Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological & Ecclesiastical Literature

Ba'al-ta'mar (Hebrews *Ba'al Tamar', *בִּעִל תָּמָר, *place ofpalm-trees; *Sept. Βάαλ Θαμάρ*), *a place neai Gibeah, in the tribe of Benjamin, where the other tribes fought with the Benjamites (Jg 20:33). It was doubtless so called as being one of the sanctuaries or groves of Baal. See BAALIM. The palm-tree (תָּמָר) of Deborah (Jg 4:5) was situated somewhere in the locality, and is possibly alluded to (Stanley, *Palest. *p. 145). Eusebius and Jerome *(Onomast. *s.v. Βααλθαμάρ*, *Baalthamar) call it *Bethamar *(Βησθαμάρ, Bethamari), thus affording another instance of that interchange of *Beth *and *Baal *which is also exemplified in *Baal-shalisha *and *Baal-Meon. *The notices seem to correspond to the present ruined site *Erhah, *about three miles N.E. of Jerusalem (Van de Velde, *Map), *on a ravine running toward Anathoth (Robinson, *Researches, *2, 315 note).

Baal-Tamar. Lieut. Conder proposes *(Tent Work, *ii, 335) for this the present *Atara, *but the names correspond but slightly.s.v

Baaltis *(*Βααλτίς*, *prob. fem. of *Baal), *another name apparently for the Syrian *Venus, *the chief female deity of the Phoenicians, the ASHTORETH of the O.T. *SEE ASTARTE *.

Ba'al-ze'bub (Hebrews *Ba'al Zebub', *בִּעִל זבוּב *fly-lord; *Sept. ὁ [v. r. ή] Βάαλ μυϊvαν) occurs in 2Ki 1:2-3,16, as the god of the Philistines at Ekron, whose oracle Ahaziah sent to consult. Though such a designation of the god appears to us a kind of mockery, and has consequently been regarded as a term of derision (Selden, *De Diis Syris, *p. 375), yet there seems no reason to doubt that this was the name given to the god by his worshippers, and the plague of flies in hot climates furnishes a sufficient reason for the designation. See FLY. Similarly the Greeks gave the epithet ἀπόμυιος*, *to Zeus (Clem. Alex. *Protrept. *2, 38) as worshipped at Elis (Pausan. v. 14, 2), the *Myiagrus deus *of the Romans (Solin. Polyhist. 1), and Pliny (29. 6, 34, init.) speaks of a Fly-god *Myiodes. *As this name is the one used by Ahaziah himself, it is difficult to suppose that it was not the proper and reverential title of the god; and the more so, as *Beelzebul *(Βεελζεβούλ) in Mt 10:25, seems to be the contemptuous corruption of it. *SEE BEELZEBUB*. Any explanation, however, of the symbolical sense in which flies may have been regarded in ancient religions, and by which we could conceive how his worshippers could honor him as the *god offlies, *would appear to us much more compatible with his name than the only sense which can be derived from the Greek parallel. This receives some confirmation, perhaps, from the words of Josephus *(Ant. *9, 2, 1), who says, "Ahaziah sent to the *Fly *(τῆς Μυῖαν*), *for that is the name of the god" (τῷ θεῷ). The analogy of classical idolatry would lead us to conclude that all these Baals are only the same god under various modifications of attributes and emblems, but the scanty notices to which we owe all our knowledge of Syro-Arabian idolatry do not furnish data for any decided opinion on this phasis of Baal. *SEE BAALIM*.

Ba'al-Ze'phon (Hebrews *Ba'al Tsephon', *בִּעִל צפֹון*, place of Typhon; *Sept. Βεελσεπφῶν or Βεελσεπφίον*, *Josephus Βελσεφών*, Ant. *2, 15, 1), a town belonging to Egypt, on the border of the Red Sea (Ex 14:2; Nu 33:7). Forster *(Epist. ad J. D. Michaelem, *p. 28) believes it to have been the same place as Heroopolis ( ῾Ηρωώπολις), on the western gulf of the Red Sea (Pliny, *Hist. Nat. *v. 12; Strabo, 17, p. 836; Ptolem. 4:5), where Typhon (which Forster makes in Coptic ΔΩΨΩΝ; but, *contra, *see Rosenmüller, *Alterthum, *3, 261), the evil genius of the Egyptians, was worshipped. *SEE BAALIM*. But, according to Manetho (Josephus *contra Apion. *1, 26), the name of Typhon's city was Avaris (Αὔαρις), which some, as Champollion (who writes ΟΥΑΡΙ, and renders "causing malediction;" *L'Egypte suos les Pharaons, *2, 87 sq.), consider, wrongly, to be the same place, the stronghold of the Hyksos, both which places were connected with Typhon (Steph. Byz. s.v. ῾Ηρώ*). *Avaris cannot be Heroopolis, for geographical reasons. (Compare, as to the site of Avaris, Brugsch, *Geograph'sche Inschriften, *1, 86 sq.; as to that of Heroopolis, Lepsius, *Chron. d',Egypt. *1, 344 sq., and 342, against the two places being the same.) In fact, nothing is known of the situation of Baal-zephon except what is connected with a consideration of the route taken by the Israelites in leaving Egypt, for it was "over against Baal-zephon" that they were encamped before they passed the Red Sea. The supposition that identifies its site with Jebel *Deraj *or *Kulalah, *the southern barrier of the mouth of the valley leading from Cairo to the Red Sea, is as likely as any other. *SEE EXODE*. From the position of Goshen, and the indications afforded by the narrative of the route of the Israelites, Baal-zephon must have been on the western shore of the Gulf of Suez, a little below its head, which at that time, however, has been located by some many miles northward of the present head. *SEE GOSHEN; SEE RED SEA, PASSAGE OF*. Its position with respect to the other places mentioned with it is clearly indicated. The Israelites encamped before or at Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea, before Baal-zephon, according to Exodus (Ex 14:2,9), while in Numbers Pi-hahiroth is described as being before Baal-zephon; and it is said that when the people came to the former place they pitched before Migdol (Nu 33:7); and again, that afterward they departed from before Pi-hahiroth, here in Hebrews Hahiroth (Heb 5:8). Migdol and Baal-zephon must therefore have been opposite to one another, and the latter behind Pi-hahiroth, with reference to the Israelites. Baal-zephon was perhaps a well-known place, if, as seems likely, it is always mentioned to indicate the position of Pi-hahiroth, which we take to be a natural locality. *SEE PI-HAHIROTH*. The name has been supposed to mean "sanctuary of Typhon," or "sacred to Typhon," an etymology approved by Gesenius *(Thes. Heb. *p. 225), but not by Furst *(Hebrews Handw. *s.v.). Zephon would well enough correspond in sound to Typhon, had we any ground for considering the latter name to be either Egyptian or Semitic; and even then Zephon in Baal-zephon might not be its Hebrew transcription, inasmuch as it is joined with the Hebrew form בִּעִל. Hence many connect Baal-zephon, as a Hebrew compound, with the root צָפָה, to *spy, *as if it were named from a watchtower on the frontier like the neighboring מַגדֹּל, "the tower." It is noticeable that the name of the son of Gad, called Ziphion (צַפיוֹן) in Ge 46:16, is written Zephon (צפוֹן) in Nu 26:15. — Kitto; Smith.

Ba'ana (Hebrews *Baana', *בִּעֲנָא, prob. for בֶּןאּעֲנָא], *son of affliction), *the name of three or four men. **1. **(Sept. Βανά*.) *Son of Ahilud, one of Solomon's twelve purveyors; his district comprised Taanach, Megiddo, and all Bethshean, with the adjacent region (1Ki 4:12). B.C. 1012. **2. **(Sept. Βαανᾶ*.) *Son of Hushai, another of Solomon's purveyors, having Asher and Bealoth (1Ki 4:16, where, however, the name is incorrectly Anglicized "Baanah"). B.C. 1012. **3. **(Sept. Βαανά*.) *Father of Zadok, which latter repaired a portion of the walls of Jerusalem on the return from Babylon, between the fish-gate and the oldgate (Ne 3:4). B.C. 446. **4. ***(*Βαανά*.) *One of those who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (1 Esdras 5:8); the BAANAH *SEE BAANAH *(q.v.) of the Hebrews text (Ezr 2:2).

Baanes *SEE BAANITES*.

Baani'as (rather *Banaias *[q.v.], Βαναίας*), *one of the Israelites, sons of Phoros, who divorced his Gentile wife after the exile (1 Esdras 5:26); evidently the BENAIAH *SEE BENAIAH *(q.v.) of the correct text (Ezr 2:25).

Baanites a sect of Paulicians, called by the name of their leader, Baanes, in the ninth century. — Neander, *Ch. Hist. 3, *250, 266. *SEE PAULICIANS*.

Ba'ara (Heb. *Baara', *בִּעֲרָא*, brutish; *Sept. Βααρά v. r. Βααδά*), *one of the wives of Shaharaim, of the tribe of Benjamin (1Ch 8:8, where, however, there is some confusion as to his prior children), by whom she had several children (ver. 9, where by some error she is called HODESH, compare ver. 11). B.C. ante 1612. *SEE SHAHARAIM*.

Caccia, Pompeo a Roman painter, flourished at Pistoja in the first part of the 17th century. There are a number of his works in that city, among which is the *Presentation of Jesus in the Temple, *at the Salesiape, dated 1615.

Cacciaguena, Buonsignore (Or Geronimo) an Italian monk and priest, a native of Siena, flourished in the second half of the 16th century. He was a friend and companion of St. Philip of Neri.' He left several works on practical piety, for which see Hoefer, *Nouv, Biog. Generale, *s.v.

Caccianiga, Francesco an Italian painter, was born at Milan in 1700, and studied under Franceschini at Bologna. He afterwards went to Rome, where he obtained the favor of the prince Borghese, for whom he executed a number of works. . His best productions are at Ancona, where he painted several altar-pieces, the best of which are the *Marriage of the Virgin, *and the *Last Supper. *He died at Rome in 1781. See Spooner *Biog. Hist. of the Fine Arts, s.v.*; Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v.

Cacciari, Pietro Tommaso an Italian theologian of the. Carmelite order, lived in the second half of the 18th century. He was a doctor in theology, apostolic examiner, and controversial reader in the Propaganda at Rome, and left, in Latin, a work on the writings of Leo the Great (Rome, 1751, 2 vols. fol.). See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v.

Caccini, Giovanni an Italian architect and sculptor, was born at Florence in 1562, and studied under Dosio. He erected, at the Church of La Nunziata, in Florence, a loggia with arches and Corinthian columns, sculptured out of Siena marble; he also designed a grand choir and altar for the Church of Santo Spirito. He died in 1612. See Spooner, *Biog. Hist. of the Fine Arts, s.v.*; Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, s.v.*

Caccini, Tommaso a Dominican of Florence, and doctor of theology, who died Jan. 12, 1648, is the author of *Storia Ecclesiastica del Primo Concilio Niceno Adunato e Confermato di S. Salvestro *(Lucca, 1637). See Jocher, *Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon, *s.v.; Winer, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *i, 663. (B. P.)

Caccioli, Giovanni Battista an eminent historical painter, was born in the castle of Budrio, near Bologna, in 1628. He studied under Domenico Maria Canuti, and painted several pictures for the Bolognese churches. He died in 1676. See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v.; Spooner, *Biog. Hist. of the Fine Arts, *s.v.

Cachet, Jean a French Jesuit, born at Neufchateau in Lorraine, died at Pont-a-Mousson, Dec. 22,1633, aged thirty-six, leaving many ascetical works, the principal of which are *Vie de Jean Berchmans, *a Jesuit, from the Italian (Paris, 1630, *8vo): — Vie de S. Isidore. et de la B. Marie della Cabeca sa femme *(Verdun, 1631), from the Spanish of J. Quintana: — Vie *de S. Joseph *(Ponta-Mousson, 1632, 12mo). See *Biog. Universelle, *vi, 450.

Cacodaemon in Greek mythology, was the title of an evil spirit, in opposition to *Agathodcemon *(a good spirit).

Cad in British mythology, was an idol that was worshipped in the form of a fighting ox. He was also called *Tarw-Cad. *He seems to have been a god of war.

Cadalous (Lat. Cadolus Or Cadeolus), Pietro an Italian prelate, sprung from the family of *Zanachia, *was a native of Parma, of which city he became bishop by simoniacal means; on the death of Hugo, A.D. 1046. He was a warm supporter of the emperor Henry, who intruded him into the see of Rome under the title of HONORIUS *SEE HONORIUS *II (q.v.).

Cadan. *SEE CATAN*.

Cadana, Salvatore, an Italian monk, born at Turin, lived about the middle of the 17th century, and wrote *Ottavia Sacramentate *(Venice, 1645): — II *Principe Regnante *(Turin, 1649). See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, s.v.*

Cadda (Ceadda, Or Chad) was an early English bishop, whose name is attached to a spurious charter of A.D. 706 (Kemble, *C. D. *No. 58); possibly *Hedda *or *Headda, *bishop of Lichfield. See Smith, *Diet. of Christ. Biog. *s.v.

Cadden, Robert a Methodist Episcopal minister, was born in Ireland, Oct. 28, 1782. He was carefully trained by his pious widowed mother, with whom he emigrated to Lancaster, Pa., in 1798; experienced conversion when about twenty; and after having faithfully discharged the duties of a class-leader, exhorter, and local preacher, he entered the Baltimore Conference, in which he sustained an effective relation for thirty-seven years. In 1852 he became superannuated, and died at his residence in Baltimore County, Md., June 26,1859. Mr. Cadden was remarkable from childhood for his sobriety and firmness of disposition. He was diffident and retiring, deep in piety, and faithful in labors. See *Minutes of Annual Conferences, *1860, p. 20.'

Cad'dis (Καδδίς, or rather Γαδδίς*, *as most texts read; so also Josephus, Γαδδίς or Γαδής*, Ant. 13:*1, 2; derivation uncertain, see Grimm, *Handb. *in loc.), the surname (διακαλούμενος) of JOANNAN *SEE JOANNAN *(q.v.), the' eldest brother of Judas Maccabaeus (1 Macc. 2:2).

Cadell was a Welsh saint of the 7th century, patron of Llangadell, a church formerly in Glamorganshire. *SEE CATELL*.

Cademann, Adam Theodule (Or Gotthelf) a German Lutheran preacher, was born in 1677 at Haynichen, near Freiberg, in Saxony. He first pursued his studies at Gera, then at the universities of Leipsic and Wittenberg, where he received his degrees. In 1707 he became vicar at Litzenroda, a: village near Torgau, in 1713 pastor at Siiptiz, and finally, in 1729, archdeacon at Kemberg, where he remained until his death, which occurred February 16, 1746. See Hoefer, *Nouvelle Biographie Generale, *S. v.

Cademann, Johann Georg., a German theologian of the 17th century, was born at Oschatz, in Saxony, and studied at Jena and Wittenberg, where he took his degree in 1654. In 1656 he became pastor at Dahlen, and in 1676 archdeacon at Wurzen, where he died, Dec. 28, 1687. Among his writings are *Disputatio de Causa Instrumentali JustiJfcationis *(Jena, 1650, *4to): — Disp. de principiis Immanarumn Actionum (Wit*tenb. 1654, *4to): — De Justitia Distributiva *(1654, 4to): — *D Mafjestate *(1654, 4to). — Hoefer, *Nfouv. Biog. Generale, *8:63.

Cademann, Johann Rudolph a German Lutheran theologian, son of Johann Georg, pursued his studies at Leipsic, where he took, in 1699, his degrees in theology. In 1708 he was appointed deacon at Naumburg, and in 1717 superintendent at Pegau, where he remained until his death, which occurred about 1720. He wrote *Disput. de Schola Libertinorum, ex Act. Ap. VI. *9. (Leipsic, 1704). See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v.

Early, William a Methodist Episcopal minister, was born in New Jersey, October 17, 1770; was converted at about nineteen; entered the itinerancy in 1791; was superannuated in 1821, and died in June of the same year, having preached for thirty years. His first two years in the ministry were spent as missionary to New Brunswick, where he endured much hardship in zealously laboring for his Master's cause. His after ministry in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland was very useful to the Church. — Min. *of Conferences, *1:380.

Earnest Α᾿ῤῥαβών is evidently the Hebrew עֵרָבוֹן *(erabon', a pledge) *in Greek characters. It is a mercantile term which the Greeks and Romans appear to have adopted from the Phoenicians (kindred in dialect with the Hebrews) as the founders of commerce. With a slight alteration in the letters, but with none whatever in the sense, it becomes the Latin *arrhabo, *contrast *arrha; *French *arres; *English *earles *(in the old English expression *Earl's *or *Arle's *money) and *earnest. *These three words occur in the Hebrew, Sept., and Vulgate in Ge 38:17-18, and in verse 20, with the exception that the Vulgate there changes it to *pignus. *The use of these words in this passage clearly illustrates their general import, which is that of an earnest or pledge, given and received, to assure the fulfillment of an engagement. Hesychius explains ἀῤῥαβών by πρόδομα*, *something given beforehand. The Hebrew word was used generally for *pledge *(Ge 38:17), and in its cognate forms for *surety *(Pr 17:18) and *hostage *(2Ki 14:14). The Greek derivative, however, acquired a more technical sense, as signifying the *deposit *paid by the purchaser on entering into an agreement for the purchase of anything (Suid. *Lex. *s.v.) This idea attaches to all the *particular *applications of the word, as anything given by way of warrant or security for the performance of a promise, part of a debt paid as an assurance of paving the remainder; part of the price of anything paid beforehand to confirm the bargain between buyer and seller; part of a servant's wages paid at the time of hiring, for the purpose of ratifying the engagement on both sides. The idea that the earnest is either to be returned upon the fulfillment of the engagement, or to be considered as part of the stipulation, is also included. A similar, legal and technical sense attaches to *earnest, *the payment of which places both the vendor and purchaser in a position to enforce the carrying out of the contract (Blackstone, 2:30). The payment of earnest-money under the name of *arrabon *is still one of the common occurrences of Arab life. Similar customs of paying down at the time of a contract "something to bind the bargain" have prevailed among all nations. (See Smith's *Dictionary of Class. Antiq. *s.v. Aarha.) *SEE BARGAIN*. The word is used three times in the New Testament, but always in a figurative sense: in the first (2Co 1:22) it is applied to the *gifts *of the Holy Spirit which God bestowed upon the *apostles, *and by which he might be said to have hired them to be the servants of his Son; and which were the earnest, assurance, and commencement of those far superior blessings which he would bestow on them in the life to come as the wages, of *their faithful *services: in the two latter (2Co 5:5; Eph 1:13-14) it is applied to the gifts bestowed on *Christians generally *upon whom, after baptism, the apostles laid their hands, and which were to them an *earnest *of obtaining a heavenly habitation and inheritance, upon the supposition of their fidelity. This use of the term finely illustrates the augmented powers and additional capacities promised in a future state. Jerome, in his comment on the second passage, exclaims, "Si arrhabo tantus, quanta erit possession the earnest was so great, how great must be the possession!" (See Kype, Macknight, and Middleton on these passages; Le Moyne, *Not. ad Var. Sacr. *p. 460-480.) In a spiritual sense, it denotes those gifts and graces which the Christian receives as the earnest and assurance of perfect happiness in a future world. (See Clauswitz, *De Arrhabosse, *Halle, 1747; Winzer, *Comment. in loc. *Lips. 1836; Schulthess, in Keil and Tschirner's *Analecten, *II, 1:215 sq.) There is a marked distinction between *pledge *and *earnest *in this respect, that the latter is a *past-payment *and therefore implies the *identity *in kind of the deposit with the future full payment; whereas a pledge may be something of a totally different nature, as in Genesis 38, to be resumed by the depositor when he has completed his contract. Thus the expression *"earnest *of the Spirit" implies, beyond the idea of security the *identity *in kind, though not in degree, and the *continuity *of the Christian's privileges in this world and in the next. Moreover, a pledge is taken back when the promise which it guaranteed is fulfilled; but whatever is given as earnest, being a part in advance of the whole, is of course retained. *SEE PLEDGE*. Earring stands in the Authorized Version as the rendering of three Hebrews words of considerably different import. *SEE RING*. **1. **עָגַיל *(agil', *from its *roundness), *properly a *ring, *specially an *ear-ring *(Nu 31:50; Eze 16:12), nearly all the ancient ear-rings exhibited in the sculptures of Egypt and Persepolis being of a circular shape. These are the ἐνώτια spoken of in Judith 10:4. **2. **נֶזֶם *(ne'zem, *either from its *perforating, *or from its use to *muzzle *in the case of animals), a *ring, *specially a *nose-ring, *but also an *earring, *which two da not seem, therefore, to have materially differed in form. It most certainly denotes an earring in Ge 35:4; but in Ge 24:47; Pr 11:22; Isa 3:21, it signifies a nose-jewel, and it is doubtful which of the two is intended in Jg 8:24-25; Job 42:11. *SEE WOMAN*. Hence also we find לִחִשׁ *(lach'ash, *properly a *whispering or incantation), a charm *or remedy against enchantment, i.e., a superstitious ornament, often a gem inlaid in a plate or ring of precious metal, on which certain magic formulas were inscribed, and which was worn suspended from the neck or in the ears of Oriental females (Isa 3:20). *SEE ENCHANTMENT*. The " collars" or " chains" spoken of in Jg 8:26; Isa 3:19, may also have been a species of eardrop. See those terms. No conclusion can be formed as to the shape of the Hebrew earrings except from the signification of the words employed, and from the analogy of similar ornaments in ancient sculpture. The word נֶזֶם, by which these ornaments are usually described, is unfortunately ambiguous, originally referring to the nose-ring (as its root indicates), and thence transferred to the ear-ring. The full expression for the latter is נֶזֶם אֲשֶׁר בּאָזנִיַם (Ge 35:4), in contradistinction to נֶזֶם עלאּאִŠ (Ge 24:47). In the majority of cases, however, the kind is not specified, and the only clew to the meaning is the context. The term occurs in this undefined sense in Jg 8:24; Job 42:11; Pr 25:12; Ho 2:13. The material of which the earring was made was generally gold (Ex 32:2), and its form circular, as we may infer from the name עָגַיל, by which it is described (Nu 31:50; Eze 16:12): such was the shape usual in Egypt (Wilkinson's *Egyptians, *3:370). They were worn by women and by youth of both sexes (Ex 1:22). It has been inferred from the passage quoted, and from Jg 8:24, that they were not worn by men: these passages are however, by no meats conclusive. In the former an order is given to the men in such terms that they could not be mentioned, though they might have been implicitly, included; in the latter the *amount of the gold is *the peculiarity adverted to, and not the character of the ornament, a peculiarity which is still noticeable among the inhabitants of southern Arabia (Wellsted's *Travels, *1:321). The mention of the *sons *in Ex 32:2 (which, however, is omitted in the Septuagint), is in favor of their having been worn, and it appears unlikely that the Hebrews presented an exception to the almost universal practice of Asiatics, both in ancient and modern times. That they were not, however, usually worn by men is implied in Jg 14:20, where gold earrings are mentioned as distinctive of the Ishmaelitish tribes. The men of Egypt also abstained from the use of earrings; but how extensively they were worn by men in other nations is shown by the preceding group of heads of different foreigners, collected from the Egyptian monuments. By this also the usual forms of the most ancient ornaments of this description are sufficiently displayed. Those worn by the Egyptian ladies were large, round, single hoops of gold, from one inch and a half to two finches and one third in diameter, and frequently of still greater size, or made of six single rings soldered together. Such probably was the round *agil *of the Hebrews. Among persons of high or royal rank the ornament was sometimes in the shape of an asp, whose body was of gold set with precious stones. Silver earrings have also been found at Thebes, either plain hoops like the earrings of gold, or simple studs. The ancient Assyrians, both men and women, wore earrings of exquisite shape and finish, especially the kings, and those on the later monuments are generally in the form of a cross (Layard, *Nineveh, *2:234, 250). Lane thus describes those now worn by Egyptian females: "Of earrings ('*halak') *there is a great variety. Some of the more usual kinds are here represented. The first is of diamonds set in silver. It consists of a drop suspended within a wreath hanging from a sprig. The back of the silver is gilt, to prevent its being tarnished by perspiration. The specimen here given is that for the right ear; its fellow is similar, but with the sprig reversed. This pair of earrings is suited for a lady of wealth; so also is the second, which resembles the former, excepting that it has a large pearl in the place of the diamond drop and wreath, and that the diamonds of the sprig are set in gold. Number 3 is a side view of the same. The next consists of gold, and an emerald pierced through the middle, with a small diamond above the emerald. Emeralds are generally pierced in Egypt, and spoiled by this process as much as by not being cut with facets. The last is of gold, with a small ruby in the center. The ruby is set in fine filigree-work, which is surrounded by fifteen balls of gold. To the seven lower balls are suspended as many circular *bark" (Mod. Eg. *2:404). The modern Oriental earrings are more usually jeweled drops or pendants than circlets of gold, but sometimes they consist of a small round plate of silver or gold suspended from a small ring inserted into the ear (Kitto, *Pict. Bible, *note on Ex 32:2). This circular plate (about the size of a halfpenny) is either marked with fanciful figures or set with small stones. It is the same kind of thing which in that country (Mesopotamia) is worn as a nose-jewel, and in it we perhaps find the Hebrew earring, which is denoted by the same word that describes a nose-jewel. Jewels were sometimes attached to the rings: they were called נטַיפוֹת (from נָטִŠ*, to drop), *a word rendered in Jg 8:26, Sept. ὅρμισκοι*, Vulg. sonilia, *A.V. "collars;" and in Isa 3:19, καθεμα*, torques, *" chains." The size of the earrings still worn in Eastern countries far exceeds what is usual among ourselves (Harmer's *Observations, *3, page 311, 314), hence they formed a handsome present (Job 42:11) or offering to the service of God (Nu 31:50). *SEE JEWEL.* The earring appears to have been regarded with superstitious reverence as an amulet: thus it is named in the Chaldee and Samaritan versions קִדַישָׁא, *a holy thing; *and in Isa 3:20 the word לחָשַׁים, prop. *amulets, *is rendered in the A.V., after the Septuagint and Vulgate, *earrings. *On this account they were surrendered along with the idols by Jacob's household (Ge 35:4). Chardin describes earrings, with talismanic figures and characters on them, as still existing in the East (Brown's *Antiquities, 2:*305). *SEE AMULET*.

Earnulph *SEE ARNULPH*.

Ears *SEE EAR.*

Ears of Corn (מלַילָה, *melilah', *so called from being *cut of, *De 23:25; שַׁבֹּלֶת *shibbo'leth, *from its *growth, *Ge 41:5 sq.; Ru 2:2; Job 24:24; Isa 17:5; כִּרמֶל, *karsuel', *prop. a cultivated field, as often; hence produce or ears therefrom, i.e., *grits, *Le 2:14; Le 23:14; 2Ki 4:42; אָבַיב, *abib', green ears, *Ex 9:31; Le 2:14; στάχυς, Mt 12:1; Mr 2:23; Mr 4:28; Lu 6:1). The remarkable productiveness of the cereals in Egypt has been proverbial from the days of Joseph (Ge 41:47) to the present time. Jowett states, in his *Christian Researches, *that when in Egypt he plucked up at random a few stalks out of the thick grain-fields. " We counted the number of stalks which sprouted from single grains of seed, carefully pulling to pieces each root in order to see that it was one plant. The first had seven stalks, the next three, then eighteen, then fourteen. Each stalk would bear an ear." Even greater numbers than these are mentioned by Dr. Shaw, and still more by Pliny. It also often happens that one of the stalks will bear two ears, while each of these ears will shoot out into a number of lesser ears, affording a most plentiful increase. *SEE CORN*.

Ears, Touching Of In holy communion it seems to have been the custom to touch the organs of sense with the moisture left on the lips after receiving the cup.

Ears, Touching the an ancient ceremony in the baptism of catechumens, which consisted in touching their ears and saying *Ephphatha, *"Be opened." This was joined with the imposition of hands and with exorcism, and is supposed to have signified the opening of the understanding to receive instruction on the faith. Ambrose derives the custom from our Savior's example in saying *Ephphatha, *when he cured the deaf and dumb. The practice never became general. Bingham, *Orig. Ecclesiastes *book 10, chapter 2, § 13.

Earth properly the name of the planet on which we dwell. *SEE GEOGRAPHY.* **I. **There are two Hebrew words thus rendered in the A.V., both of which are rendered by γῆ in the Sept., and this γῆ is rendered by "earth," "land," " ground, "in the New Testament. *SEE DUST*. **1. **אֲדָמָה, *adamah', *is the *earth *in the sense of soil or ground, particularly as being susceptible of cultivation; hence the expression אַישׁ אֲדָמָה, lit. *"man of *the *ground," *for an agriculturist (Ge 9:20). The; *earth *supplied the elementary substance of which man's body was formed, and the terms *adam *and *adamah *are brought into juxtaposition, implying an etymological connection (Ge 2:7). *SEE ADAM. *The opinion that man's body was formed of earth prevailed among the Greeks (Hesiod, *Op. et Di. *61, 70; Plato, *Rep. *page 269), the Romans (Virgil, *Georg. *2:341; Ovid, *Met. *1:82), the Egyptians (Diod. Sic. 1:10), and other ancient nations. It is evidently based on the observation of the material into which the body is resolved after death (Job 10:9; Ec 12:7). The law prescribed earth as the material out of which altars were to be raised (Ex 20:24); Bahr *(Symb. *1:488) sees in this a reference to the name *adam: *others, with more reason, compare the *ara de cespite *of the Romans (Ovid, *Trist. *5:*5*, 9; Horace, Od. 3:8, 4, 5), and view it as a precept of simplicity. Naaman's request for two mules' burden of earth (2Ki 5:17) was based on the idea that Jehovah, like the heathen deities, was a local god, and could be worshipped acceptably only on his own soil. *SEE GROUND*. **2. **More generally אֶרֶוֹ***, **e'rets, *which is explained by Von Bohlen *(Introduction to Genesis *2:6) as meaning etymologically the *low *in opposition to the *high, *i.e., the heaven. It is applied in a more or less extended sense: 1, to the whole world (Ge 1:1); 2, to land as opposed to sea (Ge 1:10); 3, to a country (Ge 21:32); 4, to a plot of ground (Ge 23:15); and, 5, to the ground on which a man stands (Ge 33:3); also, in a more general view, 6, to *"the inhabitants of the earth" *(Ge 6:11; Ge 11:1); 7, to *heathen countries, *as distinguished from the land of Israel, especially during the theocracy; i.e., all the rest of the world excepting Israel (2Ki 18:25; 2Ch 13:9, etc.); particularly the empire of Chaldaea and Assyria (Ezr 1:2); 8, in the New Testament especially, "the earth" appears in our translation as applied to the land of Judea. As in many of these passages it might seem as if the habitable globe were intended, the use of so ambiguous a term as "the earth" should have been avoided, and the original rendered by "the land," as in Le 25:23; Isa 10:23, and elsewhere. This is the sense which the original bears in Mt 23:35; Mt 27:45; Mr 15:33; Lu 4:25; Lu 21:23; Ro 9:28; James 5:17. 9. Finally, in a spiritual sense, the word is employed (in the N.T.) in contrast with heaven, to denote things earthly and carnal (Joh 3:31; Col 3:1-2). See Wemyss, *Symbol. Dict. *s.v.; *SEE WORLD*. To demand earth and water was a custom of the ancient Persians, by which they required a people to acknowledge their dominion; Nebuchodonosor, in the Greek of Judith (2:7), commands Holofernes to march against the people of the West, who had refused submission, and to declare to them that they were to prepare earth and water. Darius ordered his envoys to demand earth and water of the Scythians; and Megabysus required the same of Amyntas, king of Macedonia, in the name of Darius. Polybius and Plutarch notice this custom among the Persians. Some believe that these symbolical demands denoted dominion of the earth and sea; others, that the earth represented the food received from it, corn and fruits; the water, drink, which is the second part of human nourishment. Ecclus. 15:16, in much the same sense, says, " The Lord hath set fire and water before thee; stretch forth thy hand unto whether thou wilt; and chapter 39:26, "Fire and water are the most necessary things to life." Fire and water were considered by the ancients as the first principles of the generation, birth; and preservation of man. Proscribed persons were debarred from their use; as, on the contrary, wives in their nuptial ceremonies were obliged to touch them. *SEE ELEMENT*. **II. **The idea which the ancient Hebrews had of the figure of the earth can only be conjectured from incidental hints occasionally given in Scripture (Isa 40:22; Pr 8:27; Job 26:10; Ps 24:2; Ps 136:6). From these passages, taken together, says Rosenmuller *(Alterthumsk. *I, 1:133 sq.), we obtain the notion of the earth's disk as circular, rising out of the water, and surrounded with the ocean, the heaven being spread over it as a canopy. Though floating free in the boundless immensity of space, yet, through the Creator's might, it remains firmly fixed, without moving (1Ch 17:27; Ps 93:1; Ps 104:5; Ps 119:90). It is rather inconclusive, however, to infer the popular notions of the earth's figure from what may have been nothing more than the bold imagery of poets. Some have supposed that so long as the Hebrews were a nomadic race, they conceived of the earth as resembling a round tent, with the expanse as its covering; but that in later times, when domiciled in Palestine, they spoke of it as a splendid palace resting upon its many pillars (2Sa 22:8; Ps 75:3; Ps 104:5; Pr 5:23). The Greek and Roman writers (Hesiod, *Theogn. *116 sq.; Ovid, *Metam. *1:5 sq.; comp. Euseb. *Prasp. Ev. *1:10 [Sanchoniathon, ed. Orelli, p. 9 sq.] Zendavesta, 1:170 sq.) also vary in their representations on this point, describing the earth sometimes as an oblong square, sometimes as a cube, sometimes as; a pyramid, sometimes as a *chlamys, *or outspread mantle. (See Eichhorn, *Urgesch. *ed. Gabler, Nurnb. 1790; Doderlein *Rel. — Unterr. *7:59 sq.; Beck, *Weltgesch. *1:99 sq.; Bauer, *Hebr. Mythol. *1:63 sq.; De Wette, *Bibl. Dogm. *page 76 sq.; Baumgarten-Crusius, *Bibl. Theolog. *p. 264 sq.; Colln, *Bibl. Theol. *1:166; Mignot, in the *Memoires de l'Acad. des Inscr. *34:352 sq.; Anquetil, *Oupnekhat, *1:409 sq.; Johannsen, *Die kosmog., Ansichten d. Inder u. Hebr. *Altona, 1833, Dornedden, in Eichhorn's *Bibl. *10:284 sq., 548 sq.; Gessner, in the *Comment. Soc. Goett. *volume 2; Corrodi, *Beitr. zum vern. Denken, *18:15 sq.; Link, *Urwelt, *1:268 sq.; Wagner, *Geschichte d. Urgesch. *p. 496 sq.; Umbreit, in the *Stud. u. Kritiken, *1839, p. 189 sq.; Ballenstedt, *Die Urwelt, *3d ed. Quedlinb. 1819; Von Schrank, *Physik. theolog. Erkldr. der 6 Schopfungstage, *Augsburg, 1829; Beke, *Researches in Primeval History, *London, 1834; Burton, *View of the Creation,* London, 1836; Tholuck, *Literar. Anzeig. *1833, No. 67-78; Keil, *apologia Mos. traditionis, *Dorpat, 1839; Benner, *De censura Longini in verba Genesis *1:3, Giess. 1739; Burmeister, *Gesch. d. Schopfung, *Lips. 1843; Waterkeyn, *Kosmos Hieros *Grimma, 1846; Goguet, *Urspr. d. Gesetze, 2:*227.) *SEE COSMOGONY*.

Earthen Vessel or Earthenware**.** *SEE POTTERY*.

Earthquake **(**רִעִשׁ**, ***ra'ash, a shaking, *σεισμός*).*The proximate cause of earthquakes, though by no means accurately defined, seems referable to the action of internal heat or fire. That the earth was once subject to the action of a vast internal power springing probably from the development of subterranean or central heat, the elevations and depressions, and the generally scarred and torn character of its exterior make sufficiently evident. A power similar in kind, but more restricted in degree, is still at work in the bowels of the earth, and occasionally breaks down all barriers and devastates certain parts of the world. There is good reason for holding that earthquakes are closely connected with volcanic agency. Both probably spring from the same cause, and may be regarded as one mighty influence operating to somewhat dissimilar results. Volcanic agency, therefore, is an indication of earthquakes, and traces of the first may be taken as indications of the existence (either present or past, actual or possible) of the latter. (See Hitchcock's *Geology, *p. 234 sq.) The manifestation of these awful phenomena. is restricted in its range. Accordingly, geologists have laid down certain volcanic regions or bands within which this manifestation takes place. Over these regions various traces of volcanic agency are found, such as either gaseous vapors, or hot springs, or bituminous substances, and in some instances (occasionally) active volcanoes. Several sources of bitumen are found on the Tigris, in the Persian mountains, near the Kharun, and at Bushire, as well as along the Euphrates. At Hit, especially on the last-mentioned river, it exists on a very large scale, and, having been much used from the earliest times, seems inexhaustible. Abundant traces of it are also to be seen amid the ruins and over the entire vicinity of Hillah, the ancient Babylon. Syria and Palestine abound in volcanic appearances. Between the river Jordan and Damascus lies a volcanic tract. The entire country about the Dead Sea presents indubitable tokens of volcanic agency. Accordingly, these places come within one of the volcanic regions. The chief of these are, **(1) **that which extends from the Caspian Sea to the Azores; **(2) **from the Aleutian Isles to the Moluccas; **(3) **that of the Andes; **(4) **the African; **(5) **the Icelandic. Syria and Palestine are embraced within the first band, and these countries have not unfrequently been subject to earthquakes. (See Stanley, *Palest. *pages 279, 283, 285, 363; Volney, *Trav. *1:281; Rusegger, *Reisess, *page 205). *SEE PALESTINE.* That earthquakes were among the extraordinary phenomena of Palestine in ancient times is shown in their being an element in the poetical imagery of the Hebrews, and a source of religious admonition and devout emotion. An earthquake, when great, overturns and changes the surface of the earth, subverting mountains, hills, and rocks, sinking some parts, elevating others, altering the course of rivers, making ponds and lakes on dry lands, and drying up those that already existed; and is therefore a proper symbol of *great evolutions *or changes in the government or political world (Heb 12:26). See Wemyss, *Symbolical Dict. *s.v. In Ps 18:7, we read, "Then the earth shook and trembled; the foundations also of the chills moved and were shaken, because he was wroth" (comp. Hab 3:6; Na 1:5; Isa 5:25). It was not an unnatural transition that any signal display of the will, sovereignty, or goodness of Providence should be foretold in connection with, and accompanied as by other signs in the heavens above or on the earth below, so by earthquakes and their fearful concomitants (see Joe 2:28; Mt 24:7,29). Earthquakes are not unfrequently attended with fissures of the earth's surface; instances of this are recorded in connection with the destruction of Korah and his company (Nu 16:32; compare Josephus, Ant. 4:3, 3), and at the time of our Lord's death (Mt 27:51); the former may be paralleled by a similar occurrence at Oppido, in Calabria, A.D. 1783, where the earth opened to the extent of 500 and a depth of more than 200 feet, and again by the sinking of the bed of the Tagus at Lisbon, in which the quay was swallowed up (Pfaff, *Schopfungsgesch. *p. 115). These depressions are sometimes on a very large scale; the subsidence of the valley of Siddim, at the southern extremity of the Dead Sea, may be attributed to an earthquake. Similar depressions have occurred in many districts, the most remarkable being the submersion and subsequent re- elevation of the temple of Serapis at Puteoli. The frequency of earthquakes about the Dead Sea is testified in the name Bela (Ge 14:2; compare Jerome ad Isaiah 15). *SEE SODOM*. The awe which an earthquake never fails to inspire, "conveying the idea of some universal and unlimited danger" (Humboldt's *Kosmos, *2:212), rendered it a fitting token of the presence of Jehovah (1 Kings, 19:11); hence it is frequently noticed in connection with his appearance (Jg 5:4; 2Sa 22:8; Ps 77:18; Ps 97:4; Ps 104:32; Am 8:8; Hab 3:10). Earthquakes, together with thunder, lightning, and other fearful phenomena of nature, form no small portion of the stock of materials which the interpreters of the German rationalistic school employ with no less liberality than confidence in order to explain after their manner events recorded in the Scriptures which have been commonly referred to the immediate agency of God. Hezel, Paulus, as other miracle exploders would, but for this resource, find their "occupation gone." But, if there is reason for 'the statement that truth is sometimes stranger than fiction, it may with equal propriety be observed that their " natural" causes are most unnatural, unlikely, and insufficient. *SEE MIRACLES*. The first visitation of the kind recorded as having happened to Palestine was in the reign of Ahab (about B.C. 905), when Elijah (1Ki 19:11-12) was directed to go forth and stand upon the mountain before Jehovah: "And behold Jehovah passed by, and a great and strong wind rent the mountains, and brake in pieces the rocks before Jehovah; but Jehovah was not in the wind: and after the wind an *earthquake; *but Jehovah was not in the earthquake: and after the earthquake a fire; but Jehovah was not in the fire: and after the fire a still small voice." A terrible earthquake took place "in the days of Uzziah, king of Judah" (B.C. 781), which Josephus (Ant. 9, 10, 4) says " shook the ground, and a rent was made in the Temple, so that the rays of the sun shone through it, which, falling upon 'the king's face, struck him with the leprosy," a punishment which the historian ascribes to the wrath of God consequent on Uzziah's usurpation of the priest's office. That this earthquake was of an awful character may be learned from the fact that Zechariah (Zec 14:5) thus speaks respecting it: "Ye shall flee as ye fled from before the earthquake in the days of Uzziah, king of Judah:" and it likewise appears from Amos (Am 1:1) that the event was so striking, and left such deep impressions on men's minds, as to become a sort of epoch from which to date and reckon; the prophet's words are, "two years before the earthquake." *SEE UZZIAH*. From Zec 14:4 we are led to infer that a great convulsion took place at this time in the Mount of Olives, the mountain being split so as to leave a valley between its summits. Josephus records something of the sort, but his account is by no means clear, for his words (τοῦ ὄρους ἀποῥῥαγῆναι τὸ ἣμισν τοῦ κατὰ τὴν δύσιν*) *can hardly mean the *western half of the mountain, *as Whiston seems to think, but the *half of the western mountain, *i.e., of the Mount of Evil Counsel, though it is not clear why this height particularly should be termed the *western *mountain. We cannot but think that the two accounts have the same foundation, and that the Mount of Olives was really affected by the earthquake. Hitzig *(Comm. in Zechariah) *suggests that the name מִשׁחַית *"corruption," *may have originated at this time, the rolling down of the side of the hill, as described by Josephus, entitling it to be described as the *destroying mountain, *in the sense in which the term occurs in Jer 2:25. *SEE AZAL*. The only important or clear earthquake mentioned in the New Testament (except the doubtful one of Mt 28:2) is that which happened at the crucifixion of the Savior of mankind (Mt 27:1-50; compare Lu 23:5-44; Mr 15:33). The concomitant darkness is most naturally held to have been an attendant on the earthquake. Earthquakes are not seldom attended by accompaniments which obscure the light of day during (as in this case from the sixth to the ninth hour, that is, from 12 o'clock at noon to 8 o'clock P.M.) several hours. If this is the fact, then the record is consistent with natural phenomena, and the darkness which skeptics have pleaded against speaks actually in favor of the credibility of the Gospel. Now it is well known to naturalists that such obscurations are by no means uncommon. It may be enough to give the following instances. A very remarkable volcanic eruption took place on the 19th of January, 1835, in the volcano of Coseguina, situated in the Bay of Fonseca (usually called the coast of Conchagua), in Central America. The eruption was preceded by a rumbling noise, accompanied by a column of smoke which issued from the mountain, increasing until it assumed the form and appearance of a large dense cloud, which, when viewed at the distance of thirty miles, appeared like an immense plume of feathers, rising with considerable velocity, and expanding in every direction. In the course of the two following days several shocks of earthquakes were felt; the morning of the 22d rose fine and clear, but a dense cloud of a pyramidal form was observed in the direction of the volcano. This gradually ascended, and by 11 o'clock A.M. it had spread over the whole firmament, entirely obscuring the light of day, the darkness equaling in intensity that of the most clouded night: this darkness continued with little intermission for three days; during the whole time a fine black powder continued to fall. This darkness extended over half of Central America. The convulsion was such as to change the outline of the coast, turn the course of a river, and form two new islands. Precisely analogous phenomena were exhibited on occasions of earthquakes that took place at Cartago, in Central America, when there prevailed a dense black fog, which lasted for three days *(Recreations in Physical Geography, *page 382). In the case of the volcanic eruption which overwhelmed Herculaneum and Pompeii (A.D. 79), we learn from the younger Pliny that a dense column of vapor was first seen rising vertically from Vesuvius, and then spreading itself out laterally, so that its upper portion resembled the head, and its lower the trunk of a pine. This black cloud was pierced occasionally by flashes of fire as vivid as lightning, succeeded by darkness more profound than night, and ashes fell even at Misenum. These appearances agree perfectly with those witnessed in more recent eruptions, especially those of Monte Nuovo in 1538, and Vesuvius in 1822. Indeed earthquakes appear to exert a very marked influence on our atmosphere: among other effects, Lyell *(Principles of Geology, *1:400) enumerates sudden gusts of wind, interrupted by dead calms; evolution of electric matter or of inflammable gas from the soil, with sulphurous and mephitic vapors; a reddening of the sun's disk, and a haziness in the air often continued for months (Joe 2:30-31). Other interpreters, however, understand the earthquake in Mt 27:54 to have been merely some special and supernatural operation of God, in attestation of the marvelous work that was in progress, producing a tremulous motion in the immediate locality, and in connection therewith a sensible consternation in the minds of the immediate actors; hence there is no other historical allusion to it. This view is confirmed by its being in the second case connected with the angel's descent (Mt 28:2; compare 1Sa 14:15). Like the one that occurred at Philippi (Ac 16:16), it is perhaps to be regarded as a somewhat exceptional phenomenon, wrought for a specific purpose, and consequently very limited as to its sphere of action. Nor does it appear from any notices of Scripture that the phenomena of earthquakes in the ordinary and extensive sense of the term, played more than a very occasional and subordinate part in the scenes and transactions of sacred history. Treatises in Latin on the earthquake at our Savior's passion have been written by Berger (Viteb. 1710), Posner (Jen. 1672), Schmerbauch (Lubbeai. 1756), Schmid (Jen. 1683). *SEE DARKNESS*. An earthquake devastated Judaea some years (31) before the birth of our Lord, at the time of the battle of Actium, which Josephus (Ant. 15:52) reports was such "as had not happened at any other time, which brought great destruction upon the cattle in that country. About ten thousand men also perished by the fall of houses." Jerome writes of an earthquake which, in the time of his childhood (about A.D. 315), destroyed Rabbath Moab (Jerome *on Isaiah, *15). The writers of the Middle Ages also speak of earthquakes in Palestine, stating that they were not only formidable, but frequent. In 1834 an earthquake shook Jerusalem, and injured the chapel of the nativity at Bethlehem. In 1837 (January 1) Jerusalem and its vicinity were visited by severe shocks of earthquake, yet the city remains without serious injury from these subterranean causes. This last earthquake totally overthrew the village of Safed, in Galilee (Thomson, *Land and Book,* 1:428 sq.). For a full account of these and others, affecting various parts of Syria, see Kitto, *Phys. Hist. of Palest. *volume 2, chapter 4, Comp. Bulenger, in Graevii *Thesaur. *5:515 sq.; Forbiger, *Handb. d. alt. Geogr.* 1:636 sq.

Earulfus abbot and confessor, commemorated Dec. 29.

East is the rendering of the following terms in the English Bible. *SEE GEOGRAPHY*. **1. **מַזרִח *mizrach' *properly denotes the *rising, *sc. of the sun, and strictly corresponds with the Greek, άνατολή, and the Latin, *oriens. *It is used tropically for the east indefinitely (Ps 103:12; Da 8:9; Am 8:12, etc.); also definitely for some place in relation to others, thus, "The land of the east," i.e., the country lying to the east of Syria, the Elymais (Zec 8:7); "the east of Jericho" (Jos 4:19); "the east gate" (Ne 3:29), and adverbially " eastward" (1Ch 7:28; 1Ch 9:24, etc.). Sometimes the full expression מַזרִח9שֶׁמֶשׁ, *sunrise *is used (indefinitely Isa 41:25; definitely, Jg 11:18). See below. **2. **קֶדֶם*, ke'dem *(with its modifications), properly means *what is in front of, before *(comp. Ps 139:5; Isa 9:11 [12]). As the Hebrews, in pointing out the quarters, looked towards the east, קֶדֶם*, fore, *came to signify the east, as אָהוֹר, *behind, *the west, and יָמַין*, the right hand, *the south. In this sense *kedem *is used (a) indefinitely, Ge 11:2; Ge 13:11, etc.; (b) relatively, Nu 34:11, etc.; (a) definitely, to denote the regions lying to the east of Palestine (Ge 29:1; Nu 23:7; Isa 9:11; sometimes in the full form, אֶרֶוֹ9קֶדֶם, *" land of the east" *(Ge 25:6), the inhabitants of which are denominated בּנֵי9קֶדם*" children of the east." SEE BENE-KEDEM*. Sometimes *kedem *and *mizrach *are used together (e.g. Ex 27:13; Jos 19:12), which is, after all not so tautological as it appears to be in our translation "on the east side eastward." Bearing in mind this etymological distinction, it is natural that *kedem *should be used when the *four *quarters of the world are described (as in Ge 13:14; Ge 28:14; Job 23:8-9; Eze 47:18 sq.), and *mizrach *when the east is only distinguished from the *west *(Jos 11:3; Ps 1:1; Ps 103:12; Ps 113:3; Zec 8:7), or from some other one quarter (Da 8:9; Da 11:44; Am 8:12); exceptions to this usage occur in Ps 107:3 and Isa 43:5, each, however, admitting of explanation. Again, *kedem *is used in a strictly geographical sense to describe a spot or country immediately *before *another in an easterly direction; hence it occurs in such passages as Ge 2:8; Ge 3:24; Ge 11:2; Ge 13:11; Ge 25:6; and hence the subsequent application of the term as a proper name (Ge 25:6, *eastward, unto the land of Kedem), *to the lands lying immediately eastward of Palestine, viz. Arabia, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, etc.; on the other hand, *mizrach *is used of the far east with a less definite signification (Isa 41:2,25; Isa 43:5; Isa 46:11). In describing *aspect or direction, *the terms are used indifferently (comp. *kedem *in Le 1:16, and Jos 7:2, with *mizrach *in 2Ch 5:12, and 1Ch 5:10). *SEE WEST*; etc. "The East" is the name given by the ancient Hebrews to a certain region, without any regard to its relation to the eastern part of the heavens, comprehending not only Arabia Deserta and the lands of Moab and Ammon, which really lay to the east of Palestine but also Armenia, Assyria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Chaldea, which were situated rather to the north than the east of Judaea. Its geographical boundaries include Syria, the countries beyond the Tigris and Euphrates, and the shores of the Indiana Ocean and of the Arabian Gulf. The name given to this entire region by the Hebrews was אֶרֶוֹ קֶדֶם *(*ἀνατολή*), *or the land of Kedem or East; by the Babylonians it was called עֲרָב, or Α᾿ραβία Arabia. Its miscellaneous population were called by the former "sons of the East," or *Orientals, *and by the latter either *Arabians, *or the "people of the West." The Jews themselves also apply to them the Babylonian name in some of their books written after the Captivity (2Ch 22:1; Ne 2:9). The Arabs anciently denominated themselves, and do to this day, by either of these names. To this region belong the "kings of the East" (Isa 19:11; Jer 25:19-25, Hebrew). The following passages may suffice as instances showing the arbitrary application of the term "east" to this region. Balaam says that Balak, king of Moab, had brought him from the mountains of the east (Nu 23:7), i.e., from Pethor on the Euphrates. Isaiah places Syria in the east (Nu 9:11), " the Syrians from the east" (bishop Lowth). The distinction seems evident in Ge 29:1," Jacob came unto the land of the children of the East." It occurs again in Jg 6:3, "Even the children of the East came against them" (Sept. οἱ υἱοὶ άνατολῶν*; *Vulg. *coeteri Orientalium nationum). *The preceding facts enable us to account for the prodigious numbers of persons sometimes assembled in war against the Israelites (Jg 6:5; Jg 7:12), " and the children of the East were like grasshoppers for multitude," and for the astonishing carnage recorded (Jg 8:10), "there fell a hundred and twenty thousand men that drew the sword." It seems that the inhabitants of this region were distinguished for their proficiency in the arts and sciences (compare 1Ki 1:4,30), and were addicted in the time of Isaiah to superstition (Isaiah 26). *SEE ARABIA*. The east seems to have been regarded as symbolical of *distance *(Isa 46:11), as the land stretched out in these directions without any known limit. In Isa 2:6, the house of Jacob is said to be "replenished from the east" (מ לאוּ מַקֶּדֶם*), *which some explain as referring to witchcraft, or the arts of divination practiced in the East while others, with greater probability, understand it of the men of the East, the diviners and soothsayers who came from the east (compare Job 15:2); the correct text may, however, be מַקֶּסֶם, *with sorcery, *which gives a better sense (Gesen. *Thesaur. *page 1193). *SEE WITCHCRAFT*. **3. **Α᾿νατολή*, *sunrise. This word usually occurs in the plural, and without the article. When, therefore, we read, as in Mt 2:1-2, that μάγοι ἀπὸ ἀνατολῶν came to Jerusalem saying we have seen his star ἑν τῇ ἀνατολῇ*, *we are led to suspect some special reason for such a variation. The former phrase is naturally rendered as equivalent to Oriental Magi, and the indefinite expression is to be explained by reference to the use of קֶדֶּם in the Old Test. The latter phrase offers greater difficulty. If it be taken "in the east," the questions arise why the singular and not the customary plural should be used? why the article should be added? and why the wise men should have seen the star in the *east *when the place where the child was lay to the *west *of their locality (unless, indeed, ἐν τῇ ανατολῇ relates to the star, and not the wise men themselves, to whom it seems to refer). Pressed by the difficulties thus suggested, the majority of recent interpreters take ἐν τῇ ἀνατολῇ literally *in its rise, *and trace a correspondence of this with the τεχθείς of the preceding clause: they inquired for the child, whom they knew to be born, because they had seen the *rising *of his star, the signal of his birth. Alford objects to this, that for such a meaning we should expect αὐτοῦ*, *if not in verse 2, certainly in verse 9; but the construction falls under the case where the article by indicating something closely associated with the subject, supersedes the use of the demonstrative pronoun. In the Sept. ἀνατολαί is used both for *kedem *and *mizrach. *It should be observed that the expression is, with but few exceptions (Da 8:9; Re 21:13; compare 7:2; 16:12, from which it would seem to have been John's usage to insert ἡλίου), ἀνατολαί (Mt 2:1; Mt 8:11; Mt 24:27; Lu 13:29), and not ἀνατολή*. *It is hardly possible that Matthew would use the two terms indifferently in succeeding verses (Mt 2:1-2), particularly as he adds the article to ἀνατολή, which is invariably absent in other cases (compare Re 21:13). He seems to imply a definiteness in the locality-that it was the country called קֶדֶם, or ἀσατολή (comp. the modern *Anatolia), *as distinct from the quarter or point of the compass *(*ἀνατολαί*) *in which it lay. In confirmation of this, it may be noticed that in the only passage where the article is prefixed to *kedem *(Ge 10:30), the term is used for a definite and restricted locality, namely, Southern Arabia*. SEE STAR IN THE EAST.* The only other terms rendered " east" in the Scriptures are the following: חִרסוּת *(charsuth', pottery), *applied to a gate of Jerusalem, improperly called "east gate" (Jer 19:2), but meaning the potters' gate (s.v.), i.e., one which led to the " potters' field" in the valley of Hinnom (see Strong's Harmony *and Exposi*tion, Appendix 2, page 11). *SEE JERUSALEM*. מוֹצָא *(motsa', *a *going forth, *as it is elsewhere usually rendered), applied poetically to sunrise (Ps 75:6) For "east-wind," "east-sea," see below. **EAST, TURNING TOWARDS THE.** **1. **The earliest churches faced eastward; at a later period (4th or 5th century) this was reversed, and the sacramental table was placed at the east, so that worshippers facing it in their devotions were turned towards the east. The Jewish custom was to turn to the west in prayer. Socrates says *(Ecclesiastes Hist. *book 6, chapter 5) that the church of Antioch had its altar on the west, i.e., towards Jerusalem. **2. **Many fanciful reasons are assigned, both by ancient writers and by modern ritualists, for worshipping towards the east. Among them are the following: "**(1.) **The rising sun was the symbol of Christ, the Sun of Righteousness; and, since people must worship towards some quarter of the heavens, they chose that which led them to Christ by symbolical representation (Tertullian, *Apol. *1:16). **(2.) **The east was the place, of paradise, our ancient habitation and country, which we lost in the first Adam by the Fall, and whither we hope to be restored again, as to our native abode and rest, in the second Adam, Christ our Savior *(Apost. Const. *lib. 2, c. 57). **(3.) **The, east was considered the most honorable part of the creation, being the seat of light and brightness. **(4.) **Christ made his appearance on earth in the east, and thence ascended into heaven, and there will appear again as the last day. The authority of many of the fathers has been adduced by ecclesiastical writers in support of these views. The author of the *Questions to Antiochus, *under the name of Athanasius, gives this account of the practice: 'We do not,' says he, 'worship towards the east, as if we thought God any way shut up in those parts of the world, but because God is in himself the true Light. In turning, therefore, towards the created light, we do not worship it, but the great Creator of it; taking occasion from that most excellent element to adore the God who was before all elements and ages in the world.' A little attention to geography shows that these are nothing but fancies. That part of the heavens, for example, which is east at six o'clock in the morning, is west at six o'clock in the evening, so that we cannot at both these periods pray towards 'that quarter of the heavens where (according to Wheatly) God is supposed to have his peculiar residence of glory,' unless, if we turn to the east at morning prayer, we turn to west at even song. Not only so, but two individuals on opposite sides of the globe, though both suppose that they are praying with their faces to the east, are, so far as it respects each other, or any particular 'quarter of the heavens,' praying in opposite directions, one east and the other west, one looking towards that 'quarter,' the other away from it. So that all such reasons are rendered futile by the geographical fact that, owing to the rotation of the earth on its axis, every degree of longitude becomes during the twenty-four hours both east and west." **3. ***Turning East in Baptism. *— In the ancient baptisteries were two apartments: first, a porch or anteroom *(*προαύλιος οϊvκος*), *where the catechumens made their renunciations of Satan and confessions of faith; and the inner room (ἐσώτερος οϊvκος*), *where the ceremony of baptism was performed. When the catechumens were brought into the former of these they were placed with their faces to the west, and were then commanded to renounce Satan with some gesture and rite expressing an indignation against him, as by stretching out their hands, or folding them, or striking them together, and sometimes by spitting at him as if he were present. The words generally used by the candidate were, "I renounce Satan, and his works, and his pomps, and his service, and his angels, and his inventions, and all things that belong to him, or that are subject to him." The reason assigned by Cyril *(Catech. Mystag.) *for standing with the face to the west during this adjuration is that the west is the place of darkness; and Satan is darkness, and his kingdom is darkness. That the candidate turned his face to the east, and made his solemn confession of obedience to Christ, generally in these words', I give myself up to thee, O Christ, to be governed by thy laws." This was called *promissum, pactum, *or *votum *— a promise, a covenant, a vow. The face was turned to the east because, as Cyril tells his disciples, since they had renounced the devil, the paradise of God, which was planted in the east, and whence our first parents were driven for their transgression into banishment, was now laid open to them. — Bingham, *Orig. Ecclesiastes *book 11, chapter 7, § 4; Farrar, *Ecclesiastes Diet. s.*v. **4. **It is "a curious instance of the inveteracy of popular custom that in Scotland, where everything that savored of ancient usage was set aside as popish by the reformers, the practice of burying with the feet to the east was maintained in the old churchyards; nor is it uncommon still to set down churches with a scrupulous regard to east and west. In modern cemeteries in England and Scotland no attention appears to be paid to the old punctilio of interring with the feet to the east, the nature of the ground alone being considered in the disposition of graves" (Chambers, *Encyclopaedia, *s.v.). — Wheatly, *On Common Prayer, *chapter 2, § 2; Hook, *Ecclesiastes Dict. *s.v.; Bingham, *Orig. Eccl. *13, 8:15. *SEE CHURCH EDIFICES.*

East Gate *SEE EAST*.

East Sea (with the art. הִיָּם הִקִּדמֹנַי, *ha-yam hak-kadmoni', the forward sea; *Sept. ἡ θάλασσα ἡ πρώτη) is an epithet used in two passages (Joe 2:20; Eze 47:18) of the DEAD SEA *SEE DEAD SEA *(q.v.), because it lay on the eastern side of the Holy Land. The Mediterranean Sea, because lying in the opposite direction, was on a like account called the West Sea, or the sea on the western border (Nu 34:6; Jos 15:12, etc.). *SEE SEA*.

East Wind (קָדַים*, *prop. the *east [as *often rendered], i.e., eastern quarter; hence elliptically for the wind from that direction, Job 27:21; Isa 27:8; Jer 18:17; Eze 29:21; the full expression רוּחִ קָדַים. It also occurs, Ex 10:13-14,21; Ps 48:8; Eze 17:10). This is in Scripture frequently referred to as a wind of considerable strength, and also of a peculiarly dry, parching, and blighting nature. In Pharaoh's dream the thin ears of corn are represented as being blasted by an east wind, as, in a later age, Jonah's gourd was withered and himself scorched by "a vehement east wind' (Ge 41:6; Jon 4:8); and often in the prophets, when a blighting desolation is spoken of, it is associated with the east wind, either as the instrumental cause or as a lively image of the evil (Eze 17:10; Eze 19:12; Ho 13:15; Hab 1:9, etc.). This arose from the fact that in Egypt, Palestine, and the lands of the Bible generally, the east wind, or a wind more or less from an eastern direction, blows over burning deserts, and consequently is destitute of the moisture which is necessary to promote vegetation. In Egypt it is rather a south-east than an east wind, which is commonly found most injurious to health and fruitfulness; but this also is familiarly called an east wind, and it often increases to great violence. Ukert thus sums up the accounts of modern travelers on the subject: "In the spring the south wind oftentimes springs up towards the south-east, increasing to a whirlwind. The heat then seems insupportable, although the thermometer does not always rise very high. As long as the south-east wind continues, doors and windows are closed, but the fine dust penetrates everywhere; everything dries up; wooden vessels warp and crack. The thermometer rises suddenly from 16- 20° up to 30-36 degrees, and even 38 degrees of Reaumur. This wind works destruction upon everything. The grass withers, so that it entirely perishes if this wind blows long" *(Geogr. *page 111). It is stated by another traveler, Wansleb, with special reference to the strong east wind employed on the occasion of the passage of the Israelites through the Red Sea which took place shortly after Easter: "From Easter to Pentecost is the most stormy part of the year, for the wind commonly blows during this time from the Red Sea, from the east" (see in Hengstenberg's *Egypt and the Books of Moses, *page 9 sq). There is nothing therefore, in the scriptural allusions to this wind which is not fully borne out by the reports of modern travelers; alike by sea and by land it is now, as it has ever been, an unwelcome visitant, and carries along with it many disagreeable effects. *SEE WIND*.

East, Christianity in the *SEE ARABIA; SEE ASIA; SEE CHINA; SEE INDIA; SEE JAPAN*.

East, Prayer Towards The *SEE BOWING; SEE ORIENTATION*.

Eastburn James Wallis, A.M., a Protestant Episcopal minister, was born in London Sept. 26,1797. In 1803 he came to New York, and in 1816 passed' A.B. of Columbia College. In 1818 he became rector of St. George's, Accomac County, Va., where his ministry is still spoken of with great respect. In 1819 he sailed for Santa Cruz, and died on the 2d of December of the same year. He composed the beautiful *Trinity Sunday Hymn; *a lyric, entitled *The Summer Midnight; *a poem, *Yamoyden, a Tale of the Wars of King Philip. *and Various anonymous essays.-Sprague, *Ann. v. *635.

Eastburn, Manton, D.D., LL.D. a bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, was born in England, February 9, 1801, being brother of James W., the poet. His parents came to America when he was a boy. He graduated from Columbia College, New York, in 1817, and in due time thereafter from the General Theological Seminary in the same city. He was ordained assistant minister of Christ Church in 1822; became rector of' the Church of the Ascension in 1827; was consecrated bishop of Massachusetts December 29, 1842; and died in. Boston, September 12, 1872. Bishop Eastburn published several addresses an essays, and edited Thornton's *Family Prayers. *See Drake, *Diet. of Amer. Biog. *s.v.; *Prot. Episc. Almanac, *1873, page 133.

Easter *(*πάσχα*, *a Greek form of the Hebrews פֵּסִח**, **and so Latinized by the Vulgate *pascha), *i.e., *Passover. Easter *is a word of Saxon origin, and imports a goddess of the Saxons, or, rather, of the East, *Estera, *in honor of whom sacrifices being annually offered about the Passover time of the year (spring), the name became attached by association of ideas to the Christian festival of the resurrection, which happened at the time of the Passover: hence we say *Easter-day, Easter Sunday,, *but very improperly; as we by no means refer the festival then kept to the goddess of the ancient Saxons. So the present German word for Easter *Ostern, *is referred to the same goddess, Estera or Ostera. — Calmet, s.v. The occurrence of this word in the A.V. of Ac 12:4 — "Intending after Easter to bring him forth to the people" — is chiefly noticeable as an example of the want of consistency in the translators. *SEE AUTHORIZED VERSION*. In the earlier English versions Easter had been frequently used as the translation of πάσχα. At the last revision Passover was substituted in all passages but this. It would seem from this, and from the use of such words as "robbers of churches" (Ac 19:37), " town-clerk" (Ac 19:35), " sergeants" (Ac 16:35), " deputy" (Ac 13:7, etc.), as if the Acts of the Apostles had fallen into the hands of a translator who acted on the principle of choosing, not the most correct, but the most familiar equivalents (comp. Trench, *On the Authorized Version of the N.T. *p. 21). — Smith, s.v. For all that regards the nature and celebration of the feast referred to in Ac 12:4, *SEE PASSOVER*.

Habitacle (Lat. *habitaculum) *(1) a residence; (2) a niche.

Habitation (represented by several Heb. and Gr. words). God is metaphorically called the habitation of his people (Ps 71:3), in him they find the most delightful rest, safety, and comfort (Ps 91:9). Justice and judgment are the habitation of God's throne (Ps 89:14), all his acts being founded on justice and judgment (Ps 117:2). The land of Canaan, the city of Jerusalem, the tabernacle and Temple, are spoken of as the habitation of God; there he does or did signally show himself present (Ps 132:5,13; Eph 2:22). Eternity is represented as his habitation (Isa 57:15). He "inhabited the praises of Israel," a told metaphor, implying that Jehovah is the object of, and kindly accepts the praises of his people (Ps 22:3). *SEE DWELLING*.

Habits *SEE VESTIMENTS*.

Ha'bor (Heb. *Chabor', *חָבוֹר, if of Shemitic origin, from חָבִר, to *join, *meaning the *united *stream; if of Persic derivation, from *khubpadr= *εὔκρημνος*, *with *beautiful *banks [Furst, *Lex. s.v.*]; Sept. Α᾿βώρ and ᾿Χαβώρ*), *a river, and apparently also a district of Assyria, to which considerable interest is attached in connection, with the first captivity. We read in 1Ch 5; 1Ch 26, that Tilgathpilneser carried away "the Reubenites, and the Gadites, and the half-tribe of Manasseh, and brought them unto Halah, and *Habor, *and Hara, and to the river Gozan." About seventeen years later, Shalmaneser, the successor of the former monarch, "took Samaia, and cared Israel away into Assyria, and placed them in Halah, and in *fabor, *the river of Gozan" (A.V., "by the river Gozan," 2Ki 17:6; 2Ki 18:11). There are two rivers still bearing this name, and geographers are not agreed as to which Is here referred to. *SEE CAPTIVITY*. **1. **A river called *Khabur *rises in the central highlands of Kurdistan. flows in a south-westerly direction, and falls into the Tigris about seventy miles above Mosul (Layard, *Nineveh and Babylon, *p. 56; Schultens, *Index Geogr. in vitain Saladizi, *s.v.). Many suppose this to be the Habor of Scripture for the following reasons: **1. **It is within Assyria proper, which Ptolemy says was bounded on the west-by the Tigris (6, 1). **2. **It is affirmed that the Assyrian monarch would place his captives in a central part of his kingdom, such as this is, and not in the outskirts (Keil on 2Ki 17:4-6). **3. **Habor is termed "a river of Gozan" (חָבוֹר נהִר גּוֹזָן); and *Gozan *is supposed to signify "pasture," and to be identical with the word *Zozan, *now applied by the Nestorians to the pasture-lands in the highlands of Assyria, where the Khabur takes its rise (Grant, *The Nestorian Christians, *p. 124). **4. **Ptolemy mentions a mountain called *Chabor (*Χαβώρας*) *which divides Assyria from Media (6, 1); and Bochart says the river Chabor has its source in that mountain *(Opera, *1, 194, 242, 362). Some have supposed that the modern Nestorians are the descendants of the captive Jews (Grant, *1. *c.). *SEE GOZAN*. **2. **The other and much more celebrated river, *Khabur, *is that famous affluent of the Euphrates, which is called *Aborrhas (*Α᾿βόῤῥας*) *by Strabo (16, 1, 27) and Procopius *(Bell. Pers. *2, 5); *Aburas (*Α᾿βούρας*) *by Isidore of Charax (p. 4); *Abora *(Α᾿βώρα) by Zosimus (3, 12); and *Chaboras *by Ptolemy *(*Χάβώρας*, *5, 18) and Pliny *(Fl. N. 30, *3). "It rises about lat. 363 40', long 40' flows only a little south of east to its junction near Kaukab with the Jerujer or river of Nisibis, which comes down from Mons Masius. Both of these branches are formed by the union of a number of streams. Neither of them is fordable for some distance above their junction; and below it they constitute a river of such magnitude as to be navigable for a considerable distance by steamers. The course of the Khabur below Kaukab is tortuous [through rich meads covered with flowers, having a general direction about S.S.W. to its junction with the Euphrates at Karkesia, the ancient Circesium]. The entire length of the stream is not less than 200 miles" (Rawlinson, *Ancient Monarchies, *1, 236; see Ainsworth, *Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand, *p. 79; Layard, *Nineveh and Babylon, *p. 304). Ritter *(Erdkünde, 10, *248), Gesenius *(Thesaurus), *Layard, Rawlinson, and others, maintain that this is the ancient *Habor. *There can be no doubt that Assyria proper was confined to the country lying along the banks of the Upper Tigris, and stretching eastward to Media. But its territory gradually expanded so as to include Babylonia (Heroaotus, 3, 92), Mesopotamia (Pliny, *H. N. 6, *26), and even the country westward to the confines of Iilicia and Phoenicia (Strabo, 16). At the time of the captivity the power of Assyria was at its height. The Jewish captives were as secure on the banks of the western as of the eastern Habor. The ruins of Assyrian towns are scattered over the whole of northern Mesopotamia. "On the banks of the lower Khabur are the remains of a royal palace, besides many other traces of the tract through which it runs having been permanently occupied by the Assyrian people. Even near Seruj, in the country between Haran and the Euphrates, some evidence has been found not only of conquest, but of occupation" (Rawlinson, *Ancient Monarchies, *1, 247; see Chesney, *Euphrates Expedition, *i, 114; Layard, *Ain. and Bab. *p. 275, 279-300, 312). There can be no doubt that the Khabur was in Assyria, and near the center of the kingdom, at the time of the captivity. Further, Ptolemy mentions a province in Mesopotamia called *Gauzanitis *(5, 18). It lay around the Khabur, and was doubtless identical with *Gozan, *hence the phrase "Habor, the river of Gozan" (2Ki 17:6), Chalcitis, which appears to be identical with Ialah, mentioned in the same passage, adjoined Gauzanitis. It is a remarkable fact that down as late as the 12th century there were large Jewish communities on the banks of the Khabfir (Benjamin of Tudela, in *Early Travels in Pal. *p. 92 sq.). The district along the banks probably took its name from the river, as would seem from a comparison with 1Ch 5:26. , Ptolemy mentions a town called *Chabor *(5. 18). The Khablr occurs under that name in an Assyrian inscription of the 9th century before our era (Layard, *Nin. and Bab. *p. 354) *SEE CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS*. It seems doubtful whether Habor was identical with the river Chebar (כַּבָר), on which Ezekiel saw his visions. The latter was perhaps farther south in Babylnia (Eze 1:3, etc.). *SEE CHEBAR*.

Haccerem *SEE BETH-HAC-CEREM.*

Hachali'ah (Heb. *Chakalyah', *חֲכִליָה; according to Gesenius, whose eyes *Jehovah enlivens; *according to Fürst, *ornament of Jehovah; *Sept. Α᾿χαλία v.r. Χελκία*), *the father of Nehemiah, the governor after the captivity (Ne 1:1; Ne 10:2). B.C. ante 447.

Hach'ilah (Heb. *Chakilah', *חֲכילָה*. *according to Gesenius, *darksome; *according to Fürst, *drought; *Sept. Ε᾿χελά v.r. Χελμάθ), the descriptive name of a well Wooded hill (גַּבעָה) near ("on the south of," "before," "by the way of") the wilderness ("Jeshimon") of Ziph, where David lay hid, and where Saul pitched his tent at the information of the Ziphites (1Sa 23:19; 1Sa 26:1,3). This is doubtless the *Tell Zif *reported by Dr. Robinson *(Researches, *2, 190, 191) as "a round eminence situated in the plain, a hundred feet or more in height," with a level plot on the top, apparently once enclosed by a wall, and containing several cisterns; lying a short distance west of the site of the town of Ziph. *SEE ZIPH*. The identification proposed by Schwarz *(Palest. *p. 113) with "the village *Beth-Chachal, *21 miles west of Hebron," is unsupported and out of place.

Hachilah, Hill Of Lieut. Conder suggests for this spot *(Quar. Statement *of the "Palest. Explor. Fund,"'January 1875, page 47) "the high hill bounded by deep valleys north and south on which the ruin of *Yekin *now stands," and Tristram *(Bible Lands, *page 63) coincides in this identification; but if this be the site of the ancient city *Cain *(q.v.), it can hardly be also that of Hachilah; and, in fact, the latter is not a proper name at all, as it invariably has the article (תִחֲכַילָת, as being a mere appendage of Ziph). Later, Lieut. Conder proposes another site *(Tent Work, *2:91): "This [hill] I would propose to recognise in the long ridge called *El-Kolah, *running out of the Ziph plateau towards the Dead Sea desert or Jeshimon, a district which, properly speaking, terminates about this line, melting into the Beersheba plains, On the north side of the hill are the 'Caves of the Dreamers,' perhaps the actual scene of David's descent on Saul's sleeping guards." As to the "wood *(choresh) *of Ziph," he remarks (page 89): "A moment's reflection will convince any traveller that as the dry, porous formation of the plateau must be unchanged since David's time, no wood of trees could then have flourished over this unwatered and sun-scorched region. The true explanation seems to be that the word choresh is a proper name with a different signification; and such is, the view of the Greek version and of Josephus. We were able considerably to strengthen this theory by the discovery of the ruin of Khoreisa and the valley of Hiresh (the same word under another form), close to Ziph, the first of which may well be thought to represent the Hebrew Choresh-Ziph." But the latter term likewise is a mere denominative, for it takes the article (תִחֹרשָׁת, 1Sa 23:15,18), and is elsewhere used plainly with reference to trees (Isa 17:9; Eze 31:3).

Hach'moni (Heb. *Chakmoni', *חִכמֹנַי*, wise; *Sept. Α᾿χαμανί v.r. Α᾿χαμί,Vulg. *Hachamioni), *a man only known as the father (or ancestor; comp. 1Ch 27:2) of Jashobeam, the chief of David's warriors (1Ch 11:11, where *son of Hachmoni *is rendered "HACHMONITE," for which the parallel passage, 2Sa 23:8, has "TACHIONITE"); and also of Jehiel, the companion of the princes in the royal household (1Ch 27:32). B.C. considerably ante 1046. Hachmon or Hachmoni was no doubt the founder of a family to which these men belonged: the actual father of Jashobeam was Zabdiel (1Ch 27:2), and he is also said to have belonged to the Korhites (1Ch 12:6); possibly the Levites descended from Korah. But the name Hachmon nowhere appears in the genealogies of the Levites. See Kennicott, *Diss. *p. 72, 82, who calls attention to the fact that names given in Chronicles with *Ben *are in Samuel given without the *Ben, *but with the definite article. A less probable view is that which makes this term a title of office, q. d. *counselor. SEE JASHOBEAM*.

Hach'monite (1Ch 11:16). *SEE HACHMONI*.

Hacke, Nicholas P., D.D. a German Reformed minister, was born in Baltimore, Maryland, September 20, 1800. At the age of six years he was sent to a relative in Bremen, Germany, to acquire a thorough knowledge of the German language. He returned to America in 1816, and studied theology privately until 1819, when he accepted an invitation to preach to some congregations in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, returning to his studies the same year. He was licensed and ordained in 1819, and became pastor of the Greensburg charge, which he served fifty-eight years, and died there, August 25, 1878. During the greater part of his ministry he preached exclusively in the German language. He was a student all his life, and used the English language with ease and grace. He was fully consecrated to his work, remarkable for his social powers, caring not for worldly honors, a model Christian gentleman, and faithful minister of the gospel. See Harbaugh, *Fathers of the Germ. Ref. Church, *5:300.

Hacker, Joachim Bernhard Nikolaus a Protestant theologian of Germany, was born November 11, 1760, at Dresden. He studied at Wittenberg, and died at Zscheyla, in Saxony, October 4, 1817, leaving some ascetical works, for which see Doring, *Deutsche Kanzelredner; *Winer, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *2:356, 386. (B.P.)

Hacker, Johann Georg August a Protestant theologian of Germany, was born at Dresden, January 24, 1762. He studied at Wittenberg, was in 1784 preacher at Torgau, in 1790 garrison-preacher at Dresden, in 1796 court-preacher there, and died Feb. 21, 1823, leaving *Diss. Inauguralis de Descensu Christi ad Inferos *(Wittenberg, 1802), and several volumes of sermons. See Doring, *Deutsche Kanzelredner; *Winer, *candbuch der theol. Lit. *1:436; 2:82, 91. 127, 161, 172, 173, 183, 366, 389. (B.P.)

Hacket, John an English prelate, distinguished for his talents in controversy, was born at London in 1592. He studied at Westminster School, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1608. He took orders in 1618, and soon after became chaplain of the bishop of Lincoln. At the beginning of the Civil War he was one of the divines chosen to prepare a report on Church reforms, to be presented by a committee of the House of Lords. This plan failed from the opposition of the bishops. Hacket was a zealous partisan of Charles, and his house became the headquarters of the Royalists in his neighborhood. This brought him into trouble, and he was even imprisoned for a short time. After the Restoration he was made bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, and he caused the cathedral of Lichfield, which had been much injured during the war, to be repaired, mostly at his own expense. He died at Lichfield in 1670. Hacket was a Calvinist; yet his writings abound, says Coleridge, "in fantastic rags and lappets of Popish monkery." He wrote also *A Sermon preached before the King March *22, *1660: — A Century of Sermons upon several remarkable Subjects *(published by Thos. Plume, with a life of the author, 1675, *fol.): — The Life of Archbishop Williams *(1693, fol.). See *Biogr. Britannica; *Wood, *Athenae Oxonienses, *vol. 2; *Gentleman's Magazine, *vol. 66; Hook, *Eccles. Biography, *5, 471; Allibone, *Dict. of Authors, *1, 752; Coleridge, *Works *(New York edition), 5, 123. Hacket, William, an English enthusiast and fanatic of the 16th century. He was at first the servant of a gentleman named Hussey, but married a rich widow, whose fortune he soon spent in dissipation. He next appears at York and in Lincolnshire giving himself out as a prophet, and announcing the downfall of the papacy; that England would suffer from famine, pestilence, and war unless the consistorial discipline were established. He was whipped and driven out of the county, but continued his prophecies elsewhere. According to Bayle, he was a very ready and grandiloquent speaker, so that many among the people thought he had received a special gift of the Holy Ghost. He affected to place great reliance on his prayers, and asserted that if all England were to pray for rain there should fall none if he prayed for dry weather. Edmund Coppinger and Henry Arthington became associated with him, the former under the name of *Prophet of Mercy, *the latter *Prophet of Judgment. *They proclaimed Hacket the true king of the world, and next in power to Jesus Christ. On Jan. 16, 1591, he sent his disciples through the streets of London crying that Jesus had arrived, was stopping at a certain hotel in the town, and that this time none should undertake anything against him. They ended with the cry, *Repent, England, repent! *They were finally arrested and put in prison. Coppinger let himself die of starvation; Arthington published a recantation and was forgiven. As for Hacket, he persisted to the last, and was condemned to death as guilty of impiety and rebellion, and hung in London in July 1591. Even on the scaffold he prayed God for a miracle to confound his enemies. See Henry Fitz-Simon, *Britannomachia Ministrorum, *lib. 2, cap. 6, p. 202, 206; Camden, *Annales, *an. 1591, pars 4:p. 618623; Bayle, *Dict. hist. et Crit.; *Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Géneralé, 23,* 31.

Hackett, Horatio Balch, D.D., LL.D. an eminent Baptist scholar, was born at Salisbury, Massachusetts, December 27, 1808. In 1823 he entered Phillips Academy, Andover, and in 1827 Amherst College; became a hopeful Christian in 1828, and was valedictorian in 1830. He graduated from the theological seminary at Andover in 1834, spending one year meanwhile as tutor in Amherst College. The next year he occupied a position as teacher of classics in Mount Hope College, Baltimore, and became a member of the First Baptist Church in that city. He was adjunct professor of Latin and Greek in Brown University for four years (1835-39). In 1839 he was elected professor of Biblical Literature and Interpretation in Newton Theological Institution, and the same year was ordained to the Christian ministry. Two years of earnest devotion to the cultivation of the classes which came under his instruction were followed by a year spent abroad, six months of the time in earnest study in Halle, Germany, attending the lectures of Tholuck, Gesenius, Rediger, and other eminent scholars, and four months in Berlin, enjoying the instructions, especially, of Neander and Hengstenberg. After his return to America, in 1842, he prepared an annotated edition of Plutarch's treatise on the *Delay of the Deity in the Punishment of the Wicked, *devoting also much time to the study of French, Chaldee, and Syriac, modern Greek, and Sanscrit. Two years afterwards he published a translation of *Winer's Grammar of the Chaldee Language. *The first number of the second volume of the *Bibliotheca Sacra, *January 1845, contains his critique on the Life *of Jesus, *by Strauss. In the number of the same quarterly for January 1846, is an able article on the *Synoptical Study of the Gospels, and Recent Literature Pertaining to it. *The next year (1847) appeared his *Exercises in Hebrew Grammar, and Selections from the Greek Scriptures to be Translated into Hebrew, *etc. The result of some of his studies in connection with the preparation of this volume may be found in the January (1847) number of the *Bibiothecan Sacra, *in the form of two articles from his pen, *The Structure of the Hebrew Sentence, *and *The Greek Version of the Pentateuch, *by Thiersch. 'Then came his great work, the *Commentary on Acts, *the first edition of which appeared in 1852. He then made a second visit to Europe, his journey being extended to Palestine, and on his return spending several weeks in Germany. In 1855 he published his *Illustrations of Scripture; Suggested by a Tour through the Holy Land. *Soon after, he set out upon his third foreign tour, spending six months in Athens, for the purpose of devoting himself to the study of modern Greek, and thence making excursions in different directions in Greece. In 1860 the Bible Union published his *Notes on the Greek. Text of the Epistle of Paul to Philemon, *as the basis of a revision of the common English version; and a *Revised Version, with Notes. *In 1864 appeared his *Christian Memorials of the War. *During the same period he wrote thirty articles for the original edition of Dr. William Smith's *Dictionary. *In 1861 he wrote an introduction to the American edition of Westcott's *Study of the Gospels; *in the winter of 1865 he began to edit an American edition of Smith's *Dictionary of the Bible, *aided by Dr. Ezra Abbot. He was also engaged by Dr. Schaff to translate Van Oosterzee's *Commentary on Philemon, *for his edition of Lange's *Commentaries, *and Braune's *Commentary on Philippians, *for the same series. He published in 1867 a second revised edition of *Plutarchus de Sera Numinis Veri Dicta, *with notes prepared by himself and professor W.S. Tyler, of Amherst College. Professor Hackett's connection with the Newton Theological Institution closed with its anniversary, June 24, 1868. Two years were next spent in laborious study in his favorite department, translating and revising the books of Ruth and of Judges for the Bible Union, upon the American edition of Smith's *Dictionary of the Bible, *and upon translations which he engaged to make for Dr. Schaff; also, in 1870, spending several months, once more in the Old World. Having been appointed to the chair of Biblical Literature and New Testament Exegesis, in the Rochester Theological Seminary, he entered upon the duties of his office in the fall of 1870. The same zeal and enthusiasm which characterized his instructions at Newton marked his teachings at Rochester. Five years of work were followed by another of those vacations in which he took so much delight, a vacation passed amid the scenes of the Old World. He returned, apparently greatly refreshed and strengthened, to enter anew, upon his work, when the summons suddenly came, telling him that his work was done. He died almost instantly, November 2, 1875, at his own home in Rochester, N.Y. See *Memorials of H.B. Hackett, *edited by G.H. Whittemore (Rochester, 1876). (J.C.S.)

Hackett, Thomas, D.D. an Irish prelate, was bishop of Down and Connor in 1672. He was deprived for simony in 1694. He published some *Sermons *(1672). See Allibone, *Dict. of Brit. and Amer. Authors*, s.v.

Hackley, Charles W. D.D. a clergyman of the Protestant Episcopal Church, and late professor of mathematics and astronomy in Columbia College, New York, was born March. 9, 1808, in Herkimer County, N. York, and died in the city of New York Jan. 10, 1861. Prof. Hackley graduated at the Military Academy, West Point, in 1829, and was assistant professor of mathematics there until 1832, when he engaged in the study of law, but subsequently abandoned it for theology, and was ordained in 1835. He was professor of mathematics in the University of New York until 1838, then became president of Jefferson College, Mississippi, and subsequently rector of St. Peter's Protestant Episcopal Church, Auburn, N.Y. He was elected professor in Columbia College in 1843, and continued in that post until his death. He was the author of several excellent mathematical works, and a contributor to scientific periodicals and weekly and daily journals. — *American Annual Cyclopedia, *1861, p. 362; Allibone, *Dict. of Authors, *1, 753. (J.W. M.)

Hackluit *SEE HAKLUYT*.

Hackspan, Theodor an eminent Lutheran theologian and Orientalist, was born in 1607 at Weimar, and died at Altorf Jan. 19,1659. He was educated at Jena, where he studied philosophy, and then went to Altorf; to profit by the instructions of the able Orientalist Schwenter and thence to Helmstadt, where he studied theology under the famous Calixtus. In 1636 he returned to Altorf, and for many years filled the chair of Hebrew in its university, where he was the first to publicly teach the Oriental languages. In 1654 he was appointed professor of theology in that institution, retaining at the same time the chair of Oriental languages. His close application to study and to the duties of his professorships so impaired his health that he died in the fifty-second year of his age. Hackspan is said to have been the best scholar of his day in Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic. The liberality of Jodocus Schmidmaier, an advocate of Nuremberg, who established in his own house a press, with supplies of types in the different languages, enabled him to publish most of his learned works. Among these we name *Tractatus de usu Iibrorum Rabbisicorum: — Sylloge Disputationun theologicarum et philololgicarum: — Interpres Errabundus: — Disputationes de locutionibus sacris *(Altorf, *1648): — Observationes Arabico-Syriacae in quaedam loca Veteris et Novi Testamenti *(ibid. *1639): — De Angelorum daemonumque noninibus *(ibid. *1641): — Fides et Leges Mohhammedis, *etc. (ibid. *1646): — 1iscellaneorum Sacrorum Libri duo *(ibid. 1660): *— Exercitatio de Cabbala Judaica *(ibid. 1660): — Note *philolgico-theologicae. *1 *varia et. difcilia Scripturce loca *(ibid. 1664, 3 vols.).Rose, *Nouv. Géneralé Biog. *Dict.8, 169; Hoefer, *Nouv. Biogr. Géneralé, 23, *34. (J. W. M.)

Ha'dad a name which occurs with considerable confusion of form in the Heb. The proper orthography seems to be הֲדִד, *Hadad' *(according to Gesenius from an Arab. root signifying to *break *forth into shouts; but Furst makes it *=*שִׁדִּי, *A Mighty), *which appears in Ge 36:35-36; 1Ch 1:46-47,50-51 (in all which passages it is rendered by the Sept. Α᾿δάδ*, *and Vulg. *Adad), *and in 1Ki 11:14-25 (where the Sept. has Α᾿δάρ*,Vulg. Adad). *The other forms are חֲדִד, *Chadad'*(1Ch 1:30; Sept. ΧοδάδVulg. *Hadad), *הֲדִר*, Hadar'*(Ge 26:35; Sept. Α᾿ράδ*, *Vulg. *Adar, *Engl. "Hadar"), חֲדִר, *Chadar'*(Ge 25:15; Sept Χοδάν, Vulg. and Engl. *Hadar), *and אֲדִד*, Adad'*(1Ki 11:17; Sept. Α᾿δάρ,Vulg. *Adad). *It was the name of a Syrian idol, and was thence transferred to the king, as the highest of earthly authorities, in the forms Hadad, Ben-hadad ("worshipper of Hadad"), and Hadad-ezer ("assisted by Hadad," Gesenius, *Thesaur. *p. 218). The title appears to have been an official one, like Pharaoh; and perhaps it 'is so used by Nicolaus Damascenus, as quoted by Josephus *(Ant. 7:*5, 2), in reference to the Syrian king who aided Hadadezer (2Sa 8:5). Josephus appears to have used the name in the same sense, where he substitutes it for Benhadad *(Ant. 9, *8, 7, compared with 2Ki 13:24). *SEE HADAD-RIMMON*. **1. **ADAD *SEE ADAD *(q.v.) is the indigenous name of the chief deity of the Syrians, the *sun, *according to Macrobius *(Saturnal. *1, 23). Moreover, Pliny *(Hist. Nat. 37, *11, 71), speaking of remarkable stones named after parts of the body, mentions some called "Adadunephros, ejusdem oculus ac digitus dei;" and adds, "et hic colitur a Syris." He is also called ῎Αδωδος βασιλεὺς θεῶν by Philo Byblius (in Eusebii *Praepar. Evan. *i, 10). The passage of Hesychius which Harduin adduces in his note to Pliny concerning the worship of this god by the Phrygians, Jablonski declares to be inadmissible *(De Linzq. Lycaonica, *p. 64). This Syrian deity claims some notice here, because his name is most probably an element in the names of the Syrian kings Benhadad and Hadadezer. Moreover, several of the older commentators have endeavored to find this deity in Isa 66:17; either by altering the text there to suit the *name *given by Macrobius, or by adapting the name he gives to his *interpretation *and to the reading of the Hebrew, so as to male that extract bear testimony to a god *Achad *(q.v.). Michaelis has argued at some length against both these views; and the modern commentators, such as Gesenius, Hitzig, Bottcher (in *Proben Altest. Schrifterkldr.), *and Ewald, do not admit the name of any deity in that passage. **2. **HADAIR *SEE HADAIR *(q.v.), one of the sons of Ishmael (Ge 25:15; 1Ch 1:30). His descendants probably occupied the western coast of the Persian Gulf, where the names *Attaei *(Ptol. 6:7, § 15), *Attene, *and *Chateni *(Plin. 6:32) bear affinity to the original name. *SEE ARABIA*. **3. **HADAD, king of Edom, the son of Bedad, and successor of Husham: he established his court at Avith, and defeated the Midianites in the intervening territory of Moab (Ge 36:35; 1Ch 1:46). This is the only one of the ancient kings of Edom whose exploits are recorded by Moses. B.C. ante 1618. *SEE AVITH*. **4. **HADAD, another king of Edom, successor of BaalHanon: he established his palace at Pal, and his wife's name was Mehetebel (1Ch 1:50). He is called HADAR in Ge 36:39. From the fact that with him the list of these Edomitish kings closes, it may be conjectured (Turner's *Companion to Genesis, *p. 326) that he lived about the time of the Exode, and in that case he may be the identical king of Edom who refused a passage to the Israelites (Nu 20:14). B.C. prob. 1619; certainly ante 1093. *SEE PA*. **5. **ADAD, a king of Syria, who reigned in Damascus at the time that David attacked end defeated Hadadezer, king of Zobah, whom he marched to assist, and in whose defeat he shared. B.C. cir..1040. This fact is recorded in 2Sa 8:5, but the name of the king is not given. It is supplied, however, by Josephus *(Ant. 7, *5, 2), who reports, after Nicolas of Damascus, that he carried succors to Hadadezer as far as the Euphrates, where David defeated them both; and adds other particulars respecting his fame. **6. **HADAD, a young prince of the royal race of Edom, who, when his country was conquered by David, contrived, in the heat of the massacre committed by Joab, to escape with some of his father's servants, or, rather, was carried off by them into the land of Midian. B.C. cir. 1040. Thence Hadad went into the desert of Paran ("Midian," ver. 18), and eventually proceeded to Egypt (1Ki 11:14 sq.; in ver. 17 the name is given in the mutilated form אֲדִד). He was there most favorably received by the king, who assigned him an estate and establishment suited to his rank, and even gave him in marriage the sister of his own consort, by whom he had a son, who was brought up in the palace with the sons of Pharaoh. Hadad remained in Egypt till after the death of David and Joab, when, although dissuaded by Pharaoh, he returned to his own country in the hope of recovering his father's throne (1Ki 11:21-22). B.C. cir. 1012. The Scripture does not record the result of this attempt further than by mentioning him as one of the troublers of Solomon's reign, which implies some measure of success (see Kitto's Daily *Bible Illust. *ad loc.). After relating these facts the text goes on to mention another enemy of Solomon, named Rezin, and then adds (ver. 25) that this was "besides the mischief that Hadad did; and he abhorred Israel, and reigned over Syria." Our version seems to make this apply to Rezin; but the Sept. refers it to Hadad, reading אדום, *Ediom, *instead of ארם*, Aram *or *Syria, *and the sense would certainly be improved by this reading, inasmuch as it supplies an apparent omission; for without it we only know that Hadad left Egypt for Edom, and not how he succeeded there, or how he was able to trouble Solomon. The history of Hadad is certainly very obscure. Adopting the Sept. reading, some conclude that Pharaoh used his interest with Solomon to allow Hadad to reign as a tributary prince, and that he ultimately asserted his independence. Josephus, however, seems to have read the Hebrew as our version does, "Syria," not "Edom." He says *(Ant. 8:*7, 6) that Hadad, on his arrival in Edom, found the territory too strongly garrisoned by Solomon's troops to afford any hope of success. He therefore proceeded with a party of adherents to Syria, where he was well received by Rezin, then at the head of a band of robbers, and with his assistance seized upon a part of Syria and reigned there. If this be correct, it must have been a different part of Syria from that in which Rezin himself reigned, for it is certain, from ver. 24, that he (Rezin) did reign in Damascus. Carrieres supposes that Hadad reigned in Syria after the death of Rezin; and it might reconcile apparent discrepancies to suppose that two kingdoms were established (there were more previously), both of which, after the death of Rezin, were consolidated under Hadad. That Hadad was really king of Syria seems to be rather corroborated by the fact that every subsequent king of Syria is, in the Scripture, called Ben-Hadad; "son of Hadad," and in Josephus simply Hadad, which seems to denote that the founder of the dynasty was called by this name., We may observe that, whether we read Aram or Edom, it must be understood as applying to Hadad, not to Rezin *(Pictorial Bible, *on 2Ki 11:14). — Kitto. The identity of name suggests a common origin between the Edomitish and Syrian dynasties. Josephus, in the outset of his account, appears to call this Hadad by the name of *Ader. *In any case, however, the preceding must be regarded as distinct persons from each other (see Hengstenberg, *Pentateuch, *2, 288), the last probably being the son, or, rather, grandson of No. 5. *SEE SYRIA*.

Kaiomorts in Persian mythology, as represented in the Zend-Avesta, is the first man, who proceeded out of the right hip of the bull Abudad after Ahriman had the same killed. He was both a man and a woman, the object of worship by the angels. Thus Ahriman's plan to destroy the generation which was to populate the earth did not succeed. He therefore sent a Dew, Astujad, besides a thousand other genii of the infernal region, to battle against him. Kaiomorts withstood thirty years before he succumbed. The liquids flowing from his body fructified the earth. The seed grew into an immense.tree, which, instead of fruit, bore ten human pairs, one of which, Meshia and Meshiane, were the progenitors of the human race. They, too, were seduced by Ahriman, and live sinful and condemned, suffering the punishment of their sin unto the resurrection.

Kaiser, Gottlieb Philipp Christian a Lutheran theologian of Germany, was born at Hof, May 7, 1781. In 1801 he was teacher at the gymnasium of his native place, in 1809 deacon at Miinchberg, in 1814 at Erlangen, in 1816 professor of theology there, and died in 1843, member of consistory and doctor of theology. He wrote, *De Apologeticis Evang. Joannis Consiliis *(Erlangen, 1821-25): — *Grundriss eines Systems der neutest. Hermeneutik *(ibid. 1817): — *De Mosaicis Symbolis et Geniis *(ibid. 1827): — *Commentarius in Priora Geneseos Capita *(1830): — *Literargeschichte der melanchthonischen Original- Ausgabe der augsburgischen Confession *(Nuremberg, eod.): — *Linguae Aramaicae Usus in Nov. Testam. *etc. (1831): — *Die biblische Theologie oder Judaismus und Christianismus *(Erlangen, 1814, 1821, 2 volumes): *Collectivum der davidischen Konige in Jerusalem *(1823): — *Das Hohelied ein Collectivgesang auf Serubabel *(1825): — *Erlauterung der funf Psalmbucher *(1827): — *Ueber die Ursprache, *etc. (1840). See Winer, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *1:87, 107, 139, 200, 213, 215, 245, 293, 301, 329, 340; 2:20, 31, 60, 99, 172; Furst, *Bibl. Jud. *2:162; Zuchold, *Bibl. Theol. *1:640; Diestel, *Gesch. des Alten Testaments, *page 668 sq., 697, 713 sq., 747, 755. (B.P.)

Kaiser, Nlikolaus a Lutheran theologian of Germany, was born November 8, 1734. He studied at Wittenberg and Erlangen, was in 1763 rector at Redwitz, and died March 14, 1800. He published, *De Luthero Interprete *(Hof, 1768): — *De Joannis Hussii Martyrio *(ibid. 1769): — *De Infausta Muhammedis Secta, *etc. (1771): — *De Meritis Lutheri in Hymnodiam *(1772): — *De Voto Paulino 2 Corinthians *13:13 (1774): — *Inhalt der augsburgischen Confession *(1783). See Doring, *Die gelehrten Theologen Deutschlands, *s.v. (B.P.)

Kaisersberg. *SEE GEILER*.

Kaiserswerth. *SEE FLIEDNER*.

Kajomorts, the Persian name for the first man, who they say was a direct descendant of a bull (Abudad), and was both man and wife at the same time. So sacred was his person that even angels worshipped him. Ahriman, however, was bent upon his destruction, and for thirty years he persecuted Kajomorts. until successful in slaying him. But the seed of Kajomorts fructified the earth, the sun purified it, and after forty years a plant sprang up, which became a mighty tree, bearing, instead of fruit, ten human pairs, one of which, Meshia and Meshiane, became the ancestors of the human race(see Vollmer, *Worterb. d. Mythol. *p. 992). *SEE ORMUZD; SEE ZOROASTRIANISM*.

Kakusanduis the name of the third Buddha who preceded Gotama (q.v.), and, according to Major Forbes's *(Journ. Asiatic Society, *June, 1836) calculation of Hindu chronology, must have lived on the earth B.C. 3101: (see Hardy, *Manual of Buddhism, p. *87, 96, *et al.). SEE BUDDHA*.

Kala Maha the male form of the Hindut god *Siva, *in his character of Time, the great destroyer of all things.

Kalands-Brothers *SEE CALENDARUM FRATRES*.

Kalastri Linga in Hindu mythology, is one of the commonest representations of Siva. A pious Indian had noticed that the right eye of the god wept. Immediately he took out his right eye and put it into the idol. Soon after the left eye began to run, and the friend of the god sacrificed his left eye, and, as he was blind, he made use of his foot to find the spot where this eye was to be put in.

Kalasutra, the Hindu name for a place in hell to which the trespassers of Hindu tradition are consigned, particularly those who, after offering a sacrifice for their ancestors, dare to remove from the altar any portion of the offering which the flames might have left unconsumed. See Vollmer, *Worterb. d. Mythol. *p. 993.

Kalderon (more accurately CALDERON), the most celebrated poet of Spain, born of a noble family at Madrid Jan. 1,1601, was educated at the University of Salamanca, but at length went into the army, and fought in Milan and Flanders, until in 1651 he entered the priesthood. Already, as a soldier, he had devoted much time to the cultivation of his poetical talents; now, as a priest, he devoted most of his time to it, and it is for his influence on the religious poetry of Spain, for his relation to the history of Roman Catholic poetry, that we make room for a short sketch of this religious (Roman Catholic) Shakespeare. Shortly after his admission to the priesthood he took a chaplaincy at Toledo, but the king, with whom Kalderon was in special favor, soon gained the poet for his court by assigning Kalderon a lucrative position in the royal chapel. He died about 1681, perhaps somewhat later. He wrote no less than five hundred dramas, many of which have a religious tendency. and display most accurately the religious and moral character of his time and people. Those of his productions which have been preserved are divided into three different groups. The first contains his comedies of familiar life; the second, the heroic; and the third embraces his religious pieces, or "Sacramental Acts" *(Autos Sacramentales), *and these only concern us here. They are compositions which bear a strong resemblance to the miracle-plays of the Middle Ages, and are, like them, deformed by fantastic extravagances of religious opinion and feeling. Some of them, however, are beautifully poetical. One of the most characteristic, held also by some critics to be the best, is "The Devotion of the Cross," a strange farrago of the wildest ῥsupernatural inventions, and the most impractically-motived exhibitions of human conduct, but breathing a poetic spirit which is wonderfully impressive. One of its main incidents is the legend of one dead man shriving another, which had been used by another poet. Another successful effort of his is " The steadfast Prince." Both of these have frequently been translated into English and other languages. See, however, Ticknor, *History of Spanish Literature *(new edition, 1871, with Index). One of the ablest Roman Catholic critics, professor Frederick Schlegel, thus speaks of Kalderon' s position as a' Christian poet: "The Christianity of this poet, however, does not consist so much in the external circumstances which he has selected, as in his peculiar feeling, and the method of treating his subject, which is most common with him. Even where his materials furnish him with no opportunity of drawing the perfect development of a new life out of death and suffering, yet everything is conceived in the spirit of this Christian love and purification, everything seen iii its light, and clothed in the splendor of its heavenly coloring. In every situation and circumstance, Kalderon is, of all dramatic poets, the most Christian, and for that very reason the most romantic" *(History of Literature, *p. 280, 281). See also Eichendorff, *Geistliche Schauspiele von Don Pedro Kalderon de la Barca; *Schmidt, *Schauspiele Calderons *(Eberfeld, 1857); Herzog, *Real-Encyklop. 7:*218sq. (J.H.W.)

Kaldi, Georg, a celebrated Hungarian Jesuit, was born at Tyrnau (Hungary) in 1570. After filling various positions in the Jesuitical order, preaching at Vienna, and teaching theology at Olmutz, he became at last rector of the college at Presburg, and remained there until his death in 1634. He was the first Roman Catholic to furnish his co-religionists a Hungarian translation of the Bible. It was published at Vienna in 1626, folio (the Protestant translation, by Visoli, was made in 1589). A portion of Kaldi's sermons were published at Presburg in 1631.

Kalendar. *SEE CALENDAR*.

Kalendar *SEE ABDAL*.

Kalewa in Norse mythology, was one of the first gods of the far north, reigning long before the Asas, a mighty giant, and father of the hunter Husi, an evil god, whose frightful habitation is a place of damnation.

Kali (or KALEE) is the name of one of the many forms of *Doorgd, *so popularly and variously worshipped in Hindustan. *Names and History. — Doorga *is the female principle in the production of the world who appears throughout the Hindu Shastras as *Prakriti *or *Bhagwati. *She is said to have had a thousand names, and to have appeared in a vast number of forms in different periods: thus, as *Sati, *she first became the wife of Siva, but renounced her life on hearing her father reproach her husband. She again appeared as "the mountain-born goddess" under the name of *Parwati, *and again married Siva. After giving birth to her sons Ganesh and Katik, she became renowned for her achievements in war against the giant enemies of the gods. This goddess assumed the name of Kali on the occasion of a battle with a thousand-headed giant demigod whom she slew. In her excessive delight over her victory, she danced till she shook the foundation of the earth, and the gods were compelled to induce her husband Siva to influence her to stop, which, however, he found no means of doing till he resorted to the expedient of throwing himself among the bodies of the slain. Kali, observing herself dancing on the body of her husband, was shocked, and, protruding her tongue in her surprise, stood still. In this attitude she is represented in the images of her now made, and sold, and worshipped throughout Bengal. *Images. — *In allusion to the above contest with the giant, Kali is often represented as "a ten-armed goddess." Her image in this aspect is that of a yellow woman with ten arms, richly dressed and ornamented, standing erect, resting her left foot on the back of a prostrate buffalo, and her right on that of a couchant lion, holding in her hands a spear, an axe, a discus, a trident, a club, an arrow, and a shield. Her most common image, however, is that of a black Or very dark blue- colored woman with four arms; the upper left arm holding a cimeter, the lower left a human head by the hair The other right arm is held up to indicate either that she is bestowing a blessing or the restoration of nature from the devastation which she has caused, and to which her lower right hand is pointing. All her hands are bloody. In this form she is standing on the body of her husband, who is a white man, stretched at full length upon his back. Around her waist, as a covering, she wears a string of bloody human hands. She wears an immense necklace, reaching below her knees, which is composed of human skulls. In some images a pair of dead human bodies hang by the hair from her ears. Her tongue, as above set forth, protrudes from her mouth upon her chin. She appears, moreover, under other forms: sitting on a dead body, with two giants' heads in her arms; as a black female sitting on a throne, etc. *Character. — *Kali, in Hindu mythology, is nothing more nor less than *a female Satan. *She is a very sanguinary goddess; her eyebrows are bloody, and blood falls in a stream down her breast. Her eyes are red, like those of a drunkard. *Sacrifices. — *Mr. Ward makes a summary from one of the Puranas to the effect that a tiger's blood offered to her in. sacrifice will please her for a hundred years; that of a lion, a reindeer, or a man, a thousand years; and that of three men for ten hundred thousand years. In the event of a human person being offered in sacrifice, it must be performed in a cemetery, or at a temple, or in a mountain. Only a person of good appearance should be offered. The victim should be adorned with chaplets and besmeared with sandal-wood, after various ablutions. The deformed, timid, leprous, or crippled must not be offered; nor must a priest, nor a childless brother. The victim must be prepared the day before the offering, his neck being besmeared with blood from the axe with which he is to be sacrificed. Besides this, however, persons may draw blood from their own bodies, or cut off their flesh, to be presented to this goddess as a burnt-offering, or burn the body by the flame of a lamp. *Worshippers. — *Many Hindus adopt the ten-armed Doorga as their guardian deity, and she is considered as the image of the divine energy. Her worship in Lower Bengal is so popular that on the occasion of a great annual festival all business is suspended, and even the European courts, custom-house, and other public offices are closed. The professional robbers and murderers so long known and dreaded throughout India, and notorious elsewhere as *Thugs, *are the special devotees of the four-armed Kali. In the hope of greater success in their work, they consecrate to her their instruments of death, and their victims are held to be immolated in her honor. These men will join travellers, and accompany them for days,/gaining their confidence if possible, under some disguise, until, watching their opportunity, they can administer drugs, or choke them with a small cord, and then rob them of all they possess. Formerly, it is supposed, the goddess rendered them much more assistance than of late, by putting out of the way the corpses of those slain; but, in consequence of one of their number looking behind him after a murder, she ceased to render them so certainly this assistance, as this was a violation of the express condition on which she kept secret all traces of their deeds. The accounts of the occasion of their losing her assistance in this particular are conflicting, and scarcely worthy of reproduction. Persons wishing to trace the matter may refer to *Illustrations of the History, and Practices of the Thugs *(Lond. 1837). *SEE THUGS. Ceremonies.-Distinct *from the great festival alluded to above in honor of Doorga as the "ten-armed goddess" is a famous and popular festival held in her service under the special form of Kali. It is observed with much the same form as the other. Annual sacrifices of sweetmeats, sugar, garments, rice, plantains, and pease are offered in great abundance. The first day ends with singing, dancing, and feasting, and with the lower classes in great debauchery and shameless licentiousness, the *arak, *an intoxicating liquor, being consecrated to the idol goddess. On the- second morning images of all sizes representative of the goddess are made, and, after consecration by the Brahmans, are carried through the streets in procession to the Hooghly River, and there, carried out in boats, are thrown into it, and with this act terminate these wild and terrible orgies. Immense sums are expended by many of these devotees during these festivals. Mr. Ward estimates as much as £9000 sterling to have been expended annually at the single shrine in Calcutta, and narrates cases of individual offerings, at one time, of £10,000, comprising rich. beds, silver plate, and food for the entertainment of a thousand persons. *Temples. *— There are many buildings devoted to her worship. The greatest and most popular of these is that of Kali-Ghat, about three miles to the south of Calcutta. There are fifty other edifices in various parts of India devoted to Doorga under her variety of forms and names. All these are said to have originated in an incident connected with her history previous to her having assumed the shape of Parwati, when Vishnu severed her body into fifty-one separate pieces, which were strewn over the earth, and conferred a peculiar sanctity on the places where they happened to fall. All of these became sites of temples, in which an image of some one of her thousand forms was set up. The, whole of the country to the south of Calcutta, including the spot known as Kali-Ghat, was thus rendered sacred, the toes of the right foot being deposited at the latter place. The temple at Kali-Ghat consists of one room, with a large pavement around it. The image of Kali is in this temple (Ward, ii, 157). There is, perhaps, no fabled impersonation in all the Hindu mythology exerting a greater or more gloomy influence over millions of men than Doorga under the title of Kali. *Literature.— Journ. of the Asiatic Society's Researchs, *vol. v.; Coleman, *Mythology of the Hindoos; *Moor, *Hindoo Pantheon; *Ward, *Hindoo Mythology; *account of temple at Kali-Ghat in the *Calcutta Christian Observer, Sept. *1833; Col. Sleeman, *Journey through Oudh. *(J. T. G.)

Kali. *SEE PARCHED CORN*.

Kali-age *SEE KALIYUGA*.

Kalighi is the name of one (the tenth) impersonation of the Hindu god Vishnu. *SEE KRISHNA*.

Baaras (Βαάρας), the name (according to Josephus, *War, *7, 6, 3) of a valley inclosing the city of Herodium on the north, and so called from an extraordinary species of plant (but whether the same with the gigantic *rue, *πήγανον*, *mentioned in the same connection, does not appear), to the root of which the credulous Jewish historian ascribes magical properties of a most marvelous character. *SEE HERODIUM*. For other faint notices of a locality by names similar to Baaris, in the vicinity of Machaerus, see Reland, *Palest. *p. 881.

Baarsdorp, (or Baersdorp), Marinus Kornelius a priest of the Netherlands, son of Kornelius, a physician and diplomatist, lived in the early half of the 16th century. He embraced the ecclesiastical state, made a pilgrimage, and on his return became director of the hospital at Puterryken, founded in 1525. He left all his possessions to this hospital for the maintenance of poor children, who were to be educated and taken care of until the age of nine years. See Hoefer, *Nouv.-Biog. Generale, *s.v.

Baasei'ah (Heb. *Baiseyah', *בִּעֲשֵׂיָה, for בֲּן9עֲשֵׂיָה, *son of Asaiah, *or *work of Jehotwsh; Sept. *Βαασία*), a *Gershonite Levite, son of Malchia, and father of Michael, in the lineage of Asaph (1Ch 6:40 [25]). B. C. cir. 1310 .

Ba'asha (Heb. *Basha', *בִּעשָׁא*, *for בִּעֲשָׁא, from an obsolete root, בָּעִשׁ, signifying, according to Furst [*Heb. Handw. *s.v.], to *be bold, *but according to Gesenius [*Thes. Heb. *s.v.] = בָּאִשׁ*, *to *be ojaensive, *hence *wicked; *Sept. Βαασά, Josephus Βασάνης*, Ant. *8, 11, 4, etc.), third sovereign of the separate kingdom of Israel, and the founder of its second dynasty (1Ki 15; 1Ki 16; 2Ch 16; Jer 41:9). He reigned B.C. 950-927. Baasha was son of Ahijah, of the tribe of Issachar, and perhaps commander of the forces of the northern kingdom; he conspired against King Nadab, son of Jeroboam, when he was besieging the Philistine town of Gibbethon, and, having killed him, proceeded to extirpate his entire circle of relatives. He appears to have been of humble origin, as the Prophet Jehu speaks of him as having been "exalted out of the dust" (1Ki 16:2). In matters of religion his reign was no improvement on that of Jeroboam; he equally forgot his position as king of the nation of God's election, and was chiefly remarkable for his persevering hostility to Judah. It was probably in the twenty-third year of his reign [see ASA] that he made war on its king, Asa, and began to fortify Ramah as a barrier against it. He was compelled to desist, however, being defeated by the unexpected alliance of Asa with Benhadad I of Damascus, who had previously been friendly to Baasha. Benhadad took several towns in the north of Israel, and Conquered lands belonging to it near the sources of Jordan (1Ki 15:18 sq.). Baasha died in the twenty-fourth year of his reign, and was honorably buried in the beautiful city of Tirzah (Song 6:4), which he had made his capital (1Ki 15:33). For his idolatries, the Prophet Jehu declared to him the determination of God to extermiInate his family likewise, which was accomplished in the days of his son Elah (q.v.) by Zimri (1Ki 16:10-13). *SEE ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF*.

Baau according to the cosmogony of the Phoenicians, is the original night, the wife of the spirit Kolpia, and by him mother of Eon, the first-born of time, out of whom Genos and Geneia sprang.

Baaz, John a Swedish theologian who lived in the latter half of the 17th century, wrote, *Inventarium Ecclesice Sueo - Gothorum *(Linkoping, 1642 ): — Hir*monia Evangelica. *See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v.

Bab a-word *signifying father, *and used by the ancient Persian magi to denote fire, which they considered the father and first principle of all things, as taught by Zoroaster (q.v.).

Bab, John an Armenian theologian, studied theology and history at the monastery of Meirawank in Armenia, and gained great renown for his learning. He died near the close of the 9th century, and left in manuscript, a *Commentary on the Four Gospels: — Explanation of the Epistle to the Romans :- Chronology of Ecclesiastical History, *a controversy in favor of the Armenian rites. See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale *s.v.

Baba *SEE MISHNA*.

Baba, the Same as Papa (q.v.). Baba a Turkish impostor who lived in the early half of the 13th century, appeared in the city of Amasia in 1240, and required his disciples to adopt as their profession of faith that there existed one God, and that Baba was his envoy. The Mohammedans attempted to arrest Baba, but he escaped them, and collected an army with which he sustained several engagements against them; but finally, by the aid of the Franks, the Mussulmans drove him out and dispersed his sect. See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, s.*v.