 1746 he publicly defended a dissertation, *De Intellectu Divino, quo Socianismus Philosophicus Argumentis suis Privatur, *and was appointed adjunct to the philosophical faculty. In 1747 he went to Gottingen as professor of philosophy, and in 1750 to Erlangen, where he also lectured on theology. He died November 5, 1766. He wrote, *Commentatio Philologico-critica de Hebraeorum Vav Conversivo Futurorum *(Halle, 1744): — *Diss. de Paulo, Gentium Apostolo *(ibid. 1745): — *Sylloge 1-10, Thesium Philosophicarum Miscellanearum *(Helmstadt, 1746-47): — *Conspectus Thesium Philosophicarum *(ibid. 1749 ): — *Diss. in Danzianam Grammaticam Hebraeam *(Erlangen, 1751): — *Diss. Philol. Litterae Epentheticae Hebraeorum ad Rationem suam Revocatae, Illaeque Voces,* *quibus Inesse Putantur, Resolutae, Variaque Loca Scripture. Sacrae Veteris Testamenti Illustrata *(ibid. 1752), etc. See Doring, *Die gelehrten Theologen Deutschlands, *4:728 sq., Furst, *Bibl. Jud. *3:522 sq., Steinschneider, *Bibl. Handbuch, *page 150; Winer, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *1:153, 158, 187, 259, 343, 572, 2:12, 59. (B.P.)

Winding-sheet the cloth in which a corpse is wrapped for burial.

Windischmann, Friedrich Heinrich Hugo a Roman Catholic theologian of Germany, was born at Aschaffenburg, December 13, 1811. In 1836 he received holy orders, went to Munich in 1838 as professor of canon law and New-Test. exegesis, and was made canon of St. Cajetan in 1839; in 1842 he became a member of the Munich Academy of Sciences, in 1846 general vicar, and died August 24 1861. He wrote, *Sancta Sacra de Theologumenis Vedanticorum *(Bonn, 1833): — *Ueber den Somacultus der Arier *(Munich, 1846): — *Ursagen der arischen Volker *(ibid. 1853): — *Die persische Anahita *(ibid. 1856): — *Anahita *(ibid. eod.): — *Mithra *( Leipsic, 1857): — *Vindiciae Petrinae *(Regensburg, 1836 ): — *Erklarung des Briefes an die Galater *(Mayence, 1843). His studies on Zoroaster were edited by Spiegel (Berlin, 1863). See *Dr. Friedr. Windischmann. Ein Lebensbild *(Augsburg, 1861); *Theol. Universal lexikon, *s.v.; *Literarischer Handweiser, *1862, page 18. (B.P.)

Window (usually חִלּוֹן*; chiallon; *Chald. כִּו, *kav, *Da 6:10; — θυρίς) The "window of an Oriental house consists generally of an aperture (as the word *challon *implies) closed in with lattice-work named in Hebrew by the terms *arubbah *(אֲרבָּה, Ec 12:3, A.V. "window;" Ho 13:3, A. V. "chimney"), *charakkinz *חֲרִכַּי, Song 2:9), and *eshnab *(אֶשׁנָב, Judges 5, 28; Pr 7:6, A.V. "casement"), the two former signifying the interlaced work of the lattice, and the third the coolness produced by the ftee current of air through it. Other Heb. terms rendered "window" צֹהִר, *tsohar *(Ge 6:16; a *lightor *opening to admit it, elsewhere "noon"), and שֶׁקֶŠ, *shekeph *(1Ki 7:5) or שָׁקוּŠ, *shukuph *(6, 4; 7:4), which means *timbers *or *beams. SEE ARK; SEE TEMPLE*. Glass has been introduced into Egypt in modern times as a protection against the cold of winter; but latticework is still the usual, and with the poor the only, contrivance for closing the window (Lane, *Modern Egypt.* 1, 29). When the lattice-work was open, there appears to have been nothing in early times to prevent a person from falling through the aperture (Ac 20:9). The windows generally look into the inner court of the house, but in every house one or more look into the street, and hence it is possible for a person to observe the approach hence it is possible of another without being himself observed (Jg 5:28; 2Sa 6:16; Pr 7:6; Song 2:9). In Egypt these outer windows generally project over the doorway (Lane, *Modern Egypt. *1, 27; Carne, *Letters, *1, 94). When houses abut on the town-wall, it is not unusual for them to have projecting windows surmounting the wall and looking into the country, as represented in.Conybeare and Howson's *St. Paul, *1, 124. Through such a window the spies escaped from Jericho (Jos 2:15), and Paul from Damascus (2Co 11:33). In the Talmud, Tyrian windows are mentioned (*Baba Bathria, *3, 6). See Hartmann, *Hebrier, *3, 341 sq.; Oldermann, *De Specularibus Voterum *(*Helmist. *1719). *SEE HOUSE*. Wine, both natural and artificial, is frequently mentioned in the Bible, and in modern times, especially in connection with the temperance cause, its character and use have been a subject of no little nor always temperate controversy. We propose here to treat it in the light of Scripture, history, and morals, unbiased by the disputes into which learned and good men have allowed themselves to fall upon the subject. I. *Bible Terms. — *The produce of the wine-press was described in the Hebrew language by a variety of words indicative- either of the quality or of the use of the liquid. It may at once be conceded that the Hebrew terms translated "wine" refer occasionally to an unfermented liquor; but inasmuch as there are frequent allusions to intoxication in the Bible, it is clear that fermented liquors were also in common use. It is also obvious that the Bible generally speaks in terms of strong condemnation of the effects of wine; but it is a fair question whether the condemnation is not rather directed against intoxication and excess than against the substance, which is the occasion of the excess. The following are the words more or less so rendered in the A. V., with a few others of cognate signification and application. **1. ***Yayin, *יִיַן (A.V. invariably "wine," except Jg 13:14. "vine;" Song 2; Song 4, "banqueting"). This word, the most commonly employed in the Old-Test. Scriptures for wine, is also the most comprehensive, including, like the corresponding English word, wines of all sorts, although used also in a more restricted; sense to denote *red *wine. **(1.) **It is etymologically derived, according to Gesenius, from יוֹן, an unused root, having the force *offervendi, cestuendi; *according to Fürst, from וַין, like the Arabic וִין, Aeth, וֵין, Gr. Γαινος, "et sic porro cseteris in linguis, Arm. *gini; *Lat. *vinmuni; *Eng. *wine; *Sept. οινος, ἀσκός, γλεῦκος "It has been the current opinion that the Indo-European languages borrowed the term from the Hebrews. The reverse, however, is thought by some to be the case (Renan, *Lang. Sen. *1, 207), and the word has been referred either to the root *we, *"to weave," whence come *viere, viimem, vitis, vitta *(Pott, *Etym. Forsch. 1, *i20, 230), or to the root *wan, *"to love"(Kuhn, *Zeitschrf. vergl. Sprachf. *1,-191 192). However this may be, the etymological connection and substantial identity of the above Heb., Greek, Latin, and English words cannot be doubted. **(2.) **In most of the passages in the Bible where *yàyin *is used (83 out of 138), it certainly means *fermented grape-juice, *and in the remainder it may fairly be presumed to do so. In four only (Isa 16:10; Jer 11:232; La 2:12) is it really doubtful. In no passage can it be positively shown to have any other meaning. The corresponding English word "wine" properly means "the fermented juice of the grape." It always has this meaning, except when expressly modified by the immediate connection, in which it is used. The same is true of its equivalent congeners-Greek, *oivog; *Latin, *vinum; *German, *wein; *French, 6, etc. The intoxicating character of *yàyin *in general is plain from Scripture. To it nre attributed the "darkly flashing eye"(Ge 49; Ge 12 A. V. "red," but see Gesenius, *Thesaur. *Append. p. 89), the unbridled tongue (Pr 20:1; Isa 28:7), the excitement of the spirit (Pr 31:6; Isa 5; Isa 11; Zec 9:15; Zec 10:7), the enchained affections of its votaries (Ho 4:11), the perverted judgment (Pr 31:5; Isa 28:7), the indecent exposure (Hab 2:15-16), and the sickness resulting from the heat (*chemdh, *A.V. "bottles") of wine (Ho 7:5). So in actual instances Noah planted a vineyard, and drank of the *yàyin *and was *drunken *(Ge 9:21). Nabal drank *yàyin and *was *very drunken *(1Sa 25:36-37); the "drunkards of Ephraim" were "overcome with *yàyin*" (Isa 28:1), or rather, knocked down, or, as Gill paraphrases it, "smitten, beaten, knocked down with it as with a hammer, and laid prostrate on the ground, where they lie fixed to it, not able to rise." Jeremiah says, "I am like a drunken man, and like a man whom *yàyin* hath overcome"(Jer 23:9). The intoxicating quality of *yàyin *is confirmed by Rabbinical testimony. The Mishna, in the treatise on the Passover, informs us that four cups of wine were poured out and blessed, and drunk by each of the company at the eating of the Paschal lamb, and that water was also mixed with the wine, because it was considered too strong to be drunk alone (*Pesachiz*, 7:13; 10:1). In Hieros. *Sabb. *(11, 1) we read, "It is commanded that this rite be performed with red wine;" Babylon *Sabb. *(77, 1), "Sharon wine is of famous report, with which they mix two parts of water;" Babylon. *Berachoth *(fol. 1), "Their wine (יין) was very strong, and not fit for drinking *without being mixed with water." *The Gemara adds, "The cup of blessing is not to be blessed *until it is mixed *with water;" the Jerusalem Talmud says, "It became a man nobly to entertain his wife and children (at the Passover), that at this feast they might be merry with wine" (יין). To meet the objection, How can intoxication be hindered? the rabbins replied, "Because wine between eating does not intoxicate a man" (Hieros. *Talm.*)*. *See *Dr. Tattam's Reply to a Pamphlet by Rev. W. Ritchie on the Scripture Testimony against Intoxicating Wine, *p. 8, 9. But, although usually intoxicating, yet it was not only permitted to be drunk, but was also used for sacred purposes, and is spoken of as a blessing. Thus, in Jacob's blessing on Judah, "His eyes shall be red with *yàyin, *and his teeth white with milk" (Ge 49:12). So in God's promise to restore his people to their own land "I will bring again the captivity of my people, and they shall plant vineyards and drink the *yàyin *thereof"(Am 4:13). "Drink thy *yàyin,*" says the preacher, "with a merry heart, for God now accepteth thy works" (Ec 9:7). The Nazarite, at the expiration of his vow, was permitted to drink *yàyin *(Nu 6:13-20); the Israelites were permitted to drink *yàyin *at their feasts (De 14:24-26); *yàyin *was used in the sacred service of Jehovah, being poured out as a drink-offering to him (Ex 19:25; Le 23:13; Nu 15:5). Hence, it not only "maketh glad the heart of man" (Ps 104:15), but also "cheereth both God and man"(Jg 9:13); its cheering effects being symbolically transferred to the Divine Being. Some, indeed, have argued from these passages that *yàyin *could not always have been alcoholic. But this is begging the question, and that in defiance of the facts. Although invariably fermented, it was not always properly inebriating, and in most instances, doubtless was but slightly alcoholic, like the *vin ordinaire *of France, or our own *cider.* ***2. **Tirôsh, *תַּירוֹשׁ (Ge 27:28-38; Nu 18:12; De 7:13; De 11:14; De 12:17; De 14:23; De 18:4; De 28:5; De 33:28; Jg 9:13; 2Ki 18:32; 2Ch 31:5; 2Ch 32:28; Ne 5; Ne 11; Ne 10:37; Ps 4:7; Isa 26:17; Isa 62:8; Jer 31:12; Ho 2:8-9,22; Ho 7:14; Joe 2:19,24; rendered "new wine" in Ne 10:39; Ne 13:5,12; Pr 3:10; Isa 24:7; Isa 65:8; Ho 4:11; Ho 9:2; Joe 1:10; Hag 1:11; Zec 9:17; "sweet wine," in Mic 6:15), properly signifies *must, *the freshly pressed juice of the grape (the γλεῦκος*, *or sweet wine of the Greeks, rendered "new wine?" in Ac 2:13). The word (rendered in the Sept. by three distinct terms, οινος, ώξ, ώξ, μέθυσμα) occurs sometimes in connection with *yàyin, *sometimes with oil, and sometimes with words denoting the edible productions of the earth. **(1.) **Etymologically, *tirôsh *is usually referred to the root *yarôsh, *יָרִשׁ, "to get possession of," applied to wine on account of its inebriating qualities, whereby it *gets possession of *the brain. So Gesenius, "Mustum, novum vinuim ita dictum quia inebriat, cerebrum occupat"(*Thesaur. *p. 633); and Fürst, "Mustum uvis expressum, A. V. יָרִשׁ, occupare, acquirere, comparare" (*Concord. *p. 525, 2). But according to Bythner, as quoted by Lees (*Tirôsh, *p. 52), it refers to the vine as being a *possession *(κατ᾿ ἐξοχήν) in the eyes of the He. brews. Neither of these explanations is wholly satisfactory, but the second is less so than the first, in as much as it would be difficult to prove that the Hebrews attached such pre-eminent value to the vine as to place it on a par with landed property, which is designated by the cognate terms *yerushshash *and *morashah. *Nor do we see that any valuable conclusion could be drawn from this latter derivation; for, assuming its correctness, the question would still arise whether it was on account of-the natural or the manufactured product that such store was set on the vine. **(2.) **As to the exclusively liquid character of the substance denoted, both *yàyin *and *tirôsh *are occasionally connected with expressions that would apply properly to a fruit; the former, for instance, with verbs significant of *gathering *(Jer 40; Jer 10; Jer 12) and *growing *(Ps 104:14-15); the latter with *gathering *(Isa 62; Isa 9, A. V. "brought it together"), *treading *(Mic 6:15), and *weathering *(Isa 24:7; Joe 1:10). So, again, the former is used in Nu 6:4, to define the particular kind of tree whose products were forbidden to the Nazarite, viz. the "pendulous shoot of the vine;" and the latter in Jg 9:13, to denote the product of the vine. It should be observed, however, that in most, if not all, the passages where these and similar expressions occur there is something to denote that the fruit is regarded not simply as fruit, but as the raw material out of which wine is manufactured. Thus, for instance, in Ps 104:15, and Jg 9:13, the *cheering effects *of the product are noticed, and that these are more suitable to the idea of wine than of fruit seems self-evident; in one passage, indeed, the A.V. connects the expression "make cheerful" with bread (Zec 9:17); but this is a mere mistranslation, the true sense of the expression there used being to *nourish *or *make to grow. *So, again, the *treading *of the grape in Mic 7:15 is in itself conclusive as to the pregnant sense in which the term *tirôsh *is used, even if it were not subsequently implied that the effect of the treading was, in the ordinary course of things, to produce the *yàyin *which was to be drunk. In Isa 62:9, the object of the *gathering *is clearly conveyed by the notice *of drinking. *In Isa 24:7, *the tirôsh, *which withers, is paralleled with *yàyin *in the two following verses. Lastly, in 65:8, the nature of the *tirôsh, *which is said to be found in the cluster of the grapes, is not obscurely indicated by the subsequent eulogium, "a blessing is in it." That the terms "vine" and "wine" should be thus interchanged in poetical language calls for no explanation. We can no more infer from such instances that the Hebrew terms mean *grapes as fruit *than we could infer the same of the Latin *vinum *because in some two or three passages (Plautus, *Trin. *2, 4, 125; Varro, *De Ling. Lat*. 4:17; Cato, *De Re Rustica, c. *147) the term is transferred to the grape out of which wine is made. Moreover, *tirôsh *generally follows "corn " in the triplet "corn, wine, and oil," and hence the term applied to the consumption of corn is carried on, in accordance with the grammatical-figure zeugma, to the other members of the clause, as in De 12:17. In the only passage where the act of consuming *tirôsh *alone is noticed (Isaiah *62, *8, 9) the verb is *shathah *(שָׁתָה), which constantly indicates the *act of drinking *(e.g. Ge 9:21; Ge 24:22; Ex 7:21; Ru 2:9), and is the general term combined with *akál *(אָכִל) in the joint act of "eating and drinking", (e.g. 1Sa 30:16; Job 1:4; Ec 2:24). We can find no confirmation for' the cense of *sucking *assigned to the term by Dr. Lees (*Tirôsh, *p. 61); the passage quoted in support of that sense (Ps 75:8) implies, at all events, a kind of sucking allied to drinking rather than to eating, if indeed the sense of. drinking be not the more correct rendering of the term. An argument has been drawn against the usual sense assigned to *tirôsh, *from the circumstance that it is generally connected with "corn," and therefore implies an edible rather than a drinkable substance. The very opposite conclusion may, however, be drawn from this circumstance; for it may be reasonably urged that in any enumeration of the materials needed for man's support, "meat and drink" would be specified rather than several kinds of the former and none of the latter. "Bread and water" occur together very often (e.g. Eze 4:17; 1Sa 25:11, etc.). Is *water, *then, a *solid?* There are, finally, passages which seem to imply the actual manufacture of *tirôsh *by the same process by which wine was ordinarily made. For, not to insist on the probability that the bringing together, noticed in Isa 62:9 would not appropriately apply to the collecting of the fruit in the wine-vat, we have notice of the "treading" in connection with *tirôsh in* Mic 6:15, and again of the "overflowing" and the "bursting out" of the *tirôsh *in the vessels or lower vat (יֶקֶב, *yekeb, *Sept. ὑπολήνιον)*, *which received the must from the proper press (Pr 3; Pr 10; Joel 2, 24). 'This, according to the author of *Tirôsh Lo Yàyin, *is an "image of abundance;" the "*vats piled up *with fruits *so fill *that what was put on would *roll of to the ground, *because they could hold no more!"(p. 54). **(3.) **As to the intoxicating character of this drink, the allusions to its effects are confined to a single passage, but this a most decisive one, viz. Ho 4:11, "Whoredom and wine (*yàyin*)*, *and new wine (*tirôsh*) take away the heart," where *tirôsh *appears as the climax of engrossing influences, in immediate connection with *yàyin.* The inevitable impression produced on the mind by a general review of the above notices is that both *yàyin *and *tirôsh, *in their ordinary and popular acceptation, referred to fermented, intoxicating wine. In the condemnatory passages no exception is made in favor of any other kind of liquid passing under the same name, but not invested with the same dangerous qualities. Nor, again, in these passages is there any decisive condemnation of the substance itself, which would enforce the; conclusion that elsewhere an unfermented liquid must be understood. The condemnation must be understood, of *excessive use *in any case for even where this is not expressed, it is implied; and therefore the instances of wine being drunk, without any reproof of the act may with as great a probability, imply the moderate use of an intoxicating beverage, as the use of an unintoxicating one. The notices of fermentation are not very decisive. A certain amount of fermentation is implied in the distension of the leather bottles when new wine was placed in them, and which was liable to burst old bottles. It has been suggested that the -object of placing the wine in bottles was to prevent fermentation, but that in the case of old bottles fermentation might ensue from their being impregnated with the fermenting substance" (*Tirôsh, *p. 65). This is not inconsistent with the statement in Mt 9:17, but it detracts from the spirit of the comparison which implies the presence of a *strong, *expansive, penetrating principle. It is, however, inconsistent with Job 32:19, where the distension is 'described as occurring even in *new *bottles. It is very likely that new vine was preserved in the state of must by placing it in jars or bottles, and then burying it in the earth. But we should be inclined to understand the passages above quoted as referring to wine drawn off before the fermentation was complete, either for immediate use, or for the purpose of forming it into sweet wine after the manner described by the Geoponic. writers (7, 19). The presence of the gas-bubble, or, as the Hebrews termed it, "the eye that sparkled in the cup" (Pr 23:31), was one of the tokens of fermentation having taken place, and the same effect was very possibly implied in the name *chemer *(הֶמֶר). The testimony of the rabbins is to the same effect. They say, "*Tirosh, *תירושׁ, is new wine; the liquor of the grapes first pressed out, which easily takes possession of the mind of man" (*Sanhedr. *76, 1). "If thou abuse it, thou shalt be poor; if thou rightly use it, thou shalt be head" (*Yoma, *76, 2). Again, in the, Gernara. "Wherefore is it called *tirôsh? *Because all who are drawn to it shall be poor." Such is the testimony of the rabbins, "who ought to know something of their own language." In accordance with this, the Targumists Onkelos and Jonathan render *tirôsh, *in every instance of its occurrence (except in three cases where there is no word, or the word for vineyard), by the word המר*, chamar *(see Tattam, *Reply, *p. 5, 6). **3. ***Chehme?, *חֶמֶר*. *(from חָמִר, *cestuavitferbuit*)*, *or *in, *its Chaldee form, *chamar, *חֲמִר '(Sept. οϊvνος, καλός)*, *is "*in *vinum a fervendo et fermentando dictum"(Gesenius, *Thesaur. *p. 493). The word occurs eight times-twice. (De 32:14; Isa 27:2) in its Hebrew and six times (Ezr 6:9; Ezr 7:22; Da 5:1-2,4,23) in the Chaldee form. In De 32:14 it is (in the A. V., after the Vulg.) treated as an adjective, and rendered "*pure*", "the *pure *blood of the grape," instead of "the blood of the grape-wine," *chemer. *The rabbins call it "pure or neat wine" (i.e. no water being mixed with the juice of the grape), "because it disturbs the head and the brain" (Tattam). They regarded *chemer *and *tirôsh *"as equivalent terms." This pure, powerful wine, was permitted to the Israelites (De 32:14); and *is *spoken of with approbation by Isaiah, "In that day sing ye unto him. A vineyard of red wine (*chemer*)*; *I, the Lord, do keep it"(Isa 27:2-3). Cyrus and Arta xerxes commanded that *chemer *should be given to the people of Israel "for the service of the God of heaven (Ezr 6:9). *Shekár, *שֵׁכָר (from *, *שֵׁכָר *inebriavit se; *Sept. σίκερα, οινος μεθυσμα, μέθη *-; *Vulg. *vinun*)*, *is *"fermetum *an inebriating drink, whether wine prepared or distilled from barley or from honey or from dates (Geseniuts, *Thesaur. *p. 1440). So Fürst who adds, "or any other kind, of intoxicating drink comprehended under the name τῶν σικέρωνς *"*Jerome says, Sicera (שֵכִר) Hebraeo sermone omnis potio, qule inebriare potest, sivrilla quae frumento conficitulr, sive pomorum succo, aut quum favi decoquuitur in dulcem et barbaaram potionem, aut. palmarum fructus exprimuntur in liquorem coctisque frugibus aqua pinguior coloratur (*Ep. ad Nepotianum*)*. *In the A.V. the word is once rendered "strong- wine"(Nu 28:7); and elsewhere, occurring along with *yàyin, *"strong drink" (6:3; De 29:29; Jg 13:4,7,14; Isa 5:11; Isa 56; Isa 12; Mic 2:11; and the passages cited below). Onkelos, *On Numbers 28:*7, calls it "old wine." Rabbi Solomon, rabbi Eleasar, Aben - Ezra, and others call it "intoxicating wine." "The word means strong drink, from whatever substance made" (Tattam). It was used as a drink-offering in the service of God (Nu 28:7), and was, notwithstanding its *highly *intoxicating property, permitted to the Israelites (De 14:26). *SEE DRINK; SEE STRONG*. A vain attempt has been made, by connecting the word etymologically with *sugar, *to prove, in the face of the clearest evidence to the contrary, that it was a sweet, non-intoxicating syrup (see Lees, *Works*)*. *The word is employed in the following passages in such a manner as to show decisively that it denotes an intoxicating drink: Le 10:9, where the priests are forbidden to drink wine or *shekár *when they go into the tabernacle; 1Sa 1:15, where Hannah, charged with drunkenness by Eli, replies it is not so "I have drunk neither wine nor *shekár*" Ps 69:12, where the psalmist complains, "I was the song of the drinkers of *shekár*" (A. V. "drunkards"); Pr 20:1, "Wine is a mocker, *shekár *is raging, and whosoever is deceived thereby is not wise;"31:4, 5, "It is not for kings to drink wine, nor for princes *shekár, *lest they drink and forget the law;" Isa 5:22, "Woe unto them that are mighty to drink wine, and men of strength to mingle *shekar*" 28:7: "They also have erred through wine, and through *shekár *are out of the way: the priest'and the prophet-have erred through *shekár, *they are swallowed up of wine. they are out of the way through *shekáru;*" 29:9, "They are drunken, but not with wine; they stagger, but not with *shekár*." **5. ***'Asis, *עָסַיס (from עָסִס, *to tread; *Sept. νᾶμα, γλυκασμός, οινος νέος, μέθη*; *Targ. חֲמִר מֵרִת, "pure wine;" Vulg. "dulcedo, mustum"), is *must, *that which is expressed from grapes by treading, or from pomegranates (Gesenisus. *Thesaur. p. *1054). Henderson says, "By עָסַיס is meant *the fresh wine, or *juice of the grape or other fruit which has just been *pressed out, *and is remarkable for its sweet flavor and its freedom from intoxicating qualities" (*Comment. on Joel 1, *5). Its extraction from pomegranates is referred to in Song 8:2 ("juice"), Yet its intoxicating quality seems intimated in Isa 49:26, "They shall be drunken with their own blood as with sweet wine" (*asis*); Joe 1:5, "Awake, ye drunkards, and weep… because of the new wine (*asis*)*, *for it is cut off from your mouth." It is promised by God as a blessing (Joe 3:17-18; Am 9:13). **6. ***Sôbè, *סֹבֶא (from סָבָא, *pofavit, *idque intemperantius, *gurgitavit, *to drink to excess, to tope [Gesenius, *Thesaur. *p. 932]; Sept. οιμος; Vulg. *vinum*)*, *occurs only in three places (Isa 1; Isa 22, "wine;" Ho 4:18, "drink;" Na 1:10, "drunken"), but the verb and participle often-the latter to denote drunk, a drunkard, a toper. Gesenius renders the noun in Isa 1; Isa 22 *vinum, *but in Ho 4:18 *compotatio, *a drinking-bout, a carouse; so Henderson, Dathe, etc. The Sept. must have followed a various reading in this place. *Sôbè, *then, means some (or perhaps any) kind of intoxicating drink. **7. ***Mesek, *מֶסֶך (from מָסִך*, *to *mix, *or mingle), is wine mixed with water or aromatics (Sept. κέρασμα*; *Vulg. *inistum*)*. *It occurs only once (Ps 60:12,9); but the participial noun מַמסָך, *nmimsdak, *is found in Pr 23:30; Isa 56:11, in a similar sense-wine highly spiced, to improve its flavor and enhance its intoxicating power. See below. **8. ***Shemanrim, *שׁמָרַים (from שָׁמִר, *to keep, *preserve lay up; Sept. τρυγέας, φύλαγμα, δόξα*; Villg. faces, vendemice; *A. V. "lees," "dregs," "wine on the lees"), occurs five times, and always in the plural. It is used both of lees and of wine preserved on the lees: of lees, Ps 75:8; Jer 48; Jer 11; Zep 1; Zep 2, in all which passages it is used in a figurative sense; in the second and third, the form of expression is proverbial, being used of individuals and nations— "de iis qui desides, atque otiosi sunt, vel certe vita utuntur quieta, tranquilla, metaphora a vino petita, quod diu in cella reconditum fbecibus superjaciet et intactum asservatur, quo validius fit vinum odorque fragrantior" (Gesenius, *Thesaur. *p. 1444). It is used of wine, Isa 25:6 (bis), where the prophet foretells the rich provision of Gospel blessings under the figure of "a feast of fat things, of wines on the lees, *shemarim, *well refined (מַזקקַים, *defecated *i.e. "vinum vetus et nobilissimum a tdcibus purgatum"(Gesenius), or "*curm *feecibus servatium (Hefenwein), quod defecatum et clarificatun in conviviis opiparis apponitur"(Ftirst, *Concord. *p. 1177). The word is used of lees, according to some, "from their preserving the strength and flavor of wine"(Alexander); according to others as "id quod ad ultimum usque reservatur et remanet faeces, utpote quae in imo vasis fundo subsident" (Fürst). This "vetus et nobilissimum vinum" is spoken of approvingly in the last-cited passage. **9. ***Ashishah, *אֲשַׁישָׁה (Sept. λάγανον ἀπὸ πηγάνου, πέμμα, ἀμορίτης*, *i.e. a cake from the frying-pan, a baked cake, a sweet cake, is a variation of rendering truly. The Targ. of Jonathan on Ex 16:31 uses אֲשַׁישׁיָן for the Heb. צפַּיחית a flat cake. The *traditio Judaica *is גִּרַבא דַחִמרָא,a ajar of wine. The A. V. has "flagons," "flagons of wine"). The plural of the word occurs both in the masculine and feminine forms. Critics are pretty generally agreed that it does not denote wine or any other drink, but a *cake, *such as was "prepared from dried grapes, or raisins pressed or compacted into a certain form. Cakes of this kind are mentioned as delicacies with which the weary and languid are refreshed (2Sa 6:19; 1Ch 16:3; Song 2:5), and were offered in sacrifice to idols (Ho 3:1). They differed from צַמּוּק, i.e. grapes dried but not compacted into the form of cakes; and also from דּבֵלָה, i.e. figs pressed into cakes." So Gesenius, who derives the word from אָשִׁשׁ, *to press, *although Ginsburg would derive it from a similar form denoting *to burn. *The evidence seems in favor of a cake, especially a grape cake, in which latter sense it certainly occurs in Ho 3:1, where, however, it is written more fully, or rather with the addition of עֲנָבַים*, grapes, *which fills up its meaning, אֲשַׁישֵׁי עֲנָבַים *=Z cakes of grapes. *Dr. Tattam, resting on the authority of rabbins whom he quotes, seems inclined to abide by the rendering of the A.V. (see *Reply, *p. 13, 14). *SEE CAKE*. **10. **Three other words may here be noticed. חמֶ , *chomeets *(Sept. ὄξος*, *but in Pr 10:26 ὄμφαξ, i.e. sour grapes; so the Syr.; Vulg. *acetum; *A. V. "vinegar," rightly), occurs five times. This, it appears, was obtained either from *yàyin *or *shekár *(Nu 6:3), and was used by those engaged in the labors of the field to soften and render more palatable the dry bread which formed the food of the reapers (Ru 2:14). It was also used as a beverage, probably mixed, with water (Nu 6:3), in which case it would resemble the *posca *of the Komans, which was not an intoxicating drink, and was used only by the poorer classes (Plaut. *Mil. Glor. *3, 2, 23). In Mt 27:34 our Lord is said to 'have had vinegar mingled with gall offered to him to drink when on the cross. Mark (Mr 15:23) says it was wine mingled with myrrh; Luke that it was vinegar offered by the soldiers in mockery (Lu 23:36); and John that it was vinegar (Joh 19:29). Possibly these accounts refer to two separate occurrences-the one an act of cruelty on the part of the soldiers, who, in response to our Lord's exclamation, "I thirst," offered him some of their own *posca; *the other an act of intended kindness; designed to alleviate his sufferings by an anodyne. *SEE VINEGAR*. *Anabim, *עֲנָבַים (A.V. "wine" in Ho 3:1; elsewhere correctly "grapes"). *SEE GRAPE*. *Yekeb, *יֶקֶב (A. V. "wine" in De 16:13; elsewhere correctly "press"). *SEE WINE-PRESS*. **11. **In the New Test. several words are employed denoting wine. **(1.) **Οινος*, *comprehending every sort of wine. **(2.) **Γλεῦκος, sweet, or "new wine," which, as well as the former, seems, from the use made of it (Ac 2:13), to signify wine of an intoxicating quality. "These men are full of new wine," to which charge Peter replies, "These men are not drunken as ye suppose" (Ac 5:15), although Dr. Lees's, interpretation is fairly admissible that the language is that of mockery, as if we should say of a drunken man, He has taken too much water. The *gleukos *was the fruit of the grape, so kept as to preserve its sweetness, "perhaps made of a remarkably sweet, small grape, which is understood by the Jewish expositors to be meant by *sorek *(שׂרֵך Ge 49; Ge 11), or *sorekáh *(שׂרֵכָה, Isa 5; Isa 2), and still found in Syria and Arabia"(Alford, *On Acts 2, *13). So Suidas, τὸ ἀποσταλάγμα τῆς σταφυλῆς πρὶν πατηθῆ*. *It could not be *new *wine, in the proper sense of the term, inasmuch as about eight months must have elapsed between the vintage and the feast of Pentecost. It might have been applied, just as *mustum *was by the Romans, to wine that had been preserved for about a year in an unfermented state (Cato, *De Re Rustica, *c. 120). But the explanations of the ancient lexicographers rather lead us to infer that its luscious qualities were due, not to its being recently made, but to its being produced from the very purest juice of the grape; for both in *Hesychius* and the *Etymologicum Magnum *the term γλεῦκος is explained to be the juice that flowed spontaneously from the grape before the treading commenced. The name itself, therefore, is not conclusive as to its being an unfermented liquor, while the context implies the reverse for Peter would hardly have offered a serious defense to an accusation that was not seriously made; and yet if the sweet wine in question were not intoxicating, the accusation could only have been ironical (see Walch, *De Vatura *τοῦ γλεύκους [Jen. 17551). As considerable stress is laid upon the quality of sweetness as distinguished from strength, we may' observe that the usual term for the inspissated juice of the grape, which was characterized more especially by sweetness, was *debásh *(דּבִשׁ), rendered in the A.V. "honey"(Ge 43:11; Eze 27:17). This was prepared by boiling it down either to a third of its original bulk, in which case it was termed *sapa *by the Latins and ἕψημα or σίραιον by the Greeks, or else to half its bulk, in which case it was termed *deiutum *(Pliny, 14:11). Both the substance and the name, under the form of *dibs, *are in common use in Syria at the present day. We may further notice a. less artificial mode of producing a sweet liquor from the grape, namely, by pressing the juice directly into the cup, as described in Ge 40:11. Lastly, there appears to have been a beverage, also of a sweet character, produced by macerating grapes, and hence termed the "liquor" (מַשׁרָה) of grapes (Nu 6:3). These later preparations are allowed in the Koran (16, 69) as substitutes for wine. **(3.) **Γέννημα*, *or γένημα, τῆς ἀμπέλου, fruit of the vine=wine (Lu 22:18). **(4.) **Οινος ἄκρατος*, *pure wine (Re 14:10)*— *οινον ἄκρατον ειναι λέγομεν, ῳ μὴ μέμικται τὸ Þδωρ, ἤ παντάπασιν ὀλίγον μέμικται (Galen in Wettstein, cited by Alford). Here the phrase is used figuratively. See below. **(5.) **Ο᾿ξος, sour wine, or vinegar (Mt 27:48; Mr 15:36, etc.). **(6.) **Σίκερα (A.V. "strong drink;" Heb. שֵׁכָר), "any strong drink made of grapes"(Robinson, Alford, etc.). **II. ***Historical Notices of the Use of Wine in the Bible. *The first instance we have of wine in the Old Test. is in the case of Noah, who "planted a vineyard, and did drink of the wine (*yàyin*)*, *and was drunken"(Ge 9:20-21). The culture of the vine no doubt existed before, but the patriarch now resumes the occupation which had been interrupted by the Flood. "Nowhere does the vine grow spontaneously in such abundance and excellence as in the region of Ararat, in Armenia, and the Eastern Pontus; but, no doubt, the culture of the vine was of remote antiquity, invented by one nation and spread to other countries; for thus only can the remarkable circumstance be accounted for that wine bears the same name in almost all Eastern and Western nations" (Kalisch, *On Genesis *9:20, 21). "It may be added that the Egyptians attributed the manufacture of wine to Osiris, the Phoenicians and Greeks to Bacchus, the Romans to Saturn" (*ibid.*)*. SEE VINE*. The second notice of wine is in the history of Lot, whose daughters "made their father drink wine" (*yàyin*)*, *so that he became stupidly intoxicated (Ge 19:32, etc.). It next occurs in Isaac's blessing pronounced on Jacob: "The Lord give thee . . . plenty of corn and wine" (*yàyin*) (Ge 27:28). The next notice of the juice of the grape (although, be it observed, the product is not called *wine*) is in connection with Egypt (Ge 40; Ge 11), when the chief butler says, "I took the grapes and pressed them into Pharaoh's cup." Are we to take these words according to their strict literality? Did the kings of Egypt, at the time, drink the unfermented juice of the grape only? However that maybe, and although an affirmative answer seems demanded, yet we know that the vine was cultivated in Egypt from very ancient times, representations of the process of the manufacture of wines being found on tombs belonging: to the 4th dynasty; that wine was used almost universally by the rich; that it was freely drunk at the banquets of both men and women, and even excessively, as the monuments abundantly testify; that it was drunk even by the priests, and offered in the temples to their gods. All this is now well ascertained, notwithstanding the contradictory statements of Herodotus on some points (see Rawlinson, *Herod. *2, 103, 126; Wilkinson, *Anc. Egypt. *1, 144, etc.). It has been inferred from a passage in Plutarch (*De Isid. *6) that no wine was drunk in Egypt before the reign of Psammetichus, and this passage has been quoted in illustration of Ge 40; Ge 11. The meaning of the author seems rather to be that the kings subsequently to Psammetichus did not restrict themselves to the quantity of wine prescribed to them by reason of their sacerdotal office (Diod. 1, 70). In the laws of Moses wine is frequently mentioned as forming the usual drink-offering that accompanied the daily sacrifice (Ex 29:40), the presentation of the first-fruits (Le 23:13), and other offerings (Nu 15:5). It appears from Nu 28:7 that strong drink might be-substituted for it on these occasions. Tithe was to be paid of wine (*tirsh*) as of other products, and this was to be consumed "before the Lord," meaning within the precincts of the Temple, or perhaps, as may be inferred from Le 7:16, at the place where the Temple was situated (De 12:17-18). The priest was also to receive first- fruits of wine (*tirtsh*)*, *as of other articles (18, 4; comp. Ex 22:29); and a promise of plenty was attached to the faithful payment of these dues (Pr 3:9-10). ''Wine offered to God as a drink-offering (Nu 15:5,7,10) furnishes the key to the peculiar language of Jotham's parable, "wine that cheereth God and man"(Jg 9; Jg 13) an exposition much preferable to that which renders the words "the gods and men;" for wine was offered to God as the drink of the Great King, the symbol of our best spiritual things which we offer in his worship. Wine was forbidden to the priests during the performance of their sacred' duties in the tabernacle (Le 10:9), which prohibition seems to have originated in. the offence of Nadab and Abihu, who, most probably, "transgressed through wine." At other times the priests were at liberty to drink wine. To the Nazarites, while under their vow, not only wine, but vinegar, and the fruit of the vine generally, in every form, was prohibited (Nu 6:3-4). The Israelites were at liberty to drink wine even at their national sacred festivals when rejoicing before the Lord (De 14:22-26). The Rechabites are mentioned as very peculiar in their abstinence from wine, as well as their refraining to live in houses, and are commended, not for their abstinence, but for their obedience to the command of their ancestor (Jeremiah 35). The cultivation of the vine was incompatible with the conditions of a nomad life, and it was probably on this account that Jonadab, wishing to perpetuate that kind of life among his posterity, prohibited the use of wine to them. The case is exactly parallel to that of the Nabathaeans, who abstained from wine on purely political grounds (Diod. 19:94). The use of wine at the paschal feast was not enjoined by the law, but had become an established custom, at all events in the post-Babylonian period. The cup was handed round four times according to the ritual prescribed in the Mishna (*Pesach. *10:1), the third cup being designated the "cup of blessing"(1Co 10:16), because grace was then said (*Pesach. *10:7). The contents of the cup are specifically described by our Lord as "the fruit"(γέννημα) of the vine (Mt 26:29; Mr 14:25; Lu 22:18), and in the Mishna simply as wine. The wine was mixed with warm water on these occasions, as implied in the notice of the warming-kettle (*Pesach. *7:13). Hence in the early Christian Church it was usual to mix the sacramental wine with water, a custom as old, at all events, as Justin Martyr's time (*Apol. *1, 65). *SEE PASSOVER*. The rabbins have a curious tradition, that at the great feast which shall inaugurate the coming of the Messiah he shall drink wine made from grapes which grew in Paradise during the six creative days, and preserved in Adam's cave for that great occasion (Othonis *Lex. s.v. *"Vinum;" Buxtorf, *Syn. Jud. *p. 460). The Pastoral Epistles contain directions as to the moderate use of wine on the part of all holding office in the Church; as that they should not be πάροινοι (1Ti 3:3; A.V." given to wine"), meaning insolent and violent under the influence of wine; "not given to much wine" (1Ti 3:8); "not enslaved to much wine" (Tit 2:3). The term νηφάλεος in 1Ti 3:2 (A. V. "sober"), expresses general vigilance and circumspection (Schleusner, *Lex. s.v.*; Alford, *ad loc.*)*. *Paul advises Timothy himself to be no longer an habitual water-drinker, but to take a little wine for his health's sake (1Ti 5:23). No very satisfactory reason can be assigned for the place which this injunction holds in the epistle, unless it were intended to correct any possible misapprehension as to the preceding' words, "Keep thyself pure." The precepts above quoted, as well as others to the same effect addressed to the disciples generally (Ro 13:13; Galatians 5, 21; 1Pe 4:3), show the extent to which intemperance prevailed -in ancient times, and the extreme 'danger to which the Church was subjected from this quarter. It appears to have been an ancient custom to give medicated or drugged wine to criminals condemned to death, to blunt their senses, and so lessen the pains of execution. To this custom there is supposed to be an allusion, Pr 31:6, "Give strong drink unto him that is ready to perish-;"and an illustration of the custom is furnished by the soldiers giving Jesus "wine mingled with myrrh," or, which is the same, "vinegar" i.e. sour wine; "mingled with gall," i.e. a bitter drug, without specifying the kind (Mr 15:23; Mt 27:34). "Omnes *a synedrio ad mortem damnati potarunt *יין חי, *vino vivo *(h.e. optimo, torti) ut diriperetur intellectus ejus, ad confirmandum id dicitur, Pr 31:6, etc. De perituro dicetur, id fieri, ut obliviscatur mortis, qum est infortunium ipsius" (Schöttgen, *Hor. Heb. *p. 236). To the same custom some suppose there is a reference in Am 2; Am 8, where the "wine of the condemned" (A. V.) is spoken of. The margin reads, instead of condemned, "fined or mulcted;" so Gesenius; Henderson, *amerced. *The wicked here described, in addition to other evil practices, imposed unjust fines upon the innocent, and spent the money thus unjustly obtained upon wine, which they quaffed in the house of their gods; as, Dathe renders: "pecunias hominibus innocentibus extortas compotationibus absumunt in templis deorulm suorum." *Mixed *wine is often spoken of in Scripture. This was of different kinds. Sometimes it was mixed with *water *to take it down (Isa 1:22); sometimes with *milk *(Song 5:1); and sometimes, by lovers of strong drink, with spices of various kinds, to give it a richer flavor and greater potency (Isa 5:22; Ps 75:8). Both the Greeks and Romans were in the habit of flavoring their wines with spices, and such preparations were described by the former as wine ἐξ ἀρωμάτων κατασκευαζόμενος (Athen. 1, 31 e), and by the latter as *aromatites* (Pliny, 14:19, 5). The authority of the Mishna may be cited in favor both of water and of spices, the former being noticed in *Berach*. 7*:*5; *Pesach*. 7:13; and the latter in *Shen. *2, 1. The "royal wine," literally wine of the kingdom, יֵין מִלכַוּת (Es 1; Es 7), denotes most probably the best wine, such as the king of Persia himself was accustomed to drink. "Wine of Lebanon" is referred to in such a way as to indicate its peculiar excellence-"the scent thereof shall be as the wine of Lebanon" (Ho 14:7). Hence it is thought to have been distinguished by its grateful smell. But זֵכֶר means, as the margin renders it, *memorial, *and includes odor, flavor, and refreshing influence. Modern travelers attest the excellence of the wine of Lebanon. The "wine" of Helbon, or Chalybon, is mentioned as one of the importations of Tyre (Eze 27:18), and was very famous. It was greatly valued by the Persian monarchs (Strabo, 15:735), as it still is by the residents of Damascus (Porter, *Damascus, 1, *333). The wines of modern Palestine are represented by travelers as being of excellent quality. The sweet wines are particularly esteemed in the East, because they are grateful to the taste, very exhilarating, and some of them will keep for a long time. They were therefore preferred by those who were addicted to drinking, and commonly selected for the tables of kings. Their inebriating quality is alluded to by the prophet Isaiah: "I will feed them that oppress you with their own flesh, and they shall be drunken as with sweet wine"(Isa 49:26). "The testimony of travelers respecting the spirituous nature of the wines of Palestine accords with that of the sacred writers.... It is observed by Thevenot that the people of the Levant never mingle water with their wine at meals, but drink by itself what water they think proper for abating its strength. While the Greeks and Romans by mixed wine understood wine united and lowered with water, the Hebrews, on the contrary, meant by it wine made stronger and more inebriating by the addition of powerful ingredients... The wines of Palestine are generally kept in bottles made of leather, or goat-skins sewed or pitched together. In these the process of fermentation took place, and the wine acquired its proper degree of strength. In absence of anything like chemical analysis, these are the data from which we must draw our conclusions concerning the nature of the wines referred to by the sacred writers. Some of them are represented to have been sweet wines, which, if not the strongest, are known to have been very strong. The grapes from which they were produced were remarkable for their richness and excellence; the climate of the country being such as to favor the growth and development of those principles which, during fermentation, were converted into alcohol. As the grapes of that country are now known to furnish very rich and spirituous wines, we may infer that the ancient were similar in their character; since there is abundant evidence that the climate has not suffered any material change for three thousand years. We should not omit, in confirmation of this view of the spirituous nature of the wines of Palestine, to advert to the modes in which they were kept. It is now well known that when mixtures of alcohol and water are put into bladders, the water evaporates and leaves the alcohol in a more concentrated form. It is asserted that wine which has been kept in bottles closed by pieces of bladder firmly tied over the mouth, in a few weeks acquire the strength and flavor which would be imparted to it only by several years preservation in the ordinary way. Now, it is probable that the leather bags into which these wines are put would produce a similar effect upon the liquor which, after then process of fermentation had ceased, would soon attain its complete and appropriate alcoholic character" (Prof. Silliman, *Amer. Jour. of Science and Arts,* 1834). "The wine was generally contained in large ox-skins ranged round the store-room, and quite distended with liquor. The larger skins seem to have answered to casks; the smaller goat and kid skins, to barrels and keg's in the comparison, to be chiefly used in conveying to customers the smallest quantities required. Individuals rarely keep large stores of wine in their houses, but get a small supply of a goat-skin or two from the winestore. This seems also to have been the case 'with the ancient Jews, for Nehemiah, although holding the rank of governor, had no store of wine, for we read he had a supply every ten days (Ne 5:18). The large skins in the Wine-store we have mentioned are supported above the floor on frames of wood" (Kitto, *Pict. Bible. *note on Job 32:19). 'Similar methods of storing and keeping wine were common to the Greeks and Romans. See Smith, *Dict. of Class. Antiq *s.v. "Vinum." **III. ***Teaching of the Scriptures in respect to the Use of Wine. —* **1. **As appears from the foregoing examination, the Bible makes no distinction between intoxicating and non-intoxicating wines never refers or alludes to such a distinction. Yet wine, יִיַן *- *οινος*, *is constantly spoken of in precisely the same way that corn and oil and milk are spoken of--namely, as a blessing sent by God for the use of man. It was enjoined to be used in the service of God. It is employed as a symbol of the highest spiritual blessings (Isa 55:1-2). The use of it was common among the Jews, as it is among the people of all wine-producing countries. It was forbidden to the Nazarites alone, and that only while under their vow. The use of it is in one case distinctly prescribed by Paul to Timothy (1Ti 5:23). Jesus Christ came "drinking wine" as well as "eating bread" (Lu 7:33-34), and in one instance miraculously produced a supply of wine when it was needed (John 2). We attach great importance, religiously and theologically, to these facts. Jesus was no ascetic. He gave no countenance to asceticism. By drinking wine-freely using the blessings of God's providence-he testified against: the error, afterwards called Gnostic and Manichaean, which would attach impurity. to that which enters the mouth, and vindicated the liberty of his followers to use "every creature of God" as good and fit for food, and to be received with thanksgiving by them as those who "believe and know the truth" (1Ti 4:3-4). But this error repelled, and this liberty asserted, none are obliged to drink wine or to eat meat if they prefer not. There is liberty on this side also. They may abstain if they choose. Paul expressed his readiness to abstain from "flesh" and "wine" to secure the good of a brother, or to avoid occasioning him injury (Romans 14; 21; comp. 1Co 8:13). The same liberty is ours; and if a great practical good may be attained by abstinence, Christian benevolence calls us in this direction. But while liberty to use wine, as well as every other earthly blessing, is conceded and maintained in the Bible, yet all abuse of it is solemnly and earnestly condemned. In the book of Proverbs the warnings against such abuse are frequent and severe (Pr 20:1; Pr 23:29,35; Pr 31:4-7). It is the same in the New Test. (1Co 6:10; Ga 5:21); "Be not drunk with wine; not given to much wine." Such are its precepts — precepts which would have little or no force, or even meaning, were wine not intoxicating, and were there not some peculiar danger incident to its use. If wine were not intoxicating, the apostle might as well have exhorted them against drinking too much milk or too much water. He takes for granted the right to use; he recognizes the danger incident to the use; but instead of prohibiting, he cautions and exhorts against excess. *Moderation *in eating and drinking, is the broad Christian law. *Abstinence *from some kinds of food may become a duty under peculiar circumstances. Self- denial, in relation to things lawful, is often imperative. Wine is good; is a gift of God. It may be used with advantage; it may be abused, but not innocently or with impunity. It may be declined in the exercise of Christian liberty; it ought to be declined if doing so helps forward the cause of humanity, morality, and religion, and promotes the glory of God. In view, however, of the almost impossibility of procuring genuine wine in the United States without extravagant cost, and the fact that in order to its preservation it is invariably more alcoholic than the light wines of Bible times usually were, and especially in view of the dangerous tendency to intoxicating habits involved in the use of wine as a beverage, not only to the drinker, but to his family and friends, it cannot be doubted that the wisest and most Christian course is to abstain wholly from it. This is in accordance with the apostolic precept of self-restraint (1Co 8:13). **2. **There is no positive proof that the fluid used by our Lord in instituting the sacred communion was alcoholic; it is nowhere expressly called wine, but simply the "fruit of the vine"(Mt 26:29). That it was wine, properly so called, however, is a fair presumption 'from the fact that this was the customary liquor of the Jews in the Passover meal, as we learn from the definite prescription of the Talmud ("There shall not be less than four cups of wine" *[yàyin], *Mishna, *Pesach. 10, *1). Many modern Jews, it is said, use the liquor of steeped raisins for paschal purposes; but there is no trace of such a custom in ancient times. Therefore the use of any other fluid in the communion at the present day must be justified, if at all, from *prudential *considerations growing out of the modern temperance reform; just as we consider ourselves at liberty to vary the kind of bread (originally unleavened), the posture of the communicant, and other unessential details, to suit the convenience of the occasion and the parties. These considerations are undoubtedly of the gravest character, especially the danger of relapse to, reformed inebriates partaking or even approaching the communion table, where the taste or fumes of alcohol are liable to revive their appetite. . If, as it is -confidently claimed by many, unfermented grape-juice can be procured at a moderate cost and without great inconvenience, and can be preserved with ordinary care a sufficient length of time, and is not offensive to the sense, or otherwise particularly objectionable, there is no reason why ceremonious scruples should be allowed to stand in the way of its employment. Whether individuals not susceptible to such a danger as the above are excusable in withholding themselves from the communions where alcoholic wine is used, is quite another question, which it does not lie within the scope of this article to discuss. **IV. ***Literature. — *This is quite copious. We mention, in addition to the works noticed above, 'only the most important and modern. General treatises on the manufacture, etc., of wines have been written by Henderson (Lond. 1831), Redding (ibid. 1851), Denman, (ibid. 1864), Thudichum (ibid. 1872), and others, but they are chiefly of a commercial character. The moral aspects of the subject have been considered in numberless books and periodical articles; among the latter we may especially refer to those in the *Biblical Repository, *Oct. 1836, and Oct. 1839; and the *Bibliotheca Sacra, *Jan. 1869; Jan., April, and June, 1880. Dr. F. R. Lees in various works, has strongly asserted that the wines of antiquity were largely non-alcoholic, and this view has incautiously been adopted by several later writers. as Ritchie, Nott, Stuart, Burns, etc., and by many temperance advocates; but it has been powerfully combated by others, especially Tattam, Crosby, and scholars generally. The latest and most complete treatise on this question is that of Wilson, *The Wines of the Bible *(Lond. 1877), which, after minutely examining all the classical and scriptural references, arrives at the conclusion that "so far as the wines of the ancients are concerned, *unfermented wine is a myth.*" The effort of Samson, *The Divine Law as to Wine *(N. Y. 1880), to meet this testimony by garbling the ancient statements and contradicting the modern is feeble and unworthy. Tristram observes, "All the terms for wine [in the Bible] are used in collocations which clearly show that fermentation is implied; nor is there the slightest ground in criticism for the pretence that the unfermented juice of the grape vas ordinarily used "(*Nat. Hist. of the Bible, *p. 411). An article by Rev. H. Bumstead, in the *Bibliotheca Sacrat *for January, 1881, fairly meets the scientific, philological, and moral aspects of the "wine question" as presented by Rev. A. B. Rich, D.D., in the January, April, and July numbers of the same journal. It shows, at least, that alcohol when taken in moderate quantity and in its natural combinations, is not properly a poison, but is assimilated and healthily disposed of in digestion; that *tirôsh *denotes the produce of the vine in general, while *yàyin *always signifies the fermented juice of the grape; and that to no one of the words translated "wine" does the Bible attach an indiscriminate and absolute condemnation. *SEE TEMPERANCE*.

Windsor, Councils Of *(Concilium Windoriense, *or *Windleshorense). *Windsor is a town in Berkshire, England, on the right bank of the Thames, twenty-three miles south-west of London. Its castle is the residence of the queen of England. Old Windsor is a mile and a half east-south-east of this, and was the royal residence during the Saxon dynasty. The present location was chosen by William the Conqueror. Two ecclesiastical councils have been held at Windsor, as follows: **I. **Was held on Whit-Sunday, 1070, in which Agelric, bishop of the South Saxons, was deprived, and committed to prison at Marlborough; no crime was imputed to him, and the sole object of the proceeding seems to have been to make room for a Norman. Several abbots were in like manner deposed at the same time. See Johnson, *Eccl. Canons, sub *ann.; Mansi, *Concil. *9:1203. **II. **Was held April 26, 1114, in which Ralph, bishop of Rochester, was elected to the see of Canterbury, vacant during the five preceding years. See Mansi, *Concil. *10:793; Landon, *Manual of Councils, *page 696.

Wine, Ecclestastical Use Of In the celebration of the Lord's Supper, the common wine was ordinarily used. Such was probably that which our Savior used at the last supper. The ancients mixed water with the wine; and this practice seems at one period to have been general, and is abundantly authorized by canons of the Church. The proportion of water varied at different times. Sometimes it was one fourth, at others, one third. The Western Church mixed cold water only; the Greek Church first cold, and then warm water. This was said to be emblematical at once of the fire of the Holy Spirit and of the water which flowed from our Savior's side. Various idle questions respecting the sacred elements were agitated at different times. With some there was a question of what grain the bread should be made. Others mingled salt and oil with the bread. Some substituted water for the wine. Red wine was preferred in order to avoid mistakes by the use of white wine, and also more sensibly to represent the mystery. The Roman Church now uses white wine. In the 17th century claret and in the 18th century sack was employed in England. *SEE EUCHARIST*.

Wine, Sacramental The Reverend Dunlop Moore, D.D., shows most conclusively, in the *Presbyterian Review *for January 1882, in opposition to the statements of Dr. Samson *(Divine Law as to Wine, *page 199 sq.), that the early Christian fathers knew only of fermented wine in this connection; and likewise, by the testimony of the most eminent rabbis of modern times, that the Jews to- day use fermented wine for Passover purposes. The use of steeped raisins is only resorted to where pure wine (i.e., wine free from ceremonial impurity by Gentile contact) cannot be procured; but even in that case the Jews are utterly indifferent as to whether it has fermented or not. They also freely use *vinegar *during the Passover, although this is, of course, the product of fermentation.

Winebrenner, Christian a German Reformed minister, was born Feb. 7, 1789. He entered the ministry in 1838 or 1839, taking charge of several congregations in Bedford and Huntingdon counties, Pa., where he labored until 1846. After this time he was not connected with the Synod, but still continued to preach until the time of his death at Woodbury, Pa., Feb. 12, 1858. See Harbaugh, *Fathers of the Germ. Ref. Church, *4 491.

Winebrenner, John an American clergyman, was born in Frederick County, Md., March 25, 1797. He began his ministry in the German Reformed Church, having charge of four congregations in and near Harrisburg, Pa., but, owing to a difference of opinion in regard to revivals, he withdrew from his former affiliations, and established a new denomination which he called "The Church of God," but which is commonly known as the Winebrennarians. *SEE CHURCH OF GOD*. Mr. Winebrenner was for several years editor of *The Church Advocate. *His death occurred Sept. 12, 1860. He published, in connection with I. B. Rupp, *The History of all the Religious Denominations in the United States *(1844). He also published, *Brief View of the Church of God: — a work on Regeneration: — The Reference and Pronouncing Testament: — Revival Hymn-book: — Practical and Doctrinal Sermons: *— and other works.

Wine-cup (כּוֹס הִיִּיַן, *cup of the wine). *Wine, or the cup in which it is contained, often represents in Scriptutre the anger of God: "Thou hast made us drink the wine of astonishment" (Ps 60:3). "In the hand of the Lord there is a cup, and the wine is red; it is full of mixture, and he poureth out of the same. But the dregs thereof all the wicked shall wring them out and drink them " (Ps 75:8). The Lord says to Jeremiah (Jer 25:15), "Take the wine-cup of this fury at my hand, and cause all the nations to whom I send thee to drink it." Elegant forms of drinking-cups are represented on the Assyrian and Egyptian monuments. *SEE CUP*.

Wine-press is the rendering in the A.V. of three. Hebrew and one Greek words: גִּת, *gath *("wine-press," Jg 6:11; Ne 13:15; La 1:15; "wine-fat," Isa 63:2; "press," Joe 3:13), which denotes the whole apparatus, *SEE GETHSEMANE*, or (as Gesenius prefers) simply the large vat *(*ληνός*) *in which the grapes were trodden, the latter being a meaning specifically borne by פּוּרָה, *purah *("wine-press," Isa 63:3; "press," Hag 2:16); while יֶקֶב *yekeb *("wine-press," Nu 18:27,30; De 15:14; Jg 7:25; 2Ki 6:27; Job 24:11; Isa 5:2; Jer 48:33; Ho 9:2; Zec 14:10; "press," Pr 3:10; Isa 16:10; "fat," Joe 2:24; Joe 3:13; "press-fat," Hag 2:16; "wine,"' De 16:13) is thought to denote the lower trough or receptacle into which the expressed juice flows, theὑπολήνιον of Mr 12:1. The last Hebrew word is derived by Gesenius (*Thesaur. *page 619 b) from a root signifying to hollow or dig out; and in accordance with this is the practice in Palestine, where the "wine-press" and "vats" appear to have been excavated out of the native rock of the hills on which the vineyards lay. From these scanty notices contained in the Bible we gather that the wine- presses of the Jews consisted of two receptacles or vats placed at different elevations, id the upper one of which the grapes were trodden, while the lower one received the expressed juice.. The two. vats are mentioned together only in Joe 3:13: "The press *(gath) *is full; the fats *(yekebim) *overflow" the upper vat being full of fruit, the lower one overflowing with the must. *Yekeb *is similarly applied in Joe 2:24, and probably in Pr 3:10, where the verb rendered "burst out" in the A.V. may bear the more general sense of "abound" (Gesen. *Thesaur. *page 1130). *Gats *is also strictly applied to the upper vat in Ne 13:15; La 1:15, and Isa 63:2, with *purdh *in a parallel sense in the following verse. Elsewhere *yekeb *is not strictly applied; for in Job 24:11, and Jer 48:33, it refers to the upper vat, just as in Mt 21:33, ὑπολήνιον (properly the vat *under *the press) is substituted for ληνός*, *as given in Mr 12:1. It would, moreover, appear natural to describe the whole arrangement by the term gath, as denoting the most important portion of it; but, with the exception of "proper names" in which the word appears, such as Gath, Gath-rinmmon, Gath-hepher, and Gittaimn, the termn *ye'ekeb *is applied to it (Jg 7:25; Zec 14:10). The same term is also applied to the produce of the wine-press ( Nu 18:27,30; De 15:14; 2Ki 6:27; Ho 9:2). The term *purdh, *as used in Hag 2:16, perhaps refers to the contents of a winevat, rather than to the press or vat itself. The two vats were usually dug or hewn out of the solid rock (Isa 5:2, marg.; Mt 21:33). Ancient wine-presses, so constructed, are still to be seen in Palestine (Robinson, *Bibl. Res. *3:137; comp. page 603). Dr. Tristram examined several of these on Mount Carmel, which he describes as being exactly like others observed in the south of Judah. "In all cases a flat or gently sloping rock is made use of for their construction. At the upper end a trough is cut about three feet deep and four and a half by three and a half feet in length and breadth. Just below this, in the same rock, is hewn a second trough, fourteen inches deep and four feet by three in size. The two are connected by two or three small holes bored through the rock close to the bottom of the upper trough, so that, on the grapes being put in and pressed down, the juice streamed into the lower vat. Every vineyard seems to have had one of these presses" (*Land of Israel, *page 106). The wine-presses were thus permanent, and were sufficiently well known to serve as indications of certain localities (Jg 7:25; Zec 14:10). The upper receptacle *(gath) *was large enough to admit of threshing being carried on in (not "by," as in the A.V.) it, as was done by Gideon for the sake of concealment (Jg 6:11). *SEE PRESS; SEE VINEYARD*. In Palestine the vintage takes place in September, and is celebrated with great rejoicings (Robinson, *Bibl. Res. *1:431; 2:81). The ripe fruit was gathered in baskets (Jer 6:9), as represented in Egyptian paintings (Wilkinson, *Anc. Egypt. *1:41-45), and was carried to the wine-press. It was then placed in the upper one of the two vats or receptacles of which the wine-press was formed, and was subjected to the process of "treading," which has prevailed in all ages in Oriental and South-European countries (Ne 13:15; Job 24:11; Isa 16:10; Jer 25:30; Jer 48:33; Am 9:13; Re 19:15). A certain amount of juice exuded from the ripe fruit from its own pressure before the treading commenced. This appears to have been kept separate from the rest of the juice, and to have formed the *gleukos, *or "sweet wine," noticed in Ac 2:13. The first drops of juice that reached the lower vat were termed the *dema, *or "tear," and formed the first-fruits of the vintage (Sept. ἀπαρχὰς ληνοῦ*) *which were to be presented to Jehovah (Ex 22:29). The "treading" was effected by one or more men, according to the size of the vat, and, if the Jews adopted the same arrangements as the Egyptians, the treaders were assisted in the operation by ropes fixed to the roof of the wine-press (Wilkinson, *Anc. Egypt. *1:46). They encouraged one another by shouts and cries (Isa 16:9-10; Jer 25:30; Jer 48:33). Their legs and garments were dyed red, with the juice (Ge 49:11; Isa 53:2-3). The expressed juice escaped by an aperture into the lower vat, or was at once collected in vessels. A hand-press was occasionally used in Egypt (Wilkinson, *Anc. Egypt. *1:45), but we have no notice of such an instrument in the Bible. As to the subsequent treatment of the wine, we have but little information. Sometimes it was drank as must, but more generally it was bottled off after fermentation, and, if it were designed to be kept for some: time, a certain amount of lees was added to give it body (Isa 25:6). The wine consequently required to be "refined," or strained, previously to being brought to a table (ibid.). For further elucidation of the subject see Hackett, *Illustr. of Script. *page 156 sq.; Van Lennep, *Bibl. Lands, *page 117 sq. *SEE WINE*.

Winer, Georg Benedict a German theologian and author, whose work is of permanent value to the Church no less for what it accomplished directly than for the indirect results obtained through its influence over the improvement of Biblical science. He was born at Leipsic, April 13, 1789, of parents in the common walks: of life, was early orphaned, and, by the decease of al aunt who was the last of his relatives to assume the charge of his childhood years, exposed to such penury as deprived him of sufficient and proper food, and obliged him to do without books necessary to his course in the St. Nicolai School of his native town. He obtained a Greek grammar by writing it out, and thus began the philological labors in which he was in time to become a master and win an imperishable reputation. He distinguished himself in the scientific contests of the students, and acquired such proficiency in the Hebrew language as enabled him to become the instructor of persons older than himself. His teachers embodied words prophetic of his coming importance as a scholar in his certificate of graduation. In 1817 Winer began the academical career which extended over forty years of industrious and useful labor. Nine of these years 1823-32-were given to the University of Erlangen, where he was professor of theology, and all the remaining years to Leipsic. He lectured on theological methodology, and, besides, on subjects drawn from every section of exegetical, systematic, and even practical theology. In historical theology he confined his lectures to the history of theological sciences. The general world knows him only through his writings, and acknowledges his influence as a comprehensively and profoundly learned man and a thoroughly scientific character; but the students who thronged his lecture- room to the very end of his public life bear testimony to the power of his clear oral statements and to his decided sympathy for all that is pure and good, as also to his serious and pronounced religious character. He was accustomed to precede or follow his lectures with addresses in which he surveyed, often with truly prophetic vision, the movement of events in the world or the Church; and on those occasions he often rose to the regions of true impassioned eloquence, and wrought impressions which his hearers were not likely to forget. It remains to be added that his tendency was thoroughly orthodox, and that all his impulses grew out of his perfect devotion to moral goodness. He was, however, too earnest a lover of truth to engage in the building of original systems which can only be founded in air since their authors will not recognize the soundness of any truth that is old and approved, and also too devoted to the service of truth to endorse and repeat the old simply because it is old. Of the written products of his life a small number belong to the department of symbolics-namely, the *Comparative Darstellung des Lehrbegriffs der venschiedenen christlichen Kirchenparteien *(1824, 2 ed. 1837), a thoroughly scientific work: — his edition of the *Augsburg Confession,* with notes (1825): — and two addresses on the idea of the Church as contained in the creeds (1852-53). In bibliography his *Handbuch der theologischen Literatur *(1821, ad ed. 1838-40, 2 vols.; and supplement, 1842) is a monument of genuine German industry, and is valuable for its brief biographies of authors. The central object, however, about which all of Winer's literary activity turned was the Bible. Not only had most of his works reference to the Bible, but his most original, meritorious, and permanently useful work for theology was done in the field of Biblical science. He barely touched upon Biblical theology indeed, and gave but passing attention to either the lower or the higher criticism; but in isagogical science he contributed valuable papers to the elucidation of questions respecting versions of the Old Test., e.g. the character of the Samaritan Pentateuch, the value of the Chaldee paraphrases, especially of Onkelos and Pseudo-Jonathan. The interpretation of Scripture engaged his attention more than any other study. He expounded all the books of the New Test. before his classes. But of the results of his labors he gave the world no considerable quantity a single book, the *Epistle to the Galatians* (1821, 3 ed. 1829), and sections from other epistles constituting the whole. As the fruit of a whole life given to the study of exegesis this is exceedingly little. But in the discussion of matters of fact from Scripture history he was, on the other hand, very busy with his pen. He wrote dissertations on the taking of Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar (1848); on the question whether the δεῖπνον of Jesus and his disciples (John 13) were a Passover supper or not (1847); on whether the feet of crucified persons were nailed to the cross or not (1845), etc. His *Biblishes Realwörterbuch, *finally, is a comprehensive and thorough dictionary, in alphabetical order, of material objects, events, etc., belonging to Biblical science-a positive mine of historical, geographical, archaeological, and physical information. Of still greater value for theological science were his contributions to the study of the languages of the Bible whether lexical or grammatical. He cultivated the Old-Test. Chaldee with special fondness. In 1824 he published *Grammatik des biblischen und targumischen Chalddismus *(2d ed. 1842), and in 1825 a *Chaldee Reader. *In 1826 he issued a *Specimen Lexici Hebraici, *and in 1828 a complete *Lexicon of the Hebrew and Chaldee Languages, *based on a revision of the *Handwörterbuch *by Simon and Eichhorn. The most important of all his works is, however, unquestionably the *Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Sprachidioms, *etc. (1822, and often). It was rendered into English by American scholars in 1825, and has since appeared in repeated editions, which conform to the changes introduced in the original from time to time; and it was translated into Swedish in 1827. The merit of this work consists in its demonstrating that the structure of the Greek language is preserved in the forms and idioms of the New-Test. language, and that vague assumptions of the Hebraizing character of New-Test. Greek, and unrestrained willfulness in its interpretation, are out of place. The work had its inception in a spirit of reverence for the Bible and in earnest love of truth, and it has achieved gratifying results in the more systematic methods of interpretation, the profounder and yet more elevated modes of exposition, which it helped to introduce. A year after the appearance of the *Grammattik, *Winer published a *Beitrag uzur Verbesserung der neutestamentlichen Lexikoqn-aphie, *and he had made extended preparations for a New-Test. lexicon; but he was not permitted to enter in the writing of this work. His sight failed during the last five years of his life. His last course of lectures, on the doctrinal and ethical principles of Protestantism and Roman Catholicism, was delivered in the winter term, 1857-58; and after a violent illness of six days duration, he died, May 12, 1858, and was buried two days afterwards, amid the lamentations of the university and the entire town. — Herzog *Real Encyklop. s.v.*

Wines, Enoc Cobb, D.D. a Presbyterian minister, was born at Hanover, N. J., Feb. 17, 1806. He graduated at Middlebury College in 1827, after which he entered the navy as chaplain and teacher of midshipmen in the United States ship "Constellation," visiting many foreign countries, and writing an interesting work entitled *Two Years and a Half in the Navy; *or, *A Journal of a Cruise in the Mediterranean and Levant *(Phila. 1829-31). He afterwards became pastor of the Church at Burlington, N. J., and also of East Hampton, L. I., which he resigned to become principal of the Edgehill Seminary, Princeton, N. J. He was subsequently professor of mental and moral philosophy in the Central High-school of Philadelphia, and in 1854 professor of ancient languages in Washington College, Pa., and in 1859 in the University of St. Louis. In 1862 he entered upon the work which made him eminent as a philanthropist and specialist in prison reform. He became secretary of the New York Prison Reform Association, and afterwards of the National Association. He was instrumental in the appointment of congresses for prison reform in Europe (visiting that country repeatedly from 1871 to 1875) and America, which accomplished much good in rousing the attention of the civilized world to this benevolent object. He died at Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 10, 1879. Dr. Wines made important contributions to religious literature, and the last 'work on which he was engaged was in seeing through the Riverside Press at Cambridge, Mass., his book entitled *The State of Prisons and of Child-saving Institutions throughout the World. *He had prepared another book which was ready for the press, under the title of *Complete in Christ. *His works, in addition to those mentioned, are, *A Trip to Boston *(Bost. 1838, 12mo): — *Three Hints on a* *System of Popular Education *(Phila. eod. 12mo): — *How Shall I Govern my School? *(eod. 12mo), addressed to young teachers: *— Letters to School Children *(Bost. *16mo*)*: — Commentaries on the Laws of the Ancient Hebrews, with an Introductory Essay on Civil Society and Government *(N.Y. 1852., 8vo). This work passed through five editions: — Adam *and Christ; or, The Doctrine of Representation Stated and Explained *(1855, *18mo*)*: — Prelacy and Parity Discussed *(N. Y. *12mo*)*: — The True Penitent 'Portrayed, *etc..(Phila.): — *Treatise on Regeneration *(N.Y. 1863, 12mo): — *The Promises of God *(Phila. 1868.18mo): *— Essay on Temptation *(1865,12mo). He has also published a number of *Addresses, *and contributed to the *Amer. Quar. Rev., North Amer. Quar. Rev., Biblical Repository, Bibliotheca Sacra, Knickerbocker, *etc. See *N. Y. Observer, *Dec. 18, 1879; *Allibone, Dict. of Brit and Amer. Authors, s.v*. (W. P. S.).

Wing (prop. כָּנָŠ*, *πτέρυξ)*. *By this word the Hebrews understood not only the wings of birds, but also the lappet, skirt, or flap of a garment (Ru 3:9; Jer 2:34), the extremity of a country (Job 38:13; Isa 24:16); figuratively, the wings of the wind (Ps 18:10), sunbeam (Mal 4:2); and, metaphorically protection or defense (Mt 23:37). God says that he has borne his people on the wings of eagles (Ex 21:4; see also De 32:11); that is, he had brought them out of Egypt as an eagle carries its young ones upon its wings. The prophet begs of God to protect them under his wings (Ps 17:8), and says that the children of men put their trust in the protection of his wings (Ps 36:7). Isaiah, speaking of the army of the kings of Israel and Syria who were coming against Judah, says, "The stretching out of his wings shall fill the breadth of thy land, O Immanuel"(Isa 8:8).

Wing, M.T.C., D.D. a professor of the Protestant Episcopal Church, was born in Vermont in 1798, and died at Gambier, O., Feb. 26, 1863. Dr. Wing was a graduate of Middlebury College, and, after studying at the Theological Seminary, Alexandria, Va., became a tutor in Kenyon College, O. At the time of his death he was professor of ecclesiastical history in the Theological Seminary at Gambier. See *Amer. Quar. Church Rev. *April, 1863, p. 152.

Wingate, W.M., D.D. a Baptist minister, was born, at Darlington, S.C., July 28,1828. He graduated froms Wake Forest College, N.C., in 1849; for two years. was a student of theology at Furman Institute, S.C. ; from 1852 to 1854 agent of Wake Forest College, and; in the latter year was chosen president, which office he held for twenty-five years. He died February 27, 1879. (J.C.S.)

Winifred the apostle of Germany. *SEE BONIFACE*.

Winkelers a sect existing in Strasburg towards; the end of the 14th century. Their teachings and usages resembled those of the contemporary Waldenses, though with some divergences; but it is probable that the sect was of native growth, and originated in the increasing sense of need for an improvement in religious teaching, which existed in the consciousness of the people. Its members sustained communication with those of other similar associations in different cities along the Rhine and in Wurtemberg and Switzerland. They rejected, on the authority of the Bible, all mariolatry and saints'- worship, the use of images, the priesthood, and the doctrines of meritorious works and purgatory. They wished to restore the worship of God in spirit and truth. They made use of lay-teachers who were required to be unmarried and unencumbered with property, and who itinerated continuously. The teachers were supported by the members of the sect, whose confessions they also received and upon whom they imposed penances. In their assemblies it was customary to offer prayer, read from books, and preach. They attended mass and confessed minor offenses to the Romish priests for the sake of peace. In Strasburg laborers and artisans composed the sect, master Johann von Blumstein — later, after he had renounced their errors, syndic of the city — being its most prominent member. A number of Beguins were also among its members. They were not disposed to deal aggressively with the Church, and were content to meet in the secrecy of private houses, but the fear of being discovered sometimes led them into crime. In 1374 a Winkeler, who had returned to the Church, was murdered by direction of the sect, which paid a certain sum for the deed and submitted to undergo the penance imposed by its rulers. At another time the inquisitor, Johann Arnoldi, was so emphatically threatened with death in the confessional that he fled the city. In 1400, however, thirty-two members, both men and women, were arrested and tortured. Twenty-six of them acknowledged their connection with the sect, and were banished from the city and diocese, under the penalty of death by fire if they should return. The documents belonging to the trial are yet in existence, and are given in Rohrich's *Mittheilungen aus der Geschichte der evang. Kirche des* *Elsasses *(Strasburg, 1855), 1:3 sq. Neither Winkeler nor Waldense was ever found in Strasburg after this trial. See Herzog, *Real-Encyklop. *s.v.

Winkelhofer, Sebastian a Roman Catholic theologian, was born January 18, 1743, at Munzing, in the Lower-Danube department. When sixteen years of age he joined the order of the Jesuits. Two years later he went to Ingolstadt, where he studied philosophy, Greek, and Hebrew. In 1768 he betook himself ito the study of theology, especially of Church history and canon law. In 1772 he received holy orders, and in the year following was made head of the congregation of St. Maria de Victoria. In 1775 he was appointed preacher of St. Maurice, and in 1789 delivered his first sermon as dean in Neuburg, on the Danube. Here he labored till 1794, when he was called as court- preacher to Munich, where he died, November 16, 1806. He wrote, *Reden uber die Bergpredigt unseres Herrn Jesu Christi *(edited by S. M. Sailer, Munich, 1809; 2d ed. 1812); the same editor published his *Vermischte Predigten *(ibid. 1814-17, 4 volumes). See Doring, *Die gelehrten Theologen Deutschlands, *4:731 sq. (B.P.)

Winkelmann, Frederick T., D.D. an American clergyman and teacher, was professor of Latin, French, and German in the Packer Collegiate Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., and in a polytechnic school in New York city. He died in 1865.

Winkler, Edward Theodore, D.D. a Baptist minister, was born at Savannah, Georgia, November 13, 1823. He graduated from Brown University in 1843, and studied in the Newton Theological Institution; in 1845 was assistant editor of the *Christian Quarterly, *and supplied the pulpit at Columbus, Georgia, for six months; in 1846 became pastor at Albany, and subsequently at Gallisonville; in 1852 secretary of the Southern Baptist Publication Society; in 1854 pastor at Charleston, S.C. in 1872 at Marion, in 1874 editor of the *Alabama Baptist, *and died November 10, 1883. He wrote several denominational works. See Cathcart, *Baptist Encyclop. *s.v.

Winkler, Hermann Erich a Protestant theologian of Germany, was born April 11, 1738, at Hildesheim. He studied at Gottingen under Walch, Michaelis, and Heilmann. In 1763 he was appointed pastor in his native place; in 1772 accepted a call to Hamburg, where he labored for twenty years; in 1793 was called to Luneburg as superintendent, and while he was delivering his first sermon, on March 13. he was paralyzed, and died a few hours later. Winkler was very well versed in Greek history, philosophy, and literature; Pindar he knew almost by heart. His published writings are of no importance. See Doring, *Die deutschen Kanzelredner, *page 570 sq. (B.P.)

Winkler, Johann Dietrich a Protestant theologian of Germany, was born at Hamburg, December 27, 1711. He studied at Leipsic from 1732 to 1736, and in the latter year was made magister, on account of his dissertation, *De Luca, Evangelista Medico. *In the same year he was called as professor to Hamburg, to occupy the chair made vacant by Fabricius. He entered upon his duties by delivering an oration, *De Felici Pariter ac Necessario Nexu Scientiarum Philosophicarum cum Arte Bene et Ornate Dicendi. *In 1744 he accepted a call to Hildesheim as superintendent and member of consistory. The University of Rinteln conferred on him the degree of doctor of divinity on presenting a dissertation, *De Philosophiae Platonico-Pythagoreae Fraudibus. *Many professorships offered to him he declined. In 1758 he was called as first pastor of St. Nicolai to his native city, where he died, April 4, 1784. Of his many works we mention, *Disquisitiones Philologicae, *etc. (1741) . *Hypomnemata Philologica et Critica *(1745): — *Animadversiones Philologicae et Criticae *(1750-52, 3 parts). See Doring, *Die gelehrten Theologen Deutschlands, *4:735 sq.; Furst, *Bibl. Jud. *3:523; Winer, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *1:191, 279, 545, 570, 796, 909. (B.P.)

Winkler, Johann Friedrich (2) a Lutheran theologian, was born August 17, 1809, at Hohen-Priessnitz, in Saxony. He studied theology at Halle, and in 1834 came to America. In 1835 he was called to Newark, N.J., where he labored for seven years. In 1842 he was called as professor to the theological seminary at Columbus, Ohio, where he taught for three years. In 1845 he went to Detroit, Mich., and labored there for twelve years. In the meantime he had become acquainted with pastor Grabau, the head of the Lutheran Buffalo Synod, which he joined, and which appointed him, in 1856, professor of the Martin Luther College. Here he labored until his death, June 9, 1877. (B.P.)

Winkler, Johann Joseph a Lutheran theologian, was born at Luckau, in Saxony, December 23, 1670. He was at first pastor in Magdeburg, afterwards a chaplain in the army, and accompanied the troops to Holland and Italy. Subsequently he returned to Magdeburg, and became chief minister of the cathedral and member of consistory. He died August 11, 1722. Winkler left some hymns which are still sung in the German Church. Thus, *Sollt' ich aus Furcht vor Menschenkindern *(Engl. transl. in the *Moravian Hymn-Book, *page 718, "Shall I, thro' fear of feeble man"): — *Ringe recht, wenn Gottes Gnade *(Engl. transl. *Lyra Germ. *1:46, "Strive, when thou art call'd of God") — *Meine Seele senket sich *(ibid. 1:198, "Yea, my spirit fain would sink"). See Koch, *Gesch. des deutschen Kirchenliedes, *4:383 sq. (B.P.)

Winkler, Johann Priedrich (1) father of Johann Dietrich, was born December 13, 1679, at Wertheim, in Franconia. He studied at Greifswalde, and, after completing his course, travelled extensively through Holland and England. With the large material which he had collected in England he went to Frankfort, with the view of preparing a new edition of the Ethiopic grammar, published by Ludolph, his former teacher, in 1702. In 1704 he accepted a call to Hamburg as professor of Oriental languages, and in 1712 was made first pastor of St. Nicolai. He died October 24, 1738. Besides his Ethiopic grammar, which he edited in a second edition, he published a number of sermons, for which see Doring, *Die gelehrten Theologen Deutschlands, *4:742. (B.P.)

Winner, ISAAC a Methodist Episcopal minister. Scarcely any data of his life are obtainable. He was admitted into the Philadelphia Conference in 1822, and some time later joined the New Jersey Conference. He died July 4, 1868. He was a remarkable man every way; original, strong in his convictions, peerless in self-respect and self-possession. He was one of the founders and fosterers of Pennington Seminary, and took large interest in all educational matters, except theological schools, which he opposed bitterly, on the ground that they were prolific of theological errors. See *Minutes of Annual Conferences, *1869, page 62.

Winnowing *SEE AGRICULTURE*.

Winnowing (זָרָה, lit. *to scatter). *Among the Hebrews, as still in Palestine, when the gram had been threshed, or, rather, crushed and trodden, in the open threshing-floor, it was thrown out, altogether, into the middle of the floor; it was then tossed up into the wind, which removed the broken straw and the chaff, while the grain, the unthreshed ears, and clods of earth, with grain adhering to them, fell in a separate heap. The earth and other impurities were then removed from the grain by means of a sieve; and the winnowed heap containing many ears that were broken, but not fully crushed out, was exposed again to the threshing operation. This was again thrown across the wind by a shovel (מַזרַה , *mizreh, *rendered "fan" in our version of Isa 30:24), when the pure grain fell to the ground and the light chaff was borne away by the wind, as the psalmist describes. The scattered *straw, *so far as required for the fodder of cattle and the making of bricks, was collected for use, but the light chaff of the second winnowing was left in the ground entangled with the stubble (the threshing-floor being in the harvest-field), with which it was burned on the ground to help to manure the soil. It therefore furnished a fit symbol of the destruction of the wicked. These winnowing processes are still followed in the East; and, as far as appears by their paintings, are much the same as were practiced by the ancient Egyptians. — Kitto, *Pict. Bible, *note on Ps 1:4. *SEE AGRICULTURE*.

Winram, John a Scotch reformer of the 16th century, was superintendent of Fife and Stratherne, and died in 1582. He was the author of a *Catechism, *of which all copies are thought to have perished.

Winslow, Gordon, M.D., D.D. a clergyman of the Protestant Episcopal Church, was born at Williston, Vt., in 1804. His preliminary education was acquired at Andover, Mass., and he graduated at Yale in both the collegiate and theological departments, becoming a Congregational minister. In 1836 he entered the Protestant Episcopal communion, and was ordained deacon in that year. His first parish was St. John's, Troy, N.Y., from which he went, in 1838, to Trinity Church, Elmira, N. Y.; and in 1841 became rector of St. Ann's Parish, Annapolis, Md. In 1845 he assumed the pastorate of St. Paul's Parish on Staten Island, and a few years after, though still rector of St. Paul's, was chaplain at the Quarantine. At the beginning of the Civil War he was appointed chaplain to the Fifth New York Regiment, and served two years. When the Sanitary Commission was established, he was its inspector for the Army of the Potomac. It was while accompanying his wounded son, Col. Cleveland Winslow, that he met with the accident which resulted in his death. He acted as aide-de-camp to Maj. — Genesis Warren in many battles. He died universally regretted, July 7, 1864, being drowned by falling overboard from a steamer near the mouth of the Potomac. See *Amer. Quar. Church Rev. *Oct. 1864, p. 482.

Winslow, Hubbard, D.D. a Presbyterian divine, brother of Drs. Gordon and Myron, was born at Williston; Vt., Oct. 30, 1799. He prepared for college at Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass.; graduated at Yale College in 1825; studied theology at New Haven; preached at Litchfield, Conn., in 1827-28; was pastor of the First Congregational Church at Dover. N. H., from 1828 to 1831, and of the Bowdoin Street Church, Boston, from 1832 to 1844; traveled in Europe; was principal of the Mount Vernon Institute for Young Ladies, Boston, from 1844 to 1853; visited the educational institutions of Europe in 1853; edited for a time the *Religious Magazine, *besides contributing to various other periodicals; gained considerable repute as a polemical theologian; was much employed as a platform lecturer on various topics; preached to the First Presbyterian Church at Geneva, N.Y., from 1857 to 1859; became pastor of the Fiftieth Street Presbyterian Church, New York city, in 1861l; and died at Williston, Vt., Aug. 13, 1864. He published, *Controversial Theology *(1832) *--Discourses on the Nature, Evidence, and Moral Value of the Doctrine of the Trinity *(1831): - *Christianity Applied to our Social and Civil Duties *(1835):*Young Man's Aid to Knowledge *(*1836*)*: — Are You a Christian? an Aid to Self-examination *(1836): — *Mental Cultivation *(1839): — *Design and Mode of Baptism *(1842): — The *Christian Doctrines *(1844): *— Elements of Intellectual Philosophy *(1851): — *Elements of Moral Philosophy, Analytical, Synthetical *(1856): — and other works.

Winslow, Myron, D.D., LL.D. an eminent Congregational missionary, was born at Williston, Vt., Dec. 11, 1789. He was of the same stock as the two governors Winslow of Massachusetts, and the Kenelm Winslow mentioned in the English history of the 16th century. At the age of fourteen he entered a store as a clerk, and finally established himself in business in Norwich, Conn. During this period he was converted, and convictions that he ought to preach to the unevangelized nations took hold upon him. Abandoning a profitable business, he entered college and graduated at Middlebury in 1813, and Andover Theological Seminary in 1818. He was ordained as a missionary in Salem, Mass., with Pliny Fisk and others, Nov. 4, 1818, and in the following year embarked at Boston, arriving at Calcutta in five months. He took up his residence in Oodooville, Ceylon, in 1820, where he labored seventeen years, founding a seminary and otherwise consolidating the mission. In 1836 he was transferred to Madras. His biography during his residence in India would be no less than the history of the missions there. He founded the Madras Mission; was general secretary and financial agent of that and other missions; was president of Madras College from 1840, and head of all the native schools; had the care of a native church of several hundred members; supervised the printing and editing of various educational and religious works in the Tamil language; and was at the time of his death the oldest missionary of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. He died at the Cape of Good Hope, on his way to America, Oct. 22, 1864. Dr. Winslow wrote the following: *History of Missions *(Andover, 1819, 12mo, 432 ph.): — *Hints on Missions to India *(N. Y. 1856, 8vo): — *A Comprehensive Tamil and English Dictionary of High and Low Tamil *(Madras, 1862, 4to). "This work has received the encomiums of native, English, and American scholars, and ranks second to no other philological achievement of the age. Not merely for the profound scholarship-displayed in its pages, but for the vast influence it exerts in civilizing and Christianizing India, has it called forth the thanks of the religious world. In the preparation and completion of this work, Dr. Winslow spent upwards of twenty years of continuous toil. It has one thousand pages, three columns to a page, and contains sixty-eight thousand words and definitions. Of these nearly half owe their lexicographic birth and position to the author. The dictionary contains the mythological, astrological, scientific, official, and poetic terms of the Tamil; names of heroes, gods, authors, etc., and geographical and historical information, thus forming an encyclopedia of Tamil learning." Dr. Winslow is said to have devoted more study to the Eastern languages than any other American. He also conducted a continuous correspondence for forty years with the *Missionary Herald, N. Y. Observer, *and other publications. Several *Sermons *and *Addresses *were published in pamphlet. Dr. Winslow was five times married. *Memoirs *of two of his wives and one of his children were published. See *Cong. Quarterly, *1865, p. 209; *Appleton's Annual Cyclop.* 1864, p. 814; Allibone, *Dict. of Brit and Amer. Authors, s.v.*

Winstanley, Thomas, D.D. a Church of England divine, was born in 1749. He studied at Brasenose College, and afterwards became fellow of Hertford. He took his degree of A.M. in 1774; published an edition of the *Poetics *of Aristotle; was appointed principal of St. Alban's Hall in 1797; took his degrees of B.D and D.D. in 1798, and about this time became Laudian professor of Arabic, Camden professor-of ancient history, and prebendary of St. Paul's. He died in September, 1823. See *Christian Remembrancer, *1823, p. 628.

Winter (prop. סתָן, *sethan, *Song of Solomon 2, 11; but usually חֹרֶŠ, *chreph, *which is strictly *autumn, *the season of ripeness; Gr. χειμών*, *the *rainy *season). In Palestine, part of autumn and the seasons of seed-time and cold, extending from the beginning of' September to the beginning of March, were called winter (en. 8. 22; Ps 74:17; Zec 14:8; Jer 36:22). The cold: of winter is not usually very severe, though then north winds from the middle of December to the middle of February are exceedingly penetrating. Snow falls more or less but seldom lies upon the ground, except in tile mountains (Psalm 174:17). In shady places the ice will occasionally bear a man's weight, but thaws as soon as the sun rises upon it. In the plain of Jericho the winter is more genial than the spring of northern countries, while in the mountainous country around Jerusalem it is often more inclement: than might be expected (Mt 24:20). In this season the most furious storms of hail are experienced all over the land; the brooks rise, and all their streams fill their channels, and thunder and lightning are frequent. Towards the end of January the fields become green, and there is every appearance of approaching spring. The last rains tall in the early part of April; it is still cold, but less so, and the spring may be said to have arrived (Song of Solomon 2, 11). *SEE CALENDAR; SEE PALESTINE; SEE SEASON*.

Winter, Robert, D.D. an English Dissenting minister, was born in London in 1762, and was pastor at New Court, Carey Street, from 1806 until his death, in 1833. He published *Pastoral Letters on Noncoformity, *and several single *Sermons. *See (Lond.) *Gentleman's Magazine, *1833, 2, 277.

Winter, Samuel, D.D. an English clergyman, was born in 1603; became provost of Trinity College, Dublin, and died Dec. 29, 1666.

Winter, Veit Anton a Roman Catholic theologian, was born May 22, 1754, at Hoheneggelkofen, near Landshut. He studied at Ingolstadt, and in 1778 received holy orders. For two years he continued his studies at Rome, and after his return was appointed pastor at Laichling, near Eggmihl. Some years he spent in travelling with the son of a count, whose tutor he was. After returning home, he was called to Ingolstadt as preacher and professor of Church history. In 1795 he commenced his lectures. When the University of Ingolstadt was removed to Landshut, in 1801, he went there, and died February 27, 1814. He wrote, *Versuch zur Verbesserung der katholischen Liturgie *(Munich, 1804): — *Sammlung kleiner liturgischer Schriften *(ibid. 1811): — *Geschichte der baierischen Wiedertidufer im xvi. Jahrhundert *(ibid. 1808): — *Kirchengeschichte von Altbaiern, Oesterreich und Tyrol *(Landshut, 1814): — *Patrologie *(Munich, eod.). See Doring, *Die gelehrten Theologen Deutschlands, *4:746 sq.; Winer, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *1:767, 781, 785, 854; 2:70, 78, 285, 286. (B.P.)

Winterfeld, Georg August Vivigens Carl Von a German scholar, was born in 1794, and died at Berlin, February 19, 1852, during the morning prayer. He is well known in the department of Church music, and as editor of the following works: *Der evangelische Kirchengesang und sein Verhaltniss zur Kunst des Tonsatzes *(Leipsic, 1843-47, in 3 parts): the first is entitled, *Der evangelische Kirchengesang im l. Jahrhundert der Kirchenverbesserung; *the second, *Das siebenzehnte Jahrhundert; *the *third, Das achtzehnte Jahrhundert: *— *Dr. Mart.* *Luther's deutsche geistl. Lieder nebst den wahrend seines Lebens dazu gebrauchten Singweisen *(ibid. 1840): — *Ueber Herstellung des Gemeinde- und Chorgesangs in der evang. Kirche *(ibid. 1848): — *Zur Geschichte heiliger Tonkunst *(ibid. 1850, 1852, 2 parts). It must be remarked that Winterfeld was by profession a jurist. See Zuchold, *Bibl. Theol. *2:1456; Koch, *Gesch. d. deutschen Kirchenliedes, *7:425, 446, 459, 488. (B.P.)

Winterthur *(Vitoduranus, *or *Ortus de Oppido Wintertur, *"Fratrum Minorum Minimums," as he describes himself), JOHANNES VON, was a Minorite monk of the 14th century, and the author of a chronicle which is preserved in the town library of Zurich, and is a source for the history of South Germany and Switzerland. He was born in the period 1292-1300, at Winterthur, in the present canton of Zurich, and became a Minorite about 1320. He probably died at Zurich after 1348. The original manuscript of the chronicle was doubtless that owned by Antistes Bullinger of Zurich, a historiographer of the 16th century, and now in the Zurich library. All other manuscripts and editions are derived from that, though an additional codex is mentioned by Montfaucon *(Biblioth. Bibl. Manuscript. Nova,* 1:21, Paris, 1739) as having been transferred from the library of queen Christina of Sweden to that of the Vatican. The period covered by the chronicle extends from the death of the emperor Frederic II to 1348. It is based in part upon more ancient chronicles, in part upon the oral and written statements of contemporary witnesses, and to some extent on personal observations made by the author. The writer was acquainted with the ecclesiastical and profane literature of his time, with the Scriptures, with the works of the masters in his order, Lyra, Occam, etc., and the decretals of the popes. He mentions Aristotle, AEsop, Horace, Isidore, etc. The contents of the book are, however, made up of disconnected notices and illustrations, strung together in chronological order. It is important as a portrayal of the conflicts of the emperor Louis, the Bavarian, with the papacy, and of the consequent disturbances in the life of the Church. It is the earliest report, for Swiss history, of the battle of Morgarten, of the vengeance visited by the dukes of Austria upon the assassin of king Albert, of the history of Zurich, etc. It is also of special importance to the study of the life and conditions of the time in which it originated. See Herzog, *Real- Encyklop. *s.v.

Wintle, Thomas a learned English divine, was born at Gloucester, April 28, 1737; received the rudiments of learning in his native city; became scholar, fellow, and tutor of Pembroke College, Oxford, where he graduated M.A. in 1759; was appointed rector of Wittrisham, in Kent, and domestic chaplain to archbishop Seeker in 1767, obtained the living of St. Peter's in Wallingford; became rector of Brightwell, in Berkshire, in 1774, where he remained until his death, July 29, 1814. He published, *Daniel, an Improved Version Attempted, *etc. (1792): — *The Expediency, Prediction, and Accomplishment of the Christian Redemption, Illustrated in Eight Sermons *(Bampton lecture, Oxford, 1794): — *Letter to the Lord Bishop of Worcester. *— *Dissertation on the Vision Contained in the Second Chapter of Zechariah *(1797):*Christian Ethics, or Discourses on the Beatitudes,* etc. (1812).

Winzer, Julius Friedrich a German doctor and professor of theology, was born July 30, 1780, at Chemnitz. In 1802 he was appointed teacher at the famous school in Meissen, in 1809 he was called to Wittenberg as ordinary professor of morals, and in 1812 became ordinary professor of theology. In 1814 he was called to Leipsic, where he died in the year 1845. He wrote, *Adnotationes ad Loca Quaedam Epistolae Pauli ad Romanos *(Leipsic, 1835): — *Comnmentatio in Locum Pauli ad Ephesios Epistolas Cap. *1:15 *sq. *(ibid. eod.): — *Commentatio in Locum, *etc., *Cap. *4:1 *sq. *(ibid. 1839): — *Annotatio ad Locum Ephesians *6:10-17, *Cui Subjuncte sunt Vitae Doctorum Theologiae a Lipsiensium Theologorum Ordine Recens Creatoraum *(ibid. 1840): — *Annotationes ad Locum Prioris Epistolae Petri Cap. *1:3-12 (ibid. 1843): — *Annotationes, *etc., *Cap. *3:18-22 *et *4:6 (ibid. 1844). In connection with H.A. Schott he published *Commentarii in Epistolas Novi Testamenti. *See Winer, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *1:29, 164, 213, 249, 252, 257, 263 268, 294, 429, 434, 440, 476; Zuchold, *Bibl. Theol. *2:1456. (B.P.)

Winzet (or Winget), Ninian a Scotch clergyman, is supposed to have been born in Renfrewshire in 1518, and to have been educated at the University of Glasgow; was master of the grammar-school of Linlithgow in 1551, and soon afterwards entered into holy orders; was cited before the superintendent of the Lothians in 1561 to answer for his religious opinions, when he gave in his adherence to the Roman Church, in opposition to the Reformation, and was deposed from his office; defended his position, and endeavored to accomplish reform within the Roman Church; was compelled to escape to Flanders in 1563; appointed abbot of the Scottish monastery of St. James at Ratisbon in 1576; and died September 21, 1592. He published, *Certane Tractatis for Reformatoun of Doctryne and Maneris *(1562): — *The Last Blast of the Trumpet of Godis Worde against the Usurpit Auctoritie of Johne Knox and his Calvinian Brether, Intrudit Precheouris *(1592), suppressed by the Protestants in the hands of the printer: — An *Exhortation to Mary Queen of Scottis, *etc. (1562): — *The Buke of Fourescoir and Thre Questions touching Doctrine, Ordour, and Maneris Proponit, *etc. (1563). See Irving, *Lives of Scottish Writers, *1:98-101.

Wire *(*פָּתַיל*,pathil, *Ex 39:3, a *line *or *thread, *as rendered in Jg 16:9; Eze 40:3).

Wiro, Saint an Irish prelate, was born in the county of Clare, and was at an early period of life elected bishop of Dublin. He went to Rome and was consecrated by the pope. He governed this see some time, and gained a high reputation on account of his sanctity. He finally resigned his bishopric and went to Gaul. He built an oratory at Mons Petri, which he dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, and called it St. Peter's Monastery. He died May 8, on which day his festival is observed. See D'Alton, *Memoirs of the Archbishops of Dublin, *page 18.

Wirth, Michael a Roman Catholic theologian of Germany, was born October 1, 1788, at Lauingen, and died as professor of hermeneutics, exegesis, and psedagogics at Dillingen, July 17, 1832. He is the author of *Altes und Neues uber den *1. *Brief an die Korinther *(Ulm, 1825). See Winer, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *2:307. (B.P.)

Wirtz, Johann a Swiss theologian, who died at Zurich, September 6, 1658, is the author of, *De Munere Ecclesiastico ex *1 *Corinthians 4: *— *De Ecclesia ex *1 *Timothy 3:*15: — *Emblema Theologicum ex Apocalypsi: *— *De Communione Sanctorum: *— *De Christo Unico Novi Testamenti Pontificae: *— *De Apostolo Petro: *— *De Bonis Operibus: De Natura Philosophiae: *— *De Testimonio Divino: *— *De Caelo, *etc. See Witte, *Diarium Biographicum; *Jocher, *Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon, *s.v. (B.P.)

Wirz, Ludwig a Protestant theologian, was born at Zurich in 1756, and died at Monch- Altdorf, in Switzerland, May 29, 1816. He is the author of, *Helvetische Kirchengeschichte aus Hottinger's allterem Werke und andern Quellen neu bearbeitet *(Zurich, 1808-14, 4 volumes). See Winer, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *1:809. (B.P.)

Wisdom (prop. חָכמָה*, chokmah, *σοφία)*, *in a general sense, is a comprehensive knowledge of things in their proper nature and relations, together with the power of combining them in the most useful manner. Among the Hebrews, the term "wisdom" comprehended a wide circle of virtues and mental endowments (Ex 28:3; Ex 31:6; 1Ki 3:28; 1Ki 4:29-34), and its precise import in the Scriptures can only be ascertained by a close attention to the context. *SEE FOOL*. **1. **It is used to express the understanding or knowledge of things, both humana and divine, chiefly in a practical and moral aspect, especially in the Psalms, Proverbs, and the book of Job. It was this wisdom which Solomon entreated and received of God, especially in a governmental sense. **2. **It is put for ingenuity, skill, dexterity, as in the case of the artificers Bezaleel and Aholiab (Ex 28:3; Ex 31; Ex 3). **3. **Wisdom is used for subtlety, craft, stratagem, whether good or evil. Pharaoh dealt *wisely *with the Israelites (Ex 1; Ex 10). Jonadab was very wise, i.e. subtle and crafty (2Sa 13:3). In Proverbs (Pr 14; Pr 8) it is said, "The wisdom of the prudent is to understand his way." **4. **It stands for doctrine, learning, experience, sagacity (Job 12:2,12; Job 38:37; Ps 105:22). **5. **It is put sometimes for the skill or arts of magicians, wizards, fortune tellers, etc. (Ge 41:8; Ex 7:11; Ec 9:17; Jer 1; Jer 35). **6. **The *wisdom *or learning and philosophy current among the Greeks and Romans in the apostolic age, which stood in contrast with the simplicity of the Gospel, and tended to draw away the minds of men from divine truth, is called "fleshly; wisdom"(2Co 1:12), "wisdom of this world"(1Co 1:20; 1Co 3:19), and "wisdom of men" (1Co 2:5). **7. **In respect to divine things, wisdom, i.e. knowledge, insight, deep understanding, is represented everywhere as a divine gift, including the idea of practical application, and is thus distinguished from theoretical knowledge (Ac 6:10; 1Co 12:8; Eph 1:17; Col 1:9; 2Ti 3:15; Jas 1:5; Jas 3:13,15,17).

Wisdom (the) of Solomon, book of one of the deutero - canonical portions of the Old Test. which have come down to us by tradition as the production of the son of David. Among the Apocryphal books unusual interest attaches to it on account of its supposed parallelism with some of the genuine writings of Solomon found in the sacred canon, especially the book of Ecclesiastes (q.v.). *SEE APOCRYPHA*. **I. ***Title and Position. — *This book is called Σοφία Σαλωμών or Σαλομῶντος (Alex. Compl.), i.e. the *Wisdom of Solomon, *in the Sept.; and the *Great Wisdom of Solomon *in the Syriac version, because it was anciently believed to have been written by Solomon, who therein propounds the lessons of wisdom. It is denominated Πανάρετος Σοφία *All-virtuous Wisdom, *an appellation which, though also given to Proverbs and Ecclesiasticus, is especially given by Athaiasius and Epiphanius to this book, because it treats more' extensively of wisdom than either of the other so-called Solomonic productions. It is called ἡ θεία Σοφία*, Sapientia Dei, *by Clement of Alexandria (*Strom. 4:*16) and Origen (*On Romans *7:14). In the Vulg. it is simply called *Liber Sapientime, *without the name of Solomon, because Jerome disputed the Solomonic authorship of it. The versions of the Reformation are divided between those appellations. Thus, in Luther's ,version (1536), the Genevan version (1560), the Bishops' Bible (1568), and the A. V. (1611) this book is called the *Wisdom of Solomon, *according to the Sept.; while the Zurich version (1531), Coverdale's' Bible (1535), Matthew's Bible (1537), Cromwell's Bible (1539), and, Cranmer's Bible (1540) denominate it *The Book of Wisdom, *after the Vulg. The book is placed in the Sept and in the Vulg. after the Song of Songs and before Ecclesiasticus, or, immediately after the canonical productions of Solomon, since it was believed that it, too, proceeded from this monarch. Though all the translations of the Reformation followed the example of Luther's version in separating the deutero-canonical from the canonical books, yet they have deviated from their prototype in the or der of the Apocrypha. Thus, while Luther, in his Bible, places this book *between *Judith and Tobit, the Zurich version-which as usual, is followed by Coverdale, and he again by Cromwell's Bible, Matthew's Bible, the Bishops' Bible, and Cranmer's Bible, as well as the Geneva version and the A. V. — places it between the additions to Esther and Ecclesiasticus. **II. ***Design, Division, and Contents. — *The object of this book is both parsenetical and apologetical. It comforts and strengthens the faithful who are distracted by the inexplicable difficulties in the moral government of the world, by showing them that whatever sufferings *and *taunts they have to endure, both from their apostate brethren and their heathen oppressors, and however much the wicked and the idolaters may prosper here, the elect, in following the counsels of divine wisdom, will be able to look forward with joy to a future state of retribution, where the righteous Judge will render to the ungodly according to their deeds, and confer upon the godly a blissful immortality this purpose is developed in three sections the contents of which are as follows: **1. ***The First Section *(1, 1-6, 21), which contains the real problem of the book, opens with an admonition to the magnates of the earth to follow the paths of righteousness, since God *only *reveals himself to and abides with those who are of an upright heart (1, 1-6), and duly registers the deeds of the wicked, which he will most assuredly bring before the bar of a future judgment (ver. 7-16). For although the wicked deny the immortality of the soul (2, 1-6), indulge in the pleasures of this world (ver. 7-9), and persecute the righteous, defying God to defend them (ver. 10-24); and though the case of the godly seems almost forlorn, yet God exercises a special care over his people, whom he allows to be chastised in order to purify them (3, 1-7), and has destined his saints to judge the nations of the earth, and to abide forever with their Lord (ver. 8, 9); while he has laid up condign punishment for the wicked (ver. 10-18). The wicked who have large families are therefore not to be envied, for their children only perpetuate their wickedness (4, 1-7); while the righteous who are suddenly overtaken by death are not to be deplored, since honorable age is not to be measured by length of years, but by holiness of conduct, and since they are sometimes suddenly taken away to escape the snares of the wicked; thus showing that God's mercy is with his saints even in their untimely death because they, having been perfected in their youth, though dead, speak condemnation to the wicked, who shall at last, in the great day of retribution, be constrained to confess it (ver. 8-20). For then the righteous shall triumph, and the wicked who shall witness it will confess with anguish of soul that they have acted foolishly and wickedly, and that those whom they have derided and persecuted in this life are really the children of God, enjoy a glorious immortality, and deal out terrible punishments on the ungodly (5, 1-23). Having shown that this is the doom of the wicked, Solomon reiterates in more earnest tones the warning to the magnates of the earth with which this section commences, seeing that the righteous Judge who invested them with the powers they possess will soon call them to the bar of his judgment, where there is no respect of persons (6, 1-8); and tells them that the most effectual way to obey this warning is to learn divine wisdom, who is always ready to be found of those that seek her (ver. 9-14), who alone is the safest guide in this world and leads to a union with the Creator in the world to comet (ver. 15-21). **2. ***The Second Section *(6, 22-9, 18) describes the nature of this wisdom, the blessings she secures, and the manner in which she is to be obtained, by the experience of Solomon, who recounts it himself in the first person. He tells us that, though an exalted monarch, he realized his mortality, and therefore prayed for wisdom (6, 22-7, 7). With this precious gift, which he preferred above thrones, riches, health, and beauty, come all other earthly blessings of which she is the mother (ver. 8-12). Through *her *he became the friend of God, whose she is, and who bestows her as a gift (ver. 13- 16). By her aid he fathomed the mysteries of the changing- seasons, of-the- heavenly bodies, and of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, as she herself is the maker of all things, and pervades all creation. She alone unites us to God with ties of friendship, and no vice can prevail against her (ver. 17- 30). She, too, confers all earthly blessings, all intellectual and moral powers, as well as the ability to govern nations, and she can only be obtained from God in answer to prayer (8, 1-21). Solomon then recites the prayer in answer to which he received this divine gift (9, 1-18). **3. ***The Third Section *(10, 1-19, 22) describes the blessings which wisdom secured to the people of God, and the sore calamities which befell the ungodly who rejected her teaching, from the history of mankind, beginning with Adam and ending, with the conquest of the Promised Land Thus it shows how wisdom guided and protected the pious from Adam to Moses (10, l-11, 4); how the wicked who despised her counsels and afflicted the righteous were punished, as seen in the case of the Egyptians (11, 5-12, 1) and the Canaanites (12, 2-27). As the chief sin of the Canaanites was idolatry, Solomon takes occasion to describe the origin, folly, and abominations, of idolatry (13, 1-15, 19), and then returns to describe the plagues of Egypt, which constitute an essential part of the history in question, thus showing the awful doom of the wicked and the great deliverance of the righteous (16, 1-19, 22). **III. ***Unity and Integrity. — *From the above analysis of its contents, it will be seen that the book forms a complete and harmonious whole; the grand problem discussed in the first section being illustrated in the second section by the experience of Solomon, and- in. the third section by the experience of God's people, detailed in chronological order. Indeed, the unity and integrity of the book were never questioned till the middle of the last century, when Houbigant (*Prolegomena in Not. Crit. in Omnes V. T. Libros. *1, p. 216, 221) maintained that it consists of two parts, the first (ch. 1-9) being written by Solomon in Hebrew, and the second (ch. 29) being most probably an addition of the Greek translator of the first part. Eichhorn submits (*Einleitung ind. Apokryph. *p. 143 sq.) that the two parts, which belong to different authors, are 1-11, 1 and 11:2-19; or, if proceeding from the same author, that he must have written the second part in his younger years, before he divested himself of his national prejudices, and before his notions were enlarged by Greek philosophy. Bretschneider, again (*De Libri Sap. Parte Priore*)*, *will have it that it consists of four different documents, the first of which (1, l-6, 8) is a fragment of a larger work originally written in Hebrew by a Palestinian Jew connected with the court of Antiochus Epiphanes; the second (6, 9-10) was written in Greek at the time of Christ, by an Alexandrian Jew, who put sentiments of Greek philosophy into the mouth of Solomon in order to vindicate for the Jews the honor of having possessed all philosophic systems and sciences prior to every one else. The third (ch. 12-19) was also written, at the time of Christ, by a common Jew, who possessed 'the crudest notions; while the fourth piece (11, 1-26) was added by the compiler of the book to connect the second and third parts. These must suffice as specimens of the opinions entertained by some respecting the unity of this book. They are most ably and elaborately refuted by Grimm (*Comment. *p. 9-15). The integrity of the book is not only impugned by those who dispute its unity, but by some who admit that it has a regularly developed plan. Thus Grotins will have it that it is imperfect and unfinished, having been mutilated by some accident of time; while Calmet, who also maintains that the book is unfinished, hesitates to decide whether the end was lost by accident or through the unfavorable circumstances of the times, or whether it was designedly omitted by the author himself. But a conclusion more apposite and more in harmony with the design of the book can hardly be imagined than 19:22, in which the just reflection and moral lesson are enunciated as deduced from the whole treatise, that the righteous are under God's special care, and that he "assists them in every time and place." Equally untenable is the assertion that the book contains interpolations by a Christian hand This assertion was first made by Grotius ("Christiana qusedam commodis locis addidit,"*Prcef. in Librun. Sapientice*)*, *who in his *Comment. *specifies 4:7, where he remarks, "Sed haec, ut dixi, Evangelium magis redolent." Gratz (*Geschichte der Juden *[2d ed. Leips. 1863], 3, 443 sq.), who advocates the same opinion, adduces 2, 24; 3, 13; 4:1; 14:7. But all these passages, when fairly interpreted, are perfectly consistent. with Jewish sentiments; and we are almost sure that if the erudite Gratz had consulted Grimm's masterly commentary on the passages in question when preparing the second edition of the third volume of his *History, *he would not have reprinted so literally the remarks from the first edition on this subject. **IV. ***Philosophical and Doctrinal Character.* **1. **Though there are Platonic and Stoical sentiments in this book, yet it is not to be supposed that the author propounds therein a philosophical view of Judaism. The book of Wisdom contains no greater admixture of Greek elements than the post-Babylonian canonical writings contain of Persian elements. It is essentially based upon the truths embodied in the Old Test., whose spirit it breathes, and whose doctrines it sets forth as paramount, while the Greek sentiments are very subordinate, and are such as would almost enter spontaneously into the mind of any educated Jew residing in such a place as Alexandria. The doctrines of divine and human wisdom (or *objective and subjective *wisdom, as it is termed) propounded in this book are simply amplifications and bolder personifications of what is to be found in Proverbs and Ecclesiasticus. This may be seen in the conception of *divine wisdom *being an emanation from, or the Spirit of God present with, the Deity before and during the creation of the world, and brooding over the elements of the unformed world (Wisd. 7:22, 25; 9:9,17; comp. Pr 3:19; Pr 8:22-26; Job 33:4; Ecclus. 21, 3); in the view that human wisdom proceeds from the primordial divine wisdom which permeates all finite and pure spirits (Wisd. 7:25; comp. Job 32:8; Pr 2:6; Ecclus. 1, 1), for which reason, the two not infrequently merge into one another (Wisd. 7:12; 8:6 10; comp. Pr 3; Pr 13-20; Pr 8); that she is *"the universitas litterarum," *she teaches us all arts and sciences cosmology, chronology, meteorology, astronomy, zoology, pneumatology, psychology, botany, pharmacy, politics, philosophy of history, parables, and enigmas (Wisd. 7:17-21; 8. 8; comp. Ex 31:3; 1Ki 3:12; 1Ki 4:29-34), and the whole range of morals and spiritual virtues (Wisd. 1, 1-18; 10:1-15; Pr 1; Pr 7; Pr 3). See the article preceding. Not only does the author of this book derive his leading thoughts from the canonical Scriptures of the Old Test. but, as an orthodox Jew, he even espouses the traditions of his fathers. Thus in harmony with these traditions, which tell us that models of both the tabernacle and the temple were shown by God to Moses and Solomon, he speaks of the temple in Jerusalem as having been made after the model of the temple in heaven (comp. μίμημα σκηνῆς ἁγίας ἣν προητοίμασας ἀπ᾿ ἀρχῆς [Wisd. 9.8] with כנגד בית המקדש שלמעלה בית המקדש שלמטה מכון: *[Melnachoth, 29]; *Rashi, *On Exodus 25:*9, 40; *Heb. 8:*5). Ch. 10:19 b, which has occasioned great difficulty to interpreters, and which the Vulgate, Luther, the Zurich Bible, Coverdale's version, Matthew's Bible, Cromwell's Bible, Cranmer's Bible the Geneva version, the Bishops Bible, Grotius, Calmet, etc., take as antithetical to ver. 19 a, referring, it to the Israelites; whom wisdom brought forth from, the depth of the sea; thus violating both its connection with the following verse, as indicated by διὰ τοῦτο and the sense of ἀναβράζειν*, *which is not *to bring out, *but *to spit out, to cast out — *is based upon a tradition which tells us that the sea spit out the corpses of the Egyptians- when the Jews despoiled them of their weapon's. This tradition is given in the *Mechilta, *the so-called *Chaldee paraphrases of Jerusalem, *and Jonathan benUzziel, *On Exodus 15:*12, and *Pike de Rabbi Elieze?, *sect. 42, and is at the basis of the account in Josephus (*Anit. *2, 16, 6). Our author also follows tradition in his remark that it was not the turning to the brazen serpent, as stated in Nu 21:9, but to God, which saved the Israelites (Wisd. 16:7; comp. *Rosh hash-Shanah, *26; Jerusalem *Targum; *and Rashi, *On Nu 21; Nu 9*)*; *that the manna (Nu 11:8) had all manner of pleasant tastes (Wisd. 16:20, 21; comp. *Yonza, *75); that prayers must be offered to God before the sun rises (Wisd. 16 '28; comp. Mishna, *Berakoth, *2:2); that Sodom was destroyed because its inhabitants were inhospitable to strangers (Wisd. 19:17, 18; comp. *Sanhedrin, *109), etc. With these facts before us, we entirely differ from Gfrorer (*Philo, *2, 207 sq.), *Dahne *(*Jüd. — alexandr. Religionsphilos. *2, 153 sq.), and others, who maintain that the author of this book derived his leadcing tenets from Alexandrian, and more especially from Platonic, philosophy, and fully concur with Ewald (4, 549), who remarks "that no one who is intimately acquainted 'ith the Old Test, as well as 'with our author, will *say *that he derived the doctrine of immortality from the abovenamed source. The specification of the σωφροσύνη, φρόνησις, δικαιοσύνη*, *and ἀνδρία*: as- the *four cardinal virtues, both here (Wisd. 8:7) and by Philo (2, 455 sq.; 4 Mace. 1, 18 sq.; 5,'22 sq. [where εὐσέβεια is put for φρόνησις*]; *15:7, where there is a similar change) is indeed real Platonic, and is derived entirely from the Platonic school. But even these four virtues appear in 8:7 as merely secondary, and in the whole connection of the treatment of the book as accidental." Welte (*Einleitung, *p. 163 sq.), indeed, who does not dispute the agreement of the book of Wisdom with Alexandrian philosophy, goes so far as to say that it *only *refers to such things as are also more or less clearly expressed in the canonical books of the Hebrew Scriptures. **2. **In its religious doctrines the book of Wisdom is one of the most important and interesting contributions to the literature of the Jewish theology before the advent of Christ. It' shows how the tenets of the Jews were preparing them for the teachings of the New Test. Thus it tells us that God is not the author of death, but made both man and all creatures in the image of his own eternity, and delighted in the whole of his creation (1, 13.14; 11:24), which he made for perpetual duration (2, 14; comp. Ro 8:20-21). Death entered into the world through the envy of the devil (Wisd. 2, 24). We have here the first instance on record where the serpent which tempted the protoplasts in Paradise is identified with the devil (ver. 24), thus confirming the explanation given of Ge 3; Ge 1-15 in Joh 8:44; Re 12:9; Re 20:2. Gratz (*Gesch. *3, 443 sq.), who cannot brook so striking a confirmation on the part of the Jews before Christ to the correctness of the teachings of the New Test. will have it that this is one of the passages interpolated by a Christian hand But there is very little doubt that the Jews believed in the identity of the serpent and Satan long before the advent of Christ (comp. Ginsburg, *The Kabbalah *[Lond. 1865], p. 29), and that. this notion has even passed over into the Persic religion (comp. Hengstenberg, *Christology, *1, 7 sq., Engl. transl.). The book of Wisdom, moreover, shows that the doctrine of immortality and a future judgment was most emphatically believed and was generally current among the Jews (1, 15; 3, 4; 6:18,19; 8:17); that the Israelites believed that the wicked attract death by their painful deeds (1, 16); that the saints, who are the children of. God (2, 13, 16, 18), will ultimately judge the world and rule over the nations thereof (3, 8; comp. Mt 19:28; 1Co 6:2; Rev. *is *26; 3, 21; 20:4-6). The author of this book also propounds the doctrine of the pre-existence of the soul (8, 20). This, however, he did not derive direct from, Platonism both 'because the manner in which he enunciates it is different from the mode in which it is represented by Plato and Philo, and because this doctrine was held by the Essenes in Palestine and is to be found in the Talmud -(comp. Josephus, *War, *2, 8, 11; the Talmud, *Chagiga, *12 b; *Yebamoth, 62; Aboda Sara, *5; Ginsburg, *The Kabballah, *p. 31 sq.). The body is regarded as the seat of sin (1, 4; 8:20) and as a mere hindrance and prison of the soul (9, 15; comp. 2Co 5; 2Co 1-4; Josephus, *War, *2, 8, 11). No trace, however, is to be found in this book of a resurrection of the body or of a personal Messiah. **V. ***Author and Date. —* **1. **As the book itself ascribes the words therein contained to Solomon, and represents him as narrating his personal experience (ch.7-19), the book of Wisdom has come down to us by tradition as the production of this great monarch. Thus it is not only expressly described as the work of this wise king in the inscriptions of the most ancient versions (viz. Sept., Syriac, Arabicetc.), but it is quoted as such by the most ancient fathers of the Church, such as Clement of Alexandria (*Straom. *6), Tertullian (*De Praescr. Haeres. c. 7; Adv. Valent. *c. 2), Hippolytus (p. 66, ed. Lagarde), Cyprian (*Exhortatf. Alart., 12*)*, *etc. The Solomonic authorship has also been maintained by some very learned Jews, viz. De Rossi (*Meor Enajim *[ed. Vienna, 1829], p. 281 b), Wessely (*Introduction *to his *Comment. on Wisdom*)*, *and by some Protestants. With the exception of Schmid. *Dus Buch d. Weisheit übersetzt nunderkldat *[Vienna, 1858J), and one or two. others, critics of the present day .have entirely discarded this view, for the following reasons: **(1.) **The book was written in Greek, and in the later style of this language. **(2.) **Its author exhibits a Greek culture which no Palestinian Jew possessed even at the time of Greek ascendancy over Judaea, as is evident from the later Palestinian writings, and from the express declaration of Josephus (Ant*. 20:*11,2) that his brethren had an aversion to Greek education. The Greek culture of the author of the book of Wisdom is seen in his notions of what constitutes knowledge (7, 17-20; 8:8); in his acquaintance with the Epicurean doctrine of fate and the philosophico-materialistic view of nature and the future destiny of the soul (2, 2); in the distinction which he makes between the nobler and educated features of heathenism and its grosser forms (13, 1-15); in his view of the origin of image-worship (14, 14 sq.), etc. Comp. Grimm, *Comment. *p. 19, etc. (3.) It contains unquestionable quotations from the Sept. This is not only evident from ordinary passages, as 6:7; 11:4; 12:8; 16:*22; 19:*21: but from extraordinary instances where the Sept. differs from the Hebrew, and where the words of the former are inwrought into the text itself; e.g. Wisdom 2,12 puts into the mouth of skeptics the words of Isa 3; Isa 10, ἐνεδρεύσωμεν τὸν ὅτι δύσχρηστος ἡμῖν ἐστι*, *according to the Sept., which essentially differ from the Hebrew text; and Wisd. 15:10, σποδὸς ἡ καρδία αὐτοῦ)*, *which, again, is an important variation of the Sept. on Isa 44; Isa 20 from, the Hebrew. (4.) It refers to matters of history (Wisd. 2, 1-6, 8; 15:4), which are inapplicable to Solomon's period (Grimm, *Comment. *p. 17). Next in point of antiquity is the theory that Philo is the author of this book, as is seen from the remark of Jerome, "Nonnulli scriptorum veterum. hunc esse Philonis Judaei affirmant" (*Prief. in Libn. Sal.*)*. *This view was also adopted by De Lyra, Luther, Rainold, Calovius, bishop Cosin and others. But against it is to be urged that the whole complexion of the book, as well as its historical theological, and philosophical elements, is at variance with this hypothesis. Thus **(1.) **The formation of the fetus in the mother's womb is at variance with Philo's notions upon the same subject (Wisd. 7:2; comp. Philo, *De Mundi Opif. *in *Opp. *2-15). **(2.) **The two kinds of pre-existent souls-viz. good and bad-are described in this book as destined- alike to inhabit human bodies, whereas Philo only lets the sinfully disposed souls occupy human bodies, and says that the good souls aid the Deity in the administration of human affairs (Wisd. 8:19; comp. Philo, *De Giganti, *in *Opp. *1, 263). **(3.) **In this book it is distinctly declared that the Egyptians were punished with serpents which Philo as distinctly denies (Wisd. 11:15; 17:9; comp. Philo, *De Vit. Mos. *in *Opp.2, *97 sq.). **(4.) **The darkness with which the Egyptians were visited is described in this book as having proceeded from the infernal regions, while Philo affirms that it was occasioned by an unusual eclipse of the sun (Wisd. 17:14; comp. Philo, *De. Vit. Mos. *1, 21). **(5.) **The view that the serpent which tempted our first parents is the devil is diametrically opposed to that of. Philo, who does not recognize such an evil power in-the world, and regards the serpent as a symbol of pleasure (Wisd. 2,24; comp. Philo, *De Mundi Opif. *in *Opp. 1, *38). **(6.) **The description of the origin of idolatry in this book is totally different from that of Philo (Wisd. 12:13; comp. Philo, *De Monarch. § *1-3, in *Opp.* 2, 213 sq;). **(7.) **The idea of divine wisdom, which in the center of this book is different from that of Philo. The author of the book of Wisdom manifests no acquaintance whatever with the trichotomy of human-knowledge, nor even with the doctrine of ideas, which forms a most essential and organic part of Philo's system, as is evident from the fact that he makes no allusion thereunto in such passages as 1, 3; 8:19 sq.; 9, 15; and especially 7:22 sq., where it would have been most appropriate, and where it would' undoubtedly have been found, had the writer known the points in question. The force of these arguments against Philo Judaeus, and yet the unwillingness to relinquish the traditional name; have led many Roman Catholics and, some Protestant scholars (viz. Lorinus, Bellarmine, Huetius, Drusius, Wernsdorf, Bliddeus, etc.) to resort to the theory that it was not the well-known philosopher, but an older Philo, who either composed the book of Wisdom or put, it into its present form. But the fatal objection to this is that the elder Philo was, according to the express testimony of Josephus (*Contra Apion. *1, 23), a heathen, and could not therefore have written this book. Still more far-fetched is the theory of Dr. Tregelles, that it was written by an unknown. Christian of the name of Philo, basing it upon the passage "et Sapientia ab amicis Salomonis in honorem ipsius scripta" in the Muratorian cainon, which he imagines to be a mistranslation of the Greelk original, that may have read, καὶ ἡ Σοφία Σαλομῶντος ὑπὸ Φίλωνος*, *instead of ὑπὸ Φίλων (*Journal *of *Philol. *1855; p. .37 sq.). Being thus compelled to relinquish the name of Philo in whatsoever form, Augustine would at first have it that Jesus, son of Sirach, was the author of this book (*De Doctr.; Chr:2, *8), but afterwards retracted his opinion (*Retract. *2,4; *De Civ. Dei, 17:*20, 1). Fabier, again, maintained (*Prolusiones de Libro Snap. *[Afispach, 1776-77], 6, pt. 5), that it was written by Zerubbabel, who might justly call himself the second Solomon, because he restored the Solomonic temple. But as all the arguments against the Solomonic authorship are equally to be urged against this theory; and, moreover, as 9:3 can only be applied to Solomon, and as the whole tone of the book shows that this monarch is meant, Faber's conjecture has not been espoused by any one else. Neither can the more plausible theory of Lutterbeck (*Die neutestamenztl. Lehrbegr.ffe *[Mayence, 1852], 1, 407 sq.) be sustained, that Aristobulns (flourished B.C. 150) wrote it. Because **(1.) **He was a favorite of Ptolemy VI Philometor, and would therefore not have inveighed against kings (comp. 6:1 sq.). **(2.) **The Jews in Egypt enjoyed the greatest distinctions under this monarch, and were treated with the highest confidence, so much so that Philometor and Cleopatra entrusted the government and the army to Jews (Josephus, *Contra Apion. *2, 5), whereas the Jews in Egypt suffered under the most grinding oppression when this book was written (11, 5 sq.; 12:23, q.; 16-19; Grimm, *Comment. *p. 21). For these reasons modern writers have given up all attempts to discover the author's name. 2. Equally divergent are the opinions of commentators and historians respecting the *date *of the book, as will be seen from the following table: Sept., the Syriac and Arabic versions, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, etc. B.C. cir. 1000 Faber B.C. cir. 500 Grotius B.C. cir. 450-300 Welte, Bruck B.C. cir. 222-217 Gutman, Lutterbeck, Davidson B.C. cir. 150-130 Grimm B. C. cir. 145-150 Some ancient fathers, De Lyra, Luther, bishop Cosin, Grätz, etc. A.D. cir. 30-50 All, however, that can be deduced from internal evidence upon this subject is that (1) the author of the book was an Alexandrian Jew, or that he resided in Egypt and wrote for his coreligionists in the land of their former bondage, as is evident from the details of the Egyptian animal-worship (11, 15; 12:24; 15:18 sq.); from the involuntary adoption of certain Alexandrian notions and phrases as shown above; from the allusion to the events in the lives of sundry. Jewish worthies without specifying the names of these patriarchs-viz. to the directing of tie course of the righteous in a piece of wood of small value (i e. Noah and his family in the ark; comp. Wisd. 10:4 with Ge 7:1 sq.); to the preservation of the righteous man blameless unto God (i.e. Noah); to the saving of the righteous man (i.e. Lot) from the burning of the cities (Wisd. 10:5 sq.; comp. Ge 19:15 sq.), which could only be made by a Jew, and only be understood by Jews; and from the exalted terms in which he speaks of the Jewish nation, of the permanent obligations of the Mosaic law, and of Palestine (Wisd. 2, 12; 3, 8; 12:7); and from the Haggadic embellishments of the Old-Test. narratives, as has been shown inthe preceding.part of this article. These facts, therefore, completely set aside the opinion of Kirschbaum (*Der jüd. Alexandrinismus *[Leips. 1841], p.52), Weisse (*Ueber die Zukunft d. evangel. Kirche *[ibid. 1849], p. 233), Noak (*Der Ursprung des Christenthums *[ibid. 1837], 222 sq.), etc., that this book is the work of a Christian hand; and that (2) he wrote after the Sept. (i.e. Ptolemy II Philadelphus, B.C. 284-246), for, as we have seen, he quotes the Pentateuch and Isaiah according to this version. He, however, composed it some time before Philo' (B.C. cir. 140-50), since it required a considerable period for the degree of development which the religious philosophy of Alexandria had attained among the Jews in the interval between the author of Wisdom and the writings of Philo.. The sufferings referred to in this book (11, 5 sq.; 12:23 sq.; 16-19) are most probably those which Ptolemy VII Physcon (B.C. 145-117) heaped upon the Jews in Alexandria (comp. Josephus, *Contra Apion. *2, 5; see Gratz, *Geschichte der Juden' [2d *ed.], 3, 66).. The hypothesis of Dr. Rainold (*Cens. Libr. Apocr.*)*, *that "it was written in the time of the emperor Caius, who would have his statue set up and adored in the temple of Jerusalem (Suetonius *Vit. Calig. § *22), and that 14:16-20 deprecates his blasphemous attempt at self-deification," which is followed.by Noak (*Der Usprung des Christenthums, *1, 222 sq.) and Gratz (*Geschichte der Juden, *3, 442), is based upon precarious interpretation of this passage. Grimm (*Commnent. *p. 33) has conclusively shown that it gives the writer's opinion respecting idolatry, which he, in common with many learned heathen of his day, traces to the deification of man, as is evident from the fact that several Seleucideans adopted the epithet ῎αρΕγ (2 Macc. 11:25), and that Ptolemy Lagi and Berenice, his consort, were apotheosized by their successors and subjects giving them the title 2Εοι αοωρρςπε*, *and erecting to them altars and temples (Pauly, *Real-Encyklop. d. class. Alterthunmswissen. *s.v. "Ptolemiaus,"VI, 1, 190). **VI. ***Original Language and Style. — Believing *it to be the work of Solomon, many of the ancient fathers, and several modern writers, both Jews and Protestants, as a matter of course, maintained that the original language of Wisdom was Hebrew. Even Grotius, though not regarding it as the production of Solomon, believed it to have been originally written in Hebrew, while Houbigant advocated a Hebrew original for the first nine chapters and Bretschneider and Engelbrecht restricted it to the first five chapters. The erudite Azariah le Rossi again would have it that Solomon wrote it in Aramaic in order to send it to-.some king in the extreme East (*Meor Enajim *[ed. Vienna, 1829], 281 b). But Jerome had already declared that there was no Hebrew original extant of this book, and that it was originally written in Greek, as is evident from its style ("Secundus [qui Sapieitia Salomonis inscribitur] apud Hebrieos nusquam est, quin et ipse stylus Graecam eloquentiam redolet"[*Praef. in Libr. Sal.*])*. *This remark is fully borne out by **(1.) **The numerous compound expressions, especially adjectives (e.g. κακότεχνον*, *1, 4; 15:4; πρωτόπλαστος*, 7:*1; 10:1; ὑπερμαχος*, *10:20; 16:17; comp. also 1, 6; 2, 10; 4:8; 5, 22; 7:1, 3; 9:5, 15; 10:3; 11:17; 12:5, 19; and for ἃπαξ λεγόμενα*, *11:7; 13:3; 14:25; 15:8, 9; 16:3, 21), which have no corresponding terms in the Hebrew. **(2.) **The technical expressions-as πνεῦμα νοερόν*, 7:*22; διήκειν καὶ χωρεῖν διὰ πάντὠν*, 7:*24; ὕγη ἄμορφος*, 11:*17; πρὸνοια*, 14:*3; — 17:2- which are derived from Platonic and Stoical philosophy. **(3.) **The alliterations, paronomasias, and oxymora which pervade the book (comp. ἀγαπήσατε-φρονήσατε-ζητήσατε; ἐν ἀγαθότητι-ἀπλότητι*, *1, 1; οὐς-θροῦς*, *1, 10; παροδεύσσωσυνοδεύσω*, 6:*22; ἀδόλως- ἀφθόνως*, 7:*13; ἀργὰεργα*, 14:*5;' ἄδικα-δικη*, *1, 8; ἰδιας ἰδιοτητος*,* 2, 23; ατραπον τρόπιος*, *5, 10; δυνατοι δὲ δυνατῶς*, 6:*6; δσιως τὰ ὅσια ὁσιωθήσονται*, 6:*10, κ. τ. λ.*; *see Grimm, p. 7), showing beyond doubt that the book was originally written in Greek. As to the Hebrew coloring of the language, the lexical Hebraisms (e.g. ἁπλότης καρδίας 1, 1; μερίς, κλῆρος*, *2, 9; τρίβοι*, *2, 15; λογιζεσθαι εἴς τι 2, 16; πληροῦν χοόνον *, *4:13; ὅσιοι τοῦ θεοῦ, 4:15), the numerous Hebrew parallelisms, etc., these are to be expected from so thorough an Israelite as the writer of this book manifestly was, especially when it is borne in mind that the author breathes throughout the whole of his work the spirit of the Old Test.; that the book of Wisdom is a Hellenistic version of the same tradition wherein Solomon is represented as having philosophically refuted skepticism and tyranny, of which traces appear elsewhere in the later Jewish literature; and that the author took the ancient Hebrew poetry for his model. The style of the book is very uneven. Some portions of it are truly sublime, and will bear comparison with any passages in the best classics; as, for instance, the delineation of the sensualist (2, 1 sq.), the picture of future judgment (5, 15 sq.), and the description of wisdom (7, 22-8, 1); while in other passages the author, as bishop Lowth remarks, "is often pompous and turgid as well as tedious and diffuse, and abounds in epithets, directly contrary to the practice of the Hebrews" (*Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews, *Praelect. p. 24). **VII. ***Canonicity and Authority. — Though *the book of Wisdom, like the other deutero-canonical books, was never included in the canon of the synagogue, as is evident from the list of the Hebrew Scriptures given in the Talmud (*Baba Bathra, § *14); and though it is not found in the catalogues of Origen, Jerome, Epiphanius, Athanasius, Cyril, etc., yet there can be but little doubt that it was held in great respect among the Jews, and that the apostle Paul was familiar with its language, as may be seen from the striking parallels in .Ro 9:21 to Wisd. 15:7; in Ro 9:22 to Wisd. 12:20; in Eph 6:247 to Wisd. 5, 17-19. The next allusion to it, though also not by name, is to be found in the epistle of St. Clement to the Corinthians (1, 27; comp. Wisd. 11,22; 12:12); and Eusebius tells us (*Hist. Eccles. *5, 26) that Irenaeus made: use of it in a lost book. 'Clement of Alexandria quotes it as the inspired work of Solomon with the introductory phrase) ἡ θεία σοφία λέγει (*Straom. 4:*16, p. 609, ed. Potter). It is also quoted as such by Origen (*Contra Celsum, *3, 72), Tertulliali (*Advers. Valent. *c. 2), Cyprian (*Exhiortat. Martyr. *12), Cyril ((*Catech. 9:*127), etc. Hence it was declared as canonical by the third Council of Carthage '(A.D. 397), in the councils of Sardis (A.D. 347), Constantinople in Trullo (A.D. 692), Toledo (A.D. 675), Florence (1438), -and in the fourth session of the Council of Trent (1546). With other deutero-canonical writings, it remained in the canon till the time of the Reformation, when Luther first separated it and put it together-with the rest of the Apocrypha at the end of the Old Test.. Still Luther spoke of it with great respect (*Vorrede aufdie Weisheit Salomonis *in his translation of the Bible, ed. 1534). In the Anglican Church the book of Wisdom is looked upon with still greater favor. Thus chapters 13:14 are quoted in the *Homilies *as the writing of Solomon (*Serm non against Peril of Idolatry,* pt. 3); 7:11, 16; 9:13; 13:1; 16:8, are cited as the work of the same wise man (*Sermons for Rogation Week, *pt. 1-3); 3, 1;' 13-15, are quoted as Scripture (*Sermon against the Fear of Death, *pt. 3; *Against Idolatries, *pt. 1 and 3); and ch. 5 is referred to as *Holy Scripture *(*Against Willful Rebellion, *pt. 6). *SEE DUTERO-CANONICAL*. **VIII. ***Text. — *The book of Wisdom is preserved in Greek and Latin texts, and in subsidiary translations into Syriac, Arabic and Armenian. Of these latter, the Armenian is said to be the most important; the Syriac and Arabic versions being paraphrastic and inaccurate (Grimm, *Einleit. § *10). The Greek text, which, as appears above, is undoubtedly the original, offers no remarkable features. The variations in the MSS. are confined within narrow limits, and are not such as to suggest the idea of distinct early recension; nor is there any appearance of serious corruptions anterior to existing Greek authorities. — The Old Latin version, which was left untouched by Jerome (*Preef. *in *Libr. Sal., *"In eo libro qui a plerisque *Sapientia- Salomaonis *inscribitur... calamo temperavi; tantummodo, canonicas Scripturas emendare desiderans, et studium meum certis magis quam dubiis commendare"), is, in the refrain, a close and faithful rendering of the Greek, though it contains some additions to the original text, such as are characteristic of the old version generally. Examples of these additions are found: 1. 15, *Injustitia autem mortis est acquisitio; *2, 8. *Nullum pratuni sit quod non pertranseat luxuria nostra; *ver. 17, *et sciemus quaerunt novissima illius; *6; 1, *Melior est sapientia quam vires, et vir prudens quamfortis. *And the construction of the parallelism in the two first cases suggests the belief that there, at least, the Latin reading may be correct. But other additions point to a different conclusion: 6:23, *dilijite lumen sapientice oimnes qui praeestis populis; *8:11, et *fitcies principum mirabuntur me; *9:19, *quicunque placuerunt tibi domine a principio; 11:*5. *a defectione potus sui, et in eis cum abundarent filii Israel Icetati sunt.* The chief Greek MSS. in which the book is contained are the *Codex Sinaiticus *(א), the *Cod. Alexandrinrus *(A), the *Cod. Vaticanus *(B), and the *Cod. Ephraemzi rescr. *(C). The entire text is preserved in the three former; in the latter, only considerable fragments: 8:5-11, 10; 14:19-17, 18; 18:24-19, 22. Sabatier used four Latin MSS. of the higher class for his edition: "Corbeienses duos, unum Sangermanensem, et alium S. Thleodorici ad Remos," of which he professes to give almost a complete (but certainly not a literal) collation. The variations are not generally important, but patristic quotations show that in early times very considerable differences of text existed. An important MS. of the book in the British Museum (*Egerton,* 1046, Saec. 8) has not yet been examined. **IX. ***Literature. — *The earliest commentary which remains is that of Rabanus Maurus (died 856). Roman Catholic commentaries are those of Nannius (1552), Jansen (1557,1614), Osorius (1580), Lorinus (1607, 1624), De Castro (1613), Corn. a Lapide (1638), Maldonatus (1643), Gorse (1655), Menochius (1678), Du Hamel (1703), Calmet (1757),Dereser (Frankf. 2d ed. 1825), and J. A. Schmid (Wien, 1858). Among Protestants separate commentaries are those of Strigel (Lips. 1569, 1571, 1575), Raynold (1618), Fabricius (Frcf. et Lips. 1691), Selnecker (Lips. 1575); Brochmanin (Hafil. 1656), all in Latin; Petersen, *Erklr. *(Biiding. 1727); Schubaud, *Amerk. *(Magdeb. 1733); Steinmetz, *Amerk. *(Leips. 1747); Kleuker, *Erklut. *(Riga, 1785); Hasse, *Amerk. *(Jen. eod.); Wallenius, *Anmarkniingan *(Griefsw. 1786, also in Latin); Kelle, *Amerk. *(Freib. 1815); Engelbroth, Inter*pretation *[ch. 1-4] (Havvn. 1816); Bauermeister, *Commentarius *(Götting. 1828); and especially W. Grimm, *Commentar *(Leips. 1837; also in the *Kurzgef. Exeg. Handb. *ibid. 1868). To these may be added the Hebrew commentary by Wessely (Berl. 1780, and later). See also Ewald, *Geschichte des Volkes Israel *(Göttingen, 1852), 4:548 sq.; Gratz, *Geschichte der Juden *(2d ed. Leips. 1863), 3, 292 sq., 242 sq.; and the *Introductions to the Old Test. *by Bertholdt (Erlangen, 1815), 5, 225 sq.; De Wette, § 312-315; Keil (ibid. 1859), § 244-246; and Davidson (Lond. 1863), 3, 396 -410. *SEE COMMENTARY*.

Wisdom Of God is that grand attribute of his nature by which he knows and orders all things for the promotion of his glory and the good of his creatures. It is that perfection of God, by virtue of which he realizes the highest designs by the use of best means. The assertion of Spinoza and Strauss, that no design at all can be ascribed to God, is connected with the pantheistic idea of the impersonality of God. Certainly there does not exist for the infinite understanding the opposition, nor even the great disparity, between means and ends, which so frequently hinder us. The exclusion here of the idea of design is the exclusion of the idea that God is a Spirit who thinks and wills. As such he must not only be the All-wise, but also the Only-wise One, in comparison with whom all human wisdom is as nothing. Holy Scripture also presents him to us precisely in this light (1Ti 1:17). He is a God who not only possesses in himself wisdom in perfection (Pr 8:22), but communicates it to others (Jas 1:5) and possesses a manifold wisdom manifest for the eye of angels, although for that of man unsearchable (Eph 3:10; Ro 11:33). This wisdom appears in all the works of God's hands (Ps 104:24); in the dispensations of his providence (Ps 97:1-2); in the work of redemption (Eph 3:10); in the government and preservation of his Church in all ages (Ps 107:7). This doctrine should teach us admiration (Re 15:3-4); trust and confidence (Ps 9:10); prayer (Pr 3:5-6); submission (Heb 12:9); praise (Ps 103:1,4). See Charnock, *Works, *volume 1; Saurin, *Sermons,* 1:157, Engl. transl.; Gill, *Divinity, *1:93; Abernethy, *Sermons, *volume 1, sermon 10; Ray, *Wisdom of God in Creation; *Paley, *Natural Theology.* In Pr 8:12-36, we have a beautiful and poetic personification of divine wisdom. Some understand wisdom here to be the same as the *Logos *(q.v.) or *Word, *mentioned in Joh 1:1,14. We only need observe here that wisdom, in the passage mentioned, is spoken of as an *attribute *and not a *person; *a virtue, and not a concrete being. See the article following. The term wisdom is used of the divine wisdom as revealed in and by Christ (Mt 11:19; Lu 7:37; Lu 11:49; Mr 6:2); also of Christ himself, as the author and source of wisdom (1Co 1:30). See *Bibliotheca Sacra, *April 1858; July 1858.

Wisdom of Jesus (Son of Sirach), Book of *SEE ECCLESIASTICUS*.

Wisdom Personified The foundation of this view is to be found in the book of Proverbs, where (8) wisdom *(Chokmach) *is represented as present with God before (8:22) and during the creation of the world. So far it appears only as a principle regulating the action of the Creator, though even in this way it establishes a close connection between the world, as the outward expression of wisdom, and God. Moreover, by the personification of wisdom, and the relation of wisdom to men (8:31), a preparation is made for the extension of the doctrine. This appears, after a long interval, in Ecclesiasticus. In the great description of wisdom given in that book (24), wisdom is represented as a creation of God (24:9), penetrating the whole universe (4-6), and taking up her special abode with the chosen people (8-12). Her personal existence and providential function are thus distinctly brought out. In the book of Wisdom the conception gains yet further completeness. In this, wisdom is identified with the Spirit of God (9:17) — an identification half implied in Ecclus. 24:3 — which brooded over the elements of the unformed world (9:9), and inspired the prophets (7:7, 27). She is the power which unites (1:7) and directs. all things (8:1). By her, in especial, men have fellowship with God (12:1); and her action is not confined to any period, for "in all ages entering into holy souls, she maketh them friends of God and prophets (7:27). So also her working, in the providential history of God's people, is traced at length (10); and her power is declared to reach beyond the world of man into that of spirits (7:23). *SEE ECCLESIASTICUS*. The conception of wisdom, however boldly personified, yet leaves a wide chasm between the world and the Creator. Wisdom answers to the idea of a spirit vivifying and uniting all things in all time, as distinguished from any special outward revelation of the divine person. Thus at the same time that the doctrine of wisdom was gradually constructed, the correlative doctrine of the divine utterance was also reduced to a definite shape. The word *(Memra), *the divine expression, as it was understood in Palestine furnished the exact comiplement to wisdom, the divine thought; but the ambiguity of the Greek *Logos (sermo, ratio) *introduced considerable confusion into the later treatment of the two ideas. Broadly, however, it may be said that the *Word *properly represented the mediative element in the action of God, *Wisdom *the mediative element of his omnipresence. Thus, according to the later disitinction of Philo, wisdom corresponds to the *immanent *word (Λόγος ἐνδιάθετος*), *while the word, strictly speaking, was defined as *enunciative (*Λόγος προφορικός). Both ideas are included in the language of the prophets, and both found a natural development in Palestine and Egypt. The one prepared men for the revelation of the Son of God, the other for the revelation of the Holy Spirit. *SEE LOGOS*. The book of the Pseudo-Solomon, which gives the most complete view of divine wisdom, contains only two passages in which the word is invested with the attributes of personal action (Wisd. of Sol. 16:12; 18:15; 9:1 is of different character). These, however, are sufficient to indicate that the two powers were distinguished by the writer; and it has been commonly argued that the superior prominence given in the book to the conception of wisdom is an indication of a date anterior to Philo. Nor is this conclusion unreasonable, if it is probably established on independent grounds that the book is of Alexandrian origin. But it is no less important to observe that the doctrine of wisdom in itself is no proof of this. There is nothing in the direct teaching on this subject which might not have arisen in Palestine, and it is necessary that we should recur to the more special traits of Alexandrian thought in the book which have been noticed before (§ 6) for the primary evidence of its Alexandrian origin; and starting from this there appears to be, so far as can be judged from the imperfect materials at our command, a greater affinity in the *form *of the doctrine on wisdom to the teaching of Alexandria than to that of Palestine *(comp. Ewald Geschichte,* 4:548 fol.; Welte, *Einleitung, *page 161 sq., has some good criticisms on many supposed traces of Alexandrian doctrine in the book, but errs in denying all). *SEE WISDOM OF SOLOMON*. The doctrine of the divine wisdom passes by a transition, often imperceptible, to that of human wisdom, which is derived from it. This embraces not only the whole range of moral and spiritual virtues, but also the various branches of physical knowledge. In this aspect the enumeration of the great forms of natural science in Wisdom of Solomon, 7:17-20 (8, 8) offers a most instructive subject of comparison with the corresponding passages in 1Ki 4:32-34. In addition to the subjects on which Solomon wrote (Songs, Proverbs: plants, beasts, fowls, creeping things, fishes), cosmology, meteorology, astronomy, psychology, and even the elements of the philosophy of history (Wisd. 8:8), are included among the gifts of wisdom. So far, then, the thoughtful Jew had already at the Christian sera penetrated into the domain of speculation and inquiry, into each province, it would seem, which was then recognised, without abandoning the simple faith of his nation. The fact itself is most significant; and the whole book may be quoted as furnishing an important corrective to the later Roman descriptions of the Jews, which were drawn from the people when they had been almost uncivilized by the excitement of the last desperate struggle for national existence. See Bruch, *Die Weisheitslehre der Hebraer *(1851). *SEE PHILOSOPHY*.

Wise (חָכָם, *chakdm, *σόφος*). *The Hebrew word, חֲכָמֹי , *chakamin, *rendered "wise men" (Ge 41:8; Ex 7:11; Ec 9:17; Jer 1:19; Es 1:13) not only signifies men celebrated for wisdom, *magi, *but also *magicians *or enchanters. *SEE MAGIC*. The feminine of the same term, חִכמָה, *chakmah, *is used for a "wise woman," one noted for *cunning *or *skill *(2Sa 14:2; 2Sa 20:16). *SEE WITCH*. The Hebrew word חִרטֻמַּים *chartummim, *rendered "magicians" (Ge 41:8,24; Ex 7:11,22; Ex 8:7,18-19; Ex 9:11; Da 1:20; Da 2:21), properly signifies *sacred scribes, *skilled in the sacred writing or hieroglyphics; and is applied to a class of Egyptian priests; and also to the *magi *of Babylon and Persia. *SEE MAGI*. In Mt 2:1-16, the Greek term is μάγος, having the same significance. *SEE STAR IN THE EAST*.

Wise, Francis an English clergyman, was born at Oxford in 1695. He was educated at Trinity College, of which he became a fellow in 1718; was assistant to the Bodleian librarian in 1717; afterwards presented to the living of Ellesfield, near Oxford; custos archivorum in 1726; became rector of Rotherfield Greys in 1745; Radcliffe librarian in 1748; and died October 6, 1767. He published, *Annales Rerum Gestarum AElfredi Magni *(1722): — *Epistola* *ad Joannem Masson de Nummo Abgari Regis *(1736): — *A Letter to Dr. Mead Concerning some Antiquities in Berkshire, *etc. (1738): — *History and Chronology of the Fabulous Ages, Considered Particularly with Regard to the Two Ancient Deities, Bacchus and Hercules *(1764), and other works. See Chalmers, *Biog. Dict. *s.v.; Allibone, *Dict. of Brit. and Amer. Authors, *s.v.

Wise, Michael one of the most eminent of English Church-music composers, was born in Wiltshire about the middle of the 17th century. He was among the first set of children chosen at the Chapel Royal after the Restoration; became organist and master of the choristers in the cathedral of Salisbury in 1668; was appointed gentleman of the Chapel Royal in 1675; and was made almoner of St. Paul's Cathedral in 1686. Quitting his house at night in a state of great irritation, he was stopped by the watchman, with whom he entered into a quarrel, and was killed in the affray, in August, 1687. His anthems, "Awake up, my Glory," "Prepare ye the Way of the Lord," and "The Ways of Zion do Mourn," are still listened to with admiration.