Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological & Ecclesiastical Literature

Babi in Egyptian mythology, was the surname of the evil god *Typhon, *who murdered the good Osiris.

Babi, Or Babists a Persian sect of Mohammedans, whose founder, according to one account, was Moollah Sadik; according to others, a certain *Bab, *who, coming forth in 1835 as a prophet, was shot by order of the shall of Persia. It is probable that both names refer to the same person, and that Sadik assumed the name of Bab, i.e. *Papa, Father; *or, according to another version, the *Gate, *through which alone truth and eternal bliss can be reached. A more recent account is given by Gobineau, *Les Religions et les Philosophies d'Asie Centrale *(cited in *The Nation, *June 22, 1866, from which this account is taken). About 1843 a youth of Shiraz, named Mirza Ali Mohammed, after reading the Christian Scriptures, as well as the Oriental Sacred Books, came out as a prophet, to reform or destroy Islamism. He is said to have been endowed with many graces of person and manner, and to have soon made many proselytes. Inspired by success, he now declared that, instead of the *Gate, *he was the *Point; *that is, the very creator of truth; no longer a simple prophet, but a living manifestation of divinity. The title of the Bab was now conferred upon a priest of the Khorassan, Moollah Houssein Bousrhewich, who became the active chief and soon the warrior-apostle of Babism. Houssein was sent on a missionary tour into Irak and Khorassan, taking with him the writings of his master. He made a great sensation by his preaching. Another missionary was a woman, possessed of extraordinary beauty and eloquence. About 1848, Houssein and the Babists generally gathered at a place called Sheik Tebersi, and built a huge tower, providing it for a siege. They now gave out political predictions, in which the advent of the Bab as universal sovereign was announced. All who died fighting for the new faith were to rise again, to become princes of some of the countries over which the Bab would extend his sway. Two large armies sent against the Babists were surprised and routed. A third expedition, though it succeeded in withstanding the sortie of the Babists, and in mortally wounding the Babist chief, Moollah Houssein, retired. The next campaign was more successful. For four months the Babists held out, in spite of tremendous odds, but at last, worn out by famine, they tried to force their way through the enemy's lines, but were overpowered, and when they surrendered only 214 were living. The survivors, and multitudes of others, even those who professed to renounce the heresy, were cruelly put to death. A similar Babist insurrection in Khamseh was also put down. Meanwhile Ali Mohammed had been living in semi-concealment at Shiraz. After the insurrection of Mezenderan he was brought before a court of royal commissioners and Mohammedan priests. In the examination which took place, the Bab, as he was still popularly called, gained the advantage. Seeing this, the discussion was abruptly broken off, and the Bab, with two of his disciples, was condemned to death, which was inflicted the next day. Everything now seemed to be finished; but the new Bab, Mirza Iaia, whom a divine mark had pointed out at the age of fifteen as the successor to the office, established himself at Bagdad, where he kept up communication with his followers through the pilgrims to the shrines there. The Babists were now forbidden from making any more attempts at insurrection until the Bab should decide that the hour had come and should give them the signal. In 1852 an attempt was made to assassinate the king, but failed. The attempted assassins were recognized as Babists. Forty others were arrested, among them the feminine apostle, Gourret-Oul-Ayn, the Consolation of Eyes. The next day she publicly confessed her Babism, was burnt at the stake with insult and indignity, and her ashes were scattered to the wind. The rest of the prisoners were distributed each to a courtier as his especial victim. Then was seen at Teheran a sight never to be forgotten. Through the streets, between the lines of executioners, marched men, women, and children, with burning splinters flaming in their wounds. The victims sing: "In truth we come from God, and we return to him." A sufferer falls in the road; he is raised by lashes and bayonet thrusts. But no apostate was found among the sufferers. Babism, like Mohammedanism, asserts the absolute unity of God; but the eternal unity, far from shutting himself up in himself, is, on the contrary, an ever-expanding principle of life. It is ceaselessly moving, acting, creating. God has created the world by means of seven words — Force, Power, Will, Action, Condescension, Glory, and Revelation — which words embrace the active plenitude of the virtues which they respectively represent. God possesses other virtues, even to infinity, but he manifests only these. The creature who emanates from God is distinguished from him by the privation of all emanatory action, but he is not altogether separated from him, and at the last day of judgment he will be confounded anew with him in the eternal unity. The Babist doctrine of revelation does not claim that the Bab has revealed the complete truth, but only as his predecessors, the prophets before him, have done — that portion of truth necessary for the age. The Bab is declared superior to Mohammed as Mohammed was to Jesus; and another revelation, which will complete the Bab's, is announced as coming in the future. Nineteen is a sacred number, which the Bab declares ought to preside over everything. Originally, he says, the Unity was composed of nineteen persons, among whom the highest rank belongs to the Bab. All the prophets who have appeared are, like the world, manifestations of God; divine words; not God, but beings who come from God more really than common men. At the death of a prophet or a saint, his soul does not quit the earth, but joins itself to some soul still in the flesh, who then completes his work. Babism enjoins few prayers, and only upon fixed occasions, and neither prescribes nor defends ablutions, so common in the religious rites of Mohammedanism. All the faithful wear amulets. Mendicancy, so much in honor among the Mussulman people, is forbidden. Women are ordered to discard veils, and to share in the intercourse of social life, from which Persian usage excludes them. What will be the future of Babism it is difficult to tell. Since 1852 it has changed its character to a secret doctrine, which recruits its disciples in silence. The same Babists who before suffered martyrdom so courageously rather than deny their religion, now, obedient to the new order of their chief, conceal their faith: with Oriental dissimulation. Babism is much more in harmony with the subtle and imaginative genius of the Persian people than the Shiite Mohammedanism. The growing spirit of nationality makes their present religion and the present dynasty, both of which were established among them by foreign conquest, less and less acceptable every year. The hour when the Bab shall send word from Bagdad that the time has come for the Babists to take up arms again will be a very critical one for the present dynasty of Persia and for Shiite Mohammedanism. The first thorough work on the origin and the history of the Babis is the one above referred to by Count Gobineau (formerly French minister in Teheran). Little had previously been published in Europe concerning the sect. (See *Zeitschrfft der deutschen Morgenland. Gesellschaft, *vol. 5; Petermann, *Reisen im Orient, *vol. 2.) The history of the Babis in Gobineau's work is followed by treatises on their doctrines, and, as a concluding appendix, he gives the sacred book of the Babis, "*The Book of Precepts." *See also Polak (a German, court-physician of the shall, and director of a medical school at Teheran), *Persien. Das Land wnd seine Bewohner *(Leipzig, 1865, 2 vols., vol. 1, p. 350354). — Pierer, *Universal- Lexikon, *2, 117; *The Nation,' *June 22,1866; *American Ann. Cyclopcedia,* 1865, p. 698.

Babia in Syrian mythology, was the goddess of childhood, the protecting genius of the newly born children among the inhabitants of Damascus.

Babilos was a heathen deity of the ancient, Poles. The discovery of the training of bees was attributed to this deity, whose: wooden statue was often found near bee-hives.

Babin, Franqois a French theologian, was born at Angers, Dec. 6, 1651. He was canon, grand-vicar, and dean- of the Faculty of Theology of Angers, where he died, Dec. 19, 1734. He edited the first eighteen volumes of *Conferences du Diocese d'Angers, *a highly esteemed and widely circulated work. His style was precise, clear, and methodical. le was the author of *a Journal, or Relation Fidele de Tout ce qui s'est Passe dans l'Universite d'Angers au sujet de la Philosophie de Descartes *(1679). 'See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s v.

Babington, Gervase an eminent English prelate, was born at Nottingham in the year 1551. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he became master of arts in 1578. He applied himself closely to theology, and became one of the most impressive and useful preachers of his day. In 1588 he was installed into the prebend of Wellington, in the cathedral of Hereford, and through the interest of the Earl of Pembroke was advanced to the bishopric of Llandaff in 1591. In 1594 he was translated to the see of Exeter, from whence, in 1597, he was translated to Worcester. Bishop Babington was a man of eminent Christian character as well as scholarship. Fuller testifies that he "was not tainted with pride, idleness, or covetousness." He died 17th May, 1610. His works are collected under the title *"The Works of the Right Reverend Father in God, Gervase Babington, late Bishop of Worcester" *(Lond. 1622, fol.). They contain Notes on the Pentateuch, Exposition of the Creed, the Commandments, and the Lord's Prayer, with a Conference between Man's Frailty and Faith, and three sermons. — Jones, *Christian Biography, *p. 16; Hook, *Eccl. Biog. *1, 446.

Babmeus was a leading member of the Nestorian Church planted by Barsumas in Persia, who, though originally a layman, and as such married, succeeded Acacius as archbishop or patriarch of Seleucia, after a two years vacancy of the see, in the year 496. Babaeus thus became the head of the Persian Church, in which capacity he summoned a synod by-which the Nestorian body was completely organized. Among the canons passed by this synod was one granting permission to bishops or presbyters to marry once. See Assemani,. *Bibl. Orient. *III, ii, 79, 381,' 429; *Neander,- Church History *(English translation), 4:285.

Babolenus (Babolein), St. was a French monk, of whose life .very little is known. He is supposed to have been born in Burgundy-as was also St. Babolenus, or Bobulelius, abbot of Bobbio and, like him, was brought up, it is probable, in the monastery of Luxeuil, either under St. Columbanus or his successor, Eustasius. When Blidegesiltus, archdeacon of.Paris, founded' the monastery of Sainit-Maur-des-Fossez in 638, he requested that the best monk of the monastery of Luxeuil should be appointed abbot; whereupon St. Walbertus, who had succeeded Eustasius, sent Babolenus. He died in 660 or 670, and his festival is marked in the martyrologies on June 26. See Landon, *Eccles. Diet. s.v.*; Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v.

Babon (Bavon, or Bonnon) abbot of Corbie, or Corvey, in. Westphtlia, lived about the end of the 9th century, and wrote the *History of his Times. *Babylas, ST. In addition to the well-known martyr-bishop of Antioch, another of the same name is said to have been martyred, with eighty-four of his scholars, at, Nicomedia, under Maximian, about A.D. 310. Still another is commemorated in Bede's *Martyrology *on June 11.

Babylas St., became bishop of Antioch about the year 230. When the Emperor Philip, who, in ascending the throne, had murdered the youn- Emperor Gordian, came to Antioch on his way to Rome, about Easter, 244, Babylas repulsed him from the church door, and refused to permit him to join in worship. Philip, according to the legend, humbly confessed his sins, and appeared among the public penitents. After a time Decius robbed Philip of his empire and life, and stirred up a virulent persecution against the Christians. Babylas, conspicuous from his lofty station, did not escape this storm, and about the end of the year 250 he was arrested and thrown into prison, where, in the following year, he died. The Latins commemorate him on the 24th of January, the Greeks on the 4th of September. Chrysostom has a homily in honor of Babylas (t. 2, 576, ed. Montf.). See Eusebius, *Ch. Hist. *6, 39; Gibbon, *Decline and Fall, *ch. 23.

Cadonici, Giovanni, an Italian theologian, was born at Venice in 1705, and became a canon of the church of Cremona. He was a man of learning, and opposed the pretensions of the court of Rome and the doctrines of the Molinists. In a curious work, entitled "An Exposition of this passage of St. Augustine, The Church of Jesus Christ shall be in subjection to secularTprinces," he shows that as princes are subject to the Church in things spiritual, so the Church is bound to obey them in things temporal; and that in ancient liturgies, as the Ambrosian, Mozarabic, etc., prayer was made, specially and by name, even for persecuting princes. He wrote also *Sentimens de St. Augustin *(1763); *De Animabus Justorum *(Rome, 1766, 2 vols. 4to). He died Feb. 27, 1786. Landon, *Eccl. Dict. s.v.*; Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Geerale,* 8:74.

Cadonici, Giovanni an Italian theologian, who was born at Venice in 1705, and died Feb. 27, 1786, wrote several works, in which he attacked the Molinists and the pretensions of the Roman Church. See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biogs Generale, *s.v.; Rose, *Gen. Biog. Dict. *s.v.

Cadotis. *SEE JERUSALEM.*

Cadovius, Anton Gunther a German theologian, was born at Oldenburg, Aug. 16,1654. He studied at Leipsic, Jena, and Wittenberg, and, after a course of travels, became preacher of the' duchess Christine Charlotte) and, in 1678, pastor at Esens, in East Frisia, where he died, April 3, 1681, leaving *De Itinere Sabbati *(Vitemb. 1673) *: — De Tempore *(ibid. 1674) *: — De Justitia *(ibid. eod.). See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v.

Cadrod was a reputed Welsh saint of the 6th century.

Cadry, Jean Baptiste (better known by his anagram, *Darcy), *a French theologian, was born in 1680 at Trez, in Provence. He studied first under his father (who was superior of the college of Grimaldi), and afterwards at Paris (1701), where,. having entered orders, he obtained the vicarage of St. Etienne-du- Mont, and later (1716) that of St. Paul. In 1718 he was nominated canon of Laon, but, on account of the papal interference, he returned to Polisseau. He died at Sarigny-sur-Orge, Nov. 25, 1756. He was an opponent to the bull *Unigenitus *(q.v.), and wrote the last three volumes of the *Histoire du Livre des Reflexions Morales et de la Constitution Unigenitus *(Amsterdam, 1723-38); the first being prepared by Joh. *Louail: — Temoignage des Chartreux au Sujet de la Constitution Unigenitus (1725): — Observations Theologiques et Morales sur les deux Histoires du P. Berruyer *(1755). See *Nouv. Diet. Historique; *Jocher, *Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon, *s.v.; Winer, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *i, 652; Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v. (B. P.)

Caducanus a Welsh divine, was bishop of Bangor, but, leaving his bishopric, he became a Cistercian monk *in Monasterio Durensi, *his bishopric not being rich, and at that time very troublesome on account of the civilwars. Caducanus "was no less happy than industrious in his endeavors, writing a book of sermons, and another called *Speculum Christianorum." *He died in 1225. See Fuller, *Worthies of England *(ed. Nuttall), iii, 494.

Caduceus was the rod or sceptre of Mercury, being a wand with two wings, entwined with two serpents, borne by that deity as the ensign of his quality and office, and given him by Apollo for his seven-stringed harp. Wonderful powers were assigned to this rod by the poets, such as laying men asleep and raising the dead. It was also used by the ancients as a. symbol of peace and concord. See Smith, *Diet. of Class. Antiq. *s.v.

Caduindus, Saint *SEE CHADOENUS*

Cadurcus, Johannes, D.C.L. a French martyr, was degraded and burned at Limousin, in France, in 1533, for exhorting his countrymen upon All-hallow's day, and afterwards confounding a friar out of the Bible. See Fox, *Acts and Monuments, *iv, 396.

Cadwallader, David a Methodist Episcopal minister, was born in Montgomeryshire, North Wales, May 28,1791. He was converted and joined the Methodists in 1812; began preaching in 1814; and emigrated to Delaware County, O., in 1821, where he labored as a local preacher till 1828, when he joined the Ohio Conference, and was sent as Welsh missionary to Oneida County, N. Y. Three years later he returned to Delaware County, labored one year in the Ohio Conference, and then, on account of the small salary that he had been receiving, was obliged to locate in order to support his family. He labored successfully as a local preacher 'until 1844, when he re-entered the Ohio Conference, and for four years travelled extensively through Ohio and Pennsylvania. In 1848 he was stationed at Pittsburgh, 'Pa., and in the following year, when many preachers fled the city on account of the terrible pestilence that raged there, Mr. Cadwallader was always found at his 'post, not only among his own people, but among others. Failing health obliged him to become a supernumerary in 1854, and he retired to his home in Delaware County, O., where he died. Oct. 19, 1855. See *Minutes of Annual Conferences, *1856, p. 113.

Cadwell, Christopher Columbus a Congregational minister, was born at Lenox, N. Y., Dec. 4, 1811. At the age of eighteen he went to the Manual Labor Institute at Whitesborough; thence to Lane Seminary, expecting to complete his theological course there, but became dissatisfied with the officers of that institution in repressing free discussion, as he declared, and left, in company with many others. In 1835 he was ordained, and began to preach in the April of that year, removing to Kingston, Canada, in 1836. In the fall of the same year he returned, and was a member of the anti-slavery convention held at Utica, N. Y., which was broken up by a mob, and completed its sessions at Peterborough. In May, 1837, he went back to Canada, and remained until February, 1838, preaching at various points with success, after which he returned to New York. In June he emigrated to Wisconsin, and spent his first year at Southport, now Kenosha. Subsequently he preached a few months at Racine; in 1840 went to Rochester, in Racine County, where he organized a church, and one also at North Rochester; in 1843 he removed to Waukegan, Ill., then called Little Fort, organized a church and preached there until July, 1844; in the same year went to Paris, Wis., and organized a church in that place. With broken health, he returned to his friends in New York State, Sept. 16, 1844. His health improving, he began to preach again in February following, and returned to the church at Little Fort, Ill., in May, 1845. After two years his health again failed, and he removed to Caldwell Prairie, Wis., where he built a church; preached also at Burlington, and helped build another church; early in 1854 he took charge of the churches at .Genoa and Richmond, Ill., spending fifteen years with them, and erecting two church-buildings. Desiring to enter more directly into missionary work, he went to Missouri in June, 1869, and began his labors in, Barton and Vernon Counties. He had founded a church at Lamar, and other organizations were in contemplation, when he died there, Jan. 16, 1870. See *Cong. Quarterly, *1870, *p. *405.

Cadwell, Elisha B., M.A. a Methodist Episcopal minister, was born in Warrick County, Ind., Nov. 29, 1850. He was converted in 1861; licensed to preach in 1871; and admitted into the South-east Indiana Conference in 1874. He graduated at More's Hill College in 1875; was elected professor of ancient languages in his alma mater in 1878, and died March 13, 1879. Mr. Cadwell was an earnest Christian, a faithful pastor, .and a sound and instructive preacher. See *Minutes of Annual Conferences, *1879, p. 26.

Cadwell, John a Methodist Episcopal minister, was born at Westfield, Mass., Aug. 11, 1805. He was converted in his twenty-fourth year; immediately began earnest and successful work for Christ, in holding cottage meetings, and after laboring zealously some years as class-leader and local preacher, he entered the New England Conference in 1836. He continued his earnest work to the day of his sudden death, Jan. 8, 1876. Mr. Cadwell was not especially brilliant, nor did he possess marked ability, but he was a good man, fresh and vigorous. See *Minutes of Annual Conferences, *1876, p. 69.

Cady, Daniel Reed, D.D. a Congregational minister, was born at Malta, N. Y., Oct. 8,1813. He was a student at Hamilton Academy; graduated at Williams College in 1838, and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1845, having studied law at Albion, and practiced two years. He was ordained at Rutland. Mass., Oct. 29, 1845; was dismissed Oct. 11,1849; was installed at Westborough, Dec. 5, 1849, and was dismissed, Feb. 6, 1856, after an illness of fifteen months; was installed at Arlington, then at West Cambridge, Feb. 14,1856, and dismissed, June 29, 1877, on account of impaired health. He was director of the American Educational Society, trustee of Massachusetts Home Missionary Society, and member of Executive Committee, manager of Massachusetts Sunday-school Society, and of the Congregational Board of Publication. He died at Westborough, May 17, 1879. He published *Memorials of Lieut. Joseph P. Burrage *(Arlington, *1864): — of Deacon John Field *(ibid. 1870): — of *Rev. Reuben T. Robinson *(Winchester, 1871) ;-also a sermon, *The Bible in Schools, *besides other memorials. See *Vital Statistics of Cong. Ministers, *1879; *Cong. Year-book, *1880, p. 74.

Cady, Lawton a Methodist Episcopal minister, was born at Killingly, Conn., July 24,1796. He was converted in the South in 1820, where he spent some years amid slave institutions, which he thoroughly abhorred; and in 1842 he joined the Providence Conference, wherein he served the Church until his death, June 18, 1871. Mr. Cady was an excellent man, a thorough Methodist, a lucid, accurate, logical, argumentative preacher, amiable, and a favorite among his acquaintances. See *Minutes of Annual Conferences, *1872, p. 37.

Caecias in Greek mythology, was the *north-east wind. *He was represented on the Tower of the Winds in Athens, with earnest features, wet, loose beard and hair, and with a flying dress about his strong limbs. With both hands he holds a winnowing basket, out of which he throws rain and hailstones on the earth. He was so represented for bringing for Greece storms and hail, clouds and snow, and cold, wet weather.

Caecilia. *SEE CECILIA.*

Caecilia, Saint is the name of several females in the Latin calendar. **1. **A Roman lady, and one of the four principal virgins and martyrs of the Western Church, commemorated in the Latin and Greek churches, Nov. 22. Of her life hardly any authentic account has come down to us. It is supposed that St. Cecilia was born at Rome in the 3d century, of parents who secretly adhered to the Christian religion. At a very early age she took the vow of chastity, and as she grew to womanhood became distinguished for her musical talent, mental graces, and personal loveliness. She could play skilfully on all the musical instruments of the day, but was so little satisfied with them that she set herself to invention, and produced the organ. Acceding to her parents' wish, she became, at the age of sixteen, the wife of Valerian, a young nobleman. Upon the nuptial night she informed her husband that she was guarded night and day by a glorious angel. Valerian, desiring to see the angel, was told that he could not unless converted to Christianity, to which he consented, receiving baptism at the hands of pope Urban. The prefect Almachius commanded him to abjure the faith, and upon his refusal to do so, had him, and his brother Tiburtius, beheaded. Soon after he sent to Cecilia, and commanded her to sacrifice to the gods. Upon her refusing to do so, the prefect gave orders that she should be cast into her own bath, after it had been heated to an intense degree. "But a heavenly dew falling upon the spouse of Christ refreshed and cooled her body, and preserved her from harm." A day and a night the prefect waited for news of her death. Then 'he sent one of his soldiers to behead her; but though the sword smote her neck thrice, the executioner could not cut off her head, and departed, leaving her on the floor of her bath, covered with blood. She lived three days, never ceasing to exhort the people to continue steadfast in the Lord, and died Nov. 22, A.D. 280. Urban and his deacons buried her in the cemetery of Caixtus, on the Via Appia, near the third mile-stone, and consecrated her house, which she had given to God, as a church forever. It is alleged that her body was found at Rome by Paschal I, A.D. 821, in the cemetery of Prsetextatus, adjoining that of Calixtus, and removed to the Church of St. Csecilia, which he was then rebuilding. The legend of this saint has furnished the subject of several remarkable pictures, the oldest of which is a rude picture of her on the wall of the catacomb called *The Cemetery of San Lorenzo, *probably of the 6th or 7th century. The most celebrated of the modern representations of St. Caecilia is the picture by Raphael (Rome, 1513), and now in the gallery of Bologna. It is not known when St. Caecilia was first regarded as a patron saint of music, and in the ancient documents that have come down to us there is nothing to show that she ever made use of musical instruments; and, in fact, before the 15th century, she is seldom seen depicted with them. The tradition which connected her name with music is easily accounted for. Pope Paschal built on to St. Ceecilia's Church a monastery, to which he gave a handsome endowment, providing that the religious should guard the bodies of the saint and her companions, and chant the praises of God around her tomb day and night (Baillet, *Vies des Saints, *ad diem Nov. 22). Such a service of song could not but kindle a legend-loving imagination, and the story grew that often Cecilia's own instrument was heard accompanying the vocal music. In England, at the latter part of the 17th century, her day was found a convenient one for holding an annual festival set on foot for the encouragement of music. For a more detailed account of St. Caecilia see Baronii *Annales, *s. an. 821; Bollandists, *Ata' Sanctorum, *April 14, p. 204; Ceillier, *Histoire des Auteurs Sacres *(Paris, 1859, vol. ii); Jameson, *Sac. and Legendary Art, *p. 583-600 (Lond. 1857, 3d ed.); Tillemont, iii, 259-689; *Harper's Magazine, *Nov. 1880. **2. **Martyr at Carthage with Dativus, A.D. 304. 3. Called also *Clara, *is supposed to have lived in the 7th century, and to have been abbess of Remiremont, in Lotharingia, for a period of thirty years. She is commemorated Aug. 12. See Bolland, *Acta Sanctorum, *Aug. ii, 732.

Caecilian. *SEE DONATISTS*

E'bal (Hebrews עֵבָיל*, stone), *the name of one or two persons, and also of a hill. **1. **(Sept. Γεμιάν [Vat. MS. omits], Vulg. *Hebal.), *A various reading for OBAL *SEE OBAL *(q.v.), the son of Joktan (1Ch 1:22; compare Ge 10:28). **2. **(Γαιβήλ v. r. Ταιβήλ [1 Alex MS. Γαοβήλ], Vulg. *Ebal.) *The fourth son of Shobal, son of Seir, the Horite of Idumaea (Ge 36:23; 1Ch 1:40). B.C. ante 1694. **3. **(Sept. Γαιβάλ*, *Josephus Γίβαλος*,Vulg. Hebal.) *A mountain on the northern part of the tribe of Ephraim, on the north-eastern side of the valley in which was situated the city of Shechem (now Nablous), in Samaria (q.v.). See Mills, *Three Months at Nablus *(London, 1864). **1. **It was here that the Israelites were enjoined to erect an altar, setting up plastered stones, and respond to the imprecations uttered in the valley, according to the divinely prescribed formula, upon those who should prove faithless to the Sinaitic law (De 11:29; De 27:4,13), while the responses to the blessings were to be uttered by the other division of the tribal representatives stationed upon the opposite mountain, Gerizim. Both the benediction and the anathema were pronounced by the Levites, who remained with the ark in the center of the interval (compare De 27:11-26, with Jos 8:30-35, with Joseph. *Ant*. 4, 8, 44, and with the comments of the Talmud, *Sota, *36, quoted in Herxheimer's Pentateuch). But, notwithstanding the ban thus apparently laid on Ebal, it was further appointed to be the site of the first great altar to be erected to Jehovah: an altar of large unhewn stone, plastered with lime, and inscribed with the words of the law (De 27:2-8). On this altar peace-offerings were to be offered, and round it a sacrificial feast was to take place, with other rejoicings (verses 6, 7). Scholars disagree as to whether there were to be two erections — a kind of cromlech and an altar; or an altar only, with the law inscribed on its stones. The latter was the view of Josephus *(Ant. *4:8, 44; 5:1, 19), the former is unhesitatingly adopted by the latest commentator (Keil, *Comment. *on Jos 8:32). The terms of Moses' injunction seem to infer that no delay was to take place in carrying out this symbolical transaction. It was to be "on the day" that Jordan was crossed (Joshua 27:2), before they "went in unto the land flowing with milk and honey" (verse 3). Accordingly Joshua appears to have seized the earliest practicable moment, after the pressing affairs of the siege of Jericho, the execution of Achan, and the destruction of Ai had been dispatched, to carry out the command (Jos 8:30-35). After this Ebal appears no more in the sacred story. By a corruption of the above- cited texts, the Samaritans transferred the site of the appointed altar to the opposite mountain, which has hence attained the greater notoriety*. SEE GERIZIM*. **2. **The question now arises, where were Ebal and Gerizim situated? The all but unanimous reply to this is, that they are the mounts which form the sides of the fertile valley in which lies Nablu's, the ancient SHECHEM-Ebal on the north and Gerizim on the south. **(1.) **It is plain from the passages already quoted that they were situated near together, with a valley between. **(2.) **Gerizim was very near Shechem (Jg 9:7), and in Josephus' time their names appear to have been attached to the mounts, which were then, as now, Ebal on the north and Gerizim on the south. Since that they have been mentioned by Benjamin of Tudela (Asher, 1:66) and Sir John Maundeville, and among modern travelers by Maundrell *(Mod. Trav. *page 432). The main impediment to our entire reception of this view rests in the terms of the first mention of the place by Moses in De 11:30: A.V. "Are they not on the other side Jordan, by the way where the sun goeth down, in the land of the Canaanites, which dwell in the champaign over against Gilgal, beside the plains of Moreh?" Here the mention of Gilgal, which was in the valley of the Jordan near Jericho, of the valley itself *(Arabah, *mistranslated here only, "champaign"), and of the Canaanites who dwelt there, and also the other terms of the injunction of Moses, as already noticed seem to imply that Ebal and Gerizim were in the immediate neighborhood of Jericho. This is strengthened by the narrative of Joshua, who appears to have carried out the prescribed ceremonial on the mounts while his camp was at Gilgal (compare Jos 7:2; Jos 9:6), and before he had (at least before any account of his having) made his way so far into the interior of the country as Shechem. This is the view taken by Eusebius *(Onomasticon, s.*v. Γεβάλ). He does not quote the passage in Deuteronomy, but seems to be led to his opinion rather by the difficulty of the mountains at Shechem being too far apart to admit of the blessings and cursings being heard, and also by his desire to contradict the Samaritans; add to this that he speaks from no personal knowledge, but simply from hearsay (λέγεται), as to the existence of two such hills in the Jordan valley. The notice of Eusebius is merely translated by Jerome, with a shade more of animosity to the Samaritans *(vehementer errant), *and expression of difficulty as to the distance, but without any additional information. Procopius and Epiphanius also followed Eusebius, but their mistakes have been disposed of by Reland *(Palaest. *p. 5034; *Miscell. *pages 129-133). With regard to the passage in Deuteronomy it will perhaps assume a different aspect on examination. **1. **Moses is represented as speaking from the east side of Jordan, before anything was known of the country on the west, beyond the exaggerated reports of the spies, and when everything there was wrapped in mystery, and localities and distances had not assumed their due proportions. **2. **A closer rendering of the verse is as follows: "Are they not on the other side the Jordan, beyond (אִחֲרַים, the word rendered 'the *backside *of the desert' in Ex 3:1) the way of the sunset, in the land of the Canaanite who dwells in the Arabak, over against Gilgal, near the terebinths of Moreb?" If this rendering is correct, a great part of the difficulty has disappeared. Gilgal no longer marks the site of Ebal and Gerizim, but of the dwelling of the Canaanites, who were, it is true, the first to encounter the Israelites on the other side of the river, in their native lowlands, but who, we have it actually on record, were both in the time of Abraham (Ge 12:6) and of the conquest (Jos 17:18) located about Shechem. The word now rendered "beyond" is not represented at all in the A.V., and it certainly throws the locality much further back; and, lastly, there is the striking landmark of the trees of Moreh, which were standing by Shechem when Abraham first entered the land, and whose name probably survived in Morthia, or Mamortha, a name of Shechem found on coins of the Roman period (Reland, *Miscell. *page 137 sq.). *SEE GILGAL.* In accordance with this is the addition in the Samaritan Pentateuch, after the words "the terebinths of Moreh," at the end of De 11:30 of the words "over against Shechem." This addition is the more credible because there is not, as in the case noticed afterwards, any apparent motive for it. If this interpretation be accepted, the next verse (31) gains a fresh force: "For ye shall pass over Jordan [not only to meet the Canaanites immediately on the other side, but] to go in to possess the land [the whole of the country, even the heart of it, where these mounts are situated (glancing back to verse 29)], the land which; Jehovah your God giveth you; and ye shall possess it, and dwell therein." It may also be asked whether the significance of the whole solemn ceremonial of the blessing and cursing is not missed if we understand it as taking place directly a footing had been obtained on the outskirts of the country, and not as acted in, the heart of the conquered land, in its most prominent natural position, and close to its oldest city — Shechem. This is evidently the view taken by Josephus. His statement *(Ant. *5, 1, 19) is that it took place after the subjugation of the country and the establishment of the tabernacle at Silioh. *He *has no misgivings as to the situation of the mountains. They were at Shechema (ἐπὶ Σικίμων*), *and from thence, after the ceremony, the people returned to Shiloh. The narrative of Joshua is more puzzling. But even with regard to this something may be said. It will at once be perceived that the book contains no account of the conquest of the center of the country, of those portions which were afterwards the mountain of Ephraim, Esdraelon, or Galilee. We lose Joshua at Gilgal, after the conquest of the south, to find him again suddenly at the waters of Merom in the extreme north (Jos 10:43; Jos 11:7). Of his intermediate proceedings the only record that seems to have escaped is the fragment contained in Jos 8:30-35. Nor should it be overlooked that some doubt is thrown on this in Jos 8:30-35, by its omission in both the Vat. and Alex. MSS. of the Sept. The distance of Ebal and Gerizim from each other is not such a stumbling- block to us as it was to Eusebius; though it is difficult to understand how he and Jerome should have been ignorant of the distance to which the voice will travel in the clear elastic atmosphere of the East. Stanley has given some instances of this *(Sinai and Pal. *page 13); others equally remarkable have been observed by those long resident in the neighborhood; who state that a voice can be heard without difficulty across the valley separating the two spots in question (see also Bonar, page 371). It is well known that one of the most serious variations between the Hebrew text of the Pentateuch and the Samaritan text is in reference to Ebal and Gerizim. In De 27:4, the Samaritan has Gerizim, while the Hebrew (as in A.V.) has Ebal, as the mount on which the altar to Jehovah and the inscription of the law were to be erected. Upon this basis the Samaritans ground the sanctity of Gerizim and the authenticity of the Temple and holy place, which have existed there. The arguments upon this difficult question will be found in Kennicott *(Dissert. *2), and in the reply of Verschuir (Leovard. 1775; quoted by Gesenius, *De Pesst. Sam. *page 61). Two points may merely be glanced at here which have apparently escaped notice. **1. **Both agree that Ebal was the mount on which the cursings were to rest, Gerizim that for blessings. It appears inconsistent that Ebal, the mount of cursing, should be the site of the altar and the record of the law, while Gerizim, the mount of blessing, should remain unoccupied by sanctuary of any kind. **2. **Taking into account the known predilection of Orientals for ancient sites on which to fix their sanctuaries, it is more easy to believe (in the absence of any evidence to the contrary) that in building their temple on Gerizim, the Samaritans were making use of a spot already enjoying a reputation for sanctity, than that they built on a place upon which the curse was laid in the records which they received equally with the Jews. Thus the very fact of the occupation of Gerizim by the Samaritans would seem an argument for its original sanctity. On the other hand, all critics of eminence, with the exception of Kennicott, regard this as a corruption of the sacred text; and when it is considered that the invariable reading in Hebrew MSS. and ancient versions, both in this passage and the corresponding one in Jos 8:30, is "Ebal,"' it seems strange that any scholar would for a moment doubt its correctness. Kennicott takes an opposite view, maintaining the integrity of the Samaritan reading, and arguing the point at great length; hut his arguments ,are neither' sound nor pertinent *(Dissertations on the Hebrew Text, *2:20 sq.). The Samaritans had a strong reason for corrupting the text, seeing that Gerizim was their sanctuary; and they desired to make it not merely the mountain of blessing, but the place of the altar and the inscribed law*. SEE SAMARITANS.* **3. **Ebal is rarely ascended by travelers, and we are therefore in ignorance as to how far the question may be affected by remains of ancient buildings thereon. That such remains do exist is certain, even from the very meager accounts published (Bartlett, *Walks about Jerusalem, *App. page 251 sq.; and Narrative of Rev. J. Mills in *Trans. Pal. Archeol. Assoc. *1855), while the mountain is evidently of such extent as to warrant the belief that there is a great deal still to discover. The report of the old travelers was that Ebal was more barren than Gerizim (see Benjamin of Tudela and Maundrell, in *Early Travels in Palestine, *pages 82, 433; Wilson, *Lands of the Bible, *2:71); but this opinion probably arose from a belief in the effects of the curse mentioned above. At any rate, it is not borne out by the latest accounts, according to which there is little or no perceptible difference. They are not isolated mountains, but culminating points of a chain. Their declivities facing the vale bear a singular resemblance to each other. They are equally rugged and bare; the limestone strata here and there project, forming bold bluffs and precipices; but the greater portion of the slopes, though steep, are formed into terraces, partly natural and partly artificial. For this reason both mountains appear more barren from below than they are in reality, the rude and naked supporting walls of the terraces alone being thus visible. The soil, though scanty, is rich. In the bottom of the vale are olive groves, and a few straggling trees extend some distance up the sides. The broad summits and upper slopes have no trees, yet they are not entirely bare. The steeper banks are here and there scantily clothed with dwarf shrubbery; while in spring and early summer, rank grass, brambles, and thistles, intermixed with myriads of bright wild flowers-anemones, convolvulus, tulips, and. poppies-spring up among the rocks and stones. Ebal is "occupied from bottom to top by beautiful gardens" (Mills; see also Porter, *Handbook, *page 332). The slopes of Ebal towards the valley appear to be steeper than those of Gerizim (Wilson, pages 45, 71). It is also the higher mountain of the two. There is some uncertainty about the measurements, but the following are the results of the latest observations (Van de Velde, *Memoir, *page 178): Nablus, above sea, 1672 ft. Gerizim do. 2600 " ... above Nablus, 928 ft. Ebal do. about 2700" ... do. 1028 According to Wilson *(Lands, *2:71; but see Robinson, 2:277, 280, note), it is sufficiently high to shut out Hermon from the highest point of Gerizim. The structure of Gerizim is nummulitic limestone, with occasional outcrops of igneous rock (Poole, in *Geograph. *Journ. 26:56), and that of Ebal is probably similar. At its base above the valley of Nablus are numerous caves and sepulchral excavations. This was, doubtless, the necropolis of Shechem (Robinson, 3:131; Van de Velde, 2:290). The modern name of Ebal is *Sitti Salamiyah*, from a Mohammedan female saint, whose tomb is standing on the eastern part of the ridge, a little before the highest point is reached (Wilson, page 71, note). By others, however, it is reported to be called '*Imad ed-Din, *"the pillar of the religion" (Stanley, page 238, note). The tomb of another saint, called Amad, is also shown (Ritter, page 641), with whom the latter name may have some connection. On the south-east shoulder is a mined site bearing the name of Askar (Robinson, 3:132). *SEE SYCHAR.*

Ebal, Mount We extract some additional particulars from Lieut. Conder's *Tent Work in Palestine, *1:88: "There are three curious places on Ebal: one of which is a rude stone building, enclosing a space of fifty feet square, with walls twenty feet thick, in which are chambers. The Samaritans call it part of a ruined village, but its use and origin are a mystery. It resembles most the curious monuments near Hizmeh, called the 'Tombs of the Sons of Israel.' The second place is the little cave and ruined chapel of Sitt Eslamiyeh, 'The Lady of Islam,' who has given her name to the mountain. It is perched on the side of a precipice, and is held sacred by the Moslems, who have a tradition that the bones of the saint were carried hither through the air from Damascus. The third place is a site the importance of which has not been previously recognised. It is a little Moslem Mukam, said once to have been a church, called 'AmAd ed-Dinl, the 'Monument of the Faith.' The name thus preserved has no connection with Samaritan tradition, but it is undisputed that the sacred places of the peasantry often represent spots famous in Bible history. It is therefore perhaps possible that the site thus reverenced is none other than that of the monumental altar of twelve stones from Jordan, which Joshna erected, according to the Biblical account, on Elal, and not on Gerizim, as the Samaritans believe, charging the Jews with having altered the names (De 27:4). The hill-top on which this monument stands is called Ras el-Kady, 'Hill of the Judge.' It was here that the Crusaders placed Dan, the site of Jeroboam's Calf Temple, and the present name may perhaps be connected with this theory, Dan ('the Judge') being translated into the Arabic Kady ('Judme'), jnust as it has been at the true Dan, now Tell el-Kady, at the source of the Jordan." (See illustration on opposite page.)

Ebarcius **(1) **Sixteenth bishop of Nevers, cir. A.D. 696. **(2) **Thirty-third bishop of Tours, cir. A.D. 696.

Ebasius bishop of Vicus Aterii, in Byzacia, Africa, cir. A.D. 641-649.

Ebba (Abha, or Ebbe), abbess of Coddingham, in Berwickshire, was daughter of Ethelfrid, king of Northumbria, and sister of St. Oswald. In A.D. 679 her. convent was burned, and she died August 25 (her festal day), 683.

Ebbo archbishop of Rheims, was the son of a Saxon serf, and was born about 775, or, according to other accounts, about 786. While a boy he became known to the young king Louis, the son of Charlemagne, who sent him to a convent school, and had him educated for the ministry. As he belonged to a serf family, and could not receive orders, Louis set him free, after which he was ordained. After the accession of Louis to the throne, Ebbo's influence rapidly rose, and in 817 the king secured his election as archbishop of Rheims. Soon after, in 822, he placed himself at the head of a mission to the Danes. His plan highly pleased both the king and the Pope. The Danish king Harald allowed him to preach Christianity, but refused to become a Christian himself. Many Danes were baptized; but, owing to some threatening movements against Harald, Ebbo in 823 returned to the emperor, and at the Diet of Compiegne made a full report on his mission. Soon after he undertook a second missionary visit to Denmark, at which he disposed the king favorably towards Christianity. In 826, the king, with his wife, his oldest son, his nephew, and a suite of 400 men, came to the emperor's court at Mayence and was baptized. The mission in Denmark was now placed under Ansgar, and Ebbo returned to his archbishopric. He took an active part in the affairs of the state, and in the war of the sons of Louis against their father, he, with most of the bishops, took side with the sons. He presided at the assembly of bishops which in 833 compelled Louis to do public penance, as such an act, according to the laws of the Church, made him unfit to bear arms. But when, in 834, Louis regained his power, Ebbo was arrested and kept a prisoner in the convent of Fulda. He was brought before the Diet of Diedenhofen in 835, and confessed himself guilty of offenses which, in the opinion of the judges, made him unfit for any further administration of his office. He was again confined in the convent of Fulda, where he remained until the death of Louis in 840. He then prevailed upon Lothaire, who made an attempt to possess himself of the whole empire of his father, to reinstate him as archbishop of Rheims (December 6, 840). In May, 841, king Charles, the brother of Lothaire, again expelled him; and as, at the conclusion of peace, Lothaire did not take a special interest in Ebbo, he lost his archbishopri**c **forever. In the last years of his life, king Louis of Germany appointed him, with permission of the Pope, administrator of the diocese of Hildesheim. He died March 20th, 851. Ebbo compiled an *Indiculum Ebbonis de ministris Remensis ecclesiae, *an instruction for the clergy of his diocese as to their mode of life, and an *Apologia Archiepiscopi Remensis cum ejusdem ad gentes septentrionales legatione. *They are of small size and no value. — Herzog, *Real-Encyklop. *19:447; Wetzer u.Welte, *Kirchen-Lex. *3:349. (A.J.S.)

Ebbo (Lat. *Ebulus), *twenty-ninth bishop of Limoges, cir. A.D. 752.

Ebbo, Saint twenty-ninth bishop of Sens, was born at Tonnerre (Burgundy). He was of a noble family, but entered the monastery of Saint-Pierre-le-Vif; was elected abbot of it, and soon succeeded his uncle, St. Gericus, bishop of Sens. He spent the latter part of his life in a hermitage at the village of Arce, where he died in 750. He is commemorated August 27. See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v.

E'bed (Hebrews *id. *עֶבֶד*, servant *[q.v.], i.e., of God; comp. *Abda), *the name of two men. **1. **(Many MSS., and the Syr. and Arab. Versions, have עבר, *Eber; *Sept. Ι᾿ωβήλ; Alexand. MS. Αβέδ; Vulg. *Ebed *and *Obed.) *The father of Gaal (q.v.), who headed the insurgents at Shechem against Abimelech, tyrant judge of the Israelites (Jg 9:26-35). B.C. ante 1321. **2. **(Sept. Ωβίθ v. r. Ωβήν, Vulgate Abed.) Son of Jonathan, and family- head of the lineage of Adin; he returned with 50 males from the captivity (Ezr 8:6). B.C. 459.

Ebed-jesu surnamed BAR-BRICHA *(Son of the Blessed), *an eminent Nestorian theologian, was born in Mesopotamia about the middle of the 13th century. After having been for five years bishop of Sigara, in Arabia, he was made Nestorian bishop of Soba or Nisibe in 1290. Where Ebed-Jesu pursued his studies is not known, but the works which he has left us show that he was fluent in the Arabic, well acquainted with the Greek, and his dogmatical writings especially dis. play an extensive knowledge with philosophy and dialectics. He seems also to have been familiar with the works of the great Jacobite Bar-Hebrseus. His works, which are more than twenty, are mostly of a theological character; on the interpretation of the O.T and N.T., on the Logos, sacraments of the Church, and a treatise on the truth of the Faith (published by A. Mai in Syriac and Lat., *Script. Ver. 10:317: —Epitome or Collections of the Canons of Councils *(also published by *Mai): — Canones xxv opostolici ob Ecclesiae ordinationem: — Prima christianae doctrine Diffusio *(a Description of the Countries that permitted the preaching of the Apostles): — 23 Canons of the Apostles, edited by St. Clement: — 5 other Canons of the Apostles, published also by St. Clement: — *The Paradise Eden, *containing 50 poems, divided into two parts, called Henoch and Blias, beginning with the Trinity, and ending with the Resurrection. (Comp. Assemani, *Bibl. Or. *3:1, page 325 sq.) Of literary importance is his catalogue of 200 Syrian writers (ably edited by Assemani, *Bibl. Or. *3:1, pages 1-362), at the close of which his own writings are also given. — Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Gin. *15:594; Herzog, 3:613; Assemani, *Bibl. Orient. *3, part 1:(J.H.W.)

Ebed-Jesu a Chaldaean patriarch and Syrian writer, lived about the middle of the 16th century. He received his education at Gozarta, and was afterwards bishop of that place. In 1554 he was elected as the successor of Sulaka, first patriarch of the Nestorians, and confirmed by the Pope in 1562. Ebed-Jesu was a man of great erudition; he was familiar with the writings of all the Greek and Latin fathers, and was also master of the Arabic, Chaldee, and the Syriac. Many of the Nestorians were converted by him, and the numbers of the Chaldees were augmented under his administration. He died a few Years after his visit to Rome (1562), in a monastery at the village of Seert in Mesopotamia. We have from him a poem in three parts: *Sur le voyage a Rome, le retour et la mort de Sulaka; *Poeme a la louange *de Pie IV; a Confession of Faith, *read at the 22d session of the Council of Trent. — Assemani, *Bibi. Orient. *1:538; 3, page 3, 325; Hoefer, *Nouv. Biographie Generale, *15:595. (J.H.W.)

E'bed-me'lech (Hebrews *E'bed-Me'lek, *עֶבֶד9מֶלֶך*, servant of *the *king, *i.e., Arabic *Abd el-Malek, *Sept. Α᾿βδεμέλεχ,Vulgate *Abdemelech*), an Ethiopian at the court of Zedekiah, king of Judah, who was instrumental in saving the prophet Jeremiah from death by famine (Jer 38:7-13), and who, for his humanity in this circumstance, was promised deliverance when the city should fall into the enemy's hands (Jer 39:15-18). B.C. 589. *SEE JEREMIAH*. He is there styled a eunuch (אַישׁ סָרַיס and he probably had charge of the king's harem (compare Jer 38:22-23), an office which would give him the privilege of free private access to the king; but his name seems to be an official title = *King's slave, *i.e., *minister. SEE EUNUCH.*

Ebeh *SEE REED. *Ebel *SEE TALMUD.*

Ebel Johann Wilhelm**,** a Protestant mystic and theosophist, was born in 1784 at Passenheim, in the province of Eastern Prussia. In 1809, while a preacher in the Established Church of Prussia, he attracted the attention of his ecclesiastical superiors on account of his connection with the theosophist Schonherr (q.v.). Subsequently he was appointed preacher at Koenigsberg, where he gathered around him a circle of enthusiastic followers, among them a few noble men and a larger number of noble women. Foremost among the latter were the countess of Kanitz and the countess von der Groben. In 1837, at the request of the Consistory of that city, a suit was instituted against him and his friend Diestel, which belongs among the most remarkable trials of the kind in modern times. He was in 1842 acquitted from the chief charge of the establishment of a new sect, but deposed from office for violating his official duties by communicating to others theosophic and philosophical views differing from the doctrines of the Church. He died in 1861, at the villa of his friend the countess von der Groben. Ebel wrote a number of works, chiefly of a mystic nature, among which are the following: Die *Weisheit von Obesn (1822): — Der Tayesanbruch *(1824):*Die gedeihliche Erziehunq *(1825) *: — Bibelworte u. Winke *(1827)*: — Die Philosophie der heil. Urkunde *(1854-56). A full account of Ebel, his doctrines and followers, is given in Dixon, *Spiritual Wives *(London and Philadelphia, 1868), where is also printed for the first time a paper by professor Sachs, which was the chief evidence used against Ebel. See also Diestel, *Das Zengenverhdr in d. Processe wider d. Prediger Ebel u. Diestel *(Leipz. 1838), and Ernst count von Kanitz (follower of Ebel), *Auqfkldrung nach Actenquellen, *etc. (Basel, 1862). (A.J.S.)

Ebeling, Christian a Lutheran theologian of Germany, was born at Buickeburg, November 3, 1668. He studied at Jena; was in 1697 professor of philosophy at Rinteln; in 1708 professor of ethics, and in 1714 doctor and professor of theology. He died September 3, 1716, leaving *De Mysterio Triziftatis *(Lemgo, 1714): — *Ethicae Christianae Compendiom *(ibid. 1715): — *Exameno Concilii Tridentini *(ibid. 1716): — *Theologia Homiletica *(ibid. eod.). See Strieder, *Hessische Gelehrten Geschichte; *Jocher, *Allgemeines Gelehrten- Lexikon, *s.v. (B.P.)

Ebeling, Johann Justus a German theologian, was born at Elze, August 27, 1715. He studied at Helmstadt; was appointed in 1740 pastor at Garmessen, and became in 1753 superintendent at Luneburg, where he died March 2, 1783. His principal works are, *Andachtige Betrachtungen, *etc. (Hildesheim, 1747): — *Sunden der Menschen *(Lemgo, 1748): — *Heilige Wahrheiten des Glaubens, *etc. (Luneburg, eod.): — *Erbauliche Betrachtungen. *See *Hoefer, Nouv. Biog. Generale, *s.v.

Eben (אֶבֶן, *e'ben, stone), *stands as a prefix in several geographical names, which designate monuments set up to commemorate certain events *SEE STONE*; e.g. *SEE EBEN-BOHAN; SEE EBEN-EZEL; SEE EBENJEZER; SEE EBEN-ZOHELETH*.

Eben-bohan *SEE BOHAN.*

Ebendorffer (de Haselbach), Thomas a Roman Catholic theologian; who died in 1464, is the author of *Commentarius in Evangelium Johannis: *— *Expositio Symboli Aposto forum: *— *De Casibus Excommunicationis: *— *De Novem Alienis Peccatis: *— *Commentarius in Esaiam. *See Jocher, *Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon, *s.v.; Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale*, s.v. (B.P.)

Eben-ezel *SEE EZEL.*

Hado'ram (Heb. *Hadoramn', *הֲדוֹרָם, "defectively" הֲדָֹרם in Chronicles'Furst suggests *[Heb. Lex. s.v.*]= הֲדוֹר רָם*, Haudor *[i.e. *Ador, *the fire-god; *SEE HADRAMMELECH *] is *exalted; *the Samuel at Ge 10:27 has *Adoram; *Sept. in Ge 10:27, ῾Οδοῤῥἀ*, Vulg. Aduram; *in 1Ch 1:21, Κεδουράν*; *in 1Ch 18:10, Α᾿δουράμ*.; *in 2Ch 10:18, Α᾿δωράμ*; *Vulg. in all these last, *Adoram), *the name of three men… **1. **ADORAM, the fifth son of Joktan, and progenitor of a tribe of the same name in Arabia Felix (Ge 10:27; 1Ch 1:21). B.C. post 2414. Bochart *(Phaleg, *2, 20) compares the *Dirmati *or *Drimnati *on the Persian Gulf (Plin. 6:32), and the promontory Κορόδαμον (Ras el-Had) of Ptol. 6:7, 11. Michaelis *(Spiciley. *2, 162) despairs of all identification of the tribe in question. Schulthess *(Parad. *p. 83) and Gesenius *(Thes. Heb. s.* 4.) think that the *Adramitae *are meant, whom Ptolemy *(*Α᾿δραμῖται*, Geog. 6, *7) places on the southern shores of Arabia, between the Homeritae (Hamyarites) and the Sochalite, an account with which Pliny *("Atramitoe," Hist. Nat. 6, *28, 32; 12:14,30) substantially agrees. Winer, 1, 453. Fresnel cites an Arab author who identifies Hadoram with *Jurhum (41'Lettre, Journ. Asiatique, *3 serie, 6:220); but this is highly improbable; nor is the suggestion of *Hadhira, *by Caussin *(Essai i, *30), more likely, the latter being one of the aboriginal tribes of Arabia, such as Ad, Thamûd, etc. *SEE ARABIA*. **2. **HADORAM, son of Toi, king of Hamath, sent by his father (with valuable presents in the form of articles of antique manufacture [Josephus], in gold, silver, and brass) to congratulate David on his victory over their common enemy Hadarezer, king of Syria (1Ch 18:10). B.C. cir. 1034. In the parallel narrative of 2 Samuel 8, the name is given as JORAM; but this being a contraction of Jehoram, which contains the name of Jehovah, is peculiarly an Israelitish appellation. By Josephus *(Ant. 7, *5,4) he is called Α᾿δώραμος*.* **3. **ADONIRAM *SEE ADONIRAM *(q.v.), as he is elsewhere more fully called (1Ki 4:6; 1Ki 5; 1Ki 14; Josephus constantly Α᾿δώραμος) the son of Abda, the treasurer of taxes under Solomon, and who was stoned to death by the people of the northern tribes when sent by Rehoboam to exact the usual dues (2Ch 10:18).

Ha'drach (Heb. *Chadrak', *חִדנרָך, signif. unknown, but possibly connected with *Hudor-- SEE HADORAI*; Sept. Σεδράχ,Vulg. *Hadrach), *apparently the name of a country, and (as we may gather from the parallel member of the sole and obscure passage where it occurs) near or identical with Damascus (Zec 9:1). The meaning seems to be, "The utterance of the word of Jehovah respecting the land of Hadrach; and Damascus is the place upon which it rests." On the locality in question, great division of opinion exists. Adrichoinius says, "Adrach, or Hadrach, *alias *Adra is a city of Caelesyria, about twenty-five miles from Bostra, and from it the adjacent region takes the name of Land of Hadrach. This was the land which formed the subject of Zechariah's prophecy" *(Theaterum Terrae Sanctae, *p. 75). Rabbi Jose, a Damascene, according to Jarchi, declared he knew a place of this name east of Damascus; and Michaelis says *(Suppleme. *p. 677), "To this I may add what I learned, in the year 1768, from Joseph Abbassi, a noble Arab of the country beyond Jordan. I inquired whether he knew a city called *Hadrakh *He replied that there was a city of that name, which, though now small, had been the capital of a large region called the *land of Hadrakh," *etc. The two names, however, are entirely different (הדר, *Hadrach; *Arab. *Edhr'a), *and there is no historical evidence that Edhr'a ever was the capital of a large territory. *SEE EDREI*. Yet corroborative of the existence of the place in question are the explicit statements of Cyril and Theodoret in commenting on the above passage. But to these it is objected that no modern traveler has heard of such a place in this region; Gesenius especially *(Thesaur. Heb. *p. 449) urges that the name could not have become extinct. Yet no other explanation of the word Hadrach hitherto offered is at all satisfactory (see Winer's *Realw. *s.v.). Movers suggests that Hadrach may be the name of one of the old deities (compare *Adres, *Justin, 36:2, and ATERGATIS) of Damascus *(Die Phonizier, *1, 478); and Bleek conjectures that reference is made to a king of that city *(Studien u. Kritiken, *1852, 2, 258). Henderson *(Comment. *ad loc.) supposes it to be only a corruption of חדד, the common names of the kings of Syria. *SEE HADAR*. Jarchi and Kimchi say, "Rabbi Juda interpreted it as an allegorical expression relating to the Messiah, Who is *harsh *(חד) to the heathen, and *gentle *(ִר) to Israel" Jerome's interpretation is somewhat similar: "Et est ordo verborum; assumptio verbi Domini, *acuti *in peccatores, *mollis *in justos. Adrach quippe hoc resonat ex duobus integris nomen compositum: AD (חד) *acutun, *RACH *(*ִר*) molle, tenerumque *significans" *(Comment. in Zach. *ad loc.). Hengstenberg *(Christol. 3, *372) adopts the same etymology and meaning, but regards the word as a symbolical appellation of the Persian empire, whose overthrow by Alexander Zechariah here foretells. He says the prophet does not mention the real name, because, as he lived during the supremacy of Persia, such a reference would have exposed him to danger. *SEE ZECHARIAH, BOOK OF*. Looking at the passage in what appears to be its plain and natural meaning, no scholar can deny that, according to the usual construction, the proper name following אֶרֶוֹ is the name of the "land" itself, or of the nation inhabiting the land, and the analogy presented by all the other names in, the section is sufficient proof that this must be the case here (Hengstenberg, 3, 375). All the other names mentioned are well known-Damascus, Hamath, Tyre, Zidon, Gaza, etc.; it is natural to infer that *Hadrach *is also the name of a place known to the prophet. Its position is not accurately defined. The words of the passage do not connect it more closely with Damascus than with Hamath. It is remarkable that no such name is elsewhere found in ancient writers. The translators of the Sept. were ignorant of it. So was Jerome. No such place is now known. Yet this does not prove that there never was such a name. Many ancient names have disappeared, as it seems to be the case with this (see Alphens, *Diss. de terra Chaderach, *Tr. ad Rhen. 1723; also in Ugolino, 7). *SEE DAMASCUS*.

Hadria *SEE ADRIA*.

Hadrian *SEE ADRIAN*.

Hadrian, Pope *SEE ADRIAN*.

Hadrianus, P. Aemilius the 14th Roman emperor (from A.D. 117-138), was a relative and the ward of Trajan, and married Julia Sabina, the granddaughter of Marciana sister of that emperor. In regard to the place of his birth, the statement of Spartianus *(De vita Hadricani, *1) that he was born at Rome Jan. 24, A.D. 76, is generally regarded as the more reliable, though others name Italica in Spain, where his ancestors had settled in the time of Scipio (see Eutropius, 8:6, and Eusebius, *Chronicon, *No. 2155, p. 166, ed. Scaliger). Aided by the preference of Trajan's wife, Plotina, and showing himself capable in the positions entrusted to him, he rose rapidly, and on the death of Trajan succeeded to the empire, having been either really adopted as his successor by that emperor, or palmed off as such by Plotina and her party. For a statement of the conflicting opinions on this point, see Spartianus *(De vita Hadriani, *4) and Dion Cassius (69, 1). When Hadrian assumed the reins of government (A.D. 117), he found the quiet of the empire threatened at several points, but, adopting a general policy of peace, he succeeded in preventing outbreaks and invasions in nearly every instance. In furtherance of this peaceful policy, he withdrew the legions from the conquests of his predecessor beyond the Tigris and Euphrates, and would have also abandoned Dacia had not populous Roman colonies existed there. Impelled by curiosity, or, more probably, by a desire to see for himself the condition of the empire, he journeyed extensively through it, leaving everywhere monuments of his munificence in temples, aqueducts, and other useful or ornamental works. He made many improvements in the laws, and the *Edictumperpetuum Hadriani *(a codification of praetorial edicts made by his orders) marked an era in the historical development of the Roman law. Hadrian, though a voluptuary in private life, was a patron of the arts and of learning; was fond of the society of artists, poets, scholars, philosophers, etc., and even aspired to rank among them; but his inferior taste, his jealousy, his overweening vanity, and his impatience of rivalry and contradiction led him often to acts of cruel injustice towards the leaned men he gathered about him. His conduct towards the Christians was marked by a sense of justice. The proconsul of Asia Minor having complained to Hadrian that the people at their festivals demanded the execution of Christians, he issued a rescript forbidding such executions, and requiring that all complaints against the Christians should be made in legal form. Though this edict failed to secure immunity to Christians from persecution, since the fourth persecution occurred during his reign, Hadrian was not classed by Melito, Tertullian, or Eusebius among their persecutors, and his reign is regarded as in general favorable to the progress of Christianity. Aelius Lampridius (*Alexander Serverus, *43), indeed, mentions a report that Hadrian purposed to erect temples to Christ, as one of the gods, but was deterred by the priests, who declared that all would become Christians if he did so. This story is, however, generally regarded as unworthy of credit. The tolerant spirit or indifference of Hadrian towards religious opinions and practices disapproved of and even ridiculed by him is shown by his letter to Servianus, preserved in Vopiscus (*Severus, *8), and by the fact that though a zealous worshipper of the *Sacra *of his native country, he also adopted the Egyptian *Cultus.* The peace of his reign was broken by one serious war. Among the Jews a spirit of discontent had been kept alive ever since the capture of Jerusalem by Titus. Wishing to eradicate this spirit by the destruction of the Jewish nationality, Hadrian issued an edict forbidding the practice of circumcision, and determined to erect on the ruins of Jerusalem a new Roman city, to be called after himself, Aelia Capitolina. Consequently a furious revolt of the Jews broke out under the lead of Bar Cochba, a pretended messiah, and it was only after having suffered great losses, and having almost exterminated the Jewish nation (500,000 Jews were said to have perished), that the imperial armies succeeded in crushing the revolt, although the able general, Julius Serverus, had been called from the distant shores of Britian to lead them. Aelia Capitolina rose over the ruins of the Holy City, but the Jew was forbidden, on the pain of death, to enter it, and from that time the race was dispersed through the world. Antoninus Pius annulled the prohibition of circumcision. Hadrian died at Baiae July 10, 138; but his last days had been marked by such outrageous cruelties that Antoninus, his successor, with difficulty secured the customary honors to his memory. — Spartianus, *de vita Hadriani *(in *Scriptores Historiae Augustae, *Teubner's edit.); Smith, *Dict. of Greek and Roman Biog. and Mythol. *2, 319 sq.; Hoefer. *Nouv. Biog. Géneralé 1, 301 sq.; *Herzog, *Real-Encyklopadie, *5, 446; Sharpe, *History of Egypt, *15, 14-31. (J.W.M.)

Hadshi-Khalfa (originally MUSTAFA *ben-Abdallah, *also known by the name *of Katib- Tshelebi), *a most celebrated Turkish historian, geographer,. and biographer, was born at Constantinople about 1605. He was for some time secretary to the sultan, Murad IV, and died in 1658. His main production is a great biographical lexicon, *Keshful-funun, *written in Arabic, in which he gives the titles of more than 18,000 Arabic, Persian, and Turkish works, with short biographies of the authors. It is of the greatest value, since it enumerates a great many others which seem to have been lost. Hammer- Purgstall largely used this work for his *Encyklopadische Uebersicht der Wissenschaften des Orients *(Leipsic, 1806). A complete edition of Iadshi's text, with a Latin translation, was published by Flilgel, *Lexicon Bibliographicum et Encyclopaedicum *(Lond. 1835-58, 7 volumes): — Hadshi also published chronological tables, *Takwum-al-tawarikh* (translated into Latin by Reiske, Leipsic, 1766), and a geography, *Dschihan-numa *(Latin transl. by Norberg, Lund, 1818, 2 volumes). (B.P.)

Hadwinus, Saint *SEE CHADORNUS*.

Haematerius *SEE CHELIDONIUS*.

Haemorrhage *SEE ISSUE*.

Haem'orrhoids (טחוֹרִים *techorim', *prob. *tumores ani *i.e. *the piles, *so called as *protruded *[the root is טָחר, to stretch] from the fundament, or from the *straining *or tenesmus with flow of blood, which the Masorites have everywhere inserted in the margin for the textual [but apparently more vulgar and less proper] word עַפָלִים *ophalim', *lit *hills, *spoken also in the Arab. of a *"tumor *in ano virorum vel in pudendis mulierum" [see Schroeder, *Orig. Hebrews *4:54; Schultens, *ad Medianii Prov. *p. 23]; Sept. and Vulg. understand a *sore in the secret parts), *a painful disease with which the Philistines were afflicted by God as a punishment for detaining the sacred ark at Ashdod after they had captured it in battle (2Sa 5:6). The word also occurs among the physical curses denounced upon the Israelites by Moses in case of apostacy (De 28:27). Interpreters are not agreed on the exact signification of the original terms, nor on the nature of the disease, although most think that those painful tumors in the fundament are meant which sometimes turn into ulcers, i.e. *the piles *(Ps 78:66). Others regard it as the name of the fundament itself, *podex *(Bochart, *Hieroz, 1, 382; *see Fuller in *Miscel. Sac. v, 3;* Kanne, *Die Goldene Aerse der Philist. *Nurimb. 1820). The Sept and Vulg. add to ver. 9 that the Philistines made seats of skins upon which to sit with more ease, by reason of their indisposition. Herodotus seems to have had some knowledge of this history, but has assigned another cause (1, 105). He says the Scythians, having plundered the temple of Venus at Askalon, a celebrated city of the Philistines, the goddess, who was worshipped there, afflicted them with a peculiar disease θήλεια νόσος. The Philistines, perhaps, thus related the story; but it evidently passed for truth that this disease was ancient, and had been sent among them by some avenging deity. To remedy this suffering, and to remove the ravages committed by rats, which wasted their country, the Philistines were advised by their priests and soothsayers to return the ark of God with the following offerings (1Sa 6:1-18): five figures of a golden emerod, that is the part afflicted, and five golden rats; hereby acknowledging that this plague was the effect of divine justice. This advice was followed; and Josephus (*Ant. 6, 1, 1, *δυσεντερία*; *Aquila, τὸ τῆς φαγεδαίνης ἕλκος and others believed that the five cities of the Philistines made each a statue, which they consecrated to God as votive offerings for their deliverance. This, however, seems to have originated from the figures of the rats. The heathen frequently offered to their gods figures representing those parts of the body which had been diseased (see Frey, *De more simulacra membrorum consecrandi, *Altd. 1746); and such kinds of *ex votes *are still frequent in Catholic countries, being consecrated in honor of some saint who is supposed to have wrought the cure: they are images of wax or of metal, exhibiting those parts of the body in which the disease was seated. The Scholiast on Aristophanes (*Achara,*231) mentions a similar plague (followed by a similar subsequent propitiation to that mentioned in Scripture), as sent upon the Athenians by Bacchus. The opinion mentioned by Winer (s.v. Philister), as advanced by Lichtenstein (in Eichhorn's *Biblioth. *6, 405-467), that the plague of emerods and that of mice are one and the same, the former being caused by an insect (*solpuga*) as large as a field mouse, is hardly worth serious attention. Kitto thinks that they were rather *talismans *specially formed under astrological calculations for the purpose of obviating the effects of the disease (*Daily Bible Illustr. *ad loc.). The words of 1Sa 5:12, "The men that *died not *were smitten with emerods," show that the disease was not necessarily fatal. It is clear from its parallelism with "botch" and other diseases in De 28:27 that עַפָלִים is a disease, not a part of the body (see Beyer, *De haemorrhoidibus ex lege Mosaica, *Lips. 1792). Now 1Sa 5:11 speaks of the images of the emerods after they were actually made and placed in the ark. It thus appears probable that the former word means the disease and the latter the part affected, which must necessarily have been included in the actually existing image, and have struck the eye as *the essential *thing represented, to which the disease was an incident. As some morbid swelling, then, seems the most probable nature of the disease, so no more probable conjecture has been advanced than that *hemorrhoidal tumors *or bleeding piles, known to the Romans as *mariscae *(Juv. 2, 13) are intended. These are very common in Syria at present, Oriental habits of want of exercise and improper food, producing derangement of the liver, constipation, etc., being such as to cause them. *SEE DISEASE*.

Haemstede, Adrian van one of the first preachers of the Reformed faith in the Netherlands, was probably born about the year 1525 in Schouwen. The parents of Adriaan seem to have been among the earliest in Zealand to embrace the Reformed faith. He understood several modern languages, and wrote in both Latin and Dutch. His Dutch style is remarkable for perspicuity and strength. Adriaan was in 1557 ministering to the Reformed church ill Antwerp, and his labors there were eminently successful. Deeply sympathizing with the persecuted Protestants in France, he wrote in Latin a letter to Henry the Second of France, in which he remonstrates with him and pleads with him to exercise clemency. This letter is dated. Dec. 1, 1557, and is thus in advance of the measures set on foot by Calvin and Beza in behalf of these persecuted followers of Christ. Van Haemstede in this letter suggests a conference such as was held at Poissv in 1562. Van der Heiden, sent at his request by the church at Emden to assist him at Antwerp, having arrived, he took occasion to leave for a time (Feb. 1558). During his absence dark clouds gathered, and soon after his return the storm burst. Van der Heiden, whose place of preaching had been betrayed by a woman, escaped. Van Haemstede remained, though a. price was set upon his head, and certain death awaited him if captured. His two faithful helpers, Gillis and Antoine Verdikt, were both burned at Brussels. He left Antwerp probably in March 1559, and sought refuge in Ost Friesland. Subsequently he labored for a short time at Groningen, and was thence sent to England to take charge of a Reformed church in London. He espoused the cause of the better class of Anabaptists, so far as to maintain that they should not be punished for their doctrinal error respecting the humanity of Christ, since they acknowledged his divinity, and depended on him for salvation. This view was in direct conflict with the views and practice of Cranmer and Ridley, who had in 1551 condemned to the flames Joris van Parre, a Netherlander of irreproachable morals, simply on account of his doctrinal belief. As the church which Haemstede served was at this time under the supervision of Edmund Grindal, bishop of London, he was called to account for his views, and, adhering to them, was banished from the kingdom. On his return to Holland he was deprived of all his property. Emden, too, refused to receive him. He bore his trials and privations in a truly Christian manner. At the earnest request of many of the London congregation, he finally went thither again. The bishop of London demanded a recantation. He refused. Again he was banished. With a heavy heart he returned to Friesland, where he soon after died. His death occurred in 1562. In his views of religious liberty he was far in advance of his age, and fell a victim to the reigning spirit of intolerance. He was the author of the first Book of Martyrs published in the Netherlands. It is conjectured that it was first published at Antwerp during the persecution, and issued in sheets as it was prepared. The original edition, which is extremely rare, is in small quarto, bearing the author's name, but not the place of its publication. It met with great favor, and for two centuries it was the manual of thousands, having passed through many successive editions. See an able and interesting monograph of Rev. Joh. ab Utrecht Dresselhuis in the with vol. of Kist and Rayaard's *Archief voor Kerkelijke Geschiedenis, inzonderheid van Nederland *(Leyd. 1835); Glasius, *Godgeleerd Nederland, *D. 2. (J. P.W.)

Haendel *SEE HANDEL*.

Haer, Franciscus Van Der a theologian and historian of Utrecht, who died at Louvain, January 12, 1632, is the author of, *Catena Aurea in IV Evangelia*: — *Concordia Historice Sacrae et Profance *(1614): — *Jesus Nazarenus Messias Danielis-Biblia Sacra Vulgata: *— *Expositio iz Epistolas Pauli*: — *De Sacramentis. *See Burmann, *Trajectum Eruditum; *Jocher, *Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon, *s.v. (B.P.)

Haeretici *SEE HERETIC*.

Haeretico comburendo a writ which, in England, "anciently lay against a heretic, who, having once been convicted of heresy by his bishop, and having abjured it, afterwards falling into it again, or into some other,: is thereupon committed to the secular power. This writ is thought by some to be as ancient as the common law itself; however, the conviction of heresy by the common law was not in any petty ecclesiastical court, but before the archbishop himself, in a provincial synod, and the delinquent was delivered up to the king, to do" with-him as he pleased; so that the crown had a control over the spiritual power; but by 2 Henry IV cap. 15, the diocesan alone, without the intervention of a synod, might convict of heretical tenets; and unless the convict abjured his opinions, or if, after abjuration, he relapsed, the sheriff was bound, *ex officio, *if required by the bishop, to commit the unhappy victim to the flames, without waiting for the consent of the crown. This writ remained in force, and was actually executed on two Anabaptists in the seventh of Elizabeth, and on two Arians in the ninth of James I. Sir Edward Coke was of opinion that this writ did not lie in his time; but it is now formally taken away by statute. 29 Car. II, cap. 9. But this statute does not extend to take away or abridge the jurisdiction of Protestant archbishops, or bishops, or any other judges of any ecclesiastical courts, in cases of atheism, blasphemy, heresy, or schism; but they may prove and punish the same, according to his majesty's ecclesiastical laws, by excommunication, deprivation, degradation, and other ecclesiastical censures. not extending to death, in such sort, and no other, as they might have done before the making of this act." Buck, *Theological Dictionary, s.v.*

Haevernick *SEE HAVERNICK*.

Hafedah an idol of the Adites, a tribe of Arabians who inhabited the country of Hadhramaut, in Yemen, or Arabia Felix. It was principally invoked for prosperity in travelling.

Hafeli, Johann Caspar a Protestant theologian, was born May 1, 1754, in Switzerland. He studied at Zurich, was vicar in 1773, in 1784 chaplain to the prince of Dessan, in 1793 preacher at Bremen, in 1802 professor at the gymnasium there, in 1805 superintendent at Bernburg, and died April 4, 1811. He is the author of some ascetical works. See Doring, *Deutsche Kanzelredner; *Winer, *Handbuch der theol. Lit. *2:47, 157, 168, 201, 204, 312. (B.P.)

Hafen, Johann Baptist a Roman Catholic theologian, who died June 27, 1870, is the author of, *Streongkirchlichkeit und Liberalismus in der Kathol. Kirche *(Ulm, 1842): — *Behandlung der Ehesachen im Bisthum Rottenbuig *(1867): — *Predigten *(1865, 3 volumes). (B.P.)

Kalybe *SEE CHAPEL*.

Kama the Hindu *deva *or deity of Love, one of the most pleasing creations of Hindu fiction, is, in the Sanscrit poetr of later periods, the favorite theme of descriptions and allusions. The genealogy of this deity is quite obscure; according to some Puranas, he was originally a son of Brahma; according to others, a son of Dharma (the genius of Virtue), by Sraddha (the genius of Faith), herself a daughter of Daksha, who. was one of the mind-born sons of Brahma. The god Siva, being on one occasion greatly incensed at Kama, reduced him to ashes; but ultimately, moved by the affliction of Rati (Voluptuousness), the wife of Kama, he promised her that her husband should be reborn as a son of Krishna, and he was accordingly born under the name *of Pradyumna, *who was' the god of Love. " But when the infant was six days old it was stolen from the lying-in chamber by the terrible daemon Sambara; for the latter foreknew that Pradyumna, if he lived, would be his destroyer. The boy was thrown into the ocean, and swallowed by a large fish. Yet he did not die, for that fish was caught by fishermen, and delivered to Mayavati, the mistress of Sambara's household; and, when it was cut open, the child was taken from it. While Mayavati wondered who this could be, the divine sage Narada satisfied her curiosity, and counseled her to rear tenderly this offspring of Krishna. She acted as he advised her; and when Pradyumna grew up, and learned his own history, he slew the daemon Sambara. Mayavati, however, was later apprized by Irishna that she was not the wife of Sambara, as she had fancied herself to be, but that of Pradyumna-in fact, another form of Rati, who was the wife of Kama in his former existence. In the representations of Kama we find him holding in one hand a bow made of sugar-cane, and strung with bees, in the other an arrow tipped with the blossom of a flower which is supposed to conquer one of the senses. His standard is, agreeably to the legend above mentioned, a fabulous fish, called Makara; and he rides on a parrot or sparrow-the symbol of voluptuousness. His epithets are numerous, but easily accounted for from the circumstances named, and from the effects of love on the mind and senses. Thus he is called *Makaradhwaja, 'the *one who has Makara in his banner;' *Mada, *'the maddener,' etc. 'His wife, as before stated, is *Rati; *she is also called *Kamakala, *'a portion of Kama,' or *Priti, *'affection.' His daughter is *Trisha,* 'thirst or desire;' and his son is *Aniruddha, *'the irresistible.' See Muller, *Chips, *vol. ii, ch. i, especially p. 127-135; Vollmer, *Mythol. Wortenbuch, *p. 1008.

Kama. *SEE TALMUD***.**

Kama in Hindu mythology, is the Indian god of love; verbally the word means "desire." He is the son of heaven and disappointment, and is also called the heart-entering, bodiless, restless god, surnames which are all very significant. Tenderness (Retti) is his wife, and Vassant (blooming-time) his companion, who continually fills his quiver with buds as arrow-points. His favorite residence is at Agra, for there the women are the most beautiful of all portions of India. Kama has a visible form, but because he disturbed Hara, the ruler of creation, in his practices, the latter burned him to ashes by one look, and since then he is called bodiless. He is represented riding on a parrot. His bow is made of sugar-cane. His arrow-points are the rosy. red blooming buds of the amra-tree. The gods sought to induce Siva to a new marriage, and therefore turned to the god of love, under whose influence Siva soon married.

Kamawachara, the Buddhist name of one of the three divisions of the *Sakwala *(q.v.), and refers to the worlds in which there is form, with sensual enjoyment. The Buddhist affirms that there are innumerable worlds, but only three kinds of them, viz. **(1) **worlds in which there is no perceptible form; **(2) **worlds in which there is form, but no sensual enjoyment; **(3) **and lastly, the *Kamawachara *explained above. See Hardy, *Manual of Buddhism, *p. 3 sq.

Kamdeva in Hindu mythology, is the divine cow that can fulfil all desires, produced while the Amrita was in process of preparation, by turning the mountain Mandar into the sea of milk. She was presented by Indra to the Brahmin Jamadagai, who was therefore supernatural, wealthy, and honored everywhere. An evil-minded king, Shawkawser, ruler of Ayadhya, came, to him with his whole train of followers, and entertainment was given with the aid of the cow. Then he demanded the cow, which was refused, whereupon the evil king made war on the Brahmin; but the cow slew all his army, and ascended again to heaven. The king sought revenge by killing the wise Brahmin; thereupon the cow hurried to the son of the murdered Brahmin, Parasu Rama, and called him to avenge the death of his father; the cow so assisted him that the evil king was slain.

Kamenker**.** *SEE MEIR, MOSE*.

Kami (or *Happy Spirits) *is the name given in Japanese mythology to certain spirits or divinities who founded the first terrestrial dynasty. All primitive mythologies are coupled with and made to rise out of cosmogony. Unfortunately, however, the cosmogony of the Japanese is not only of the wildest sort, but so mixed with that of the Chinese that it is very difficult to speak with any certainty of this ancient religion. From primeval chaos, say the Japanese, there sprung a selfcreated, supreme God, who fixed his abode in the highest heaven, and could not have his tranquillity disturbed by any cares. Next there arose two plastic, creative gods, who framed the universe out of chaos. The universe was then governed for myriads of years by seven gods in succession. They are called the Celestial Gods. The last of them was the only one that had a wife, and to him the earth we inhabit owes its existence. In what may be called the Genesis of the Japanese Bible the creation of the world is thus narrated: "In the beginning there was neither heaven nor earth. The elements of all things formed a liquid and troubled mass, similar to the contents of an undeveloped egg, in which the white and the yellow are still mingled together. Out of the infinite space which this chaos filled a god arose, called the divine Supreme Being, whose throne is in the centre of heaven. Then came the celestial reason exalted above the creation; finally, the terrestrial reason who is the sublime spirit. Each one of these three primitive gods had his own existence, but they were not yet revealed beyond their spiritual natures. Then, by degrees, the work of separation went on in chaos. The tiniest atoms, moving in different directions, formed the heavens. The grosser atoms attaching themselves to each other, and adhering, produced the earth The former, moving rapidly, constructed the vault of the firmament which arches above our heads; the latter, being slowly drawn together in a solid body did not form the earth until at a much later period. When the earthly matter still floated as a fish that comes to the surface of the waters, or as the image of the moon that trembles on a limpid lake, there appeared between the heavens and the earth something similar to a piece of reed, endowed with movement, and capable of transformation. It was changed into three gods, which are: the August one, reigning perpetually over the empire; he who reigns by virtue of water; and he who reigns by virtue of fire. All three were of the male sex, because they owed their origin to the action of the divine reason alone. After the first three males there came three pairs of gods and goddesses, reigning over the elements of wood, metal, and earth. This second dynasty contained as many goddesses as gods, because the terrestrial united equally with the celestial reason in producing them. The first of the seven gods commenced the creation of the earth, and all together personify the elements of the creation. The sera of the celestial gods, commencing with the first and terminating with the last male and female pair, who were called Izanaghi and Izanami, continued for millions of millions of years. "But the world, and, most important of all, the empire of Japan, was not yet created. The, account given, therefore, is very circumstantial. One day, when the god and goddess were sitting together on the arch of the sky, they happened to talk of the possible existence of an inferior world. "There should be somewhere," said zanaghi at length to his wife, " a habitable earth. Let us seek it under the waters that are seething beneath us." He plunged his spear into the water, and, as he withdrew it, some turbid drops trickled from the diamond point of his javelin, congealed, and formed a great island, upon which the pair descended, determined to make it the beginning of a grand archipelago. From out the waters Izanaghi raised the island of Awadzi, then the mountainous Oho-yamato, rich in fruits and with fine harbors; then the others in succession, until the empire of the eight great islands was completed. The smaller islands were then made, six in number; and the islets scattered here and there formed themselves afterwards from the mixture of the sea-foam and the deposits of the rivers. Eight millions of gods (genii) were then called into existence, and ten thousand kinds of things, out of which came everything that can be found in the earth. Upon the completion of this work, Izanaghi and his wife made the earth their habitation, and became the progenitors of the five dynasties of terrestrial deities, who in turn governed the earth during two million and odd years. The last of these, having married a terrestrial wife, left a mortal son upon earth named Linmou-tenwou, the ancestor and progenitor of the races of men, the first of the mikados. *SEE MIKADO*. Born upon earth, Linmou-tenwou was -of course mortal. His parents, especially the tender Izanami, trembled at the thought that she must one day close the eyes of her children, and yet continue to enjoy immortality herself. They therefore conferred upon their terrestrial offspring the gift of immortality, the power of mediation between the gods and man-made them immortal kamis, happy spirits, worthy of divine honors. This is the point where the Japanese commence their history, and hence their doctrine, that the spirits of human beings survive the body, and, according to the actions of the individual in life, receive reward or punishment. When a man's life has been. distinguished for piety, for patriotism, or for good works, the Japanes deify him, after death, as a kami, and thus the number of these demigods has become indefinite. Some of these spirits preside specially over the; elements and powers of nature. The worship of these demigods or Kami is called *Kami-no-mitsi, *or "the way of the Kami." It possesses some features which are found in the religious observances of no other race. There are chapels dedicated to the several Kamis in all parts of the empire, but they are most numerous and celebrated in the southern islands. "' These chapels are called *mias. *They are always built in the most picturesque localities, and especially where there is a grove of high trees. Sometimes a splendid avenue of pines or cedars conducts to the sacred place, which is always approached through one or more detached portals, called *tors, *like the pyle of the Egyptian temples. 'The chapel is usually set upon a hill, natural or artificial, buttressed with Cyclopean walls, and with a massive stone stairway leading to the top. At the foot of the stairs there is a small building containing a tank of water for ablutions. The chapel itself is usually small, and very simple in its plan, much resembling the native dwelling-house. Three sides are closed, and one is open to sun and air. The woodwork is kept scrupulously clean, and the floor is covered with the finest matting. The altar, which stands alone in the centre, is ornamented with a plain disk of metal, but no statues or symbolical figures are to be seen, and very rarely emblems of any kind. Nevertheless, there are sometimes stationed at the head of the staircase, coutside of the chapel, sitting figures resembling dogs and unicorns, which are said to represent the elements of water and fire. The interior is generally hung with strips or ribbons of colored paper, the exact significance of which is not yet clearly understood. The chapels are also ornamented by their pious votaries with colored lanterns, vases of perfume, and of flowers or evergreen branches, which are renewed as fast as they wither. At the foot of the altar there is a heavy chest with a metal grating, through which fall the pieces of money contributed: it is hardly necessary to say that the priest carries a key to the box. These mias were originally commemorative chapels, erected in honor of Japanese heroes, like that of Tell by the lake of the Four Forest Cantons. The prince of the province which had given birth to the hero, or where his deeds had been performed, took upon himself the charge of keeping the chapel in repair; there was no priest to officiate at the altar of the kami; no privileged caste interposed between the adorer and the object of his worship. The act of adoration, in fact, performed before the mirror (representing that bequeathed by the goddess Izanami to her children), passed beyond the guardian spirit of the chapel, and reached the supreme god above him. The chapel, therefore, was open to all; the worship was voluntary, and offered as the individual might choose, no ceremonial being prescribed. With the introduction of Buddhism; however, an important change took place. The new faith was sufficiently incorporated with the old to transfer the chapels to the special charge of the priests [called *Kami-nusi, *or 'ministers of the spirits'], and to introduce, in place of the voluntary, formless worship of the people, a system of processions, litanies, offerings, and even of miracle- working images. Indeed, almost the only difference between this system and the worship of the saints in Catholic countries lies in the circumstance that the priests who officiate only put on their surplices for the occasion, and become secular again when they leave the chapel" (Bayard Taylor's *Japan, *p. 255 sq., in the excellent collection of Scribner's *Library of Wonders, Travels, *etc., N. Y., 1872, 12mo). Compare Humbert, *Sojourn in Japan, *transl. in *Ladies' Repository, *March, 1870, p. 184 sq.; Macfarlane, *Japan *(London, 1852, 8vo), p. 204 sq.; Siebold, *Aippon, *i, 3 sq.; ii, 51; Kampfer, *Japan, *in Pinkerton, 7:672 sq.; Tylor, *Primitive Culture *(London, 1871,'2 vols. 8vo), vol. ii (see Index) (J. H.W.)

Kamisimo a garment of ceremony among the Japanese, worn on festival and other solemn occasions. It consists of two parts, a short cloak without sleeves, called *katageno, *and a short petticoat, called *rakama, *fastened about the waist by a band.

Kammon. *SEE CUMIN*.

Kampanton, Isaac Ben-Jacob, a Jewish rabbi of some note, was born in Castile in 1360. Of his personal history but little is known. He was gaon of Castile, and is particularly- noted for his contributions to Talmudical literature, and his influence, through his pupils, on Jewish literature of the 15th century in the Spanish peninsula. He died at Penjafiel in 1463. One of his most important works is דרכר התלמוד *(Ways of the Talmud, *first published at Mantua in 1596), an introduction to the study of the Talmud (really a methodology). See Gratz, *Gesch. d. Juden, 8:*152; Jost, *Gesch. d. Judenthums, 3:*87; Fiirst, *Biblioth. Jud. *i, 140. (J. H.W.)

Kampfer, Peter Christian a Protestant theologian of Germany, was born November 13, 1702. He studied at Rostock, was in 1736 professor of metaphysics there, in 1739 deacon, and took his degree as doctor of divinity in 1749. He died May 13, 1755. His writings are, *De Usu Terminorum Ecclesiasticorum *(Rostock, 1730): — De *Litteris Atque Punctis in Scripturea Veteris Testamenti Hebraicis *(ibid. 1734): — *De Origine Atque Indole ro v Keri et Chetibh *(ibid. 1739): — *De Litteris, Vocalibus et Accentibus in Scriptura V. T. Hebraicis *(ibid. 1742): — *Modus Praedicationis Paulince per Exegesin Dicti *1 *Corinthiansii,4 Sistens *(ibid. 1749). See Doring, *Die gelehrten Theologen Deutschlands, *s.v. (B.P.)

Kampfschulte, Franz Wilhelm a Roman Catholic theologian of Germany, was born November 12, 1831, at Wickede, in Westphalia. He studied at Paderborn, Miinster, and Berlin, took the degree of doctor of philosophy in 1859, and commenced his academical career in Bonn, where he was also made professor in 1861. He died December 3, 1872, a member of the Old Catholic Church. He published, *De Georgio Wicelio *(Paderborn, 1856): — *Die Universitdt Erfurt in ihrem Verhaltniss zur Reformation *(Treves, 1858-60, 2 volumes): — *De Joanne Croto Rubiano *(Bonn, 1862): *— Zur Geschichte des Mittelalters *(ibid. 1864): — *Johann Calvin, seine Kirche und sein Staat in Genf *(Leipsic, 1869, volume 1). See Zuchold, *Bibl. Theol. *1:644; *Literarischer Handweiser fur das katholische Deutschland, *1871, col. 111 sq.; 1873, col. 171 sq. (B.P.)

Kamsin. *SEE SIMOOM*.

Kamtchatka, a peninsula in the extreme northeast of Asia, occupied by the Russians from 1696 to 1706, extends between the seas of Kamtchatka and Ochotzk, from latitude 510 to 61° N.,-and contains 20,800 square miles, and about 4500 inhabitants, one third of whom are Russians. The former principal place, Nishnei Kamtschatk, on the mouth of the Kamtchatka River, has hardly 200 inhabitants. Petropaulovsk, the present capital, is the seat of a Russo-American trading company, and has a population of about 1000. Until 1856 Kamtchatka was a separate district; at present it constitutes the district Petropaulovsk, of the coast district of Eastern Siberia. The Kamtchadales inhabit, besides Kamtchatka, also a part of the Kurile Islands. They belong to the Mongolian race, are small. have thick heads, and flat, broad faces, and small eyes, which are frequently inflamed by the snow. Though baptized, the Kamtchadales are still addicted to Shamanism (q.v.), and, in particular, practice sorcery. They are fond cf hunting and fishing, good-natured, and hospitable. (A. J. S.)

Kamyu-Murunu *(desire for death), *modes of suicide formerly prescribed in the Hindu Shastras (q.v.). The commonest mode is drowning in the Ganges, but sometimes the suicide submits to being buried alive. There was formerly an instrument kept by which a person could decapitate himself. It consisted of a sharp, crescent-shaped knife, with a chain and stirrup to each horn. The devotee placed the sharp edge on the back of his neck, and his feet in the stirrups, then gave a violent jerk with his legs, and his head was instantly severed from his body.

Kana (Heb. ספר הקנה), the name of one of the later cabalistic works treating of the religious rites of the Jews, has attained considerable notoriety on account of its decided opposition not only to all the Jewish ritual, to Talmudical interpretation; and to the Talmud itself, but for its fierce attacks even against Biblical Judaism. Its authorship is undecided, but of late most Jewish critics lean to the opinion that Kana and another cabalistic work entitled *Pelia *(פליאה, published at Kores in 1784, and often), an interpretation of the first book of the Law (Genesis), were written by one and the same person, and belong to a Spanish Jewish heretic of the 15th century or thereabout. Dr. Jellinek *(Bet-tHa-Midrash, *iii; Einl. p. 38 sq.) thinks both the production of an Italian or Greek Jew. See, for further details, Grlitz, *Gesch. d. Juden, 8:*230 sq., 458 sq. See also CABALA. (J. H.W.)

Ka'nah (Heb. *Kanah', *קָנָהֹ*, reedy; *Sept. Κανά v. r. Κανθάν), the name of two places in Palestine. **1. **A stream (נִחִל, *torrent *or wady, q. d. "the brook of reeds," as in the marg.) that formed the boundary between Ephraim and Manasseh, from the Mediterranean eastward to the vicinity of Tappuah (Jos 16:8); lying properly within the territory of Manasseh, although the towns on its southern bank were assigned to the tribe of Ephraim (Jos 17:9; see Keil, *Comment. *ad loc. prior.). *SEE TRIBE*. Schwarz says it is to be still found in the equivalent Arabic name *Wady al-Kazah *(valley of reeds), that rises in a spring of the same name, Ain *al-Kazah, *one mile west of Shechem, and, after flowing westerly, acquiring a considerable breadth, and irrigating fields on its way, finally falls into the Mediterranean south of Caesarea *(Palestine, p. *51). Other travellers, however, do not speak of such a stream unless it be the *Nahr el-Kezib *(river of reeds) .spoken of in the *Life of Saladin *(p. 191, 193) as existing between Caesarea and Arroplo (Arsuf), and supposed to be represented by the Nahr-Arsuf (otherwise el- Kassah) which enters the Mediterranean due west of Sebustieh (Samaria). Dr. Robinson, in his last visit to Palestine, discovered a *Wady Kanah,* south-west of Shechem, which he describes as originating in a spring of the same name in the; plain el-Mukhna (south of Nablus), and running between deep and rugged banks westerly to the plain bordering the Mediterranean, near Hableh, where it is wide. and cultivated, and bears a different name *(Researches, *new edit., 3:135); from which it appears that it joins the Nahr el-Aujeh, as laid down on his map. This however, is too southern a position for the stream in question; for it would wholly cut off Ephraim from the sea-coast, and confine its territory within very narrow limits (Thomson, *Land and Book, *ii, 259). In the absence of more specific information respecting this region, we may conclude that the name ".Brook of Reeds" is a designation of the sedgy streams that constitute the *Nahr Falaik *(comp. the A*rundinetis, *between Casarea and Apollonia, spoken of by Schultens, *Vita Saladini, *p. 191, 193), perhaps including its middle branch, called Wady Mussin or Sileh (on Van de Velde's *Map). *Dr. Thomson *(ut *sp.) thinks it is the present *Abu Zabura; *but this, again, seems rather too far north. **2. **A town in the northern part of Asher, not very far from its eastern border, mentioned in connection with Hammon and Zidon (Jos 19:22). Dr. Robinson identifies it with *Kana, *a large village on the brow of a valley not far south-east of the site of Tyre *(Researches, 3:*384). So also Schwarz *(Palest. *p. 192), Van de Velde *(Memoir, *p. 327), and Porter *(Handbook for Palestine, *p. 325, 442). About a mile north of the place is a very ancient site, strewn with ruins, some of them of colossal proportions; and in: the side of a ravine not very far distant are some singular figures of men, women, and children cut on the face of a cliff (Thomson, *Land and Book, *i, 298). Tristram *(Land of Israel, p. *58) regards them as Phoenician. *SEE INSCRIPTIONS*.

Kanah Of Asher The modern village *Kana, *which has usually been identified with this site, lies seven and a quarter miles south-east of Tyre; but this is too far south for the requirements of the Biblical account (Jos 19:28). The antiquities in the vicinity, including the remarkable figures on the rocks, are described in the *Memoirs *accompanying the Ordnance Survey (1:64). A more probable position is that of *Ain Kanah, *"twenty miles farther north, on the edge of the hills, ten miles inland, but in sight of Sidon" (Tristram, *Bible Places, *page 293; where, however, the author confounds the description of this with that of the foregoing; see his *Land of Israel, *page 58). It lies beyond the limits of the Ordnance Survey.

Kancheliyas a Hindu sect, not uncommon in the south of India, whose worship is that of *Sakti, *the personified energy of the divine nature in action. They insist upon a community of women, and are far gone in bestiality.

Bab'ylon (Hebrews and Chald. *Babel', *בָּבֶל, Gr. Βαβυλών), the name of more than one city in the Scriptures and other ancient writings. *SEE BABEL*. **I. **Originally the capital of the country called in Genesis *Shinar *(שַׁנַעָר), and in the later Scriptures *Chaldaea, *or the land of the Chaldeans (כִּשׂדַּים). See those articles severally. **1*. ****The Name. — *The word *Babel *seems to be connected in its first occurrence with the Hebrew root בָּלִל*, balal', "*to confound" (as if by contraction from the reduplicated form בִּלבֶּל, *Balbel'), *"because the Lord did there confound the language of all the earth" (Ge 11:9); but the native etymology (see the *Koran, *2, 66) is *Bab-il, *"the gate of the god *Il," *or perhaps more simply "the gate of God;" and this no doubt was the original intention of the appellation as given by Nimrod, though the other sense came to be attached to it after the confusion of tongues (see Eichhorn, *Biblioth. d. bibl. Lit. *3, 1001). Another derivation deduces the word from בִּאב בֵּל, "the court or city of Belus" (see Abulfeda in Rosenmüller, *Alterth. *2, 60), or בִּראּבֵּל (=בַּיר), *Bel's Hill *(Furst, *Hebrews Handw. *s.v.). A still different etymology is proposed by Tuch *(Genesis *p. 276), from בֵּית בֵּל*, "*the house of Bel." Whichever of these etymologies may be regarded as the preferable one, the name was doubtless understood or accommodated by the sacred writer in Genesis so as to be expressive of the disaster that soon befell the founders of the place. In the Bible at a later date the place is appropriately termed "Babylon the Great" (בָּבֶל הָרחָבָה*, *Jer 51:58; בָּבֶל רִבּשׁתָא, Da 4:27), and by Josephus also *(Ant. *8, 6, 1, ἡ μεγάλη Βαβυλών). The name *Babylon *is likewise that by which it is constantly denominated in the Sept. and later versions, as well as by the Apocrypha (1 Maccabees 6:4; Susann. 1:5) and New Test. (Ac 7:43), and finally by the ancient Greek and Roman writers (see Smith, *Diet. of Class. Geogr. *s.v.). On the outlandish name *Shesh ik *(שֵׁשִׁך), applied to it in Jer 25:26; Jer 51:41, see the various conjectures in Rosenmüller, *Alterth. *1, 2, 50 sq. The Jews believe it is a cabalistic mode of writing by the method known as "Athbash" (q.v.). *SEE SHISHAK*. The word "Babel," besides its original application to the tower (Ge 11:9), and its usual one (in the original) to the city of Babylon, is also occasionally applied to the whole district of Chaldea, coincident with the plain of Shinar (Isa 14:2), as well as to Babylonia, the province of the Assyrian empire of which it was the metropolis (2Ch 32:31; 2Ch 33:11), and eventually to Persia itself (Ezr 5:13; Ne 13:6). *SEE NINEVEH*. **2. ***Origin and Growth of the City. — *This famous city was the metropolis of the province of Babylon and of the Babylonio-Chaldaean empire. It was situated in a wide plain on the Euphrates, which divided it into two nearly equal parts. According to the book of Genesis, its foundations were laid at the same time with those of the Tower of Babel. In the revolutions of centuries it underwent many changes, and received successive reparations and additions. The ancients were not agreed as to the authors or times of these, and any attempt to determine them now with strict accuracy must be fruitless. Semiramis and Nebuchadnezzar are those to whom the city was indebted for its greatest augmentations and its chief splendor. Probably a temple was the first building raised by the primitive nomades, and in the gate of this temple justice would be administered in early times (comp. 2Sa 19:8), after which houses would grow up about the gate, and in this way the name would readily pass from the actual portal of the temple to the settlement. According to the traditions which the Greeks derived from the Babylonians in Alexander's age, the city was originally built about the year B.C. 2230. The architectural remains discovered in southern Babylonia, taken in conjunction with the monumental records, seem to indicate that it was not at first the capital, nor, indeed, a town of very great importance. It probably owed its position at the head of Nimrod's cities (Ge 10:10) to the power and pre-eminence to which it afterward attained rather than to any original superiority that it could boast over the places coupled' with it. *Erech, Ur, *and *Ellasar *appear to have been all more ancient than Babylon, and were capital cities when *Babil *was a provincial village. The first rise of the Chaldaean power was in the region close upon the Persian Gulf, as Berosus indicated by his fish-god Oannes, who brought the Babylonians civilization and the arts out of the sea (ap. Syncell. p. 28, B). Thence the nation spread northward up the course of the rivers, and the seat of government moved in the same direction, being finally fixed at Babylon, perhaps not earlier than B.C. 1700. See ASSYRIA. **3. ***Its Fall and subsequent Condition. — *Under Nabonnadus, the last king, B.C. 538, Babylon was taken by Cyrus, after a siege of two years, in the dead of the night. Having first, by means of its canals, turned the river into the great dry lake west of Babylon, and then marched through the emptied channel, he made his way to the outer walls of the fortified palace on its banks, when, finding the brazen gates incautiously left open by the royal guards while engaged in carousals, he entered with all his train; "'the Lord of Hosts was his leader," and Babylon, as an empire, was no more. An insurrection, under Darius Hystaspis (B.C. 500), the object of which was to gain emancipation' from Persian bondage, led that prince to punish the Babylonians by throwing down the walls and gates which had been left by Cyrus, and by expelling them from their homes. Xerxes plundered and destroyed' the temple of Belus, which Alexander the Great would probably, but for his death, have restored. Under Seleucus Nicator the city began to sink speedily, after that monarch built Seleucia on the Tigris, and made it his place of abode. In the time of Strabo and Diodorus Siculus the place lay in ruins. Jerome, in the fourth century of the Christian era, learned that the site of Babylon had been converted into a park or hunting-ground for the recreation of the Persian monarchs, and that, in order to preserve the game, the walls had been from time to time repaired. If the following extract from Rich (p. 30) is compared with these historical facts, the prophecy of Isaiah (Isa 13:19) will appear to have been strikingly fulfilled to the letter: "I had always imagined the belief of the existence of satyrs was confined to the mythology of the West; but a choadar who was with me when I examined this ruin (the Mujelibeh) mentioned that in this desert an animal is found resembling a man from the head to the waist, but having the thighs and legs of a sheep or goat; he also said that the Arabs hunt it with dogs, and eat the lower parts, abstaining from the upper, on account of their resemblance to those of the human species." More thorough destruction than that which has overtaken Babylon cannot well be conceived. Rich was unable to discover any traces of its vast walls, and even its site has been a subject of dispute. "On its ruins," says he, "there is not a single tree growing, except an old one," which only serves to make the desolation more apparent. Ruins like those of Babylon, composed of rubbish impregnated with nitre, cannot be cultivated. For a more detailed account of the history of Babylon, see the article *SEE BABYLONIA*. **4. ***Ancient Descriptions. — *The statements respecting the topography and appearance of Babylon which have come down to us in classical writers are derived chiefly from two sources, the works of Herodotus and of Ctesias. These authors were both of them eyewitnesses of the glories of Babylon — not, indeed, at their highest point, but before they had greatly declined — and left accounts of the city and its chief buildings, which the historians and geographers of later times were, for the most part, content to copy. To these accounts are to be added various other details by Quintus Curtius, and Pliny, and a few notices by other ancient visitors. According to the account of Herodotus (1, 178-186) the walls of Babylon were double, the outer line being 56 miles in circumference, built of large bricks cemented together with bitumen, and raised round the city in the form of an exact square; hence they measured 14 miles along each face. They were 87 feet thick and 350 feet high (Quintus Curtius says four horse-chariots could pass each other on them without danger), protected on the outside by a vast ditch lined with the same material, and proportioned in depth and width to the elevation of the walls. The city was entered by twenty-five gates on each side, made of solid brass, and additionally strengthened by 250 towers, so placed that between every two gates were four towers, and four additional ones at the four corners. From all the gates proceeded streets running in straight lines, each street being nearly fifteen miles in length, fifty in number, and crossing each other at right angles. Other minor divisions occurred, and the whole city contained 676 squares, each about two miles and a quarter in circumference. Herodotus appears to imply that this whole space was covered with houses, which, he observes, were frequently three or four stories high. The river ran through the city from north to south, and on each side was a quay of the same thickness as the walls of the city, and 100 stadia in length. In these quays were gates of brass, and from each of them steps descending into the river. A bridge was thrown across the river, of great beauty and admirable contrivance, a furlong in length and 30 feet in breadth. As the Euphrates overflows during the summer months, through the melting of the snows on the mountains of Armenia, two canals were cut to turn the course of the waters into the Tigris, and vast artificial embankments were raised on each side of the river. On the western side of the city an immense lake, forty miles square, was excavated to the depth, according to Herodotus, of 35 feet, and into this lake the river was turned till the work was completed. At each end of the bridge was a palace, and these had a subterraneous communication. In each division of the town, Herodotus says, there was a fortress or stronghold, consisting in the one case of the royal palace, in the other of the great temple of Belus. This last was a species of pyramid, composed of eight square towers placed one above the other, the dimensions of the basement tower being a stade — or above 200 yards — each way. The height of the temple is not mentioned by Herodotus. A winding ascent, which passed round all the towers, led to the summit, on which was placed a spacious ark or chapel, containing no statue, but regarded by the natives as the habitation of the god. The temple stood in a sacred precinct, two stades (or 400 yards) square, which contained two altars for burntofferings and a sacred ark or chapel, wherein was the golden image of Bel. According to Ctesias (ap. *Diod. Sic. *2, 7 sq.), the circult of the city was a little under 42 miles. It lay, he says, on both sides of the Euphrates, and the two parts were connected together by a stone bridge above 1000 yards long, and 30 feet broad, of the kind described by Herodotus. At either extremity of the bridge was a royal palace, that in the eastern city being the most magnificent of the two. It was defended by a triple *enceinte, *the outermost 7 miles round; the second, which was circular, 4.5 miles; and the third 2.25 miles. The height of the second or middle wall was 300 feet, and its towers were 420 feet. The elevation of the innermost circuit was even greater than this. The walls of both the second and the third enclosure were made of colored brick, and represented hunting scenes — the chase of the leopard and the lion — with figures, male and female, regarded by Ctesias as those of Ninus and Semiramis. The other palace was inferior both in size and magnificence. It was enclosed within a single *enceinte *3.5 miles in circumference, and contained representations of hunting and battle scenes, as well as statues in bronze, said to be those of Ninus, Semiramis, and Jupiter Belus. The two palaces were joined, not only by the bridge, but by a tunnel under the river. Ctesias' account of the temple of Belus has not come down to us. We may gather, however, that he represented its general character in much the same way as Herodotus, but spoke of it as surmounted by three statues, one of Bel, 40 feet high, another of Rhea, and a third of Juno or Beltis. The account given by Quintus Curtius (v. 1) of the entrance of Alexander into Babylon may serve to enliven the narrative, and, at the same time, make the impression on the reader's mind more distinct. "A great part of the inhabitants of Babylon stood on the walls, eager to catch a sight of their new monarch. Many went forth to meet him. Among these, Bagophanes, keeper of the citadel and of the royal treasure, strewed the entire way before the king with flowers and crowns; silver altars were also placed on both sides of the road, which were loaded not merely with frankincense, but all kinds of odoriferous herbs. He brought with him for Alexander gifts of various kinds — flocks of sheep and horses; lions also and panthers were carried before him in their dens. The magi came next, singing, in their usual manner, their ancient hymns. After them came the Chaldaeans, with their musical instruments, who are not only the prophets of the Babylonians, but their artists. The first are wont to sing the praises of the kings; the Chaldaeans teach the motions of the stars and the periodic vicissitudes of the times and seasons. Then followed, last of all, the Babylonian knights, whose equipment, as well as that of their horses, seemed designed more for luxury than magnificence. The king, Alexander, attended by armed men, having ordered the crowd of the towns-people to proceed in the rear of his infantry, entered the city in a chariot and repaired to the palace. The next day he carefully surveyed the household treasure of Darius, and all his money. For the rest, the beauty of the city and its age turned the eyes not only of the king, but of every one, on itself, and that with good reason." Within a brief period after this Alexander lay a corpse in the palace. One or two additional facts may aid in conveying a full idea of this great and magnificent city. When Cyrus took Babylon by turning the Euphrates into a neighboring lake, the dwellers in the middle of the place were not for some time aware that their fellow-townsmen who were near the walls had been captured. This, says Herodotus (i. 191), was owing to the magnitude of the city, and to the circumstance that at the time the inhabitants were engaged in carousals, it being a festive occasion. Nor, according to Xenophon, did the citizens of the opposite quarter learn the event till three hours after sunrise, the city having been taken in the night. Alexander had to employ 10,000 men during two months to remove the accumulated ruins precipitated by order of Xerxes nearly 200 years before. From the fallen towers of Babylon have arisen not only all the present cities in its vicinity, but others which, like itself, have long since gone down into the dust. Since the days of Alexander, four capitals, at least, have been built out of its remains: Seleucia, by the Greeks; Ctesiphon, by the Parthians; Al Maidan, by the Persians; and Kufa, by the caliphs; with towns, villages, and caravansaries without number. The necessary fragments and materials were transported along the rivers and the canals. The antiquity of the canals of Babylonia dates from the most remote periods of the Chaldaeo-Babylonian monarchy. The ancient kings of Assyria and Babylonia rwell understood the value of canals, and their empire arose upon alluvial plains, amid a system of irrigation and draining which spread like a net-work over the land. It may be sufficient to specify the Nahr Malikah, or Royal Canal, the origin of which has been referred both to Nimrod and Cush. Abydenus, however, attributes it to Nebuchadnezzar. From the account of Herodotus, it appears to have been of sufficient breadth and depth to be navigable for merchant vessels. It is not, therefore, surprising that some writers have considered it as the ancient bed of the Euphrates. The soil around Babylon is of a light, yielding nature, easily wrought for canals and other purposes, whether of art or war. Cyrus, therefore, would find no great difficulty in digging a trench about the city sufficient to contain the waters of the river *(Cyrop. *7). Alexander (Strabo, 16, p. 510), in enlarging one of the canals and forming basins for his fleet, laid open the graves of many buried kings and princes, which shows how readily the soil yields and gives way before the labors of man. The new palace built by Nebuchadnezzar was prodigious in size and superb in embellishments. Its outer wall embraced six miles; within that circumference were two other embattled walls, besides a great tower. Three brazen gates led into the grand area, and every gate of consequence throughout the city was of brass. In accordance with this fact are the terms which Isaiah (Isa 45:1-2) employs when, in the name of Jehovah, he promises Cyrus that the city should fall before him: "I will open before him the two-leaved gates; I will break in pieces the gates of brass;" a prophecy which was fulfilled to the letter when Cyrus made himself master of the place. The palace was splendidly decorated with statues of men and animals, with vessels of gold and silver, and furnished with luxuries of all kinds brought thither from conquests in Egypt, Palestine, and Tyre. Its greatest boast were the hanging gardens, which acquired even from Grecian writers the appellation of one of the wonders of the world. They are attributed to the gallantry of Nebuchadnezzar, who constructed them in compliance with a wish of his queen Amytis to possess elevated groves such as she had enjoyed on the hills around her native Ecbatana. Babylon was all flat; and to accomplish so extravagant a desire, an artificial mountain was reared, 400 feet on each side, while terraces one above another rose to a height that overtopped the walls of the city, that is, above 300 feet in elevation. The ascent from terrace to terrace was made by corresponding flights of steps, while the terraces themselves were reared to their various stages on ranges of regular piers, which, forming a kind of vaulting, rose in succession one over the other td the required height of each terrace, the whole being bound together by a wall of 22 feet in thickness. The level of each terrace or garden was then formed in the following manner: the top of the piers was first laid over with flat stones, 16 feet in length and 4 feet in width; on these stones were spread beds of matting, then a thick layer of bitumen; after which came two courses of bricks, which were covered with sheets of solid lead. The earth was heaped on this platform; and in order to admit the roots of large trees, prodigious hollow piers were built and filled with mould. From the Euphrates, which flowed close to the foundation, water was drawn up by machinery. The whole, says Q. Curtius (v. 5), had, to those who saw it from a distance, the appearance of woods overhanging mountains. Such was the completion of Nebuchadnezzar's work, when he found himself at rest in his house, and flourished in his palace: The king spoke and said, "Is not this great Babylon that I have built for the house of the kingdom by the might of my power and the honor of my majesty" (Daniel 4), a picture which is amply justified by the descriptions of heathen writers. Nowhere could the king have taken so comprehensive a view of the city he had so magnificently constructed and adorned as when walking on the highest terrace of the gardens of his palace. Babylon, as the center of a great kingdom, was the seat of boundless luxury, and its inhabitants were notorious for their addiction to self- indulgence and effeminacy. Q. Curtius (v. 1) asserts that "nothing could be more corrupt than its morals, nothing more fitted to excite and allure to immoderate pleasures. The rites of hospitality were polluted by the grossest and most shameless lusts. Money dissolved every tie, whether of kindred, respect, or esteem. The Babylonians were very greatly given to wine and the enjoyments which accompany inebriety. Women were present at their convivialities, first with some degree of propriety, but, growing worse and worse and worse by degrees, they ended by throwing off at once their modesty and their clothing." Once in her life, according to(Herodotus (1, 199), every native female was obliged to visit the temple of Mylitta, the Babylonian Astarte (q.v.) or Venus, and there receive the embraces of the first stranger who threw a piece of money into her lap; an abominable custom, that is alluded to in the Apocrypha (Baruch 6:43) and by Strabo (vi. 1058). On the ground of their awful wickedness, the Babylonians were threatened with condign punishment, through the mouths of the prophets; and the tyranny with which the rulers of the city exercised their sway was not without a decided effect in bringing on them the terrific consequences of the Divine vengeance. Nor in the whole range of literature is there any thing to be found approaching to the sublimity, force, and terror with which Isaiah and others speak on this painful subject (Isa 14:11; Isa 47:1; Jer 51:39; Da 5:1). Babylon even stands, therefore, in the New Test. (Re 17:5) as the type of the most shameless profligacy and idolatry. **5*. ****Investigation of the ancient Topography. — *In examining the truth of these descriptions, we shall most conveniently commence from the outer circuit of the town. All the ancient writers appear to agree in the fact of a district of vast size, more or less inhabited, having been enclosed within lofty walls, and included under the name of Babylon. With respect to the exact extent of the circuit they differ. The estimate of Herodotus and of Pliny *(H. N. *6, 26) is 480 stades, of Strabo (16, 1:5) 385, of Q. Curtius (v, 1:26) 368, of Clitarchus (ap. Diod. Sic. 2:7) 365, and of Ctesias (ap. eund.) 360 stades. It is evident that here we have merely the moderate variations to be expected in independent measurements, except in the first of the numbers. Setting this aside, the difference between the greatest and the least of the estimates is little more than one half per cent. With this near agreement on the part of so many authors, it is the more surprising that in the remaining case we should find the great difference of one third more, or 33.333 per cent. Perhaps the true explanation is that Herodotus spoke of the *outer *wall, which could be traced in his time, while the later writers, who never speak of an inner and an outer barrier, give the measurement of Herodotus's *inner *wall, which may have alone remained in their day. This is the opinion of M. Oppert, who even believes that he has found traces of both enclosures, showing them to have been really of the size ascribed to them. This conclusion is at present disputed, and it is the more general belief of those who have examined the ruins with attention that no vestiges of the ancient walls are to be found, or, at least, that none have as yet been discovered. Still it is impossible to doubt that a line of wall inclosing an enormous area originally existed. The testimony to this effect is too strong to be set aside, and the disappearance of the wall is easily accounted for, either by the constant quarrying, which would naturally have commenced with it (Rich, *First .Mem. *p. 44), or by the subsidence of the bulwark into the moat from which it was raised. Taking the lowest estimate of the extent of the circuit, we shall have for the space within the rampart an area of above 100 square miles-nearly five times the size of London. It is evident that this vast space cannot have been entirely covered with houses. Diodorus confesses (2, 9, *adfin.) *that but a small part of the enclosure was inhabited in his own day, and Q. Curtius (5, 1:27) says that as much as nine tenths consisted, even in the most flourishing times, of gardens, parks, paradises, fields, and orchards. With regard to the height and breadth of the walls there is nearly as much difference of statement as with regard to their extent. Herodotus makes the height 200 royal cubits, or 337.5 feet; Ctesias, 50 fathoms, or 300 feet; Pliny and Solinus, 200 royal feet; Strabo, 50 cubits, or 75 feet. Here there is less appearance of independent measurements than in the estimates of length. The two original statements seem to be those of Herodotus and Ctesias, which only differ accidentally, the latter having omitted to notice that the royal scale was used. The later writers do not possess fresh data; they merely soften down what seems to them an exaggeration-Pliny and Solinus changing the cubits of Herodotus into feet, and Strabo the fathoms of Ctesias into cubits. We are forced, then, to fall back on the earlier authorities, who are also the only eye-witnesses; and, surprising as it seems, perhaps we must believe the statement that the vast enclosed space above mentioned was surrounded by walls which have well been termed "artificial mountains," being nearly the height of the dome of St. Paul's (see Grote's *Greece, *3, 397; and, on the other side, Mure's *Lit. of Greece,* 4, 546). The ruined wall of Nineveh was, it must be remembered, in Xenophon's time. 150 feet high *(Anab. *3, 4, 10), and another wall which he passed in Mesopotamia was 100 feet *(ib. *2, 4, 12). The estimates for the thickness of the wall are the following: Herodotus, 50 royal cubits, or nearly 85 feet; Pliny and Solinus, 50 royal, or about 60 common feet; and Strabo, 32 feet. Here again Pliny and Solinus have merely softened down Herodotus; Strabo, however, has a new number. This may belong properly to the inner wall, which, Herodotus remarks (1, 181), was of less thickness than the outer. According to Ctesias, the wall was strengthened with 250 towers, irregularly disposed, to guard the weakest parts (Diod. Sic. 2:7); and, according to Herodotus, it was pierced with a hundred gates, which were made of brass, with brazen lintels and side-posts (1, 179). The gates and walls are alike mentioned in Scripture, the height of the one and the breadth of the other being specially noticed (Jer 51:58; comp. 1, 15, and 51:53). Herodotus and Ctesias both relate that the banks of the river, as it flowed through the city, were on each side ornamented with quays. The stream has probably often changed its course since the time of Babylonian greatness, but some remains of a quay or embankment on the eastern side of the stream still exist, upon the bricks of which is read the name of the last king. The two writers also agree as to the existence of a bridge, and describe it very similarly. Perhaps a remarkable mound which interrupts the long flat valley — evidently the ancient course of the river — closing in the principal ruins on the west, may be a trace of this structure. **6. ***Present Character and Extent of the Ruins of Babylon. — *The locality and principal structures of this once famous city are now almost universally admitted to be indicated by the remarkable remains near the modern village of *Hillah, *which lies on the W. bank of the Euphrates, about 50 miles directly S. of Bagdad. About five miles above Hillah, on the opposite bank of the Euphrates, occur a series of artificial mounds of enormous size, which have been recognized in all ages as probably indicating the site of the capital of southern Mesopotamia. They consist chiefly of three great masses of building — the high pile of unbaked brickwork called by Rich *"Mujellibe," *but which is known to the Arabs as *"Babil;" *the building denominated the *'Kasr" *or palace; and a lofty mound upon which stands the modern tomb of *Amran ibn-Alb *(Loftus's *Chaldea, *p. 17). Besides these principal masses the most remarkable features are two parallel lines of rampart bounding the chief ruins on the east, some similar but inferior remains on the north and west, an embankment along the river side, a remarkable isolated heap in the middle of a long valley, which seems to have been the ancient bed of the stream, and two long lines of rampart, meeting at a right angle, and with the river forming an irregular triangle, within which all the ruins on this side (except Babil) are enclosed. On the west, or right bank, the remains are very slight and scanty. There is the appearance of an enclosure, and of a building of moderate size within it, nearly opposite the great mound of *Amran, *but otherwise, unless at a long distance from the stream, this side of the Euphrates is absolutely bare of ruins. (See Rawlinson's *Herodotus, *2, 473). Scattered over the country on both sides of the Euphrates, and reducible to no regular plan, are a number of remarkable mounds, usually standing single, which are plainly of the same date with the great mass of ruins upon the river bank. Of these by far the most striking is the vast ruin called the *Birs Nimrud, *which many regard as the Tower of Babel, situated about six miles to the S.W. of Hillah, and almost that distance from the Euphrates at the nearest point. This is a pyramidical mound, crowned apparently by the ruins of a tower, rising to the height of 1531 feet above the level of the plain, and in circumference somewhat more than 2000 feet. *SEE BABEL (TOWER OF)*. There is considerable reason to believe from the inscriptions discovered on the spot, and from other documents of the time of Nebuchadnezzar, that it marks the site of Borsippa, and may thus have been beyond the limits of Babylon (Beros. *Fr. *14). **7. ***Identification of Sites. — *On comparing the existing ruins with the accounts of the ancient writers, the great difficulty which meets us is the position of the remains almost exclusively on the left bank of the river. All the old accounts agree in representing the Euphrates as running through the town, and the principal buildings as placed on the opposite sides of the stream. In explanation of this difficulty, it has been urged, on the one hand, that the Euphrates, having a tendency to run off to the right, has obliterated all trace of the buildings in this direction (Layard's *Nin. and Bab. *p. 420); on the other, that, by a due extension of the area of Babylon, it may be made to include the Birs Nimrud, and that thus the chief existing remains will really lie on the opposite banks of the river (Rich, *Second Memoir, *p. 32; Ker Porter, *Travels, *2, 383). But the identification of the Birs with Borsippa seems to interfere with this latter theory; while the former is unsatisfactory, since we can scarcely suppose the abrasion of the river to have entirely removed all trace of such gigantic buildings as those which the ancient writers describe. Perhaps the most probable solution is to be found in the fact that a large canal (called *Shebil) *intervened in ancient times between the *Kasr *mound and the ruin now called Babil, which may easily have been confounded by Herodotus with the main stream. This would have had the two principal buildings upon opposite sides; while the real river, which ran down the long valley to the west of the Kasr and Amran mounds, would also have separated (as Ctesias related) between the greater and the lesser palace. If this explanation be accepted as probable, we may identify the principal ruins as follows: **1. **The great mound of Babil will be the ancient temple of Belus. It is an oblong mass, composed chiefly of unbaked brick, rising from the plain to the height of 140 feet, flattish at the top, in length about 200, and in breadth about 140 yards. This oblong shape is common to the temples, or rather temple-towers of Lower Babylonia, which seem to have had nearly the same proportions. It was originally coated with fine burnt brick laid in an excellent mortar, as was proved by Mr. Layard *(Nin. and Bab. *p. 452); and was, no doubt, built in stages, most of which have crumbled down, but which may still be in part concealed under the rubbish. The statement of Berosus *(Fragm. *14), that it was rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar, is confirmed by the fact that all the inscribed bricks which have been found in it bear the name of that king. It formed the tower of the temple, and was surmounted by a chapel; but the main shrine, the altars, and no doubt the residences of the priests, were at the foot, in a sacred precinct. **2. **The mound of the Kasr will mark the site of the great palace of Nebuchadnezzar. It is an irregular square of about 700 yards each way, and may be regarded as chiefly formed of the old palace platform (which resembles those at Nineveh, Susa, and elsewhere), upon which are still standing certain portions of the ancient residences to which the name of *"Kasr" *or "palace" especially attaches. The walls are composed of burnt bricks, of a pale yellow color, and of excellent quality, bound together by a fine lime cement, and stamped with the name and titles of Nebuchadnezzar. They contain traces of architectural ornament piers, buttresses, pilasters, etc.; and in the rubbish at their base have been found slabs inscribed by Nebuchadnezzar, and containing an account of the building of the edifice, as well as a few sculptured fragments, and many pieces of enamelled brick of brilliant hues. On these last portions of figures are traceable, recalling the statements of Ctesias (ap. Diodor. Sicul.) that the brick walls of the palace were colored, and represented hunting-scenes. No plan of the palace is to be made out from the existing remains, which are tossed in apparent confusion on the highest point of the mound. **3. **The mound of *Armran *is thought by M. Oppert to represent the "hanging gardens" of Nebuchadnezzar; but this conjecture does not seem to be a very happy one. The mound is composed of poorer materials than the edifices of that prince, and has furnished no bricks containing his name. Again, it is far too large for the hanging gardens, which are said to have been only 400 feet each way. The Amran mound is described by Rich as an irregular parallelogram, 1100 yards long by 800 broad, and by Ker Porter as a triangle, the sides of which are respectively 1400, 1100, and 850 feet. Its dimensions therefore, very greatly exceed those of the curious structure with which it has been identified. Most probably it represents the ancient palace, coeval with Babylon itself, of which Nebuchadnezzar speaks in his inscriptions as adjoining his own more magnificent residence. It is the only part of the ruins from which bricks have been derived containing the names of kings earlier than Nebuchadnezzar, and is therefore entitled to be considered the most ancient of the existing remains. **4. **The ruins near each side of the Euphrates, together with all the other remains on the west bank, may be considered to represent the lesser palace of Ctesias, which is said to have been connected with the greater by a bridge across the river, as well as by a tunnel under the channel of the stream (!). The old course of the Euphrates seems to have been a little east of the present one, passing between the two parallel ridges near it at the bend in the middle, and then closely skirting the mound of Amran, so as to have both the ruins just named upon its right bank. These ruins are of the same date and style. The bricks of that on the east bank bear the name of Neriglissar; and there can be little doubt that this ruin, together with those on the opposite side of the stream, are the remains of a palace built by him. Perhaps (as already remarked) the little mound immediately south of this point, near the east bank, may be a remnant of the ancient bridge. **5. **The two long parallel lines of embankment on the east, which form so striking a feature in the remains as represented by Porter and Rich, but which are ignored by M. Oppert, may either be the lines of an outer and inner enclosure, of which Nebuchadnezzar speaks as defences of his palace, or they may represent the embankments of an enormous reservoir, which is often mentioned by that monarch as adjoining his palace toward the east. **6. **The southernmost embankment, near the east bank of the river, is composed of bricks marked with the name of Labynetus or *Nabunit, *and is undoubtedly a portion of the work which Berosus ascribes to the last king (*Fragm. *14) It must be admitted, however, that the foregoing scheme of identification (which is that proposed by Rawlinson, *Herodotus, *2, Essay 4) involves the improbable supposition of a mistake on the part of the ancient authorities concerning the course of the Euphrates through the middle of the city; it seems also unduly to restrict the ancient limits, and thus excludes the Birs Nimrud; and it affords no explanation of the remarkable line of mounds meeting in a right angle on the east of the ruins, and most naturally thought by nearly all topographers (Rich, Ker Porter, Flandin, Layard, and Fergusson) to have been one of the corners of the city wall. Nor does it altogether agree with the recent conjectural restoration of the royal residence at Babylon on the bold plan of M. Oppert (in the *Altas *accompanying his *Expedition en Mesopotamie, *Par. 1858), who supposes the extant remains opposite Hillah to be those alone of the palace, with its accompanying structures, and gardens, and enclosing walls, the double line of city walls being of much larger extent. He appears, however, to have disregarded many details of the modern as well as ancient indication in his identification (see Rawlinson, *ut sup. *p. 487 sq.). Perhaps it will yet appear that, while Rawlinson's locations (as above) are correct so far as concerns the royal buildings themselves, the chart of Oppert (given above) truly represents the entire circuit of the city; and that the palace, with its appendages, was enclosed in an interior quadrangle, which the river likewise divided diagonally, its eastern half corresponding to the triangle embracing the modern ruins here described. The most remarkable fact connected with the magnificence of Babylon is the poorness of the material with which such wonderful results were produced. The whole country, being alluvial, was entirely destitute of stone, and even wood was scarce and of bad quality, being only yielded by the palm-groves which fringed the courses of the canals and rivers. In default of these, the ordinary materials for building, recourse was had to the soil of the country — in many parts an excellent clay — and with bricks made from this, either sun-dried or baked, the vast structures were raised which, when they stood in their integrity, provoked comparison with the pyramids of Egypt, and which, even in their decay, excite the astonishment of the traveler. A modern writer has noticed, as the true secret of the extraordinary results produced, "the unbounded command of naked human strength" which the Babylonian monarchs had at their disposal (Grote's *Hist. of Greece, *2:401); but this alone will not account for the phenomena; and we must give the Babylonians credit for a genius and a grandeur of conception rarely surpassed, which led them to employ the labor whereof they had the command in works of so imposing a character. With only "brick for stone," and at first only "slime (חֵמָד) for mortar" (Ge 11:3), they constructed edifices of so vast a size that they still remain at the present day among the most enormous ruins in the world, impressing the beholder at once with awe and admiration. **8. ***Literature. — *For the descriptive portions, Rich's *Two Memoirs on Babylon; *Ker Porter's *Travels, *2:238 sq.; Layard's *Nineveh and Babylon, *ch. 22; Fresnel's *Two Letters to M. Mohl, *in the *Journal Asiatique, *June and July, 1853; Loftus's *Chaldea, *ch. 2; Olivier, *Voyages, *2:436 sq.; Maurice, *Observ. on the Ruins of Bab. *(Lond. 1816); Wellsted, *Travels *(Lond. 1838); Ritter, *Erdkunde, *11:865 sq.; Mannert, *Geographie, *VI, 1:408 sq.; Ainsworth's *Researches *(Lond. 1838); Chesney, *Euphrates Exped. *(Lond. 1850); Buckingham, *Trav. in Mesopotamia *(Lond. 1828); Mignan, *Trav. in Chaldaea *(Lond. 1829); Fraser, *Travels in Kurdistan *(Lond. 1840). On the identification of the ruins with ancient sites, compare Rawlinson's *Herodotus, *vol. 2, Essay 4; Oppert's *Maps *and *Plans *(Paris, 1858); Rennell's Essay in Rich's *Babylon and Persepolis *(Lond. 1839); *Jour. Royal Asiatic Soc. *(Lond. 1855), 15, pt. 2. On the architecture, Hirt, *Gesch. d. Baukunst, *1:145 sq.; Fergusson, *Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis *(Lond. 1851). On the religion, language, arts, and customs, Minter, *Rel. d. Babylon. *(Copenh. 1829); Miller, *Archaol. *p. 283 sq.; Botticher, *Vasengemalde, *1:105 sq.; Heine, *De Babylon. mulier. in temple Veneris, *in the *Comment. Soc. Gotting. *16:32 sq.; Bertholdt, *Ueb. d. Magier-Institut, *in his 3*te Exc. zu Daniel; *Wahl, *Gesch. d. morg. Sprach. *p. 570 sq. Jahn, *Einleit. *1:284; Grotefend, in the *Zeitschr. f. d. Kurde d. Morgenl. *1:212 sq.; 2:171 sq.; 3:179 sq.; Rawlinson, *Cuneiform Inscriptions *(Lond. 1850); *Jour. Sac. Lit. *Jan. 1859. *SEE BABYLONIA*. **II. **Another Babylon lay in Egypt, south of Heliopolis, on the east bank of the Nile (Strabo, 17:807); it was founded by Babylonians, who had emigrated to Egypt during the civil commotions between the two empires (Diod. Sic. 1:56; Josephus, *Ant. *2:15, 1). Its ruins are described by Hartmann (*Erdbeschr, v. Africa, *1926), Prokesch (*Erinnerungon, *1:59 sq.), and Champollion (*L'Egypte, *2:33). It is now called *Baboul *(Smith's *Dict. of Class. Geogr. *s.v.). **III. **The Babylon in 1Pe 5:13, is thought by some to be Rome, but by others (in accordance with a tradition of the Coptic Christians) to be the above place in Egypt. Baronius contradicts this last assertion by saying there is no mention of a *Bishop *of Babylon till 500 years after Peter's time, under Justin the Younger (see also Bertholdt, *Einl. *6:3063; Steiger, *Br. Pet. *p. 21 sq.). There is no good reason for supposing any other than ancient Babylon to be here meant, since it is known that this continued to be inhabited by Jews down to the Christian era (Gesen. *Jesa. *1:470. Compare Neander, *Ch. Hist. *1:79, 80; Davidson, *Introd. to N.T. *3*, *366. *SEE PETER (EPISTLES OF)*. **IV. **In the Apocalypse (Re 14:8; Re 16:19; Re 17:5; Re 18:2) Babylon stands for Rome, symbolizing heathenism: "Babylon is fallen, that great city, because she made all nations drink of the wine of the wrath of her fornication." This reference appears to have been derived from the practice of the Jews, who were accustomed to designate Rome, which they hated, by the opprobrious and not inappropriate name of Babylon (Schottgen, *Hor. Hebr. *1:1125). The literal Babylon was the beginner and supporter of. tyranny and idolatry; first by Nimrod or Ninus, and afterward by Nebuchadnezzar; and therefore, in Isa 47:12, she is accused of magical enchantments from her youth or infancy, i.e. from her very first origin as a city or nation. This city and its whole empire were taken by the Persians under Cyrus; the Persians were subdued by the Macedonians, and the Macedonians by the Romans; so that *Rome succeeded to the power of Old Babylon. *And it was her method to *adopt the worship *of the false deities she had conquered; so that by her own acts she became the *heiress and successor *of all the Babylonian idolatry, and of all that was introduced into it by the intermediate successors of Babylon, and consequently of all the idolatry of the earth. *SEE REVELATION*. Further, that Babylon is Rome is evident from the explanation given by the angel in Re 17:18, where it is expressly said to be "that great city which ruleth over the kings of the earth;" no other city but Rome being 'n the exercise of such power at the time when the vision was seen. That Constantinople is not meant by Babylon is plain also from what Mede has stated (*Works, *p. 922): "The seven heads of the beast (says he) are by the angel made a double type, both of the *seven hills *where the woman sitteth, and of the *seven sovereignties *with which in a successive order the beast should reign. This is a pair of fetters to tie both beast and whore to *Western Rome." *Rome or Mystic Babylon (says the same author, p. 484) is called the "Great City," not from any reference to its extent, but because it was the queen of other cities. See ROME.

Babylone, Franvois De a French engraver, flourished about 1550. He has sometimes been called the "Master of the Caduceus," from the wand which he adopted as a badge. The following are a few of his religious prints: *The Virgin Mary and Infant Resting on the Stump. of a Tree:-St. Joseph Resting his Head on his Hand. *Recent discoveries have shown that the real name of this artist: is *Jacques de Barbary. *See Spooner, *Biog. Hist. of the Fine Arts, *s.v.; Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, s.*v.

Babylonia (Βαβυλωνία), a name for the southern portion of Mesopotamia, constituting the region of which Babylon was the chief city. The latter name alone is occasionally used in Scripture for the entire region; but its most usual designation is CHALDEA *SEE CHALDEA *(q.v.). The Chaldaeans proper, or *Chasdim, *however, were probably originally from the mountainous region farther north, now occupied by the *Kurds *(with which name, indeed, many find an etymological connection; see Golius, *ad Alfrag. *p. 17; Rodiger, in the *Zeitschr. f. d. Kunde d. Morgenl. *3, 8), a portion of whom under the Assyrian sway may have migrated into Mesopotamia (see Isa 23:13), and thus eventually became masters of the rich plain of Shinar (see Vitringa, *ad Jesa. *1:412 sq.; Gesenius, art. *Chaldaer, *in Ersch and Gruber's *Encycl.*)*. *The original inhabitants nevertheless appear to have been of the Shemitic family (see Adelung, *Mithridat. *1:314 sq.; Olshausen, *Emend. zum A. T. *p. 41 sq.); and their language belonged to the class of tongues spoken by that race, particularly to the Aramaic branch, and was indeed a dialect similar to that which is now called the Chaldee. *SEE ARAMAEAN LANGUAGE; SEE CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS*. The two words, Babylonia and Chaldaea, were, however, sometimes used in another signification; Babylonia, as containing in an extended sense Assyria also and Mesopotamia, nearly all the countries which Assyria in its widest meaning embraced; while Chaldaea indicated, in a narrower signification, the south-western part of Babylonia between the Euphrates and Babylon (Strabo, 16; Ptol.). In Hebrew, Babylonia bore the name of SHINAR *SEE SHINAR *(q.v.), or "the land of Shinar;" while "Babylon" (Ps 137:1) and "the land of the Chaldaeans" (Jer 24:5; Eze 12:13) seem to signify the empire of Babylon. It is in the latter sense that we shall here treat it. *SEE CHALDAEANS*. **I. ***Geography and general Description. *— This province of Middle Asia was bordered on the north by Mesopotamia, on the east by the Tigris, on the south by the Persian Gulf, and on the west by the Arabian Desert. On the north it began at the point where the Euphrates and Tigris approach each other, and extended to their common outlet in the Persian Gulf, pretty nearly comprising the country now designated *Irak Arabi. *The climate is temperate and salubrious. The country in ancient times was very prolific, especially in corn and palms. Timber-trees it did not produce. Many parts have springs of naphtha. As rain is infrequent, even in the winter months, the country owes its fruitfulness to the annual overflow of the Euphrates and the Tigris, whose waters are conveyed over the land by means of canals. Quintus Curtius (i. 5) declares that the country between the Euphrates and the Tigris was covered with so rich a soil that the cattle were driven from their pastures lest they should be destroyed by satiety and fatness. During the three great empires of the East, no tract of the whole appears to have been so reputed for fertility and riches as the district of Babylonia, which arose in the main from the proper management of the mighty river which flowed through it. Herodotus mentions that, when reduced to the rank of a province, it yielded a revenue to the kings of Persia which comprised half their income. The terms in which the Scriptures describe its natural as well as its acquired supremacy when it was the imperial city, evidence the same facts. They call it "Babylon, the glory of kingdoms; the beauty of the Chaldee excellency; the lady of kingdoms, given to pleasure; that dwelleth carelessly, and sayeth in her heart *I am, *and there is none else beside me." But now, in the expressive and inimitable language of the same book, may it be said, "She sits as a widow on the ground. There is no more a throne for thee, O daughter of the Chaldaeans!" As for the abundance of the country, it has vanished as clean away as if "the besom of desolation" had swept it from north to south, the whole land, from the outskirts of Bagdad to the farthest reach of sight, lying a melancholy waste. In order to defend the country against hostile attacks from its neighbors, northward from Babylonia, between the two rivers, a wall was built, which is known under the name of the Median Wall (Xen. *Anab. *2:4,12). — The Babylonians were famous for the manufacture of cloth and carpets; they also excelled in making perfumes, in carving in wood, and in working in precious stones. They were a commercial as well as manufacturing people, and carried on a very extensive trade alike by land and by sea. Babylon was indeed a commercial depot between the Eastern and the Western worlds (Eze 17:4; Isa 43:14). *SEE COMMERCE*. Thus favored by nature and aided by art, Babylonia became the first abode of social order and the cradle of civilization. Here first arose a powerful empire-here astronomy was first cultivated here measures and weights were first employed. Herodotus has noticed the Chaldaeans as a tribe of priests (i. 28); Diodorus (i. 28) as a separate caste under Belus, an Egyptian priest; while the book of Daniel refers to them as astrologers, magicians, and soothsayers; but there can be little doubt, as laid down by Gesenius (*Jesa.* 23:13), that it was the name of a distinct nation, if not, as Heeren (*Manual of Anc. Hist. *p. 28) has maintained, the name of the northern nomades in general. In connection with Babylonia, the Chaldaeans are to be regarded as a conquering nation as well as a learned people; they introduced a correct method of reckoning time, and began their reign with Nabonassar, B.C. 747. There is a scriptural reference to the proud period in the history of the Chaldees when learned men filled the streets and the temples of Nineveh and Babel: "' Behold the land of the Chaldaeans; this people was not, till the Assyrian founded it for them that dwell in the wilderness: they set up the towers thereof, they raised up the palaces thereof; and he brought it to ruin" (Isa 23:13). Babylonia, during this period, was "the land of the Chaldaeans," the same as that into which the children of Judah were carried away captive (Jer 24:5). *SEE CAPTIVITY*. **II. ***History of the Babylonian Empire. — *The history of Babylon itself mounts up to a time not very much later than the Flood. *SEE BABEL*. The native historian seems to have possessed authentic records of his country for above 2000 years before the conquest by Alexander (Berosus, *Fragm.* 11); and Scripture represents the "beginning of the kingdom" as belonging to the time of Nimrod, the grandson of Ham, and the great-grandson of Noah (Ge 10:6-10). Of Nimrod no trace has been found in the Babylonian remains, unless he is identical with the god Bel of the Babylonian Pantheon, and so with the Greek Belus, the hero-founder of the city. This identity is possible, and at any rate the most ancient inscriptions appear to show that the primitive inhabitants of the country were really Cushite, i.e. identical in race with the early inhabitants of Southern Arabia and of Ethiopia. The seat of government at this early time was, as has been stated, in lower Babylonia, Erech (*Warka*) and Ur (*Mugheir*) being the capitals, and Babylon (if built) being a place of no consequence. The country was called *Shinar *(שַׁנעָד), *Akkadim *(comp. *Accad *of Ge 10:10). Of the art of this period we have specimens in the ruins of Mugheir and Warka, the remains of which date from at least the 20th century before our era. We find the use of kiln-baked as well as of sun-dried bricks already begun; we find writing practiced, for the bricks are stamped with the names and titles of the kings; we find buttresses employed to support buildings, and we have probable indications of the system of erecting lofty buildings in stages. On the other hand, mortar is unknown, and the bricks are laid either in clay or in bitumen (comp. Ge 11:3); they are rudely moulded, and of various shapes and sizes; sun-dried bricks predominate, and some large buildings are composed entirely of them; in these reed- matting occurs at intervals, apparently used to protect the mass from disintegration. There is no trace of ornament in the erections of this date, which were imposing merely by their size and solidity. The first important change which we are able to trace in the external condition of Babylon is its subjection, at a time anterior to Abraham, by the neighboring kingdom of Elam or Susiana. Berosus spoke of a first Chaldean dynasty consisting of eleven kings, whom he probably represented as reigning from B.C. 2234 to B.C. 1976. At the last mentioned date he said there was a change, and a new dynasty succeeded, consisting of 49 kings, who reigned 458 years (from B.C. 1976 to B.C. 1518). It is thought that this transition may mark the invasion of Babylonia from the East, and the establishment of Eiamitic influence in the country, under Chedorlaomer (Genesis 14), whose representative appears as a conqueror in the inscriptions. Amraphel, king of Shinar, and Arioch, king of Ellasar (*Larsa*)*, *would be tributary princes whom Chedorlaomer had subjected, while he himself may have become the founder of the new dynasty, which, according to Berosus, continued on the throne for above 450 years. From this point the history of Babylon is almost a blank for above twelve centuries. Except in the mention of the plundering, of Job by the Chaldaeans (Job 1:17), and of the "goodly Babylonish garment" which Achan coveted (Jos 7:21), Scripture is silent with regard to the Babylonians from the time of Abraham to that of Hezekiah. Berosus covered this space with three dynasties; one (which has been already mentioned) of 49 Chaldaean kings, who reigned 458 years; another of 9 Arab kings, who reigned 245 years; and a third of 49 Assyrian monarchs, who held dominion for 526 years; but nothing beyond this bare outline has come down to us on his authority concerning the period in question. The monumental records of the country furnish a series of names, the reading of which is very uncertain, which may be arranged with a good deal of probability in chronological order, apparently belonging to the first of these three dynasties. Of the second no traces have been hitherto discovered. The third would seem to be identical with the Upper Dynasty of Assyria, of which some account has been given in the article ASSYRIA *SEE ASSYRIA*. It would appear, then, as if Babylon, after having a native Chaldaean dynasty which ruled for 224 years (Brandis, p. 17), and a second dynasty of Elamitic Chaldeans who ruled for a further period of 458 years, fell wholly under Semitic influence, becoming subject first to Arabia for two centuries and a half, and then to Assyria for above five centuries, and not regaining even a qualified independence till the time marked by the close of the Upper and the formation of the Lower Assyrian empire. This is the conclusion which seems naturally to follow from the abstract which is all that we possess of Berosus; and doubtless it is to a certain extent true. But the statement is too broad to be exact; and the monuments show that Babylon was at no time absorbed into Assyria, or even for very many years together a submissive vassal. Assyria, which she had colonized during the time of the second or great Chaldaean dynasty, to which she had given letters and the arts, and which she had held in subjection for many hundred years, became in her turn (about B.C. 1270) the predominant Mesopotamian power, and the glory of Babylon in consequence suffered eclipse. But she had her native kings during the whole of the Assyrian period, and she frequently contended with her great neighbor, being sometimes even the aggressor. Though much sunk from her former greatness, she continued to be the second power in Asia, and retained a vitality which at a later date enabled her to become once more the head of an empire. The line of Babylonian kings becomes exactly known to us from the year B.C. 747. An astronomical work of the geographer Ptolemy has preserved to us a document, the importance of which for comparative chronology it is scarcely possible to exaggerate. The *Canon of Ptolemy, *as it is called, gives us the succession of Babylonian monarchs, with the exact length of the reign of each, from the year B.C. 747, when Nabonassar mounted the throne, to B.C. 331, when the last Persian king was dethroned by Alexander. This document, which, from its close accordance with the statements of Scripture, always vindicated to itself a high authority in the eyes of Christian chronologers, has recently been confirmed in so many points by the inscriptions that its authentic character is established beyond all possibility of cavil or dispute. As the basis of all accurate calculation for Oriental dates previous to Cyrus, it seems proper to transcribe the earlier portion of it in this place. [The accessions are given according to the aera of Nabonassar, and dates B.C. are added for convenience sake.] **Kings** **Years. AE.N. B.C.** Nabonassar Nadius Chinzinus and Porus Elulaeus Mardocempalus Arceanus First interregnum Belibus Aparanadius Regibelus Mesesimordacus Second interregnum Asaridanus Saosduchinus Cinneladanus Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar Illoarudamus Nerigassolassarus Nabonadius Cyrus 14 1 2 15 5 17 5 22 12 27 5 39 2 44 3 46 6 49 1 55 4 56 8 60 13 68 20 81 22 101 21 123 43 144 2 187 4 189 17 193 9 210 747 733 731 726 721 709 704 702 699 693 692 688 680 667 647 625 604 531 559 555 538 Of Nabonassar, the first king in Ptolemy's list, nothing can be said to be known except the fact, reported by Berosus, that he destroyed all the annals of his predecessors for the purpose of compelling the Babylonians to date from himself (*Fragm. *11 a). It has been conjectured that he was the husband or son of Semiramis, and owed to her his possession of the throne. But of this theory there is at present no proof. It rests mainly upon a synchronism obtained from Herodotus, who makes Semiramis a Babylonian queen, and places her five generations (167 years) before Nitocris, the mother of the last king. The Assyrian discoveries have shown that there was a Semiramis about this time, but they furnish no evidence of her connection with Babylon, which still continues uncertain. The immediate successors of Nabonassar are still more obscure than himself. Absolutely nothing beyond the brief notation of the canon has reached us concerning Nadius (or Nabius), Chinzinus (or Chinzirus), and Porus, or Elulaeus, who certainly cannot be the Tyrian king of that name mentioned by Menander (ap. Joseph. *Ant. *9, 14, 2). Mardocempalus, on the contrary, is a monarch to whom great interest attaches. He is undoubtedly the Merodach-Baladan, or Berodach-Baladan (q.v.) of Scripture, and was a personage of great consequence, reigning himself twice, the first time for 12 years, contemporaneously with the Assyrian king Sargon, and the second time for six months only, during the first year of Sennacherib; and leaving a sort of hereditary claim to his sons and grandsons, who are found to have been engaged in hostilities with Essarhaddon and his successor. His dealings with Hezekiah sufficiently indicate the independent position of Babylon at this period, while the interest which he felt in an astronomical phenomenon (2Ch 32:31) harmonizes with the character of a native Chaldaean king which appears to belong to him. The Assyrian inscriptions show that after reigning 12 years Merodach-Baladan was deprived of his crown and driven into banishment by Sargon, who appears to have placed Arceanus (his son?) upon the throne as viceroy, a position which he maintained for five years. A time of trouble then ensued, estimated in the canon at two years, during which various pretenders assumed the crown, among them a certain Hagisa, or Acises, who reigned for about a month, and Merodach-Baladan, who held the throne for half a year (Polyhist. ap. Euseb.). Sennacherib, bent on re-establishing the influence of Assyria over Babylon, proceeded against Merodach-Bala-dan (as he informs us) in his first year, and having dethroned him, placed an Assyrian named *Belib, *or Belibus, upon the throne, who ruled as his viceroy for three years. At the end of this time, the party of Merodach- Baladan still giving trouble, Sennacherib descended again into Babylonia, once more overran it, removed *Belib, *and placed his eldest son — who appears in the canon as Aparanadius — upon the throne. Aparanadius rejoined for six years, when he was succeeded by a certain Regibelus, who reigned for one year; after which Mesesimordacus held the throne for four years. Nothing more is known of these kings, and it is uncertain whether they were viceroys or independent native monarchs. They were contemporary with Sennacherib, to whose reign belongs also the second interregnum, extending to eight years, which the canon interposes between the reigns of Mesesimordacus and Asaridanus. In Asaridanus critical eyes long ago detected Esarhaddon, Sennacherib's son and successor; and it may be regarded as certain from the inscriptions that this king ruled in person over both Babylonia and Assyria, holding his court alternately at their respective capitals. Hence we may understand how Manasseh, his contemporary, came to be "carried by the captains of the king of Assyria to *Babylon" *instead of to Nineveh, as would have been done in any other reign. *SEE ESARHADDON*. Saosduchinus and Ciniladanus (or Cinneladanus), his brother (Polyhist.), the successors of Asaridanus, are kings of whose history we know nothing. *Probably *they were viceroys under the later Assyrian monarchs, who are represented by Abydenus (ap. Euseb.) as retaining their authority over Babylon up to the time of the last siege of Nineveh. With Nabopolassar, the successor of Cinneladanus, and the father of Nebuchadnezzar, a new era in the history of Babylon commences. According to Abydenus, who probably drew his information from Berosus, he was appointed to the government of Babylon by the last Assyrian king, at the moment when the Medes were about to make their final attack; whereupon, betraying the trust reposed in him, he went over to the enemy, arranged a marriage between his son Nebuchadnezzar and the daughter of the Median leader, and joined in the last siege of the city. See NINEVEH. On the success of the confederates (B.C. 625) Babylon became not only an independent kingdom, but an empire; the southern and western portions of the Assyrian territory were assigned to Nabopolassar in the partition of the spoils which followed on the conquest, and thereby the Babylonian dominion became extended over the whole valley of the Euphrates as far as the Taurus range, over Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine, Idumaea, and (perhaps) a portion of Egypt. Thus, among others, the Jews passed quietly and almost without remark from one feudal head to another, exchanging dependency on Assyria for dependency on Babylon, and continuing to pay to Nabopolassar the same tribute and service which they had previously rendered to the Assyrians. Friendly relations seem to have been maintained with Media throughout the reign of Nabopolassar, who led or sent a contingent to help Cyaxares in his Lydian war, and acted as mediator in the negotiations by which that war was concluded (Herod. i, 74). At a later date hostilities broke out with Egypt. Necho, the son of Psamatik I, about the year B.C. 608 invaded the Babylonian dominions on the south-west, and made himself master of the entire tract between his own country and the Euphrates (2Ki 23:29; 2Ki 24:7). Nabopolassar was now advanced in life, and not able to take the field in person (Beros. *Frag. *14). He therefore sent his son, Nebuchadnezzar, at the head of a large army, against the Egyptians, and the battle of Carchemish, which soon followed, restored to Babylon the former limits of her territory (comp. 2Ki 24:7 with Jer 46:2-12). Nebuchadnezzar pressed forward and had reached Egypt, when news of his father's death recalled him, and hastily returning to Babylon, he was fortunate enough to find himself, without any struggle, acknowledged king (B.C. 604). A complete account of the works and exploits of this great monarch — by far the most remarkable of all the Babylonian kings — will be given in the article *SEE NEBUCHADNEZZAR*. It is enough to note in this place that he was great both in peace and in war, but greater in the former. Besides recovering the possession of Syria and Palestine, and carrying off the Jews after repeated rebellions into captivity, he reduced Phoenicia, besieged and took Tyre, and ravaged, if he did not actually conquer, Egypt. But it was as the adorner and beautifier of his native land — as the builder and restorer of almost all her cities and temples — that this monarch obtained that great reputation which has handed down his name traditionally in the East on a par with those of Nimrod, Solomon, and Alexander, and made it still a familiar term in the mouths of the people. Probably no single man ever left behind him as his memorial upon the earth one half the amount of building that was erected by this king. The ancient ruins and the modern towns of Babylonia are alike built almost exclusively of his bricks. Babylon itself, the capital, was peculiarly the object of his attention. It was here that, besides repairing the walls and restoring the temples, he constructed that magnificent palace, which, with its triple enclosure, its hanging gardens, its plated pillars, and its rich ornamentation of enamelled brick, was regarded in ancient times as one of the seven wonders of the world (Strab. 16:1, § 5). Nebuchadnezzar died B.C. 561, having reigned 43 years, and was succeeded by Evil-Merodach, his son, who is called in the *Canon *Illoarudamus. This prince, who, "in the year that he began to reign, did lift up the head of Jehoiachin, king of Judah, out of prison" (2Ki 25:27), was murdered, after having held the crown for two years only, by Neriglissar, his brother-in-law. *SEE EVIL-MERODACH*. Neriglissar — the Nerigassolassar of the *Canon *— is (apparently) identical with the "Nergal- shar-ezer, Rab-Mag" of Jeremiah (39:3, 13, 14). He bears this title, which has been translated "chief of the Magi" (Gesenius), or "chief priest" (Colossians Rawlinson), in the inscriptions, and calls himself the son of a "king of Babylon." Some writers have considered him identical with "Darius the Mede" (Larcher, Conringius, Bouhier); but this is improbable, *SEE DARIUS THE MEDE*, and he must rather be regarded as a Babylonian of high rank, who, having married a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar, raised his thoughts to the crown, and finding Evil- Merodach unpopular with his subjects, murdered him, and became his successor. Neriglissar built the palace at Babylon, which seems to have been placed originally on the west bank of the river. He was probably advanced in life at his accession, and thus reigned but four years, though he died a natural death, and left the crown to his son Laborosoarchod. This prince, though a mere lad at the time of his father's decease, was allowed to ascend the throne without difficulty; but when he had reigned nine months he became the victim of a conspiracy among his friends and connections, who, professing to detect in him symptoms of a bad disposition, seized him, and tortured him to death. Nabonidus (or Labynetus), one of the conspirators, succeeded; he is called by Berosus "a certain Nabonidus, a Babylonian" (ap. Joseph. *Ap. *1:21), by which it would appear that he was not a member of the royal family; and this is likewise evident from his inscriptions, in which he only claims for his father the rank of "Rab-Mag." Herodotus seems to have been mistaken in supposing him (i. 188) the son of a great queen, Nitocris, and (apparently) of a former king, Labynetus (Nebuchadnezzar?). Indeed, it may be doubted whether the Babylonian Nitocris of Herodotus is really a historical personage. His authority is the sole argument for her existence, which it is difficult to credit against the silence of Scripture, Berosus, the Canon, and the Babylonian monuments. She may perhaps have been the wife of Nebuchadnezzar, but in that case she must have been wholly unconnected with Nabonidus, who certainly bore no relation to that monarch. Nabonidus, or Labynetus (as he was called by the Greeks), mounted the throne in the year B.C. 555, very shortly before the war broke out between Cyrus and Croesus. He entered into alliance with the latter of these monarchs against the former, and, had the struggle been prolonged, would have sent a contingent into Asia Minor. Events proceeded too rapidly to allow of this; but Nabonidus had provoked the hostility of Cyrus by the mere fact of the alliance, and felt at once that sooner or later he would have to resist the attack of an avenging army. He probably employed his long and peaceful reign of 17 years in preparations against the dreaded foe, executing the defensive works which Herodotus ascribes to his mother (i. 185), and accumulating in the town abundant stores of provisions (*ib. *c. 190). In the year B.C. 539 the attack came. Cyrus advanced at the head of his irresistible hordes, but wintered upon the Diyaleh or Gyndes, making his final approaches in the ensuing spring. Nabonidus appears by the inscriptions to have shortly before this associated with him in the government of the kingdom his son, Bel-shar-ezer or Belshazzar; on the approach of Cyrus, therefore, he took the field himself at the head of his army, leaving his son to command in the city. In this way, by help of a recent discovery, the accounts of Berosus and the book of Daniel — hitherto regarded as hopelessly conflicting — may be reconciled. *SEE BELSHAZZAR*. Nabonidus engaged the army of Cyrus, but was defeated and forced to shut himself up in the neighboring town of Borsippa (marked now by the *Birs-Nimrud*)*, *where he continued till after the fall of Babylon (Beros. ap. Joseph. *Ap. *1:21). Belshazzar guarded the city, but, over- confident in its strength, kept insufficient watch, and recklessly indulging in untimely and impious festivities (Daniel 5), allowed the enemy to enter the town by the channel of the river (Herod. 1:191; Xen. *Cyrop. *7:7). Babylon was thus taken by a surprise, as Jeremiah had prophesied (Jer 51:31) — by an army of Medes and Persians, as intimated 170 years earlier by Isaiah (Isa 21:1-9), and, as Jeremiah had also foreshown (Jer 51:39), during a festival. In the carnage which ensued upon the taking of the town, Belshazzar was slain (Da 5:30). Nabonidus, on receiving the intelligence, submitted, and was treated kindly by the conqueror, who not only spared his life, but gave him estates in Carmania (Beros. *ut sup.; *comp. Abyd. *Fragm. *9). Such is the general outline of the siege and capture of Babylon by Cyrus, as derivable from the fragments of Berosus, illustrated by the account in Daniel, and reduced to harmony by aid of the important fact, obtained recently from the monuments, of the relationship between Belshazzar and Nabonidus. It is scarcely necessary to remark that it differs in many points from the accounts of Herodotus and Xenophon; but the latter of these two writers is in his *Cyropaedia *a mere romancer, and the former is very imperfectly acquainted with the history of the Babylonians. The native writer, whose information was drawn from authentic and contemporary documents, is far better authority than either of the Greek authors, the earlier of whom visited Babylon nearly a century after its capture by Cyrus, when the tradition had doubtless become in many respects corrupted. According to the book of Daniel, it would seem as if Babylon was taken on this occasion, not by Cyrus, king of Persia, but by a Median king named Darius (5:31). The question of the identity of this personage with any Median or Babylonian king known to us from profane sources will be discussed under DARIUS THE MEDE *SEE DARIUS THE MEDE*. It need only be remarked here that: Scripture does not really conflict on this point with profane authorities, since there is sufficient indication, from the terms used by the sacred writer, that "Darius the Mede," whoever he may have been, was not the real conqueror, nor a king who ruled in his own right, but a monarch intrusted by another with a certain delegated authority (see Da 5:31; Da 9:1). With the conquest by Cyrus commenced the decay and ruin of Babylon. The "broad walls" were then to some extent "broken down" (Beros. *Fr.* 14), and the "high gates" probably "burnt with fire" (Jer 51:58). The defences, that is to say, were ruined; though it is not to be supposed that the laborious and useless task of entirely demolishing the gigantic fortifications of the place was attempted or even contemplated by the conqueror. Babylon was weakened, but it continued a royal residence not only during the lifetime of Darius the Mede, but through the entire period of the Persian empire. The Persian kings held their court at Babylon during the larger portion of the year, and at the time of Alexander's conquests it was still the second, if not the first city of the empire. It had, however, suffered considerably on more than one occasion subsequent to the time of Cyrus. Twice in the reign of Darius (Behist. Ins.), and once in that of Xerxes (Ctes. *Pers. *§ 22), it had risen against the Persians, and made an effort to regain its independence. After each rebellion its defences were weakened, and during the long period of profound peace which the Persian empire enjoyed from the reign of Xerxes to that of Darius Codomannus they were allowed to go completely to decay. The public buildings also suffered grievously from neglect. Alexander found the great temple of Belus in so ruined a condition that it would have required the labor of 10,000 men for two months even to clear away the rubbish with which it was encumbered (Strabo, 16:1, 5). His designs for the restoration of the temple and the general embellishment of the city were frustrated by his untimely death, and the removal of the seat of empire to Antioch under the Seleucidae gave the finishing blow to the prosperity of the place. The great city of Seleucia, which soon after arose in its neighborhood, not only drew away its population, but was actually constructed of materials derived from its buildings (Pliny *H. N. *6:30). Since then Babylon has been a quarry from which all the tribes in the vicinity have perpetually derived the bricks with which they have built their cities, and (besides Seleucia) Ctesiphon, Al- Modain, Bagdad, Kufa, Kerbelah, Hillah, and numerous other towns, have risen from its ruins. The "great city," "the beauty of the Chaldees' excellency," has thus emphatically "become heaps" (Jer 51:37) — she is truly "an astonishment and a hissing, without an inhabitant." Her walls have altogether disappeared — they have "fallen" (Jer 51:44), been "thrown down" (Jer 50:15), been "broken utterly" (Jer 51:58). "A drought is upon her waters" (Jer 50:39); for the system of irrigation, on which, in Babylonia, fertility altogether depends, has long been laid aside; "her cities" are everywhere "a desolation" (Jer 51:43), her "land a wilderness;" "wild beasts of the desert" (jackals) "lie there," and "owls dwell there" (comp. Layard, *Nin. and Bab. *p. 484, with Isa 13:21-22, and Jer 50:39): the natives regard the whole site as haunted, and neither will the "Arab pitch tent nor the shepherd fold sheep there." After the exile many of the Jews continued settled in Babylonia; the capital even contained an entire quarter of them (comp. Susann. 1:5 sq.; 1Pe 5:13; Josephus, *Ant. *20:2, 2; 15:3, 1; 18:9, 1; Philo, *Opp. *2:578, 587); and after the destruction of Jerusalem these Babylonian Jews established schools of considerable repute, although the natives were stigmatized as "Babylonians" by the bigoted Jewish population (Talm. Babyl. *Joma, *fol. 66). Traces of their learning exist not only in much rabbinical literature that emanated from these now extinct schools, but M. Layard has recently discovered several earthen bowls covered with their Hebrew inscriptions in an early character, copies and translations of which are given in his *Bab. and Nin. *p. 436 sq. **III. ***Literature. *— On the history, see Niebuhr's *Geschichte Asshur's und Babel's; *Brandis's *Rerum Assyriarum Tempora Emendata; *Bosanquet's *Sacred and Profane Chronology; *and Rawlinson's Herodotus, vol. 1, Essays 6 and 8. Compare also the *Am. Biblical Repository, *April, 1836, p. 364-368; July, 1836, p. 158185; *Jour. Sac. Literature, *July, 1860, p. 492 sq.; Rollin, *Anc. Hist. *2:54 etc.; Prideaux, *Connection, *1:51 etc.; Heeren, *Ideen, *I, 2:172 sq.; Cellarii *Notit. *2:746 sq.; Norberg, *Opusc. acad. *3*, *222 sq.; Kesler, *Historia excidii Babyl. *(Tubing. 1766); Bredow, *Untersuchungen ub. alt. Gesch. *(Altona, 1800); *Jour. Roy. As. Soc. *(Lond. 1855), xv, pt. 2, and *Maps *accompanying it. *SEE BABYLON*.

Babylonia The recent explorations into the monuments of this country have led to many new conclusions respecting the early ethnic relations of the Babylonians. These we give in the resume of one of the most accepted exponents (Prof. Sayce, in the last edition of the *Encyclopaedia Britannica), *premising, however, that we do not fully acquiesce in some of them, especially the chronology, and that we do not regard the geographical identifications as fully determined. "Geographically, as well as ethnologically and historically, the whole district enclosed between the two great rivers of Western Asia, the Tigris and Euphrates, forms but one country. The writers of antiquity clearly recognised this fact, speaking of the whole under the general name of Assyria, though Babylonia, as will be seen, would have been a more accurate designation. It naturally falls into two divisions, the northern being more or less mountainous, while the southern is flat and marshy; and the near approach of the two rivers to one another at a spot where the undulating plateau of the north sinks suddenly into the Babylonian alluvium tends still more completely to separate them. In the earliest times of which we have any record, the northern portion was comprehended under the vague title of Gutinm (the Goyim of Ge 14:1), which stretched from the Euphrates on the west to the mountains of Media on. the east; but it was definitely marked off as Assyria after the rise of that monarchy in the 16th century B.C. Aram-Naharaim, or Mesopotamia, however, though claimed by the Assyrian kings, taid from time to time overrun by them, did not form an integral part of the kingdom until the 9th century B.C.; while the region on the left bank of the Tigris, between that river and the Greater Zab, was not only included in Assyria, but contained the chief capitals of the empire. In this respect the monarchy of the Tigris resembled Chaldea, where some of the most important cities were situated on the Arabian side of the Euphrates. The reason of this preference for the eastern bank of the Tigris was due to its abundant supply of water, whereas the great Mesopotamian plain on the western side had to depend upon the streams which flowed into the Euphrates. This vast flat, the modern El-Jezireh, is about two hundred and fifty miles in length, interrupted only by a single limestone range rising abruptly: out of the plain and branching off from the Zagros mountains under the names of Sarazur, Haimrim, and Sinjar. The numerous remains of old habitations show how thickly this level tract must once have been peopled, though now for the most part a wilderness. North of the plateau rises a well-watered and undulating belt of country, into which run low ranges of limestone hills, sometimes arid, sometimes covered with dwarf-oak, and often shutting in between their northern and northeastern flank and the main mountain line from which they detach themselves rich plains and fertile valleys. Behind them tower the massive ridges of the Niphates and Zagros ranges, where the Tigris and Euphrates take their rise, and which cut off Assyria from Amneia and Kurdistan... "In contrast with the and plain of Mesopotamia stretched the rich alluvial plain of Chaldea, formed by the deposits of the two great rivers by which it was enclosed. The soil was extremely fertile, and teemed with an industrious population. Eastward .rose the mountains of Elam, southward were the sea-marshes and the ancient kingdom of Nituk or Dilvum (the modern Bender-Dilvum), while on the west the civilization of Babylonia encroached beyond the banks of the Euphrates upon the territory of the Shemitic nomads (or Suti). Here stood Ur (now Mugheir), the earliest capital of the country; and Babylon, with its suburb Borsippa (Birs Nimrud), as well as the two Sipparas (the Sepharvaim of Scripture, now Mosaib), occupied both the Arabian and the Chaldaean side of the river. The Araxes, or River of Babylon, was conducted through a deep valley into the heart of Arabia, irrigating the laud through which it passed; and to the south of it lay the great inland fresh-water sea of Nejef, surrounded by red sandstone cliffs of considerable height, forty miles in length and thirty- five in breadth the widest part. Above and below this sea, from Borsippa to Kufa, extend the famous Chaldaean marshes where Alexander was nearly lost (Arrian, *Exp. Al. 7:*22; Strabo xvi, 1, 12); but these depend upon the state of the Hindiyah canal, disappearing altogether when it is closed. Between the sea of Nejef and Ur, but on the left side of the Euphrates, was Erech (now Warka), which with Niphur or Calneh (now Niffer), Surippac (Senkereh ?), and Babylon (now Hillah), formed the tetrapolis of Sumir or Shinar. This north-western part of Chaldeea was also called Gan-dumyas or Gun-duni after the accession of the Cassite dynasty. South-eastern Chaldea, on the other hand, was termed .Accad, though the name came also to be applied to the whole of Babylonia. The Caldai, or Chaldaeans, are first met with in the 9th century B.C. as a small tribe on the Persian Gulf, whence they slowly moved northwards, until, under Merodach- Baladan, they made themselves masters of Babylon, and henceforth formed so important an element in the population of the country as in later days to give their name to the whole of it. In the inscriptions, however, Chaldaea represents the marshes on the sea-coast, and Feredon. was one of their ports. The whole territory was thickly studded with-towns, but among all this vast number of great cities, to use the words of Herodotus, Cuthah, or Tiggaba (nowIbrahim), Chilmad (Calwtadah), Is (Hit), and Duraba (Akkerkuf) alone need be mentioned." The cultivation of the country was regulated by canals, the three chief of which carried off the waters of the Euphrates towards the Tigris above Babylon-the 'Royal River,' or Ar- Malch, entering the Tigris a little below Baghdad, the Nahr-Malcha running across to the site of Seleucia, and the Nahr-Kutha passing through Ibrahim. The Pallacopas, on the other side of the Euphrates, supplied an immense lake in the neighborhood of Borsippa. So great was the fertility of the soil that, according to Herodotus (i, 193), grain commonly returned two hundredfold to the sower, and occasionally three hundredfold. Pliny, too *(H. N. 18:*17), says that wheat was cut twice and afterwards was good keep for sheep; and Berosus remarked that wheat, barley, sesame, ochrys, palms, apples, and many kinds of shelled fruit grew wild, as wheat still does in the neighborhood of Anah. A Persian poem celebrated the three hundred and sixty uses of the palm (Strabo, 16:1, 14); and Ammianus Marcellinus (xxiv, 3) states that from the point reached by Julian's army to the shores of the Persian Gulf was one continuous forest-of verdure. ... "The primitive population of Babylonia, the builders of its cities, the originators of its culture, and the inventors of its hieroglyphics out of which it gradually developed, belonged to the Turanian or Ural-Altaic family. Their language was highly agglutinative, approaching the modern Mongolian idioms in the simplicity of its grammatical machinery, but otherwise more nearly related to the Ugro-Bulgaric division of the Finnic group; and its speakers were mentally in no way inferior to the Hungarians and Turks of the present day. The country was divided into two halves-the Sumir (Sungir, or Shinar) in the north- west and the Accadin the south-east corresponding most remarkably to the Suomi and Akkara, into which the Finnic race believed itself to have been separated in its first mountain home. Like .Suomi, Sumir signified (the people) of the rivers; and just as Finnic tradition makes Kemi a district of the Suomi, so Came was another name of the Babylonian Snmir; The Accadai, or Accad, were the 'highlanders' who had descended from the mountainous region of *Elaln *on the east, and it was to them that the Assyrians ascribed the origin of Chaldaean civilization and writing. They were, at all events, the dominant people in Babylonia at the time to which our earliest contemporaneous records reach back, although the Sumir, or people of the home language,' as they are sometimes termed, were named first in the royalties out of respect to their prior settlement in the country. "The supremacy of Ur had been disputed by its more ancient rival Erech, but had finally given way before the rise of Nisin, or Karrak, a city whose site is uncertain, and Karrak in its turn was succeeded by Laisa. Elamitish conquest seems to have had something to do with these transferences of the seat, of power. In B.C. 2280 the date is fixed by an inscription of Assur-bani-pal's-Cudnr-nankhunldi, the Elamite, conquered Chaldaea at a time when princes with Shemitic names appear to have been already reigning there; and Cudur-mabug not only overran the west, of Palestine, but established a line of monarchs in Babylonia. His son and successor took an Accadian name and extended his way over the whole country. Twice did the Elamitic tribe of Cassi, or Kosseseans, furnish Chaldaea with a succession of kings. At very early period we find one of these Kosseman dynasties claiming homage from Syria, Gutinm, and Northern Arabia, and rededicating the images of native Babylonian gods which had been carried away in war with great splendor and expense. The other Cassitic dynasty was founded by Khamurragas, who established his capital at Babylon, which henceforward continued to be the seat of empire in the south. 'he dynasty is probably to be identified with that called Arabian by Berosus, and it was during its domination that Shemitic came gradually to supersede Accadian as the language of the country. Khammuragas himself assumed a Shemitic name, and .a Shemitic inscription of his is now at the Louvre. A large number of canals were constructed during his reign, more especially the famous Nahr-Malcha, and the embankment built along the banks of the Tigris. The king's attention seems to have been turned to the subject of irrigation by a flood which overwhelmed the important city of Mullias. His first conquests were in the north of Babylonia, and from this base of operations he succeeded in overthrowing Naram-Sin (or Rim-Acn ?) in the south and making himself master of the whole of Chaldsea. Naram-Sin and a queen had been the last representatives of a dynasty which had attained a high degree of glory both in arms and literature. Naram-Sin and his father, Sargon, had not only subdued the rival princes of Babylonia, but had successfully invaded Syria, Palestine, and even, as it would seem, Egypt. At Agarie, a suburb of Sippara, Sargon had founded a library especially famous for its works on astrology and astronomy, copies of which were made in later times for the libraries of Assyria. Indeed, so prominent a place did Sargon take in the early history of Babylonia that his person became surrounded with al atmosphere of myth. Not only was he regarded as a sort of eponymous hero of literature, a Babylonian Solomon, whose title was the deviser of law and prosperity; popular legends told of his mysterious birth-how, like Romulus and Arthur, he knew no father, but was born in secrecy and placed in an ark of reeds and bitumen, and left to the care of the river; how, moreover, this second Moses was carried by the stream to the dwelling of a ferryman, who reared him as his own sin until at last the time came that his rank should be discovered, and Sargon, the constituted king for such is the meaning of his name-took his seat upon the throne of his ancestors. It was while the Cassitic sovereigns were reigning, in the south, and probably in consequence of reverses that they had suffered at the hands of the Egyptians, who, under the monarchs of the 18th dynasty, were pushing eastward, that the kingdom of Assyria took its rise. Its princes soon began to treat with their southern neighbors on equal terms; the boundaries of the two kingdoms were settled, and intermarriages between :the royal families took place, which led more than once to an interference on the part of the Assyrians in the affairs of Babylonia. Finally, in the 14th century B.C., Tiglath-Adar of Assyria captured Babylon and established a Shemitic line of sovereigns there, which contiued until the days of the later Assyrian empire. From this time down to the destruction of Nineveh, Assyria remained the leading power of Western Asia. Occasionally, it is true, a king of Babylon succeeded in defeating his aggressive rival and invading Assyria; but the contrary was more usually the case, and the Assyrians grew more and mole powerful at the expense of the weaker state, until at last Babylonia was reduced to a mere appanage of Assyria." The history of the next period-namely that of Assyrian domination-properly belongs under Asyria. (q.v.). On the downfall of Nineveh, Nabopolassar, the viceroy of Babylonia, who had achieved his independence, transferred the seat of government to the southern kingdom. We continue an account of this later Babylonian empire by an additional extract from the same source, embodying the views of the latest investigators, in whose results, however especially some of their dates, we do not fully concur. "Nabopolassar was followed in 604 by his son Nebuchadnezzar, whose long reign of forty-three years made Babylon the mistress of the world. The whole East was overrun by the armies of Chaldaea, Egypt was invaded, and the city of the Euphrates left without a rival. Until systematic explorations are carried on in Babylonia, however, our knowledge of the history of Nebuchadnezzar's empire must be confined to the notices of ancient writers, although we possess numerous inscriptions which record the restoration or construction of temples, palaces, and other public buildings during its continuance., One of these bears out the boast of Nebuchadnezzar, mentioned by Berosus, that he had built the wall of Babylonia fifteen days. Evil-Merodach succeeded his father in 561, but he was murdered two years after and the crown seized by his brother-in-law, Nergal-sharezer, who calls himself son of Bel-suma-iscun, king of Babylon. Nergal-sharezer reigned four years, and was succeeded by his son, a mere boy, who was put to death after nine months of sovereignty (B.C. 555). The power now passed from the house of Nabopolassar; Nabu-nahid, who was raised to the throne, being of another family. Nebuchadnezzar's empire already began to show signs of decay, and a new enemy threatened it in the person of Cyrus the Persian. The Lydian monarchy, which had extended its sway over Asia Minor and the Greek islands, had some time before come into hostile collision with the Babyloniamns, but the famous eclipse foretold by Thales had parted the combatants and brought about peace. Croesus of Lydia and Nabu-nahid of Babylonia now formed an alliance against the-common foe, who had'subjected Media to his rule, and preparations were made for checking the Persian advance. 'The rashness of Crcesus, however, in meeting Cyrts before his allies had joined him brought on his overthrow: Sardis was taken, and the Persian leader occupied. the next fourteen years in consolidating his power in the north. This respite was employed by Nabu-nahid in fortifying Babylon, and. in constructing those wonderful walls anld hydraulic works which Herodotus ascribes to queen Nitocris. At last, however, the attack was made; and after spending a winter in draining the Guydes, Cyrus appeared in the neighborhood of Babylon. Belshazzar, Nabn-nahid's eldest son, as we learn from an inscription, was left in charge of the city while his father took the field against the invader. But the Jews, who saw in the Persians monotheists and deliverers, formed a considerable element of the army; and Nabu-nahid found himself defeated and compelled to take refuge in Borsippa. By diverting the channel of the Euphrates, the Persians contrived to march along the dry river-bed and enter the city through an unguarded gate. Babylon was taken, and Nabu-nahid shortly afterwards submitted to the conqueror, receiving in return pardon and a residence in Carmania. 'He probably died before the end of Cyrus's reign; at all events, when Babylon tried to recover its independence during the troubles that followed the death of Cambyses, it was under impostors who claimed to be Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabunahid.'

Babylo'nian (Heb. *Ben-Babel', *בֶּןאּבָּבֶל*, son of Babel *or *Babylon, *Eze 23:15,17,23; Chald. *Bablay', *בִּבלִי, Ezr 4:9; Gr. Βαβυλώνιος*, *Bel 3), an inhabitant of BABYLON or BABYLONIA.

Babylo'nian Captivity *SEE CAPTIVITY*.

Babylo'nish Garment (אִדֶּרֶת שַׁנעָד, *adde'reth Shinar'; *Sept. ψιλὴ ποικίλη, Vulg. *pallium coccineum*)*, *a *Babylonish mantle, SEE ATTIRE*, i.e. a large rote variegated with the figures of men and animals interwoven in rich colors (comp. Pliny, *Hist.Nat. *8:48), such as were fabricated at Babylon (q.v.); hence a valuable piece of clothing in general (Jos 7:21). *SEE EMBROIDERY*.

Ba'ca, Valley Of (Heb. *E'mek hab-Baka', *הִבָּכָא עֵמֶק*, vale of *[*the*] *weeping; *Sept. κοιλὰς τοῦ κλαυθμῶνος, Vulg. *Vallis lacrymalrum*)*, *a valley apparently somewhere in Palestine, through which the exiled Psalmist sees in vision the pilgrims passing in their march toward the sanctuary of Jehovah at Zion (Ps 84:6). The passage seems to contain a play, in the manner of Hebrew poetry, on the name of the trees (בּכָאַים, *bekaim'; SEE MULBERRY *) from which the valley probably derived its name, and the "tears" (בּכַי, *beki'*) shed by the pilgrims in their joy at their approach to Zion. These tears are conceived to be so abundant as to turn the dry valley in which the *baka *trees delighted (so Lengerke, *Kenaan, *p. 135) into a springy or marshy place (מִעִיָן). That a real locality was in the mind of the Psalmist is most probable, from the use of the definite article before the name (Gesen. *Thes. *p. 205). A valley of the same name (*Bekaa*) still exists in the Sinaitic district (Burckhardt, p. 619); but this, as well as the valley near Mecca (Niebuhr, *Beschr. *p. 339), is entirely out of the region demanded by the context. Some regard this as a valley (*el-Bekaa*) or plain in which Baalbek is situated. But this spot is far from possessing the dreariness and drought on which the point of the Psalmist's allusion depends. The rendering of the Targum is *Gehenna, i.e. *the Ge-Hinnom or ravine below Mount Zion. This locality agrees well with the mention of *bakaim-trees *in 2Sa 5:23. To the majority of interpreters, however, it does not appear necessary to understand that there is any reference to a valley actually called by this name. The Psalmist in exile, or at least at a distance from Jerusalem, is speaking of the privileges and happiness of those who are permitted to make the usual pilgrimages to that city in order to worship Jehovah in the Temple: "They knew the ways that lead thither; yea, though they must pass through rough and dreary paths, even a vale of tears; yet such are their hope and joy of heart, that all this is to them as a well-watered country, a land crowned with blessings of the early rain." Dr. Robinson (*Add. *to Calmet's *Dict.*) concludes that something like this is the sense of the passage; and it seems, on the whole, the most intelligible and forcible explanation of the passage to suppose that the sacred writer thus poetically describes some one of the many desolate valleys which the stated worshippers at Jerusalem were obliged to traverse in their yearly visits to the solemn festivals.

Bacca, Peter a Hungarian theologian, lived probably in the last half of the 17th century. He wrote, *Defensio Simplicitatis Ecclesice Christi adversus DeciSionem Qucestionum aliquot Theologicarum, ejusque Vindicice adversus Irencei Simplicii Philadelphi Epistolum *(Franeker, 1653). See Hoefer, *Nouv. Biog. Generale, *a. v.

Baccalaureus (i.e. BACHELOR), one who takes a first degree in divinity, arts, medicine, or civil law. This degree was first introduced in the thirteenth century by Pope Gregory IX. Rhenanus maintains that the title is taken from the *Baculus *placed in the hand of the new graduate. The usual derivation is that given by Alciatus, viz. *bacca laurea, *a laurel berry; "but the Spanish *bachillir, *which means at once *a babbler *and a master of arts, taken in conjunction with the Portuguese *bacharel *and *bacillo, *a shoot or twig of the vine (from the Latin *baculus *or *baculum, *a stick or shoot), and the French *bachelette, *a damsel, seem to point to its original and generic meaning, which probably was a *person shooting or protruding from one stage of his career into another more advanced. *With this general signification, all the special meanings of the word given by Ducange (*Glossariun, *s.v.) seem to have some analogy. **1. **It was used, he says, to indicate a person who cultivated certain portions of church lands called *baccalaria *— which he supposed to have been a corruption of *vasseleria *— a few belonging to an inferior vassal, or to one who had not attained to a full feudal recognition. **2. **It indicated ecclesiastics of a lower dignity than the other members of a religious brotherhood, i.e. monks who were still in the first stage of monkhood. **3. **It was used by later writers to indicate persons in the first or probationary stage of knighthood; i.e. not esquires simply, but knights who, from poverty and the insufficient number of their retainers, from their possessing, perhaps, only the *baccalaria *above referred to, or from nonage, had not yet raised their banners in the field (*leve banniere*)*.* **4. **It was adopted to indicate the first grade or step in the career of university life. As an academical title, it was first introduced by Pope Gregory IX in the thirteenth century into the University of Paris to denote a candidate who had undergone his first academical trials, and was authorized to give lectures, but was not yet admitted to the rank of an independent master or doctor. At a later period it was introduced into the other faculties as the lowest academical honor, and adopted by the other universities of Europe." In the Middle Ages two kinds of bachelors were recognized in theological studies, viz. *Baccalaurei cursores *and *Baccalaurei formati. *The former were those who, after six years of study, were admitted to perform their courses. There were two *courses, *one in explaining the Bible for three years, and the other in explaining for one year the Master of the Sentences; consequently, those who performed the biblical course were called *Baccalaurei biblici; *the others, *Baccalaurei sententiarii; *while those who had finished *both *courses were known as *Baccalaurei formati. — Chambers, Encyclopaedia, *s.v.; Herzog, *Real- Encyklopadie, *Suppl. 1:424; Hilscher, *De nomine Baccalaurei *(Lips. 1733); Gottsched, *De dignitate Bacc. Lipsiensis *(Lips. 1739); Landon, *Eccles.Dictionary, *s.v. *SEE DEGREES; SEE UNIVERSITIES*.